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Chapter: 6
Goddesses of the present and the past: a probe into the general
question of continuities and changes in. religious practice
Historians and archaeologists have pointed out that the traces of goddess
tradition appeared for the first time in India in primitive society in upper
palaeolithic age. 1 Since then, this tradition has continued in India with
certain "rise and fall." At the time of Indus valley civilization, goddess
tradition had assumed a marked growth and had become strong, elaborate
and established tradition. Numerous terracotta figurines of women of Indus
Valley are found and in one of the figurines a plant is shown growing out of
embryo of a woman. Probably this image represents the goddess of earth,
and was intimately connected with the origin and growth of the plants. The
Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess. 2 But
Harappan civilization had, at one time, come to an end and its established
norms of goddess tradition were destroyed. After the decline of Harappan
Civilization, a new phase of historical growth in India, that is Vedic period,
with the advent of Aryans, came into being and Goddess tradition began
afresh and continued hereafter with a chronological and successive growth.
Goddesses of the past and their relevance in the present
In Rig Veda, Aditi and Usas were supposed to be important goddesses.
Besides them, other goddesses referred to in the Rig Veda are as follows:
Usas, Ratri, Sinivali, Raka, Ganga, Aditi, Prini, Diti, Swasti, Revati,
Purandhi, Anumati, Apadevis, Sarasvati, Sindhu, Aranyani, Indrani,

1 D.P. Sharma, S.K. Singh, Madhuri Sharma, in Palaeolithic Age, Pre-historic Art and Archaeology of
south Asia Series -1, Vol. 1, Bhartiya Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 2005, has dated upper palaeolithic period
from 6000 years old to 10000 years old. In this period mother goddess is noticed in rock paintings in the
caves ofBhim Betka. Green paintings ofBhim Betaka can be dated to upper palaeolithic period. Mother
~oddess figurines of bone are also found at Belan valley grave III (Allahabad) in this period. pp. 190-92
John Sir Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and theIndus Civilization, Vol. 1, 1931, London, p. 52,PI. XII & R.S.
Sharma, India's Ancient Past, Oxford Univ. Press, 2005, p. 82
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Varunani, Rudrani, Agneyi,. Sarnyu, Suryi, Saci, Rodasi, Sila, Daksina,


Sradda, Dhisna, Ila, Mahi, Bharti, Gouri, Svaha, Vrvasi, Alaksmi, Krtva,
Mirrti and so on. 3 Vedic texts have shown reverence to the earth goddess,
Prithivi, also, although, she is not given ·any prominence. 4 The given
important female deities like Aditi and Usha of Rig Veda have become
unknown now in modern time and are neither invoked nor remembered at all
in any sort of religious ceremony. But some of the female deities of Rig
Vedic time who were given less importance than that of Adit and Vsas
became more prominent in later centuries. In recent time such goddesses like
Sarasvati, Ganga, Gouri are widely known, venerated and respected. The
goddess Sarasvati, the deity of truthful speech and knowledge, 5 is popular all
through India. Vasantpanchmi festival organized in north and Dashmi of
Dussehra in South are dedicated to goddess Sarasvati. Ganga, a river
goddess, is now a symbol of holiness and a rescuer of her devotees from sin.
Gouri is depicted as manifestation of Parvati, the wife of Siva. The festival
of Gangour in Rajasthan is celebrated in the name of god Siva and goddess
Gouri.
The goddesses such as Ambika, Vma, Durga and Kali do not have any
trace in the Rig Vedic time; they, rather, became singly or collectively the
names of the central figure of Sakta-cult in the sixth century A.D. and came
to be regarded as goddesses of Puranas and of Tantra literature. In post-
Gupta period, they were expressed in the icons and texts 6 and were
acknowledged as primeval forces. Eminence of Durga, Kali and Vma, in

3 Indian Culture, Vol. VIII, July, September, p. 66


4 R.S. Sharma, Ancient India, NCERT, 2005, p. 62
5 Pushpendra Kumar, Shakti-Cult in Ancient India, Bhartiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1974, p. 13
6 Madhu Bazaz Wangu, Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings and Models, New Delhi: Abhinav
Publications, 2003, p. 97
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particular, continued and reached down to contemporary India. In modem


India also these goddesses are understood as prominent goddesses.
Goddess Icons: Change and Continuity
In Rig Vedic time, there was no concept of visual art, rather imaginary,
for the goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Vac and Prithvi. 7 The Vedic Aryans
as such were not able to express their idea of images "with the chisel or the
brush."g But the presentation of visual art, largely based on the pattern of
imagination of of Rig Vedic people, began rightly as early as later Vedic
time. The female deities such as Shri Lakshmi, Mithuna, Yakshini of late
Vedic period replacing the prominent female deities of Rig Veda were
carved in stones based upon the style of imagination of Rig Veda. 9 Even an
imaginary association between a god and a definite animal, a revealing
feature of Rig Veda, had become a proven tradition of visual art in later
periods. Both gods and goddesses were presented with an animal as their
mount. 10 In all succeeding centuries, down to the modern time, the
introduction of the vehicles of the deities in various forms kept continuing,
consistently and meticulously.
A new trend has begun in modern India in the ways of production of icons
and print images of the goddesses. Now images are produced in abundance
and distributed. The tradition of "Court Art" followed in early time has
disappeared. The mass-produced goddess images in clay and in prints has
developed due to the shifting of the patronage from courts to a much broader
social base. As the courts disappeared, a new urban patronage of mercantile
community flourished. It has patronized processional images for the annual

7 Ibid. p. 44
8 J. Gonda, Change and Continuity in Indian Religion, Munshiram Manoharial Publisher Pvt. Ltd. 1997, p.
85
9 Madhu Bazaz Wangu, 2003, op. cit. p. 44
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local festivals and has advertised its ware on calendars. Thus, the economic
surplus of wealthy merchants has given impetus to artists. The mass
production of urban art is notable in the cities and towns in particular due to
the increasing middle-class population. II Even the folk art now in India is
bifurcated into two branches - as Village craft and as Urban art. The Urban
art includes making the temporary professional goddess images in unbaked
clay and printed calendar pictures. 12 James Preston has observed that the
new trend is flourishing in modern urban India. Orissa's largest cities have
exploded with street festivals involving large number of temporary clay
images. Preston goes on to say that these popular extravaganzas are also
found extensively and that business or image-makers is particularly intense
during festivals of goddesses such as Durga, Sarasvati, Kali and others. 13
Mass production of icons of female deities and its distribution
unquestionably reveals the increasing popularity and prominence of goddess
tradition in modem time.
Alterations and additions in the features of iconic presentation of female
deities in modem days need to be examined. The iconic outfit of female
deities in modern time has become somewhat different to early time. In early
time, as discussed in chapter three, the statues of goddess Durga consisted of
two important attributes: one, she is presented as a single independent deity
and second, she is aggressive, trying to kill demon Mahisha in presence of
lion, her vehicle. The changes, in present time, in the style of statue making
of goddess Durga are as follows: the image of goddess Durga, in the festival

10 1. Gonda, 1997, op. cit. p. 85


11 Madhu Bazaz Wangu, 2003, op. cit. p. 18
12 Ibid. pp. 17- 18
13 James 1. Preston, "Creation ofth Sacred Image: Apotheosis and Destruction in Hinduism" in Joanne P

