Influence of Modal Mass Participation in Damage

Detection of Cable Structures

Wasanthi R. Wickramasinghe, School of Civil Engineering & Built Environment, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,
Australia; David P. Thambiratnam, Prof., School of Civil Engineering & Built Environment, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, Australia; Tommy H. T. Chan, Prof., School of Civil Engineering & Built Environment, Queensland University of
Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Contact: d.thambiratnam@qut.edu.au
DOI: 10.2749/101686616X14555429844004

Abstract that can be derived from analytical

models. Among different VBDD tech-
Increasing applications of large diameter and long-span cables as key structural niques, those based on the modal flexi-
components in cable-supported structures are becoming evident. However, bility, which incorporates only a few
these cables accumulate damage over time during their life cycle and such dam- lower order vibration modes and
age needs to be detected to avoid the detrimental influences on the serviceabil- depends on both the natural frequen-
ity and ultimate capacity of the structure. In this context, vibration-based cies and mode shapes, have shown the
damage detection (VBDD) methods have been used in some structures. Cable potential for successful damage detec-
structures however exhibit complex vibration patterns, namely with vertical, tion. However, as mentioned before,
lateral, torsional and coupled modes which complicate the VBDD procedure. due to the complex vibration patterns
To address this matter, this paper proposes a new approach for detecting and of cable structures, direct application
locating damage in cables using component-specific damage indices (DIs) based of this method to detect damage in
on the modal flexibility method considering the modal mass participation. cables is not a successful approach.
Application of this new procedure is illustrated through two case studies: (- This problem can be overcome by
a) a suspended cable and (b) a three dimensional (3D) suspension bridge struc- incorporating another global vibration
ture. Results verify that the DIs based on the lateral and vertical components parameter2 named mass participation
of mode shapes, identified through their modal mass participation factors, are factor (modal mass distribution) to
effective for detecting and locating damage in the suspended cables and main identify effective modes for damage
cables in a suspension bridge respectively, under a range of damage scenarios. detection. It is an important vibration
The research outcomes of this paper confirm that the modal mass participation characteristic of a structure, which
factor is an important signature in the damage detection of a structure using measures the amount of mass moving
VBDD techniques. in each direction for each
vibration mode.
Keywords: cables; hangers; damage detection; modal flexibility; component
specific damage indices; modal mass participation factor. Importance of the measurement of
mass participation factor (MPF) was
identified by previous researchers.
This was included in the Wind and
Introduction simplicity and the moderate cost of Structural Health Monitoring System
dynamic measurements in large civil which was devised and operated by
Use of structural cables in cable-sup- structures. Different VBDD methods the Highways Department to monitor
ported structures such as suspension can be identified in the literature and the structural conditions of the Tsing
and cable-stayed bridges, overhead they basically depend on the vibration Ma (suspension) Bridge, the Kap Shui
transmission lines, cable cars, cable- characteristics of a structure such as Mun (cable-stayed) Bridge and the
supported roofs and guyed towers are Ting Kau (cable-stayed) Bridge in
natural frequencies, modal damping
increasingly evident. Since cables are Hong Kong. The MPFs measured by
and mode shapes. The basic principle
the main structural components in the system are then used to calibrate
of the VBDD approach is that dam- the finite element (FE) models to pre-
these structures, damage in them
needs to be detected at early occur- age in a structure alters its structural dict structural condition of those
rence to prevent expensive retrofitting properties which in turn results in a bridges.2 This parameter was used in
and catastrophic failures. Among a change in its vibration characteristics. the experimental and analytical stud-
variety of damage detection methods, A change in the vibration characteris- ies on dynamic characteristics of a
vibration-based damage detection tics can hence be used to detect dam- large span cable-stayed bridge.3 Fur-
(VBDD) methods have recently age in a structure. ther, it is important in the seismic
received considerable amount of analysis of structures and used in
Cable structures, however, exhibit
attention due to the rapid develop- mechanical4 and civil5 industries.
complex vibration characteristics that
ment of sensor systems, their Direct use of the MPF in damage
pose challenges to the application of
detection studies has not been identi-
VBDD methods. Further, these struc-
Peer-reviewed by international ex- fied recently.
tures are associated with a large num-
perts and accepted for publication
by SEI Editorial Board ber of degrees of freedoms of which In order to overcome the complexities
only a limited number of lower order in damage detection of cable struc-
Paper received: October 13, 2015 modes can be measured practically.1 tures (mentioned earlier), this paper
Paper accepted: May 22, 2016 This number is far less than the modes proposes two component-specific

Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016 Scientific Paper 301

damage indices (DIs) which are modi-
fied forms of modal flexibility based
on the different components of
vibration modes. These components
are identified through their MPFs and
then used to determine the appropri-
ate component-specific DI when com-
plex modes occur. The proposed
procedure is illustrated through its
application to two case studies: (-
a) suspended cable and (b) main cable
in a 3D suspension bridge. Validated
numerical models were used to obtain
the vibration data of the two struc-
tures under both single and multiple
damage scenarios. Results from DI
calculated using the total displace-
ment (i.e. including all the compo-
nents) of the vibration modes of the
structure are also presented in order
to capture the effectiveness of the two
component-specific DIs.
The results confirm that the use of
MPFs is advantageous for selecting the
correct component-specific DI for use
in the damage detection of cable struc-
tures. Further, the research outcomes
will enable the timely retrofitting of
cable structures to ensure the optimal
allocation of public resources towards
their retrofitting and maintenance.
Damage Detection Method
(Component-Specific Damage
Indices)
Modal flexibility is a widely accepted
method to examine the health state of
a structure in structural health
monitoring (SHM). It is one of the
VBDD methods which incorporates
natural frequencies and mode shape
vectors of a structure. The modal flex-
ibility of a structure converges rapidly
with increasing frequency and there-
fore it can be obtained from only few
lower frequency modes.6 Another
advantage of this method is that it
does not require any analytical model
of a structure to estimate the flexibil-
ity matrix and it can be done using
only the experimental data (data from
experimental modal analysis can be
used directly in computing the MF)
collected from the structure.6 This
method is hence widely used in SHM
applications due to its accuracy, con-
venient computation and ease of
application.7 Derivation of the flexibil-
ity matrix is as follows.8
The governing equation for the free
vibration of the structure in the
absence of damping is given by:
302 Scientific Paper
€ g + ½K fug = 0
½M fu ð1Þ particular to measure the rotational
coordinates of torsional and coupled
Assuming modes practically. This paper there-
fore, proposes two damage indices,
fug = fϕg sin ðωt + αÞ ð2Þ which are derived by decomposing the
MF of a structure into two parts. One
And substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1),
index is based on the structure’s verti-
it becomes
cal components of mode shapes and

 the other is based on its lateral compo-
½K ½;− ω2 ½M ½; = 0 ð3Þ
nents of mode shapes. Equation (11) is
Multiplying Eq. (3) by [Φ]T which is hence rewritten as Eqs. (12) and (13)
the transpose of [Φ] to accommodate the component-spe-

 cific DIs, where the subscripts V and
½;T ½K ½;− ω2 ½;T ½M ½; = 0 ð4Þ L denote the vertical and lateral com-
ponents of mode shapes, respectively.
For normalized eigenvectors, the
orthogonality condition is given by X
m X
m
½FDV − ½FHV 
½;T ½M ½; = ½I  ð5Þ DIV = i=1 i=1
ð12Þ
X
m
Substituting Eq. (5) in to Eq. (4) ½FHV 
i=1


½;T ½K ½;− ω2 ½I  = 0 ð6Þ X
m X
m
  ½FDL − ½FHL 
1
½; − 1 ½K  − 1 ½; − T = 2 ½I  ð7Þ DIL = i=1
X
i=1
ð13Þ
ω m
  ½FHL 
1
½K  − 1 = ½; 2 ½;
T i=1
ð8Þ
ω
The mass moving in each direction for
  X N each mode (MPF) varies for different
1 1
½F  = ½; 2 ½;T = ; ;T
2 i i
ð9Þ vibration modes in cable structures. A
ω i=1
ω
high value of MPF in a direction speci-
fies that the mode will be excited in that
In the above equation, [M] is the mass
matrix, [ϕ] is the mass normalized direction. The DI based on the compo-
mode shape vector, [F] modal flexibil- nent in whose direction there is more
ity matrix, [K] stiffness mass contribution of a mode will predict

