ADVANCED NUMERICAL METHODS FOR INVESTIGATION OF

ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES

Risto V. Filkoski *, Lidija Joleska Bureska **, Ilija J. Petrovski *

*University „Sts Cyril and Methodius”, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Karpoš II, P.O.Box 464, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
**REK “”Bitola”, Novacki pat, Bitola 7000-MK, Republic of Macedonia **

Abstract: Modelling of fossil fuel utility boilers has reached a remarkable development in recent
years. Particularly, the application of CFD technology and other advanced mathematical methods
offer opportunities for analysis, optimisation and options examination in order to increase the
overall efficiency of the energy facilities. The paper considers the effect of air redistribution on the
flow field, combustion efficiency and temperature profiles, with implementation of lower air ports
in a boiler furnace. The overall framework and the initial computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
analysis of the aerodynamic behaviour of the gas-solids mixture, combustion efficiency,
temperature profiles and gas concentrations is described. The numerical results obtained with CFD
modelling technique are compared with a measurements test matrix of various operating conditions.
The main parameters that were changed are air quantity distribution, boiler load and burners load.
Although this is just an initial research phase, comparisons of numerically obtained and measured
temperature profiles are encouraging. The data regarding the near-burner regions showed evidence
of intensified swirl and increased combustion efficiency, as under-fire air quantity was increased.

Key words: utility boiler, coal combustion efficiency, staged air introduction, CFD, modelling

1. INTRODUCTION

Much attention is given nowadays to increasing the overall efficiency of the energy facilities and to
reducing the amount of harmful materials emitted into the atmosphere when burning fossil fuels.
This is particularly important in the cases when low quality fossil fuels are used, such as lignite.
Namely, despite the calls for larger utilisation of renewable energy sources, the role of coal is
crucial and, probably, its importance as energy resource is not going to be endangered significantly
in the coming decade. At the same time, the interest on performance optimisation of utility boilers
has become very relevant, aiming at extending their lifetime, increasing the overall efficiency and
reducing the emissions of pollutants, which is quite clear with the rising costs and increasing
demand for energy.
One of the ways to improve the overall operational efficiency of the pulverised coal-fired boilers is
reduction of the heat losses due to inefficient combustion, which is closely related with the
reduction of the emission of pollutants. The both tasks, energy efficiency increase and reduction of
air pollution, can be obtained with appropriate redistribution of the air inlet, including
implementation of over-fire-air system (OFA) and lower air-blow ports.
The mathematical modelling and numerical simulation have been widely accepted as low-cost,
efficient engineering tools for analysis and optimisation of combustion systems in recent years [1].
These tools considerably facilitate the investigation of the influence of various process and design
parameters, such as fuel characteristics (proximate and ultimate analysis, particle size distribution),
air and fuel inlet redistribution, overall furnace geometry (furnace shape, air and fuel distribution,
layout of air staging nozzles, recirculation holes), burner design, flame-wall interaction phenomena,
heat transfer degradation, slagging propensity etc. to the overall combustion efficiency and,
consequently, to the plant efficiency and the emission of pollutants. Advanced combustion models
and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques are extensively used to predict coal burnout
and heat transfer in large utility boilers. Modelling approach based on CFD codes can accurately
solve the aerodynamics equations involved in the problem, but this is usually achieved by including
relatively simple combustion models. Compared to a purely experimental approach, it offers
significant benefits: cost and time reduction, reproducibility of boundary conditions, as well as
detailed insight into the complex interacting physical phenomena determining the combustion
process. In this paper, the term “model” is used to describe specific mathematical models of certain
distinct physico-chemical processes. In addition, the term “comprehensive model” is used for the
composition of “models” of all individual processes in the furnace, while the term “numerical code”
describes the CFD code based on mathematical models.