Waghorne and Norman Cutler with Vasudha Narayanan (eds.), the Gods of Flesh/Gods of Stone: The
Embodiment of Divinity in india, Columbia University Press, (1 51 published, 1985), 1996.
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of Durga Puja, is presented along with the images of other male and female
deities such as Ganesh, Karttikeya, Lakshmi and Sarasvati. Another obvious
change is in the presentation of expression of the goddess. In the north India
such as Punjab, Haryana, Jammu, goddess Durga is presented in a motherly
posture, not in a martial pose. 14 Her expression is lenient and affectionate.
She is addressed in these areas with Mata Di or Seranvali Mata and her
image is shown sitting on the back of the tiger, not lion. For example, the
Vaisnava devi of Jammu, originated as local goddess, manifested in a from
of Durga, is holding an independent image, free from association with any
male deity and is worshipped in the form of an unhewn stone. But, other
than this, at Vaisnavadevi, a huge brass image of goddess Durga, placed
outside the central shrine, posing in motherly affection, sitting on a tiger,
reflects a lenient motherly depiction of the goddess.
Rituals of goddess worship: Changes and Continuity
The goddess worship early days was performed within a definite frame
of rituals. Virat Parvan 15 of Mahabharata states that the Mother Goddess
takes delight in spirituous liquor, flesh and sacrificial victims. Naramehda,
the human sacrifice is also pointed out not less than four times in the epic as
part of ritual to invoke and honour the deity.16 Yet, the addition in
continuing practice of rituals of epic time for goddess worship was made
when the Puranas came into being. Skanda Purana consists of a list of two
panels of Yoginis, the folk-goddesses: one consists of forty-eight names the
while other is having sixty-four names. Purana states that these fearful

14 Kathleen M. Erudl, Seranvali The Mother Who Possesses in Hawley and Wulff(ed.), Devi Goddesses of
India, 1998, pp. 173-194; Madhu Bazaz Wangu, Images ofIndian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings and
Models, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 2003, p. 97
15 Mahabharata, Satvalekar, (ed.), IV. 6-17; VI. 23 & Tranlated version by lA.B. Van Buitenen. 3 Vols.
Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1940
16 Ibid. lll, 81.33 ; IX. 28.89;
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forms of the goddesses are worshipped with bali. In Autumn Navaratra, a


Yatra is arranged in the name of these goddesses. Once it is performed,
Purana depicts, one becomes free from the Bhutas, Pisachas and Rakshas. 17
Besides Yatra, other comprehensive rituals are also pointed out and these
constitute - Homa, Bali (sacrifices), Navaratra worship, recitation of stotras
(verses) and mantras (incantations), kanya-pujana, Vratas and visiting
pilgrimages to the Shakti Pithas with full devotion to the goddesses. IS
"Birds, tortoises, alligators, fish, nine species of wild animals, buffaloes,
iguanas, bulls, he-goats, ruru (a species of antelope), wild boars, rhinoceros,
black antelopes ...... sarabha (an eight-footed mythical animal), lion[s] and
men, [as well as] blood drawn from the adept's own body are considered as
proper sacrifice (bali) to the goddess Candika, Bhairava, and others. It is
through offering sacrifices that [the] devotee obtains liberation (from the
bondage of the world) [and] heaven, and [that] a prince [gains] victory by
conquering his enemies.,,19 "Sacrifice contains various meanings. This
practice is perpetrated to appease goddess to withdraw her anger. Sacrifice
may be considered defeating the invading demon or may be considered
sacrificing the consort of the female goddesses or it is performed to boost
her to fight out the demon. ,,20
The ritual of bloody sacrifice for female deities is a long-standing21
tradition followed from the olden time in Rajasthan and in other parts of
India. Rajasthan, in particular, followed, the Yupa 22 or sacrificial pillar

17 Pushpendra Kumar, (1974), op. cit. p. 236


18 Devi Bhagvata Purana, ed. Raj Tei Pandey, Pandit Pustakalya, Kashi, 1956, and Guru mandaI Series, 2
Vols, Calcutta, 1960, III. 25. 35-46; Translated version by Vasudeva S. Agrawala, Varanasi, All India
Kashiraj Trust, 1963
19 Kalika Purana, 67: 3-6. This is not the exact copy from the Shastri's translated passage (KalikaPurana,
3:1001-2)
20 David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, (1987) p. 205
21 A.S. Altekar, E. 1., Vol. 23, No.7, Three Maukhari Inscriptions on Yupas: Krita year 295, p. 46
22 Ibid. p. 46
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tradition, presented in stone or wood. It was undertaken by the Brahmanas


and was performed as early as 1st _2 nd century A.D in Rajasthan. It was one
of the earliest and the most important traditions of sacrifice and was carried
out in the name of goddess Hotri. 23 The purpose of the Yupa was to
commemorate different sacrifice which was fairly common in early time and
was organized at a large scale. Under this tradition the sacrifice of the
animals like cows and goats was made to propitiate the deities. The rich
individuals or their group participated in the sacrifices.
Different ancient texts inform about varied features of Yupa tradition. The
Katyayana-Srautasutra describes technique about creation of wooden Yupa:
the tree will be felled and its superfluous branches are to be chopped for this
purpose. It is made of wood. Aitareya-Brhamana informs that Yupa itself
was to be offered as an oblation at the end of the sacrifice. The Taittiriya-
Samhita gives detailed description of the origin and nature of this sacrifice.
It informs that Prajapati invented it for Vasus, Rudras and Adityas and won
thereby the three worlds. The Sankahayan-Srautasutra declares that by the
merit of this sacrifice, the sacrificer can win for himself whatever is three
fold in affairs both mundane and spiritual. But Grihyasutra and
Dharmasutra have made a counter comment and have expressed their
resentment to this practice. Vasishtha, Baudhayana, Vishnu and Asvlayana
declare that the touch of a Yupa is as polluting as that of a funeral pyre or a
woman in her courses. 24
As early as in 1st - 2 nd century A.D. evidences of Yupa are found in Badva
in Rajasthan. Badva is a large village that is about five miles south-west of
Antah, a railway station on the Kotah-Bina line, where three Maukhari Yupa

23 Ibid. p. 46
24 Ibid. p. 43
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inscriptions dated 2nd century A.D. are discovered?S Yupa found at


Bijaygadh is very much similar to badva Yupa. Both the Yupas are engraved
in long vertical lines to be read from top to bottom?6 Two more Yupa
inscriptions are discovered at Bamala in the Jaipur state. These two
sacrificial pillars belong to the 3rd century A.D. Each of the Yupas is
inscribed 228 A.D. and 279 A.D. respectively. The inscriptions are found in
the form of stone pillars.
Yupa tradition informs about commemoration and performance of a
Triratra sacrifice. Maukhari sacrificers gave precisely the same amount of
dakshina as prescribed by the sacred texts. Sahasradakshina-Triratra
suggests that 1,000 cows, 333 goats were to be given every day in groups of
ten; the three that remained every day, along with the thousandth one, which
was required to be variegated in colour, were to be given to the Hotri, the
goddess, on the last day of the sacrifice. 27
In early Rajasthan human sacrifice was a valid practice committed in the
name of deities. People believed that the human sacrifice can lead to the
highest, the certain and the confident spiritual gain that is undiminishing.
Siladevi temple in Amber is one of the examples where human sacrifice was
an essential practice to appease the goddess. 28 In Nadlai in Rajasthan on the
top of the hill is a temple of Baijnath Mahadev; near the temple is a trident
stalled for the goddess Hingulajmata. Here special ritual of Kamal-puja i.e.
of cutting and offering your own head to the gods was performed. 29 King
Langa of Mewar sacrificed his nine sons before the goddess Camunda but