matrix, {u} dis- damage more accurately. It is hence
placement vector, ω12 reciprocal of
worthwhile to make effective use of
the square of natural frequencies and
MPFs to select the most appropriate DI
N the number of degrees of freedom.
to detect and locate damage in cable
The simplest form of change in flexi-
structures. MPF (γ i) is defined in the FE
bility between intact and damaged
analysis software used in this study as;9
states of a structure is given by:
Δ½F  = ½F D  − ½F H  ð10Þ γ i = f;gTi ½MfDg ð14Þ
where the subscripts D and H denote where, {D} is an assumed unit displace-
the damaged and intact states of the ment spectrum in each of the global
structure respectively. DI derived from Cartesian directions and rotation about
the change in flexibility considering the each axis. Two case studies are used to
first mode to mth mode is given by: demonstrate the effective use of DIs to
detect and locate damage in cables
X
m X
m
considering MPFs. The simplest form
½FDT − ½FHT 
of a cable structure (suspended cable)
i=1 i=1
DIT = ð11Þ was selected for case study 1 while the
X
m
½FHT  main cable in a suspension bridge was
i=1 considered in case study 2.
The most common form of damage in
where i (i = 1, 2, 3 …m) is the mode
cables is corrosion and in some situa-
number considered and subscript T
tions corrosion up to 30% reduction
denotes the total component of the
of diameter was observed in bridge
mode shape.
cables.10 Corrosion of a cable can
In general, cable structures exhibit result in a reduction of its cross sec-
complex vibration modes. It is very dif- tional area which will lead to a reduc-
ficult to identify damage sensitive tion in the stiffness at the corroded
modes in those structures and in location of the cable. Stiffness of an
Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016
axially loaded member such as a cable
depends on its area of cross-section
A, Young’s modulus E and length L,
i.e. axial stiffness = AE/L. In com-
puter simulations stiffness change
can be represented by either a
change in A or a change in E. In
this paper, the stiffness change was
considered as a change of Young’s
Modulus for the damage simulation
purposes.
Case Study 1
In this case study, the main span
cable of the Tsing Ma Suspension
Bridge (1997) is simulated numeri-
cally. The geometric and mechanical
properties of the cable were
obtained from Refs [11,12]. The
main span length and the cable sag
are 1397.8 and 112.5 m, respectively.
Other parameters of the cable are
modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa,
horizontal component of the tension
force Hs = 122.64 MN, mass per unit
length m = 5832 kg/m and cross-sec-
tional area A = 0.759 m2.
As this is a large diameter sagged
cable, flexural rigidity was taken into
account by simulating it using BEAM
188 elements. Also this element type
includes a stress stiffness term which
is supported for large deflection
effects in cables. It was considered as
pinned at two ends placed at the same
vertical elevation. Displacements at
the ends were therefore fixed in all
three directions, and rotations were
released. The cable was divided into
100 elements each of which was
13.978 m long in the analysis. In order
to consider the geometric non-linear-
ity of cables, the analysis was con-
ducted in two steps. First the non-
linear static analysis under self-weight
was performed and the subsequent
modal analysis was conducted using
the last solution obtained at the end
12
Mode no. Measured Hz
1 (Lateral) 0.0530
2 (Vertical) 0.1020
3 (Lateral) 0.1050
4 (Vertical) 0.1430
5 (Lateral) 0.1560
6 (Vertical) 0.2070
Table 1: Comparison of first six frequencies of the main span cable of the Tsing Ma suspension bridge
Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016
of the static step (prestressed modal
analysis was conducted).
To validate the FE model, the numer-
ical results were compared with the
measured frequencies of the cable
from a series of ambient vibration
tests.11 These frequencies were meas-
ured during construction when the
cable had just been erected between
the two towers. Table 1 presents the
two sets of results. It is evident that
the percentage difference between the
FE results and the measured values is
less than 4.5%, confirming the accu-
racy of the FE model developed and
validating it for use in damage-detec-
tion studies. Further, Table 1 illus-
trates the MPFs of the cable in modal
analysis in the vertical and lateral
directions.
Damage Detection
Figure 1 represents the exact locations
of the damage in the cases considered
in this study. The FE model validated
previously is considered as the
undamaged baseline model. Four
damage cases were introduced in the
cable model to synthesize the various
damage scenarios. The maximum
severity of damage considered in this
study was 25% in single damage sce-
narios and 10% in multiple damage
scenarios that cause measurable
changes in the natural frequency of
the structure in reality. These values
pertain to moderate to low damage
severities.
In the discussion of results, damage
detection results of the component-spe-
cific DIs are presented and compared
with those from DIT. The component-
specific DIs namely: vertical damage
index and lateral damage index were cal-
culated by using the vertical and lateral
components of the first three vertical
and lateral vibration modes respectively.
Similarly, DIT was calculated using total
vibration displacement of the structure
FE analysis (Hz) ferror (%)
0.0535 −0.95
0.1030 −0.98
0.1067 −1.60
0.1490 −4.19
0.1601 −2.60
0.2100 −1.44
using the first four vibration modes.
Damage location is indicated with red
dotted lines in the plots of the DI curves
and the following abbreviations are used
in the presentation of the results.
DIV – Damage Index Vertical, calcu-
lated by using vertical components of
mode shapes
DIL – Damage Index Lateral, calcu-
lated by using lateral components of
mode shapes
DIT – Damage Index Total, calcu-
lated by using total of mode shapes
Table 2 shows the damage cases con-
sidered in the cable model in single
and multi-damage scenarios.
Single Damage Scenarios
Three damage cases were examined
to study the damage locating capabil-
ity of the component-specific DIs
comparing with that of DIT calculated
by using all the components of mode
shapes.
Damage Case 1 (DC 1)
The first damage case considered in
case study 1 is that in the middle of
the cable with a 25% stiffness reduc-
tion of the elements 50 and 51.
Numerical results from the plots of
DIV, DIL and DIT are shown in
Fig. 2a, b and c respectively. All dam-
age index curves reach their maxi-
mum values at the nodes of the
damaged location and detect the dam-
age successfully. However, a sudden
(or sharp) peak can be observed in
DIL at the damaged location and
enables the confirmation of the dam-
age location more accurately. The
other two graphs show gradual incre-
ment of the DI leading to a peak at
the middle of the cable. The results
confirm the accuracy of DIL in detect-
ing the damage in a suspended cable.
Furthermore, as evident from Table 1,
the higher MPF in the lateral direction
contributes to the accuracy of DIL.
Mass participation factor (γi)
Lateral direction Vertical direction
2.57E + 03 5.10E − 10
2.54E − 10 4.88E − 09
1.09E − 08 −9.89E − 12
4.13E − 14 1.81E + 02
−8.65E + 02 −1.91E − 14
−3.63E − 09 1.82E − 08
Scientific Paper 303
1 cable model with 25% stiffness reduc-
89 tion. The DIV shows two peaks indi-
25 cating false prediction at mid-span.
Y 50 and 51 However, plots of the DIL and DIT
demonstrate only a single peak, as in
X Fig. 4b and c and thereby accurately
predict the damage location.
F ig . 1: Cable structure with damaged elements