2. MODELLING AND SIMULATION TECHNIQUES FOR FURNACE APPLICATIONS

A comprehensive historical review of the modelling approaches and techniques of pulverised coal
boilers is given in [2], pointing out very different standpoints and objectives. The traditional
approach of boiler manufacturers, that is essentially identical to the usual design practices of boilers
and furnaces of very different nature, is based on the use of relatively simple semi-empirical
models, developed in pilot plants or inferred from the practical experience.
Since the early 70s, more elaborated models for predicting heat transfer in furnaces started to
appear. A typical engineering calculation method is elaborated in [3]. In the same work, a plug-flow
method is described, aimed for simple furnace calculations, and known as zone method, The
method is based on division of the domain into a few amount of volume cells and it has been widely
used by researchers and engineers (for instance [4,5]). This was some kind of a predecessor of the
application of the popular Hottel zone method for radiative heat transfer, already available in
literature [6], but still not applied in the design of utility boilers, since it requires previously defined
reliable velocity field and combustion (heat release) patterns. The former soviet approach to the
furnace modelling is also expressed through the works of several other authors [7,8].
The adoption of the various forms of zone methods coincided and, in some extent (sense), was one
of the preconditions for development of CFD techniques, with all their advantages and
shortcomings. Nowadays researchers’ efforts are concentrated in two general directions: (1) to
improve the fundamental models of the complex phenomena that occur in the combustion systems
and (2) to adopt some simplifications in order to make possible the extrapolation of research results
to industrial applications.
The permanent progress in computers capability over the last two decades has enabled development
and application of massive mathematical models of turbulent flows, heat transfer and combustion in
the furnaces and extensive use of CFD techniques, with quite satisfactory results [9-14]. Three-
dimensional comprehensive models of industrial-scale furnaces have been developed and
successfully applied for years now [9-21]. There are also combinations of original models of
separate processes and existing computational codes [22,23]. However, there is still an area for
further improvements, having as a subject a detailed mathematical description of physical and
chemical processes in certain specific conditions. Numerical codes describing the processes in coal-
fired boilers, based on solution of differential conservation equations, have been a subject of many
investigations [10,15-21]. While some consider numerical aspects [17] or aerodynamics [21] in
small-scale furnace isothermal models, others present comprehensive combustion models of large-
scale furnaces. The majority of the models use variations of the SIMPLE algorithm for coupling the
continuity and momentum equations. Despite some weaknesses, the k-ε turbulence model, or some
derivatives, like RNG k-ε model [10], or k-ε-kp two-phase turbulence model [19], are often used in
combustion systems. Gas phase conservation equations are mostly time-averaged, but some prefer
the Favre-averaged equations instead [16]. Two-phase flow is usually described by Eulerian-
Lagrangian approach and PSI-CELL method for taking into account the influences between phases,
with some exceptions using Eulerian-Eulerian approach, or two-fluid trajectory model [19]. Most of
the combustion sub-models given in [10,15,16,18-20] separately treat particle devolatilisation, char
oxidation and additional gas phase reactions. Thermal radiation in the furnace is modelled by means
of various approaches, like discrete transfer method [15], discrete ordinates method [16,19,20], six-
fluxes method [18], Monte Carlo method [10], or so called P-1 model, like the model used in the
paper. In general, it should be pointed out that a comprehensive model of the furnace processes
must balance sub-models sophistication with computational practicality.
Similar numerical modelling approach regarding the mathematical models of certain distinct
physico-chemical processes to the work presented here is used in the papers [24,25].

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMULATION CASE

3.1. Object geometry and meshing
The modelling technique described in this paper has been validated against data acquired from the
Bitola Thermal Power Plant, unit 2, owned by the utility company ELEM. The power plant is
located in the southern part of Macedonia, in Pelagonia plain and, with its three units with
individual capacity of 225 MW, provides an average annual generation of 4.34 million MWh
electricity, covering huge share of the electricity demand in the country. There are three boiler units
of Ramzine type [26], designated as Pp-670-140, but known as P-65, each one with capacity of
194.4 kg/s and average gross efficiency of about 85 %, designed for a steam cycle with 545oC, 135
bar and feed water temperature 250oC. The boilers are designed to operate with low quality lignite,
with lower calorific value in a range 6180-8100 kJ/kg (as received), characterised with high
moisture content (up to 50 %) and with ash content between 12 and 20 %. Coal proximate and
ultimate analyses are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Lignite properties

Proximate analysis With total moisture With analytical Dry basis
moisture
Char, % 28.97 51.99 57.72
Fixed carbon, % 14.76 26.48 29.40
Volatiles, % 21.22 38.08 42.28
Ash, % 14.21 25.51 28.32
Moisture, % 49.81 9.93 -
Sulphure (total), % 0.56 1.00 1.11
Combustibles, % 35.98 64.56 71.68