25 Badva may be a contraction of Balavadi and that the modem humble village may have been once a
flourishing capital-founded by the Mahasenapati Bala, who may have been the founder of the Maukhari
branch in Kotah state. The portion above the ground of the three Yupas at Badva is octagonal; the
underground shaft of two of them is, however, square.
26 A.S. Altekar, op. cit. E.J., Vol. 23, No.7, p. 46
27 Ibid.
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the unappeased hunger of the goddess at last needed the head of the old king
himself, is a very popular legend. 30 In the Malatimadhava of Bhavabhuti,
human sacrifice before the goddess 31 was perpetrated. Kuvalyamala depicts
that Arya or Ajja was propitiated with offerings of slices of human flesh. 32
The community of Mers in Rajasthan used to perform sacrifices quite
strongly and religiously. Tradition says that the Mers used to sacrifice their
first son to the goddess. It was a customary for them. With passage of time,
buffalo sacrifice replaced the human sacrifice. Buffalo, after the touch of
consecration by the priest before the shrine used to be let loose, and the
people, each armed with a knife or a sword, cut them alive into pieces. "The
barbarity continued till 1865, when on the representation of Mr. Robb, the
co-missionary at Todgarh, it was put to stop, and orders were issued that the
animals should be first killed with a sword. Before the famine there were
some forty or fifty animals yearly sacrificed, and in 1874 there were
eighteen buffaloes thus offered to the goddess. The officiating priest first
strikes the animal on the neck with a long sword; it is then dragged away and
cut into little pieces in a few minutes. Under the influence of the headman of
Todgarh, the Rawats in 1874 entered into an agreement to abstain from the
flesh of kine and buffaloes and to excommunicate all transgressors. In that
year for the first time, Mers took no part in the dismemberment of the
buffaloes sacrificed to mata, leaving the work to be done by Bhils and
Bulahis.,,33

28 c.A. Baylay, The Rajputana Gazetteer, Vol. II, Jaipur, 1879, p. 161.
29 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASWC, 31 st March, 1909, p.42
30 H.H. Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta II, 1981, p. 267[[
31 N.N.Bhattacharyaya, The Indian Mother Goddesses, Manohar, 1999, p. 64
32 R.G. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism & Minor Religious Systems, Poona, 1928, p. 223
33 J. Digges La Touche, The Rajputan Gazetteer, Vol. II, Ajrner-Merwara, p.47.
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Brubaker analyzes the pattern of bloody sacrifice that puts up the right
expression for the tribe action in sacrificing animals. Sacrificial victim was
acknowledged as the enemy of the goddess who was not only killed but,
rather, humiliated and then presented to the goddess. Buffalo was beheaded
its leg was pushed to his mouth and the fat taken out of his stomach was
smeared on his eyes. Also, the candle was lighted on its head and then
presented to the goddess. This clearly reflects that the victim is not only
killed, he is humiliated also. 34 V.K. Srivastava postulates that for royal
castes and warriors the ideal of the martyrs was central, which was coupled
with blood sacrifice as well as meat eating. Their supreme deity granted
them valour and strength was the goddess (their Kula Devi) and they
sacrificed blood, sometimes of a male buffalo but usually a he-goat. 35
Jiwanmata and Burmanidevi of the Meenas, Khajoorimata and Bangamata
of Kanjars wanted bloody sacrifice in return for well being of concerned
individual and for the community as a whole.
In the later part of twentieth century, practice of goat sacrifice in
Rajasthan became a popular practice and was widely practiced on the
occasion of Dussehra. Village Survey Monographs of Rajasthan, edited by
C.S. Gupta (1961 )36 serves detailed information regarding sacrifices made in
the name of the goddess on Dussehra festival. It was the most common
practice and was performed with great jubilation by various clans and
communities. In the village of Bhandwasi (p. 28), situated in the district of
Nagaur of Jodhpur, the goat was sacrificed on the final day of Navarata to

34 Richard Brubaker, "The Ambivalent Mistress: A Study of South Indian Village Goddeses and Their
Religious Meaning" Ph. D. diss. University of Chicago, 1978, p.338
35 V.K. Srivastava, Religious Renunciation of a Pastoral People, OUP, 1997, p. 124
36 This paragraph deals with the practice of sacrifice performed in various villages of Rajasthan on the eve
ofDussehra. Facts are collected from separate booklets prepared for each of the villages. In is compiled
under the supervision of e.S. Gupta, (ed.), 1961, Village Survey Monographs o/Rajasthan
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propitiate goddess Chamunda. In the village Khajoora in the district of


Banswara (pp. 34-35), goat was sacrificed on the day of the Dussehara in the
name of the goddess Hovan Mata. The meat of it was cooked and distributed
among the devotees. The skin of the goat was taken away by a Khatik or a
Dholi and was utilized for the drums. In Ramnagar in the district of Bundi
(pp.32-33) he-goat in particular was sacrificed on the 8th day ofNavarata. In
Goriya in the district of Pali (p. 39), goat was sacrificed on the day of
Deshera. At Kailashpuri in the district of Udaipur (p.29), he goat was
sacrificed on the 9th day Navarata and the killing was performed out-side the
temple and a cup-full of sacrificing blood was offered to the deity inside the
temple. At Kyasara in the district of Jhalawar (p. 35), Rajputs sacrificed
goats in honour of their Kula Devi on the day of Dussehra. At Kalijal in the
district of Jodhpur (p.31), Rajputs sacrificed goat and poured some liquor on
it before it was cooked. Devotees then took its cooked meat as prasad and
liquor with it. Also, at Panarwas in the district of Udaipur (p.36), Rajputs
made sacrifices of goats before the shrine of Kali Mata on the day of
Dussehra. Earlier the Rajputs, also called Rana, who governed at Panarwas,
used to make sacrifice of he-buffalo on the eve of Dussehra in the name of
their family deity Khemaj Mata. At Bhangarh in the district of Alwar (p.36),
on Navaratra a r{tual of sacrificing goat for Sirsa Devi was strictly followed.
Here a custom was followed to cut the head from the body of the animal in a
singly stroke in the name of the goddess and the animal was then given to
Bhopa to offer to the goddess. The officiating priest i.e. Bhopa, however,
used to prefer to return it to the worshiper for an anna. The goat's skin was
later sold to the Khatik i.e. a butcher, and the amount so obtained was spent
in purchasing spices, salt etc. At Janvi in the district of Jalor (p.62), Rajputs
did worship their family deity Jog Maya on the first day of Navaratra and
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he-goat was sacrificed in her shrine. The head of the sacrificed goat was
hung on the Khejara tree in front of the shrine of Jog Maya and they deserted
its head to dry and wither-out. The meat of goat was distributed in a way of
prasad to the people. In the areas of Ramnagar (pp. 32-33), on the day of
Dussehra, devotees offered worship to their arms and preferred to go for
hunting as to celebrate the festival of Navarat. In the evening when they
returned home after hunting, the hunted animals were cooked by them and
were then eaten with liquor. In the village of Sanswara (p.33), the
community of Sahariyas followed the ritual that was different to the rituals
followed by other living communities to celebrate Navarata festival. As the
people of other community offered flowers and incense to the goddess,
Sahariyas sprinkled few drops of liquor before the goddess. After offering
liquour to the goddess the left over of it was consumed by Sahariyas
themselves.
Over the years, some visible changes have occured in the form of
sacrifice in Rajasthan. New pattern of sacrifice is introduced according to
the convenience of individuals and the communities. Amongst tribes, royal
castes and the warriors of Rajasthan the long-standing tradition of human
sacrifice have come to an end, though, the importance of martyrs, animal
sacrifice and meat eating keeps continuing. 37 Amongst Mers, the tradition of
human sacrifice continued till nineteenth century, but after the nineteenth
century, instead of son, Mers started sacrificing buffalo. Even sacrificing
buffalo in course of time came to an end and goat replaced buffalo. Mers
thus adopted some standardized rituals to perpetrate sacrifice. Pure water is
sprinkled on the head of the goat to purify and the neck of the goat is
supposed to be cut off in one stroke with a sword. If failed, it is considered
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inauspicious. The head of the goat is then offered to the deity and is later
taken away by the Bhopa.,,38 Gradually animal sacrifice is accepted as the
best substitute of human sacrifice for female deities. 39 Later Bhils and
Bulahis also followed this tradition. 4o Meenas for Jiwanmata and
Burmanidevi, Kanjars for Khajoorimata and Bangamata also adopted animal
sacrifice.
In the Siladevi temple in Rajasthan, there is a visible change in the olden
practice of sacrifice. Human sacrifice in the name of the goddess was a
patent practice in early time. Kachvahas used to perform it in the open field
of the temple. The chopped off head was carried running to offer to the
goddess. In course of time, buffalo sacrifice replaced human sacrifice, and
thereafter, sacrificing goat became a practice. Change in the pattern of
sacrifice, from buffalo to goat, people say, was not acceptable to the deity.
Therefore, the deity, it is believed, tilted her head to express regret. 41 At
present, within the campus, performing bloody sacrifice in the name of the
goddess is prohibited, but the practice of symbolic sacrifice held on "lamon"
is followed.
In recent Rajasthan, the attitude of people is changing towards bloody
sacrifice. Temples that are supervised and patronized by the members of
high caste do not allow sacrfice in its campus. If anybody of the same high
caste wants to make sacrifice in the name of the goddess, is free to do but
anywhere away from the temple. For example, temple of Silladevi, as
discussed earlier, being supervised and patronized by Kacchawahas, does