Severity of damage (% Multiple Damage Scenarios

Damage case Location stiffness reduction)
One damage case was examined to
Single damage scenario study the damage-locating capability
DC 1 Elements 50 and 51 25% of component-specific DIs under mul-
(X = 684.710–713.09 m) tiple damage scenarios and to com-
DC 2 Element 25 25% pare the outcomes with the prediction
(X = 332.41–346.36 m) of DIT calculated by using all the
components of mode shapes.
DC 3 Element 1 25%
(X = 0.00–13.797 m)
Multiple damage scenario Damage Case 4 (DC 4)
DC 4 Elements 25 and 89 10% In this multi-damage case, elements
(X = 332.41–346.36 m) 25 and 89 are subjected to 10% stiff-
and ness reductions in the cable model to
(X = 1245.9–1259.7 m)
simulate damage. The responses per-
Table 2: Damage cases considered in the cable model taining to DIV, DIL and DIT are pre-
sented in Fig. 5a–c, respectively. Both
Damage Case 2 (DC 2) DIT towards the middle. Considering DIV and DIT show three maximum
the three graphs, it can be concluded points (peaks) in the graph, of which
Figure 3a–c illustrates the DIs for the
that the use of DIL by incorporating lat- two represent the damage locations
second damage case with a 25% stiff-
eral components of vibration modes for and the other is a false alarm. The
ness reduction in element 25 of the detecting damage in suspended cable graph of the DIL has two sharp peaks
cable. The curve pertaining to DIV based on the MPF is a successful which correspond to the actual dam-
peaks not only at the damage location approach. Competency of the DIL in age locations considered in the simu-
but also at the mid-span of the cable. damage detection of the suspended lations. An analysis of the three
However, the DIL peaks at the exact cable is further evaluated through Dam- graphs identified that the lateral com-
damage location being considered (ele- age cases 3 and 4. ponents of mode shapes have better
ment 25). Further, in Fig. 3c the DIT damage-detection capability than ver-
curve shows a pattern somewhat similar Damage Case 3 (DC 3)
tical components of mode shapes
to that of DIv. It can be observed that The plots of the three DIs for damage where early modes show higher mass
in addition to the peak at the damage case 3 are shown in Fig. 4a–c. Damage participation in the lateral direction in
location, there is a gradual increase of case 3 is simulated in element 1 of the a suspended cable.
(a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
0.0020 0.0005

