Professional Documents
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Probability
Strategies
When the
Simple Randompopulation members
Sampling are similar to oneEnsures a high degreeTime consuming
another onof representativeness and tedious
important variables
When theEnsures a high degree
population membersof representativeness,
Systematic are similar to oneand no need to use aLess random than
Sampling another ontable of randomsimple random
important variables numbers sampling
When the
population is
Stratified Randomheterogeneous andEnsures a high degreeTime consuming
Sampling contains severalof representativenessand tedious
different groups,of all the strata or
some of which arelayers in the
related to the topicpopulation
of the study
When the Possibly, members
population consists of units are different
Cluster Sampling of units rather thanEasy and convenient from one another,
individuals decreasing the
techniques
effectiveness
Non-Probability
Sampling
When the members
of the population
Convenience are convenient toConvenience andDegree of
Sampling sample inexpensive generalizability is
questionable
When strata areInsures some degree
present andof representativeness
Quota Sampling stratified samplingof all the strata in theDegree of
is not possible population generalizability is
questionable
The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in statistical
methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the
target population is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated
and the units having those numbers are included in the sample. For example, let’s
say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to choose a simple
random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000.
Then, you generate a list of 50 random numbers--typically with a computer
program--and the individuals assigned those numbers are the ones you include in
the sample. When studying people, this technique is best used with a homogenous
population--one that does not differ much by age, race, education level, or class--
because with a heterogeneous population, one runs the risk of creating a biased
sample if demographic differences are not taken into account.
Systematic Sample.
In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then
every nth element in the list is chosen systematically for inclusion in the sample.
For example, if the population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school
and the researcher wanted a sample of 100 students, the students would be put into
list form and then every 20th student would be selected for inclusion in the sample.
To ensure against any possible human bias in this method, the researcher should
select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample
with a random start.
Stratified Sample.
Cluster Sample.
There are four kinds of samples that you can create this way.
For the latter reason, convenience samples are commonly used in the early or pilot
stages of research, before a larger research project is launched. Though this method
can be useful, the researcher will not be able to use the results from a convenience
sample to generalize to a wider population.
Snowball Sample.
Quota Sample.
A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-
specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of
characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.
For example, if you are a researcher conducting a national quota sample, you might
need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is
female, as well as what proportions of members of each gender fall into different
age categories, race or ethnic categories, and educational categories, among others.
The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportions as the
national population.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Panel interviews are the same as individual, face-to-face interviews, but with
two or more interviewers in the room.The main advantage of panel
interviewing is that it precludes any personal biases that might creep into the
assessment process.Each interviewer will pick up on different characteristics,
strengths and weaknesses and together (hopefully) make a much fairer
judgement.
Advantages:
No personal biases.
The chance to compare different opinions.
More chance to get notes (while others talk).
All relevant people meet at the same time.
Weak interviewers might need back-up.
The candidate gets a chance to meet everyone.
Disadvantages:
Assessment “days” can be used to assess larger groups of interviewees at the same
time, for a range of different skills.Common amongst graduate employers, they are
a great way to evaluate candidates in more detail, for a longer period of time.If
you’re interviewing a large group and your offices are only small, it’s a good idea
to seek out a local assessment centre to host the day for you.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
5. Group Interviews
Group interviews are used a lot less regularly than the other interview techniques
we’ve mentioned, but they still have their place in modern recruitment.You could
conduct your group interview in two key ways… like an individual interview;
asking exactly the same questions that you would ask in an individual interview,
openly, to the whole group, allowing candidates .
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Individual, face-to-face interviews are by far the most popular and efficient form of
assessmentAllowing you to get up close and personal with each candidate while
keeping an eye on their body language is far more effective than any other
interviewing format.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Candidates can rehearse answers
It’s time-consuming
You’ll need a trained interviewer.
Interviewer bias will affect the decision
There’s no one present to assess the interviewer’s method
It’s costly
Interview techniques could be inconsistent
Possible interview fatigue
Interviewing
Administering questionnaires
observing people
The choice of data collection methods depends on the facilities available, the
degree of accuracy required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the
study, and other costs and resources associated with and available for data
gathering.
PART I: INTERVIEWING:
One method of collecting data is to interview respondents to obtain information on
the issues of interest. Interviews could be unstructured or structured, and con-
ducted either face to face or by telephone or online.
Unstructured Interviews:
Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the
respondent. The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some
preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what
variables need further in-depth investigationIn order to understand the situation in
its totality, the researcher will interview employees at several levels. In the initial
stages, only broad, open- ended questions would be asked, and the replies to them
would inform the researcher of the perceptions of the individuals. The type and
nature of the questions asked of the individuals might vary according to the job
level and type of work done by them. For instance, top and middle-level managers
might be asked more direct questions about their perceptions of the problem and
the situation. Employees at lower levels may have to be approached differently.