37 V.K. Srivastava, Religious Renunciation o/a Pastoral People, OUP, 1997, p. 124
38 C.S. Gupta (ed.), 1961, Goriya, p.37
39 J.Digges La Touche, The Rajputana Gazetteer, Vol. II, Ajmer-Merwara, p. 47.
40 Ibid. p.47.
41 C.A. Baylay, The Rajputana Gazetteer, Vol. II, 1879, Jaipur, p. 161; Detailed information is given
Kalyan 'Tirthank' year 1957, pp. 214, 216
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not allow bloody sacrifice in the temple campus in recent time. If at all,any
one wants to make bloody sacrifice in the name of the goddess, he is allowed
to perform it away from the campus of the temple. Such kind of prohibition
is becoming visibly applicable in most of temples supervised by the
members of high caste. Eating of meat on the eve of Dussehra by high caste
people has also declined to a greater extent.
Non-sacrificial practice has influenced to some extent to the members of
low communities and tribes also and they too avoid sacrificial offer to their
female deities. Female deities like Jamvaimata of Meenas, Kamidevi of
Bikaner, Arbadadevi 42 <?f Bhils are vegetarian female deities. These female
deities feel offended if they are offered with bloody sacrifice. But in Bhairav
temples that generally are taken care of by the members of low castes, the
sacrificial practice is strongly followed. For example, in the temple of
Kodam Desar in Bikaner, dedicated to Bhairava, affiliated with low castes,
sacrifices are performed at great length.
In South India high caste members do not follow the tradition of meat
eating on the eve of Dussehra. The goddess temples, patronized by the
people of high caste, do not allow sacrificial practice. On the eve of certain
yaznya, named Somayaznya and Atiratrymyaznya, organized by the people
of high caste, bali is performed and sacrificed animals are given away to the
people of low caste. Usually bloody sacrifice in South India is organized by
the people of low communities at their temples in the name of female
deities. Members of Paraya community belonging to low caste sacrifice
chicken in the name of female deities. The goddesses affiliated to the low

42 c.s. Gupta, (cd.) 1961, Kailashpuri, p. 26


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caste people are as follows: Maruta, Vatayakshini, Karinkali. Kali IS

worshipped both by high and low caste. 43


In above pargraphs it is pointed out that the sacrificial practice was a
strong worshipping ritual for the goddesses in India in early time. But over
the centuries, some changes have occured in the pattern of sacrifice,
indicating that it is on the verge of decline, rather eliminating. But overall
investigation suggests that the sacrifical practice is yet an important ritual for
goddess worship, followed directly-indirectly all through India in varied
forms. In parts of Jharkanda, in famous temple of Siva at Baidyanathdham
Deoghar, on the day of Navmi in Dussehra, in front of the image of Durga,
priests help to sacrifice goats. Close to Baidyanathdham are two places: one
is Rohini where buffaloes are sacrificed on the eve of Dashmi and other is
Yoginisthan (Sthal) where goats are sacrificed throughout the year against
the fulfillment of vows of devotees. All these places follow certains rituals
before holding· sacrifice: the priest sprinkles water and put flowers upon
aninals and chant incantaions. In the temple of Kamakhyadevi of Assam
sacrifice is an important part of ritual. Animal sacrifice is a patent practice.
Durga temple at Nartiang at Meghalaya also is steeped in mythological gore.
Here a secret tunnel exists between the sacrificial altar and the river
Myntang, which flows beneath. In early time, the heads of the sacrificed
men were rolled down the tunnel into the river below. Human sacrifice was
common in the temple before the British banned it sometime in the 19th
century.44 But bloody sacrifice of animals is still continuing. In the state of
Uttranchal, sacrifical tradition is very dominant, followed extensively on
festive occasion and on the fulfillment of vows.

43 Dr. Narayanan, born and brought up in Kerala, is at present lecturer in Sanskrit Department, Dyal Singh
Evening College, University of Delhi, has supplied this information.
- 333 -

On the occasion of Durga Puja various parts of the states of Bengal, Bihar
and Iharkhanda, follow a uniqe tradition of symbolic sacrifice in front of the
image of Mahishasuramardini. This is rather an event of public celebration.
It is performed at the mid-night ofNavmi in which a Bhatuakumhra (white-
pumpkin) is chopped off from the middle and its slit-faces are coloured with
rori (bloody form of vermilion) to envisage as if it is a bloody sacrifice.
Such a tradition is never found earlier; it is rather incorporated in recent
time. It is related to tamshi tradition.
In Rajasthan, the pattern of sacrificial practice is wrongly assessed and
that creates an impression that this tradition is on the verge of decline. As
evidenced that only the members of community of low caste seem keen to
observe this tradition and high caste people do not allow it to perform in .
their temples. But in true sense of the term, this tradition is still very much
alive and prevalent in Rajashan. It still holds the Hindu psyche. The
religious significance of it still stands out. For example, Silladevi temple of
Rajaputs does not permit for bloody sacrifice, but symbolic sacrifice held on
the piece of lemon is a regular practice. Even outside the campus of the
temple, bloody sacrifice is permitted to do in the name of the goddess.
Jharula (called Mundan - tonsuring ceremony - in North of India) is a
popular ceremony in Rajasthan in which the ritual of tonsure is performed
and a goat is sacrificed in the name of the Kula Devi. 45 High caste people
observe Jahrula, together with symbolic and bloody sacrifices, religiously
and significantly.