0.0015 0.0004
Damage index

Damage index

0.0010 0.0003

0.0002
0.0005
0.0001
0.0000
0 500 1000 1500 0
–0.0005 0 500 1000 1500
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

0.0006
0.0005
Damage index

0.0004
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
–0.0001 0 500 1000 1500
Distance along the cable (m)

F ig . 2: DC 1 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

304 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016

 (a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
0.0004 0.00030
0.0003 0.00025

Damage index

Damage index
0.0002 0.00020
0.00015
0.0001
0.00010
0 0.00005
0 500 1000 1500
–0.0001 0.00000
–0.0002 –0.00005 0 500 1000 1500

Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

0.00045

0.00035
Damage index
0.00025

0.00015

0.00005
0 500 1000 1500
–0.00005
Distance along the cable (m)

Fig. 3: DC 2 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

(a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral

0.0015 0.20

0.15
Damage index
0.0010
Damage index

0.10
0.0005
0.05
0 0
0 500 1000 1500
0 500 1000 1500
–0.0005 0.05
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

0.045

0.035
Damage index

0.025

0.015

0.005

–0.005 0 500 1000 1500

Distance along the cable (m)

Fig. 4: DC 3 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

It is clearly evident that the DIL calcu- structure is considered in case study blocks on either river banks. The maxi-
lated based on the lateral components 2 in order to test the capability of the mum cable sag and the tower height of
of mode shapes is capable of detecting component-specific DIs, based on the bridge are 10.5 and 10.2 m, respec-
and locating damage in all the damage MPF to detect and locate the damage. tively. The main cables consist of six
cases considered. This is due to more Towards this end, a 3D FE model of individual 96 wire locked coil strands
mass (modal mass) being distributed in the Ölfusá Bridge in Iceland (1945), in each cable plane 9.3 m apart with
the lateral direction of the mode shapes (as shown in Fig. 7) is developed and cross-section 0.0131 m2. The cable
of a suspended cable as indicated by validated using measured modal prop- anchoring is not symmetric (Fig. 6).
the higher MPFs. The use of this dam- erties. All the geometric features of
The concrete bridge deck of width
age index, selected based on the MPFs, the bridge for FE modelling and
8.7 m is suspended from the main
also enables to reduce the false alarms. measured vibration data for validation
cables by 20 circular solid steel hang-
were obtained from the literature.14,15
ers of diameter 50.8 mm on each side
Case Study 2 The Ölfusá Bridge is a suspension with 4 m intervals. The Ölfusá Bridge
bridge with a concrete deck supported comprises of a very massive steel stiff-
Suspension bridges exhibit complex and stiffened by a steel truss. Total ening girder (Fig. 7), which has trusses
vibration modes with lateral, vertical, length of the bridge is 132 m of which in longitudinal and transverse direc-
torsional and coupled modes.13 The the 84 m main span is suspended by tions. This stiffening girder includes
main cable in a suspension bridge cables which are anchored in concrete three longitudinal trusses consisting of

Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016 Scientific Paper 305

 (a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
0.0004 0.00020

0.0003 0.00015

Damage index
Damage index
0.0002
0.00010
0.0001
0.00005
0
0 500 1000 1500
–0.0001 0.00000
0 500 1000 1500
–0.0002 –0.00005
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

0.00030
0.00025
0.00020
Damage index

0.00015
0.00010
0.00005
0.00000
0 500 1000 1500
–0.00005
Distance along the cable (m)