Ultimate analysis With total moisture With analytical Dry basis

moisture
C, % 23.33 41.86 46.48
H, % 2.15 3.85 4.28
S (combustible), % 0.13 0.23 0.26
O+N, % 10.37 18.62 20.66

The boiler layout is illustrated in Fig.1. The furnace intersection is octagonal, with 24 conventional
burners located on six walls at two elevations. In the time of tests that are used in this work the
lower calorific value of the fuel was 6200-7600 kJ/kg.
 1 – Furnace hopper; 2 – Lower radiation part;
3, 4 - Middle radiation part; 5 – Upper
radiation part I; 6 - Tube walls in the upper
radiation part II; 7 – Superheater; 8, 9 –
Convective superheaters; 10 – Transition
zone; 11, 12 – Economisers; 13 – Heat
exchanger ”steam-steam”; 14 – Recirculation
openings; 15 – Lower air inlet nozzles

Fig. 1. A schematic representation of the utility boiler Pp-670-140 GOST 3619-76 (P-65) - layout
and horizontal intersection showing the burners’ disposition

The simulations have been performed on the basis of commercial CFD code adapted for pulverised
coal industrial and utility scale boiler furnaces. Geometry outline of the calculation domain and the
numerical mesh are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Geometry outline and the numerical mesh

Particular attention has been paid to the grid design to reduce numerical error as much as possible.
In this case, there are totally 637950 tetrahedral cells in the domain. According to the previous
experiences with simulations of other boiler furnaces with comparable domain dimensions and
complexity, the grid is fine enough to give grid-independent solutions, showing satisfactory
convergence and accuracy and, at the same time, to meet the restrictions in computational time [27].

3.2. Description of the mathematical model

A furnace of a steam boiler with pulverised coal combustion, as an object for numerical modelling,
is characterised with a weakly-compressible particle-laden flow, reactions and heat transfer
phenomena occurring in this turbulent flow. The most important physical and chemical processes
which have to be covered by the model are the turbulent two-phase flow of gas and suspended
particles, the devolatilisation of the coal, the chemical reactions of the released species, the burnout
of the char particles and the heat transfer governed by thermal radiation. Accordingly, the
comprehensive boiler furnace model consists of three main interacting parts: the flow model for the
turbulent two-phase flow, the reaction model for the homogenous and heterogeneous combustion
reactions, and the heat transfer model with emphasize on the thermal radiation as the most
important mechanism.
Aerodynamic processes in the boiler furnaces are very important for overall proper operation of the
energy facilities. One of the possibilities for improvement of the energy efficiency of the pulverised
coal-fired boilers is reduction of the heat loss due to inefficient combustion. The quantity of the fuel
falls down through the furnace hopper and, consequently, doesn’t participate in the combustion
process, can be reduced by appropriate redistribution of the air introduction. This work was
concentrated on an analysis of the changes of temperature field and combustion efficiency increase
with a design change in the lower part of the furnace, by adding a number of air inlet nozzles, so
that a part of the total air quantity is introduced through them (Figures 1 and 2). As a consequence,
the local flow field is changed, additional swirls are created and part of the combustible particles is
entrained by the lower air flow to the upper furnace regions, enabling them to undergo complete
combustion. This case study is a typical example where the CFD modelling can give much clearer
insight into the furnace processes before and after the design modification.
The recirculation openings are taken into account in the CFD simulations. The pressure outlet
boundary conditions are used in the respective regions. Pressure outlet boundary is specified also
for the furnace exit. The value for emissivity in both cases is set as 1.0.
The fact that the smallest lengths in combusting turbulent fluid flows are in the magnitude order of
several milimeters, compared to the huge dimensions of utility boiler furnaces, with heights of tens
of metres, make it necessary to discretise the solution domain using control volumes with
dimensions of the order of some milimeters in all directions. Considering the time available and the
computer resources, this is not feasible. Also, in most cases, the time-averaged mean value of the
flow situation is of primary interest, and consequently, turbulence models are used as a remedy for
this problem. For the sake of computational performance, the simple k-ε turbulence model is
applied in majority of applications, although some predictive quality is sacrificed. Due to the
assumptions of prevailing isotropic turbulence, this relatively crude model exhibits some
weaknesses when applied to flows with strong streamline curvature, as in the near-burner area of
swirl burners. Also, often significant recirculation regions appear in boiler furnaces, especially near
the corners. The standard k-ε model is known to exhibit significant predicaments in accurately
describing such phenomena. Therefore, the standard k-ω turbulence model is employed in this case
as a reasonable compromise. As the k-ω model has been modified over the years, production terms
have been added to both the k and ω equations, which have improved the accuracy of the model for
predicting free shear flows. The following values of the constants are used in the transport
equations: α∞∗=1, α∞ =0.52, α0 =1/9, β∞∗ =0.09, βi =0.072, Rβ =8, Rk =6, Rω =2.95, ζ*=1.5, Mt0 =0.25,
σk=2.0 and σω=2.0. Coupling of velocity and pressure is achieved by the SIMPLEC algorithm.
A pulverised coal combustion simulation involves modelling a continuous gas phase flow field and
its interaction with a discrete phase of coal particles. The particles, traveling through the gas,
devolatilise and undergo char combustion, creating sources of fuel for reaction in the gas phase. In
this work, species and chemical reactions are modelled using the mixture fraction / probability
density fraction (PDF) approach and the full equilibrium chemistry, where the turbulence-chemistry
interaction is modelled using a double-delta PDF. It is assumed that the two-streams PDF mixture
consists of 20 volumetric species. The equilibrium chemistry model assumes that the chemistry is
rapid, so that chemical equilibrium always exist at the molecular level. An algorithm based on the
minimization of Gibbs free energy [28] is used to compute species mole fractions. The equilibrium
model is useful, since it can predict the formation of intermediate species and it does not require
knowledge of detailed chemical kinetic rate data. Instead of defining a specific multi-step reaction
mechanism, it needs simply to define the important chemical species that will be present in the
system. The CFD software then predicts the mole fraction of each species based on chemical
equilibrium.
Regarding the aerodynamics near the walls, it is assumed that the particle-to-wall collisions occur
with certain elasticity. This is defined by setting reflecting boundary condition type, with constant
discrete phase reflection coefficients - normal and tangent. The polydisperse coal particle size
distribution is assumed to fit the Rosin-Rammler equation. The particle trajectory data, coal
devolatilisation and combustion parameters used in the model are given in Tables 2 and 3. Because
of the lack of coal characterisation data regarding the combustion kinetics for the Bitola lignite, data
obtained for other Balkan lignites with similar composition and characteristics are used.