44 Discover india, December 2004, A Media Transasia Publication, p. 50


45 Informed by Karnidan Singh Bhati who is a resident of Bikaner and is secretary of Bhati community.
- 334-

Concept of Unitary goddess: Changes and continuity


The concept of unitary goddess is, in fact, an age-old tradition of India
coming down from the Vedic time. As in the Vedic time, none of the
goddesses was affiliated with male deity. Goddesses were independent and
free. 46 For example, the goddesses such as Aditi, Vsha, Ratri, Sinivali, Raka,
Ganga, Sarasvati etc. were single and independent. Even in the Epic time
this tradition was prominently followed and the goddesses like Ambika,
Vma, Durga, Kali etc. were manifested singly. In the Puranic time,
goddesses were presentedfree and independent, but a few of them were
presented with male companions. Though, the unitary presentation of the
goddesses in the Puranic time was more prominent and dominant. The
goddesses were given eternal and independent powers, sometimes more
powerful than the masculine deities. Mahishasuramardini, in particular, the
killer of demon Mahisha, was attributed as a cosmic force, rescuer of the
male deities and of the universe. In fact, trinity - Brahma, Vishnu and
Mahesha, in particular, succumbed and invoked the primeval force, the
Shakti. Kali, the manifestation of Mahishasuramardini, terrifying and
volcanic, another independent female force, had come into being to destroy
the demonic forces.
In modern time the concept of unitary goddess is very much applicable
and preserved in the case of a few of the goddesses. Durga and Kali, two of
these goddesses, are still worshipped independently and as eternal Shakti.
The destructiveness of goddess Kali, a power to eliminate evil force all
alone, is very much acknowledged. People fondly remember the myths of
Durga and Kali made in the texts. But some discernable changes, directly or

46Madhu Bazaz Wangu, Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings and Models, New Delhi: Abhinav
Publications, 2003, p. 18
- 335 -

indirectly, have come across in observation of people towards these


goddesses. In most of the photographs, aggressive Kali, sword in erect right
hand with lolling tongue is depicted laying one of her foot upon the chest of
lying Siva on the ground. Depiction of this incident in photograph contains
stories which deal with the relation between Siva and Kali i.e. husband and
wife. The independent image of Durga is also questioned. On the tenth day
i.e. Dashmi, the concluding day, the worshipers in some parts of India do
chanting "Go, Mother go! Go where Brahma and other Gods reside, or
wherever you wish to go, and then stay there, please." It is done with the
intention to send off to married daughter to reside in their husband's home as
she (goddess) visits their father's home once in a while. Sending off goddess
is performed with great fanfare as devotee blows conch shells, beat gongs
and blow horns in a noisy farewell and then image is immersed.
In recent time, the nitty-gritty of some of the mythic narration of
Markandeya Purana has changed and people have spun tales and woven
myths around it, which has, rather, seriously dented the unitary concept of
goddesses such as Sarasvati, Laksmi and Kali. Mythical narration is as
follows: in the text, it is stated that goddess Durga and demon Mahishasura
fought with each other and Mahisha got defeated. After defeating Mahisha,
Durga split herself into three female deities - Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Kali
and each of these deities joined their respective companions Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva. Changes in the narration are as follows: mythical narration does
not speak that Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Kali got married and became wife to
their respective male deities and brought forth progeny. In fact, male deities
- 336-

were just their companions whom they collaborated. 47 But woven story
made them their wives.
In recent time, Lakshmi and Parvati are known purely as spouse
goddesses. Lakshmi is projected sitting near the feet of sleeping Vishnu
under the hood of cobra and Parvati, sitting always beside Siva along with
Nandi. The spouse goddesses Shri Lakshmi and Parvati are manifested as
mediators between devotees and their husbands/gods, brought the high gods
closer to the devotees and, thus, domesticated and brought them into the
circle of Hindu religion. Although, at the outset, Shri Lakshmi was an
independent goddess before she gained the position of a spouse deity.
Moreover, Parvati was not a benign spouse goddess who suffered quietly but
was resolute and defiant. 48
Matrkas, including all female deities, in recent time, are perceived as
biological mothers. Parvati, in particular, gained a very distinct image of
nourishing mother and is presented with two of her sons - Kartikeya and
Ganesha. In fact, manifestation of biological mothers of female deities is a
later development, concocted and spun with the intention to humanize them.
Along with female deities, male deities are also humanized. "Ganga, as
Lakshmi, Kali, Parvati or Sarasvati, the goddesses, have, time and again,
spumed mother-hood and often preferred to bring up deviants and strays
instead: a baby with the head of an elephant, a swan, even bulls.,,49
The goddess Sarasvati, as referred to in Rig Veda, originated with an
independent identity. With the processs of historical development, her
identity came across with various alteration and changes. For the first time in
Puranic age her independent identity was transformed and she was then

47 Ibid. p. 97
48 Ibid. p. 97
- 337-

identified as companion of Brahama. 50 Later she is identified as daughter of


Brahma. But coming down to modern time, Sarasvati is worshipped
independently. She is presented neither in pictures nor in icons at all with
Brhama. She is never invoked with Brahma in puja rituals. In the festival of
Vasantapanchmi or on the eve of Dussehra, she is never invoked with
Brahma. In practice, she is an independent deity.
Local Goddesses of Rajasthan: Change and continuity
Some of the early local goddesses of Rajasthan hold exceedingly an
important religious position. They are, in present day Rajasthan, venerated,
revered and adopted in the pantheon of important Brahmanic female deities.
Over the centuries, certain additions and alteration have come up in
worshiping centres, pattern of rituals and in the impression of the following
local goddesses such as Dadhimatimata, Padamata and Sachiyamata.
The emergence of local goddess Dadhimatimata near Mangold contains
some interesting story. Once a herdsmen saw an oozing knee of the goddess
out of the surface of the earth. Startled herdsman, seeing such incident, cried
full-hearted. Due to which the emerging body of the goddess as much as
came out of the surface of the earth suddenly stopped. The knee of the
goddess remained out of the surface of the earth and is marked as the divine
body part of the goddess. This is the natural form of stone being worshipped
at present with great reverence by the common people and the goddess is
commonly called Dadhmatmataji. The sunk floor-level of this temple's
sanctum possibly represents the garbha of the seventh-century shrine. 51

49 Ibid.
50 Pushpendra Kumar, op. cit. p. 3
51 Michael W. Meister, M.A. Dhaky (edit.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture North-India
Period of Early Maturity, Text, C. AD 700-900, OUP - 1991, p. 252
- 338 -

With the passage of time, by the initiative of Dahima brahmanas who are
the real patrons and caretakers of this temple in present time and for whom
the goddess is their Kula Devi,52 have made so many changes in and around
the natural worshiping stone of the deity. Around the stone, a platform is
constructed that is called sthana in local term, and is considered a sacred
platform. The whole stone is embellished with silver, dressed with colour
and flowers and is decorated with ornamentation. Mask and silver canopy
are recent introduction. 53
By the ninth century varied changes were introduced around the sthana
of Dadhimatimata. A well-structured stone temple was constructed near the
sthana. 54 With a lapse of time further additions were made in the temple. A
fifth court of a larger space for dharmsthan was created in late twentieth
century in which an icon of Dadhimatimata, near the natural stone of the
goddess, clothed in the fashion of Brahmanic goddesses was installed in the
temple. Along with the image of Dadhimatimata, images for other goddesses
have been given a due place. On the frontal part of the temple is an image
resembling goddess Durga depicted in the fashion as slaying a buffalo
demon. At the entrance door of the temple is installed a sitting image of a
goddess together with an image of Siva. Image of Siva is placed above the
image of the goddess. On the lintel of the sanctum is an image of a female
deity depicted as slaying of the buffalo demon. Image for male-god Ganesha
is created on the south, Durga in the form of Kshemankari is on the west and
Parvati, sitting in yogic posture, is on the north. Below the sikahara is