F ig . 5: DC 4 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

South tower North tower The pylon section was constructed by

concrete filled in between two I-girder
Sag sections which are connected by steel
10.5 m
plates. This is considered as a compos-
ite section and equivalent section
properties were calculated and used
25 m 84 m 18.5 m in the numerical simulation. The
section properties of the steel stiffen-
15
F ig . 6: Schematic diagram of the Ölfusá Bridge ing girder and deck used in the
numerical simulation are similar to
those mentioned in the literature.14,15
The structural elements of the stiffen-
ing girder are modelled with different
cross-sections and member offset has
been considered for the deck ele-
ments to represent the correct eleva-
tion of the deck and longitudinal
I-beams. In order to model the cor-
rect configuration of the longitudinal
I-beams placed on transverse truss,
member offsets are introduced again
to the longitudinal I-beams.
F ig . 7: The Ölfusá Bridge16 In each cable plane, the main cables
are composed of six individual locked
two primary longitudinal vertical and are presented in Table 3. All the coil strands which are modelled as sin-
trusses and a wind stiffening truss elements of the bridge were simulated gle cable in the FE model. As anchor
which connects at the bottom of the by BEAM 188 elements with the blocks are not modelled, fixed supports
primary trusses. Further, the stiffening exception of the deck which was simu- with no rotation and no translations
girder of the bridge consists of a total lated using SHELL181 elements. are assigned at the ends of the main
of 22 transverse trusses positioned
4 m apart of which 20 are located
across the span. Pylons of the bridge Young’s modulus
have a height of 10.2 m and are made Material Density (kg/m3) E (GPa) ν
from I-beams riveted together by steel Steel cables 8000 135 0.3
plates and filled with concrete. Hinged
connection at the base of the pylons Steel hangers 8000 135 0.3
enables rotation about the transverse Pylon steel 8000 210 0.3
direction of the bridge. Concrete fill in pylon 2500 32 0.2
The 3D FE model of the Ölfusá Bridge deck concrete 2500 32 0.2
Bridge was simulated and all the mate-
Steel used in truss 9000 210 0.3
rial properties primarily used in the
simulation are as in the literature14,15 Table 3: Material properties

