Lexicalization

The term “lexicon” refers to the component of the grammar that minimally contains a
specification of the lexical units of a particular language. The set of lexical units is larger than
the set of words. Idiomatic expressions such as to kick the bucket “to die” that are phrasal in
nature need to be listed as well. This also applies to the many noun phrases that are used as
classifying terms such as blue cheese and yellow pages that form established ways of denoting
certain entities. The distinction between the notions “word” and “lexical unit” is important for a
proper understanding of the relationship between morphology and syntax, as we will see below.
The set of words that are to be registered in the lexicon is the set of established words, that is, the
set of words that is used by more than one native speaker and on more than one occasion. Thus,
the lexicon is part of the language norm since it specifies the lexical conventions of a language.
This norm can be changed by adding new words to the lexicon. New complex words, once
established, will be added to the lexicon. From a diachronic perspective there are other means of
extending the set of complex words as well, as will be discussed below, in the section on
diachrony.
Nonce – A term describing a linguistic form which a speaker consciously invents or accidentally
uses on a single occasion: a nonce word or a nonce formation (which may involve units larger
than the word). Many factors account for their use, e.g. a speaker cannot remember a particular
word, so coins an alternative approximation (as in linguistified, heard from a student who felt he
was getting nowhere with linguistics), or is constrained by circumstances to produce a new form
(as in newspaper headlines). Nonce formations have occasionally come to be adopted by the
community – in which case they cease by definition to be ‘nonce’ (forms used ‘for the (n)once’),
and become neologisms.
In the lexicon, established complex words coexist with the schemas according to which they are
formed. The schemas express generalizations about sets of established words, and indicate how
new words can be formed. The relation between the schemas and their instantiations can be
conceived of as a hierarchical lexicon in which a schema forms a node that dominates its
instantiations. All properties shared by a set of words are specified in the schema, and the
individual words inherit these properties from the node that dominates them.
Derivation
I argued that perform, performs and performed were grammatically conditioned variants of one
lexeme PERFORM, but performance was not one of these variants. The reason was that, whereas
there are grammatical factors that determine the choice between perform, performs and
performed (in appropriate contexts), there is no grammatical factor that requires specifically the
presence of -ance on performance. To put it another way: there are contexts where, if any verb
appears, it must carry the third person singular suffix -s, but there are no contexts where, if a
noun appears, it must carry the suffix -ance. The suffix -ance is not one of the small class of
suffixes (so-called ‘inflectional’ suffixes) whose use is tightly determined by grammar. What
sort of suffix is it, then? A short answer is that, not being inflectional, it must be derivational,
since the term ‘derivation’ is used for all aspects of word-structure involving affixation that is
not inflectional. The purpose of this chapter is to put flesh on the bones of this purely negative
definition, showing something of how derivation works in English.
Since performance is not a variant of the lexeme PERFORM, it must belong to some other lexeme,
which may itself have more than one form. What lexeme could this be? This question is easy to
answer when we notice that, alongside performance, there is a plural form performances. Just as
cat and cats are the two forms (singular and plural) of the lexeme CAT, it makes sense to regard
performance and performances as the two forms of a lexeme PERFORMANCE. This tells us
something about the relationship between perform and performance: it is a relationship not
between word forms but rather between lexemes. (Strictly, then, in terms of our typographical
convention, we should call it a relationship between PERFORM and PERFORMANCE.) Thus
derivational morphology is concerned with one kind of relationship between lexemes.
There are many ways in which lexemes can be related. We are not concerned here with
relationships solely of meaning (such as the synonymy of AUBERGINE and EGGPLANT) or of
sound (such as the homonymy of ROW ‘line of people or things’ and ROW ‘propel with oars’).
Rather, we are concerned mainly with relationships involving affixation, and the grammatical
and semantic tasks that such affixation can perform. As we will see, both the affixes and their
tasks are quite diverse. An encyclopedic coverage of all the English derivational processes would
be impossible in a book of this size, but I will attempt to supply a representative selection, so as
to equip the reader to notice and to describe, with reasonable confidence, other processes not
mentioned here.
I will introduce the term base for the partially complete word form to which an affix is attached
so as to create either an inflected word form or a new lexeme. (Equivalently, the base for an
affixation process is what remains if the affix is removed.) Some bases are roots, whether bound
(e.g. wive-, the base for wives) or free (e.g. cat, the base for cats). Others, however, already
contain a root and one or more affixes, such as helpful in its capacity as the base for helpfulness.

nonsense nonsensical nonsensically

senseless senselessly
senselessness
sensible insensible insensibly
sensibility insensibility
sensitive sensitivity
sense
sensitiveness
sensation sensational sensationalism
sensationalist sensationalistic
sensationally
sensationalize
sensitive insensitive insensitivity
 sensitively insensitively
hypersensitive hypersensitivity
oversensitive
sensual sensually sensuality
sensuous sensuously
sensuousness
sensitize sensitization
desensitize desensitization

Both inflectional and derivational paradigms are characterized by the principle of regularity and
the principle of predictability. While membership in inflectional paradigms is obligatory,
membership in derivational paradigms is facultative. In spite of numerous gaps, derivational
paradigms are highly regular and predictable, which is guaranteed by the possibility to fill each
of the gaps by a potential word.
Number of the types of morphemes: Roots more numerous than derivational suffixes which are
more numerous than inflectional suffixes.
The strategies for creating new lexemes in English are more numerous and considerably more
varied than those available for inflecting existing lexemes. Moreover, whereas inflectional
processes are generally regarded as productive, the processes that create new lexemes differ
greatly in generality and regularity.

Conversion
FORM MEANING OF VERB MEANING OF NOUN
run 'move on foot faster 'an act of running' than at a walk'
eye 'look at' 'organ of vision'
have 'possess' (usually pl) 'those who possess material advantages'
hit 'collide with' 'collision, impact'
mushroom 'grow like mushrooms' 'kind of fungus'
question 'ask a question' 'inquiry inviting reply'
ride 'journey by means of conveyance' 'journey by means of conveyance'
snow 'fall (of snow)' 'solid precipitation of white ice crystals'
view 'examine, inspect' 'examination, inspection'
winter 'spend the winter' 'cold season between autumn and spring'