52 Sukhvirsingh Gehlot (ed.), Rajasthan Ke Pramukh Abilekh, Jodhpur, Hindi Sahitya Mandi, 1988, p.235
53 Michael W. Meister, M.A. Dhaky (edit.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture North-India
Period of Early Maturity, Text, C. AD 700-900, ouP - 1991, p. 252
54 Art historians mark it as the construction of the ninth century.
- 339

created an important and interesting scene from the Ramanayan. 55 The main
sanctum of the temple contains a decorated palanquin in which the image of
Dadhimatimata is placed encircled with images of the other female deities.
Religious rituals of the temple of Dadhimatimata that came into force in
19th - 20th century are very much based upon the brahmanic tradition.
Devotees tie colourful threads in the pillars of the temple with the hope that
pillars will provide them ample benefits. They believe that pillars have
magical power. Colourful threads decorate the temple. On important
occasion like spring N avaratri, a palanquin held in the main sanctum is
boarded upon the horse-drawn chariot to move out along with a big
procession mounted on a jeep. A temporary form of the goddess is placed in
the palanquin and is brought down to the bank of the tank. Here an artificial
fountain is created to show that the goddess has sprung out of the earth.
After completion of celebration, the palanquin is re-installed in the temple.
The origin of Dadhimatiniata as perceived out of mythical narration is
found linked to a herdsman, but with passage of time, the goddess, directly-
indirectly, got linked to Dahimabrahmans. Then, Dadhimatimata got linked
to sage Dadhichi who is an important character of Brahmanical tradition.
Dadhichi is believed to have donated his bone to Indra to make vajra to
vanquish the threatening demons. Association of Dadhimatimata with
Dadhichi came into shape possibly because of Dahima brahmans, the patron
of Dadhimatimata. In fact, Dahimas, themselves, were linked to Atharvan,
the lineage of sage Dadhichi.
At present, in Mangol, apart from Dadhimatimata temple, temples for
other male-female deities have come up. These temples belong to Siva,

55 Michael W. Meister, M.A. Dhaky (edit.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture North-India
Period of Early Maturity, Text, C. AD 700-900, OUP -1991, p. 252
- 340-

Hanumana and Bhairva. Dadhimati holds a revered position, equated with


brahmanic deities and is manifested as devi of brahmanic tradition. Temples
for Dadhimatimata' are constructed at various places such as Bombay,
Kolkata, Banglore and Madras.
Origin of Padamata at Didwana in Rajasthan is supposed to be linked to
the ninth century. A temple is constructed here in the name of the goddess
which contains beautiful sculptures of varied male-female deities. On the
north wall of the temple is a goddess presented as a slayer of the buffalo
demon. Almost all images belong to brahmanic deities, but the temple is
known by the name of Padamata, a local goddess. Also, about the origin of
the temple, the common men hardly speak any story and episode. But
presentation of some of the images inside the temple reflects that the
Padamata had emerged out of the surface of the earth in presence of cattle
and herdsmen that is very much similar to the origin of Dadhimatimata. The
rituals of the temple are not very comprehensive. They are simple and
straight and are similar to brahmanical rituals.
The origin and evolution of the temple of Sachiyamata has an interesting
history linked to the growth and changes. According to the local legend the
place where the temple of Sachiya mata is erected was known in early time
by the name of Melur Pattan. 56 Few miles away from the actual place is
found a footprint and is believed that the footprint belonged to an ascetic
named Dhundli Mall. One day his disciple went to the nearest village Melur
Pattan to manage some alms. Villagers refused to pay them. Thereupon, the
ascetic became furious and cast curse on the village. The old Melur Pattan
became attan i.e. buried underground. After sometime this area was again

56D.R. Bhandarkar, AS] Annual Report, 1908-09 pp. 100-03 & PAS]RWC, 1907, pp. 36-37; K.S. Singh,
(Gen. Edit.), 1998, p. 720
- 341 -

re-peopled by Uppal De, a Paramara prince. Since he was being hard-


pressed by his enemies he sought refuge with the king of the Padiar
(Pratihar) dynasty. That time whole Marwar area was under Pratihara rulers.
The Pratihara sovereign assigned ruins of Melur Pattan to Uppal De and
asked him to take shelter there. Gradually he re-peopled that area and the
name he gave to this area was Navaneri-Nagari. This village was later called
Osia as Uppal De, a Paramara ruler, took Osla there, means 'refuge'(Osal is
a Marwari word). And it was Uppal De, it is believed, who built the temple
of Sachiya mata and the goddess was, therefore, considered a tutelary
goddess of Samkha Paramaras. 57
Few years· after the establishment of Melur Pattan, an ascetic Ratan
Prabhu of Jain Jati, disciple of Hemacharya Ratan came to settle down here.
He maneuvered and manipulated converting the people of this area into Jain.
Initially, he prevailed on the people of Osian to embrace Jainism. When
Ratan Prabhu found himself failing to do he then took help to his magical
power. He converted a rope into snake and directed it to bite the son of the
king. The king tried a lot to save the life of his son, but failed. The saint
agreed to save the life of the prince on the condition that the king and his
subjects have to embrace Jainism and the people were later called Oswals.
Ratan Prabhu laid the foundation of the community of Oswals consisting
mostly of traders and moneylenders. But the incident of conversion, the local
people say, enraged Sachiya mata. She unleashed her curse and people were
dying of disease. Bhandarkar has well collected the facts and records that
when Ratan Prabha Suri converted the king and all his subjects to Jainism,
Sachiyamata got enraged as she was deprived of non-vegetarian food and
oblations. The non-vegetarian food as supposed to be the main item of

57 D.R. Bhandarkar, AS] Annual Report, 1908-09 pp. 100-03


- 342-

prasad for deity was stopped. Upon this Sachiya mata got offended and
cursed Oswals, the original residents of Osia. People started running away
with the premonition of looming danger of calamity. As to please the
goddess it was accepted as a ritual that on the eve of marriage, the concerned
parties are liable to visit the shrine of Sachiya mata and make some offering
to the deity. It is also added as a new tradition that no Oswal can pass across
the temple of Sachiya whether it is the night or the day until he pays homage
to the goddess. Out of fear of being over taken by some calamity or another,
everybody visit the shrine without fail. In due course the goddess had been
worshipped with saffron, eatables, flowers etc. She had been denied to offer
meat, wine and any sort of red flowers. The issue of conversion of goddess
to a non-vegetarian and non-ferocious deity has been pointed out in
Kharataragacccha Brhadgurvavali.
The origin of Sachiyamata is presumed to have come up under the
patronage of the Tantriks. In the Gupta period there was a strong hold of the
Tantriks on most of the parts of Rajasthan. The Gangadhara Stone
Inscription of Kumaragupta-I refers to the impact of Trantriks in the Osian
areas. Many of the Jain female deities being worshipped in the temple are
supposed to be adopted from the Tantrik tradition. Conversion of vegetarian
food as prasad from non-vegetarian, denial to offer wine and any sort of red
flowers indicate a cultic conversion of the goddess and impact of Jain
tradition.
After twelfth century A.D. saints and pilgrims often stated coming to visit
this place and many more changes came nto shape. Once one of the
merchants of Abhanagari (modem Abanri) said to have established a Sanga
to Osia in honour of the Sachiyadevi. Celebration of tonsuring ceremony is
an important ceremony began as started on her temple. Her worship during
- 343 -