306 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016

cables. In the FE model, cables are
considered as fixed over pylon saddles.
As the transverse trusses at both ends
of the bridge are hinged,15 rotations
about the transverse and longitudinal
axes have been allowed in the simula-
tions. As mentioned before, the bridge
pylons are hinged at the base and are
free to rotate about the transverse
direction of the bridge. Similar condi-
tion is simulated in the FE model by
assigning no translation at the base of
the pylons and releasing rotation only
about the transverse direction.
The weights due to the non-structural
elements such as parapets, gondola
beams and pipe lines under the bridge
are considered as provided in Ref.
[15]. These are included in the FE
model as a form of applied loading.
A prestressed modal analysis was first
conducted to obtain the vibration
parameters. In prestressed modal
analysis, initially, a non-linear static
analysis with large deflection was con-
ducted in order to obtain the stress
stiffening matrix caused by the inter-
nal forces due to the dead loads acting
on the bridge. This is followed by the
modal analysis performed on the basis
of the deformed equilibrium configu-
ration of the bridge to obtain the nat-
ural frequencies and mode shapes.
Natural frequencies obtained from the
FE model of the bridge and those
obtained from field measurements15
of the Ölfusá Bridge are compared to
validate the FE model. Field measure-
ments of the bridge were conducted
by the Technical University of Den-
mark, the University of Iceland,
EFLA engineering Organization and
the Icelandic Road Administration.
High precision tri-axial and uni-axial
accelerometers were used in the field
measurements and these ensured the
accuracy of measurements. Model
updating was conducted manually to
alter the structural parameters of the
Mode Measured Hz
First vertical 1.078
symmetric
Horizontal 1.588
symmetric
First vertical anti- 1.705
symmetric
First torsion 2.090
Second torsion 2.793
Table 4: Comparison of the natural frequencies of the Ölfusá Bridge
Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016
FE model such that the differences
between the natural frequencies
obtained from the field testing and
from the FE model were minimised.
Table 4 lists the two sets of natural
frequencies obtained from the field
measurements, and those obtained in-
form the updated FE model in the
current study. From the results, it can
be observed that the calculated (ferror)
error in each mode is <1.5% except
the first torsional mode where there is
an error of 12.5%. An error of a simi-
lar magnitude (11.0%) was observed
in the first torsional mode of the FE
model, updated using the automatic
algorithm from a previous study.15
In the field testing, only the deck
vibration was measured and hence
some of the modes dominated by
cable modes in the FE model were
not used in the validation. The cable
dominated modes in the FE model
were the mode 5 to mode 8. With the
availability of limited amount of the
bridge data, it can be concluded that
the results from the FE model devel-
oped in this study demonstrate a good
correlation with the field measured
vibration data of the Ölfusá Bridge.
Table 4 illustrates the MPF in lateral
and vertical directions of the bridge in
modal analysis. The validated FE
model therefore provides the base
line model for VBDD applications,
which is presented in the next section.
Damage Detection
This section presents the damage
detection in the cables of the Ölfusá
suspension bridge using the modal
flexibility based DIs defined previously
(DIV, DIL and DIT). Natural frequen-
cies and both vertical and lateral com-
ponents and total components of the
first four mode shapes were extracted
from the FE analysis in both damaged
and undamaged state of the bridge. In
single damage scenarios, 20% stiffness
FE analysis Hz ferror (%)
1.071 0.65
1.608 −1.26
1.713 −0.47
2.352 −12.54
2.831 −1.36
reduction at the mid span, quarter
span and near the support of the cable
were considered, while 15 and 30%
stiffness reductions in two different
locations in the cable were considered
to cater for multiple damage scenarios.
Table 5 below give the details of the
locations of the damage cases consid-
ered in this study. Figure 8 illustrates
the x direction measured along the
span of the bridge and locations of
damage considered. DIs are plotted
along the cable and the damage loca-
tions are indicated with vertical red
dotted lines.
Single Damage Scenarios
Three damage cases were examined
in the upstream cable of the bridge to
study the damage locating capability
of the three DIs defined previously.
Notations similar to those in case
study 1 are used to present and dis-
cuss the damage detection results.
Damage Case 1 (DC 1)
The first damage case studied is that
in the middle of the upstream cable
with 20% stiffness reduction. Numeri-
cal results of the damage indices
(a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT are
shown in Fig. 9. Only the DIV curve
accurately predicts the correct damage
location in the upstream cable without
any changes to the downstream cable
(Fig. 9a). However, the other two DI
(Fig. 9b and c) curves corresponding
to the upstream cable show incorrect
predictions. The curves corresponding
to the downstream cable show very
small variation. The results from the
modal analysis in Table 4 show that
the higher MPF is in the vertical
direction of the suspension bridge and
hence DIV, the DI in that direction
gives the correct results. It is hence evi-
dent that MPF is a good parameter to
select the most suitable component-spe-
cific DI to detect damage in structural
Mass participation factor (γi)
Lateral direction Vertical direction
8.5 687.9
527.1 18.2
0.3 0.4
−416.6 22.7
0.8 −0.2
Scientific Paper 307
 Severity of damage (% cables. This will be further elaborated in
Damage case Location stiffness reduction) the next few damage cases studied in
this paper.
Single damage scenario
DC 1 Upstream cable 20% Damage Case 2 (DC 2)
(X = 40–44 m)
Figure 10 illustrates the plots of all
DC 2 Upstream cable 20% three DIs for the second damage case
(X = 64–68 m) with a 20% stiffness reduction at the
DC 3 Upstream cable 20% quarter span of the upstream cable.
(X = 80–84 m) The curves in Fig. 10a show that DIV
Multiple damage scenario peaks at the exact damage location in
the upstream cable while no signifi-
DC 4 Damage at two locations of cant change in DIV is observed for the
upstream cable downstream cable. However, the DIL
(X = 40–44 m) 30%
and DIT curves in Fig. 10b and c show
and
unreliable and incorrect results. Based
(X = 64–68 m) 15%
on these results, it is again evident
DC 5 Damage at two locations of that DIV calculated by incorporating
upstream cable the vertical components of mode
(X = 16–20 m) 30% shapes, based on their higher MPF,
and enables successful damage detection
(X = 64–68 m) 15% in the suspension cable of this bridge.
DC 6 Damage at two locations of
upstream cable Damage Case 3 (DC 3)
(X = 16–20 m) 30%
The plots of the three DIs for damage
and
case 3 are shown in Fig. 11a–c. Damage
(X = 80–84 m) 15%
case 3 is simulated near the support in
Table 5: Single damage scenarios the upstream cable with 20% stiffness
reduction. The DIV detects the damage
South tower North tower with higher accuracy. The other two
DIs however show inconclusive results.
Considering all the single damage
cases that were examined, it can be
confirmed that DIV calculated using
Y
the vertical components of the mode
shapes of the suspension bridge struc-
X
ture, which have higher MPF, has the
F ig . 8: Direction notations ability to detect and locate damage

(a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral

Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.0035 0.0500
0.0030 0.0400
0.0025
Damage index

Damage index

0.0300
0.0020
0.0200
0.0015
0.0100
0.0010
0.0005 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 –0.0100
0 20 40 60 80 100
–0.0005 –0.0200
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.035

0.025
Damage index

0.015

0.005

–0.005 0 20 40 60 80 100

–0.015
Distance along the cable (m)

F ig . 9: DC 1 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

308 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016

 (a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.004 0.060
0.003 0.050
0.003 0.040