Structured Interviews:
Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what
information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be
asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone, or through the
medium of a PC. The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaced
during the unstructured interviews and are considered relevant to the problem. As
the respondents express their views, the researcher would note them down. The
same questions will be asked of everybody in the same manner. Sometimes,
however, based on the exigencies of the situation, the experienced researcher
might take a lead from a respondent‘s answer and ask other relevant questions not
on the interview protocol. Through this process, new factors might be identified,
resulting in a deeper understanding. However, to be able to recognize a probable
response, the interviewer must comprehend the purpose and goal of each question.
This is particularly important when a team of trained interviewers conducts the
survey.
Interviews can be conducted either face to face or over the telephone. They could
also be computer-assisted. Although most unstructured interviews in
organizational research are conducted face to face, structured interviews could be
either face to face or through the medium of the telephone, depending on the level
of complexity of the issues involved, the likely duration of the interview, the
convenience of both parties, and the geographical area covered by the survey.
Telephone interviews are best suited when information from a large number of
respondents spread over a wide geographic area is to be obtained quickly, and the
likely duration of each interview is, say, 10 minutes or less. Many market surveys,
for instance, are conducted through structured telephone interviews. In addition,
computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI) are also possible, and easy to
manage.
Advantage of interviewing:
adopting
changing the questions as the researcher proceeds with the inter- views.
Open-ended questions
Closed question:
A closed question in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices among
a set of alternatives given by the researcher.
Double-Barreled Questions:
A question that lends itself to different possible responses to its subparts is called a
double-barreled question. Such questions should be avoided and two or more
separate questions asked instead
Ambiguous Questions:
Even questions that are not double-barreled might be ambiguously worded and the
respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean.
Recall-Dependent Question:
Some questions might require respondents to recall experiences from the past that
are hazy in their memory. Answers to such questions might have bias.
Leading Questions:
Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to
give the responses that the researcher would like or want them to give.
Loaded Questions:
Another type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner.
Length of Questions:
Finally, simple, short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a
question or a statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed
one full line in print.
Advantage questionnaires :
energy
costs
Observational Surveys:
Apart from the activities performed by the individuals under study, their
movements, work habits, the statements made and meetings conducted by them,
their facial expressions of joy, anger, and other emotions, and body language can
be observed. Other environmental factors such as layout, work-flow patterns, the
closeness of the seating arrangement, and the like, can also be noted. Children can
be observed as to their interests and attention span with various stimuli, such as
their involvement with different toys. Such observation would help toy
manufacturers, child educators, day-care administrators, and others deeply
involved in or responsible for children‘s development, to design and model ideas
based on children‘s interests, which are more easily observed than traced in any
other manner.
The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data
—that of a nonparticipant-observer or participant-observer.
Nonparticipant-Observer:
The researcher may collect the needed data in that capacity without becoming an
integral part of the organizational system. For example, the researcher might sit in
the corner of an office and watch and record how the manager spends her time.
Observation of all the activities of managers, over a period of several days, will
allow the researcher to make some generalizations on how managers typically
spend their time. By merely observing the activities, recording them systematically,
and tabulating them, the researcher is able to come up with some findings. This,
however, renders it necessary that observers are physically pre- sent at the
workplace for extended periods of time and makes observational studies time
consuming.
Participant-Observer:
The researcher may also play the role of the participant-observer. Here,
the researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part
of the work team. For instance, if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in
work organizations, then she may join the organization as an employee and
observe the dynamics in groups while being a part of the work organization and
work groups. Much anthropological research is conducted in this manner, where
researchers become a part of the alien culture, which they are interested in
studying in depth.
2marks
1.what is data mining
When sample data is collected and the sample mean is calculated, that sample
mean is typically different from the population mean . This difference between the
sample and population means can be thought of as an error. The margin of error is
the maximum difference between the observed sample mean and the true value of
the population mean.
Systematic Sampling
A simple random sampling (SRS) is a sample of a given size in which all such
subsets of the frame are given an equal probability to be chosen.
Stratified Sampling
size of universe: the large the size of the universe, the bigger should be the
sample size.
resources available: if the resources avai of alable are vast a large sample
size could be taken.
degree of accuracy desired: the greater the degree of accuracy desired, the
larger should be the sample size.
realiabilty of data: finding out such things about the said data can test the
reliability that who collectednthe data, what where the sources of data,
where collected by using proper method and was it achieved.
suitability of data: the data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
neccessarily be found in another enquiry.
if the level of accuracy achieved in data found inadequate for the purpose of
the present enquiry, they will be considered an inadequate and should not be
used by the researcher.
free from bias: a good sample is free from bias. it does not permit prejudices,
pre-conceptions and imagination to influence its choice.
9. define sampling.