the Navaratras is one of the special occasion. Circumambulating around the


temple premise is one of the important parts of the ritual of worship. On the
walls of the temple there are images of dancing and singing females and the
practice of dancing and singing is organized in the sabhamandaps or
rangamandaps whenever congregation is held on special occasions offering
worship to the deity. Temple is known by the name of Sachiyamata, the
local goddess, though the images female deities created and honoured in the
temple predominantly belong to Brahmanical and Jain religions. '
General review of continuity of goddess tradition and change: Vedic to
the present day India
Rig Veda informs about following goddesses: Usas, Ratri, Sinivali,
Raka, Ganga, Aditi, Prini, Diti, Swasti, Revati, Purandhi, Anumati,
Apadevis, Saraswati, Sindhu, Aranyani, Indrani, Varunani, Rudrani, Agneyi,
Saranyu, Suryi, Saci, Rodasi, Sila, Daksina, Sradda, Dhisna, Ila, Mahi,
Bharati, Gouri, Svaha, Urvasi, Alaksmi, Krtva, Nirrti and so on. 58 Out of
these goddesses, two of the goddesses Aditi and Us as were important
goddesses. Aditi, the great divine mother59 was concerned prominently with
the removal of sins sometimes alone, sometimes with Mitra and Varuna. She
was giver of wealth free from sin and hatred. 60 Usas was a war-like goddess
and had martial spirits. She was invoked to expel enemies and to divide
them. 61 Sarasvati was a holy river62 and a goddess, purifying sin. She was
invoked with seven Sindhus called mother. 63 Sacrifices were performed on
her banks and Aryans preferred to construct residence on it. As a goddess

58 Indian Culture, Vol. VIII, July September, p. 66


59 Pushpendra Kumar, Shakti-cult in Ancient India, Bhartiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1974, p. 10
60 Ibid. p. 11
61 Ibid. p. 12

62 Ibid. p. 13
63 Ibid. p. 13
- 344-

she presides over truthful speech64 and knowledge. In Vedic phase


goddesses were given less importance vis-a.-vis male goddesses. In fact, the
cult of goddess was originally the non-Aryan cult which with passage of
time mingled with Aryan belief. 65
The goddess tradition after Vedic period had gained further momentum.
Socio-religious importance of the goddesses had achieved a new stride and
varied goddesses were enlisted in the texts. Ramayana, though, does not
refer to an independent goddess cult but female deities are depicted in a very
high position. She is called Devi and honoured. Mahabharata provides a
new impetus to goddess tradition, and has allotted a separate passage in
honour of the goddesses. Bhagalinga, Maheswari Praja, the Matrkas and
Bhaga Deva are varied expressions used for the goddesses. Also the terms
like Diksha, Yoga, Bhutamata, Shakti as well as Matra-gana do occur in the
Mahabharata. Devi assumes various forms for fulfilling various purposes.
She assumes both malignant and benevolent forms 66 and also assumes a
fusion of Vaisnava and Saiva elements. Durga in particular became rescuer
of people from all difficulties. 67 Even the gods invoked Durga for the
protection of three worlds. 68
Puranas elevated religious eminence of the goddesses to its optimum.
Goddesses were accepted as primeval force, the creator of the universe and
Shakti of the male deities. They were identified as unitary, independent and
spouse goddesses. Markandeya Purana states that Durga is eternal as well as
the supporter of the universe. She is the founder of the world. She is

64 Ibid. p. 13
65 Ibid. p. 29
66 Devi-Mahatmya, Guru Mandai Series, 1962, Calcutta, 1. 64-66; Translated version by Vasudeva S.
Agrawala, Varanasi, All India Kashiraj Trust, 1963
67 Mahabharata, Satvalekar, (ed.), IV. 6.20 & tranlated version by l.A.B. Van Buitenen. 3 Vols. Chicago,
Univ. of Chicago Press, 1940
68 Ibid. IV. 6. 19
- 345 -

projected unitary, independent and free from affiliation with the male
deities, neither as power of Siva nor consort of Visnu. She is both fearful
and benign. But Sa iva Purana viz. Skanda Purana, Siva Purana, Kurma
Purana and Linga Purana present Shakti as power of Siva or consort of Siva
and thus do not separate Her from Siva. In Vaisnava Purana like Bhagavata
Purana, Visnu Purana and Vamana Purana. Shakti is called the power of
Visnu. She is considered a pure consciousness, power of Siva and Maya of
Visnu. She produces Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. She is Prakriti, the primeval
root. 69 Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Siva Purana, Skanda Purana reveal
the philosophical concept of Shakti70 which became prominent and is
remembered with devotion. 71

69 Pushpendra Kumar, op. cit. p. 47


70 Ibid. p. 69
71 Devi Bhagvata Purana, ed. Raj Tei Pandey, Pandit Pustakalya, Kashi, 1956, and Guru mandai Series, 2
Vols, Calcutta, 1960, III. 25.41-44 & trans. version by Swami Vijnanananda, Vol. 26 of the Sacred Books
a/the Hindu, Allahabad: Suhindra Nath Vasu, 1921-1923
- 346-

Goddess tradition is strongly followed in contemporary India. People pay


deep reverence to female deities. Varied festivals and fairs are held in the
name of the goddesses that do emphasize burgeoning importance of the
goddesses. Festivals like Dusshera, dedicated to Durga, is celebrated all over
India in varied forms. Kali Puja for goddess Kali, Dipawali for Lakshmi,
Vasanta Panchmi for goddess Saravati, Gangaur for Gauri in Rajasthan,
Akha Teej or Akshay Tritiya for Gauri,72 Parvati and Durga,73 Sitala
Ashtami or Sitala Saptami for goddess Sitala - all these are dedicated to
female deities.
Dusshera festival, also known as Vijayadashmi, is celebrated in varied
forms in different parts of India. In Northern India, during Navaratri of
Dussehra, the holy river Ganga is venerated as goddess. Hundreds and
thousands of oil lamps are set afloat when puja is performed on the Ganga at
twilight all along the shores in holy towns like Rishikesh, Haridwar, Garh-
Mukteshar, Allahabad and Varanasi. Devotees take a dip on the ghats of the
Ganga. But in Varanasi in particular Dusshera is celebrated with great
jubilation. One of the greatest attractions of this festival here is to organize
Ramlila. It is a month-long celebration in which the mythical story of
goddess Druga and Ram is organized in the form of drama. Such a
celebration has continued annually down from the 18 th century. It is
organized under the patronage of Maharaja of Benaras, popularly known as
Kashi Naresh. Kashi Naresh is also an important attraction of Dusshera
celebration who is considered an incarnation of Siva. In Delhi also Dussehra
is celebrated with great enthusiasm and gaiety. Ramlila is organized all over

72 Subhashini Aryan, op. cit., says that the festival is dedicated to Gauri also. Her images on the days
festival is gaily decorated with red and gold garments and is borne on the patki for procession composed of
fully caparisoned elephants, camels and horses. P. 11
- 347-