Damage index

Damage index
0.002 0.030
0.020
0.002
0.010
0.001 0.000
0.001 –0.010 0 20 40 60 80 100
0.000 –0.020
0 20 40 60 80 100
–0.001 –0.030
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.0400
0.0300
Damage index
0.0200
0.0100
0.0000
0 20 40 60 80 100
–0.0100
–0.0200
Distance along the cable (m)

Fig. 10: DC 2 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

(a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral

Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.080 0.140
0.120
0.060 0.100
Damage index
Damage index

0.080
0.040
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.020
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 –0.020 0 20 40 60 80 100
–0.020 –0.040
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.15

0.10
Damage index

0.05

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

–0.05
Distance along the cable (m)

Fig. 11: DC 3 – Damage indices (a) DIDIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

more accurately. The other two DIs, Damage Case 4 (DC 4) significant indication of the damage
DIL and DIT give either unreliable or locations considered. These results
Damage case 4 is set up to study the
inconclusive results. This confirms that indicate that DIV alone has the ability
damage locating capability of DIs in
the selection of the correct DI based to detect damage in suspension bridge
multiple damage locations. In this
on the MPF in the vibration modes of cables under this multiple damage sce-
case, two locations are subjected to
the cable structure enables successful nario. Further, it confirms the effi-
a 30 and 15% stiffness reductions in
damage detection in that structure. ciency of using the MPF to choose the
the upstream cable in the FE model
correct DI.
to simulate damage. The behaviour
Multiple Damage Scenarios
of the DIV, DIL and DIT are illus-
Damage Case 5 (DC 5)
Three damage cases were examined trated in Fig. 12a, b and c respectively.
to study the damage locating capabil- The DIV shows two peaks in the Figure 13 illustrates curves corre-
ity of the DIs calculated using vertical, upstream cable at the damage loca- sponding to three DIs for the next
lateral and total components of the tions considered. The DIL and DIT multiple damage case with 30% and
mode shapes. curves of the upstream cable have no 15% stiffness reductions in two

Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016 Scientific Paper 309

 (a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.008 0.120
0.007 0.100
0.006 0.080
Damage index

Damage index
0.005 0.060
0.004 0.040
0.003 0.020
0.002 0.000
0.001 –0.020 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.000 –0.040
–0.001 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.060
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.08

0.06
Damage index

0.04

0.02

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.02

–0.04
Distance along the cable (m)

F ig . 1 2 : DC 4 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

(a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral

Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.008 0.140

0.006
0.090
Damage index
Damage index

0.004
0.040
0.002
–0.010 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.002 –0.060
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.10
0.08
Damage index

0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.02
–0.04
Distance along the cable (m)

F ig . 1 3 : DC 5 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

locations in the quarter span of the Damage Case 6 (DC 6) capability compared with the DIL and
upstream cable. The curve (Fig. 13a) DIT. Through these five damage cases
The last damage case studied under
related to the DIV peaks at the exact analysed in case study 2, it is evident
the multiple damage scenarios per-
damage locations being considered at that effective use of the MPF enables
tains to 30 and 15% stiffness reduc-
the upstream cable and no significant successful damage detection in the
tions in the quarter span and near the
changes to the DIV in the downstream cable structure.
support in the upstream cable. Results
cable. There are however no indications for all three DIs are shown in Fig. 14.
of damage locations in the upstream Once again, they verify that only DIV Conclusion
cable in the plots of DIL and DIT. Based is competent to detect and locate
on the examination of the three damage in the main cables of a sus- Advances in structural engineering
graphs, it is evident that incorporat- pension bridge structure for this dam- and material technology have resulted
ing vertical components of the mode age scenario. In a suspension bridge, in increasing applications of cables as
shapes for detecting damage in the modal mass is mainly distributed in key structural components in cable-
main cable of a suspension bridge is the vertical direction. Therefore, the supported structures. Damage in these
a successful approach. DIV displays better damage detection cables needs to be detected at their

310 Scientific Paper Structural Engineering International Nr. 4/2016

 (a) Damage index-vertical (b) Damage index-lateral
Upstream cable Downstream cable Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.050 0.200
0.040 0.150

Damage index
Damage index
0.030 0.100
0.020 0.050

0.010 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 –0.050
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.010 –0.100
Distance along the cable (m) Distance along the cable (m)

(c) Damage index-total

Upstream cable Downstream cable
0.12
0.10
0.08
Damage index 0.06
0.04
0.02
0
–0.02 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
–0.04
–0.06
Distance along the cable (m)

Fig. 14: DC 6 – Damage indices (a) DIV, (b) DIL and (c) DIT

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Damage Assessment in Structures Using Vibration
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