Delhi for ten days. On the tenth day of Dussehra, as evening approaches, an
elaborate procession leads to the Ramlila grounds where crowds congregate
to watch actors dressed as Rama shooting flaming arrows at giant effigies of
the 10-headed demon Ravan, along with his brothers - Meghnath and
Kumbhakama - symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. This is followed
almost in every locality of Delhi and has continued for over decades. In
recent time, continuity of goddess tradition in Delhi has rather gained a new
dimension. Additions are made in the on-going practices of Dussehara
tradition of Delhi. Installation of images in decorated Pandals, coming of
people to visit images and to enjoy entertaining programmes in the pandals
itself, following extensive puja rituals to invoke the female deity and
immersion of the images on the tenth day of the festival are some new
practices, added and incorporated in Dusshera celebration in Delhi.
Up in the parts of deep north of India in Kashmir, Kashmiri Pandits visit
the temple of Kheer Bhawani during Dusshera. Punjabis observe Navratras
and follow fasting and feeding the poor. They worship Sheranwali Ma (the
female deity who rides the tiger). In Kulu, in Himachal Pradesh, the
celebration has a different flavour. Villagers wear colourful dress, bring their
local deities from little temples in procession to a tree where everyone
assembles to pay homage to Kulu's reigning deity, Raghunathji, a
manifestation of Lord Rama. In the course of procession dancing and
singing in praise of deity is performed. The villages hold the palanquin of
the deity aloft during the endless week-long festivities.
In West Bengal, Dussehra, popularly known as Durga Puja, is celebrated
with intense fervour and zest in West Bengal. Images of Durga (they

73 c.s. Gupta, (ed.), 1961, Malar, informs that Parvati and Durga, along with Gauri, are worshipped in the
festival. p.39
- 348-

generally call "Ma Durga"), embellished with crown an:d ornaments, are
installed in festooned pandals. Ornaments for the goddesses are made from
tinsel. Elaborate rituals, like offering flowers, fruits, sweets and making
symbolic sacrifice under the stewardship of a well-versed priest, are
followed to worship female deity. In the evening, at the time of Aarti, both
male and female devoted to the female deity perform dance to the tune of
drums. They wear new clothes, entertain with music, dance and drama and
roam around to get the glimpse of the images of Durga. It is followed
extensively both in towns and villages. Every locality wishes to project the
best of its attraction and excellence and also to compete to outdo other.
In Meghalaya, like West Bengal, Dussehra is known as Durga Puja. At
Nartiang, Puja is an important event and is celebrated with much vigour and
seriousness. It is celebrated in a temple dedicated to goddess Durga. The
temple was constructed by Jaintia king after converting himself to Hinduism
in the 16th century. The temple resembles a typical Khasi house with· a
central wooden pillar and roof, steeple in shape, and is made up of
corrugated tin sheets. Here on the eve of festival some temporary special
arrangement is made. A plantain trunk covered in white shroud and marigold
flowers, symbolic of the goddess is installed. Not after nine days, but just
after four days, the trunk is immersed in the river Myntang. Nartiang's
Durga Puja is a blend of Khasi and Hindu beliefs, and a fitting tribute to
Meghalaya's cultural diversity.74
Gujarat celebrates Dussehra at enthralling note. People enjoy endless
nights of dancing. Dance garba in particular is performed in public squares,
open grounds and in every street. Dancers attire themselves with dazzling
clothes, swing dandia sticks in disco tunes, clap to garba beats and sing
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devotinal songs throughtout the nine nights of Navratri. The temple of


goddess Amba Mataji is fully decorated and devotees visit the temple in
large numbers on this occasion. In Maharasthra, too, Dussehra is celebrated
with great jubilation for nine days. In all nine days, the images are poured
upon with extensive flower garlands that devotees preserve after the end of
the celebration. Details of celebration in Rajasthan have already been
discussed in the second chapter of this study.
South of India also celebrates Dusshera festival as Navarathri.
Celebration at Mysore Palace in Kamataka is a special occasion. The palace
is illuminated for the whole month and on the tenth day a colourful
procession led by caparisoned elephants through the gaily-decorated streets
is taken out. Torchlight parades, dance and musical events are organized that
enliven the tranquil city. Young girls arrange dolls and trinkets artistically.
Friends and relatives visit each other's homes to exchange greetings. Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh families create elaborate five to seven tiered
tableaux to display their dolls, Bommai Kolu. Floor decorations, called
Kolams, are done everyday. On Vijayadashmi, in particular, there is a
tradition that students place their books, musical instruments, ankle bells at
the altar of goddess Sarasvati. Students pay homage to their teachers also.
This sacred ritual is known as Vidyarambham. 75 People visit their friends
and relatives.
Puranic legends of goddess Durga are still popular and are vividly
remembered by devotees. Most popular legend of Markandeya Purana is
that goddess Durga came in rescue of the male gods from the threat posed by
a dark demon, Andhakasur. When the combined powers of the three big

74 Discover India, December 2004, A Media Transasia Publication, p. 50


75 This tradition is non-existent in north India.
- 350 -

gods - Brahama, Vishnu and Mahesh - failed to defeat the demon, the male
gods sat and meditated upon to discover an impregnable and un-
surmountable Pure Power. From the collective thought of the gods, the great
Shakti was born. Gods then lent all kinds of weapons and attributes to Shakti
and they surrendered themselves to the effulgence of female power. The
goddess then moved to fight with the demon. She assessed the situation of
battle and then produced female army from within. The army of Shakti was
well armed and trained for battle. Shakti, along with female army,
successfully killed the demon and then female army re-entered the Goddess.
The story of goddess Durga narrated in Ramayana is also remembered.
Devotees of Lord Rama performed Chandi puja for nine days to invoke the
help of goddess Durga to defeat Ravan, the demon king, who had abducted
his wife, Sita. Pleased Durga divulged to him the secret of slaying the
demon.
Goddess temples in present-day India are suggestive of the growth and
popularity of goddess tradition in India. India has many famous temples for
female deities. In Northern India, Vaisnavdevi temple is an exceedingly
important goddess temple, located on the hills of Katra in Jammu. In two
decades, it has achieved the status of a great pilgrimage centre and the
goddess has become a household name. Vindyavasini temple in Uttar
Pradesh, Aranyadevi temple in Bihar, Dakshineswar Kali temple and Kali
Ghata in Bengal are important goddess temples of north India. In South
India in Kamataka Kollur-Mookambika and Chamunda hill temples
dedicated to goddess Sarasvati and Durga, respectively are located. In
Kerala, there are following goddess temples: Panachikkad Dakshina
Mukambika temple at Kottayam is dedicated to goddess Sarasvati and
Chottanikkara temple at Eruakulam is dedicated to goddess Durga.
- 351 .

Chottanikkara temple helps to drive away the evil spirits. Malabar region of
Kerala is famous for Kalari - a single, simple rectangular room. It is
attached as part of goddess temple dedicated to Bhadrakali or Bhagavati.
Such goddess temples are called Kalari temples. These temples are the
places for training. One famous temple of this category is in the north of
Kothakulangara known as Mukkannur Kuttala Bhagavati temple. The
goddess was tutelar deity of the Cherampilly Karthas who were great
gymnasts and once the chiefs of the locality. Karthas constructed this temple
for teaching the art of fencing to the local inhabitants and also for
worshipping Devi. 76 Tamil Nadu consists of two important temples: one,
Kamakshi temple at Kanchipuram and the other, Meenakshi temple at
Madurai. Meenakshi temple is known all over India for its beauty and
artistic design.

76 Phillips B. Zarrilli, When the Body becomes all Eyes, OUP, 1990, p. 62

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