Table 2. Coal particle trajectory data

Parameter Value
Number of particle stream start locations 24
Maximum number of steps in each trajectory 800
Length scale 0.1 m
Number of particle diameters 8

Table 3. Coal combustion parameters

a) Coal devolatilisation data b) Combusting particles properties
Devolatilisation model – two competing rates Density 1250 kg/m3
1) First rate Specific heat capacity – polynomial profile
- pre-exponential factor 2.0·105 s-1 Thermal conductivity 0.045 W/mK
- activation energy 7.50·107 J/kmol Mass diffusion limited rate constant 4.5⋅10-12
- weighting factor 0.3 Kinetic rate pre-exponential factor 0.002
2) Second rate Activation energy 7.5⋅107 J/kmol
- pre-exponential factor 1.3·107 s-1
- activation energy 1.45·108 J/kmol
- weighting factor 1.0

3.3. Thermal radiation modelling

The radiative energy transfer in a grey absorbing and emitting medium is considered using the
simplified P-N differential approximation, known as P-1 model [29,30]. This model has several
advantages over other radiation models, treating the radiative transfer equation as an easy-to-solve
diffusion equation. Also, it is relatively simple, it can be easily applied to complicated geometries
and it works reasonably well for combustion applications where the optical thickness is large. The
particle emissivity, reflectivity and scattering are effectively included in the calculation of the
radiation heat transfer. The utilised values of the particles thermal radiation characteristics:
emissivity, reflectivity and anisotropic scattering, are derived as approximations of data from various
sources [31,32].

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Some results of the numerical simulations of processes and operational situations in Thermal Power
Plant ”Bitola” unit 2 utility boiler furnace are presented in this section. The total number of test
cases used for validation was 12, covering operating modes between 70 and 100 % of the boiler full
load. The operating conditions of several typical cases are summarised in Tab. 4.
Some typical results of the provided numerical simulations are presented in the following figures.
Velocity vectors in the central vertical intersection of the furnace are shown in Fig. 3a and the flow
field in the lower part of the furnace, represented through the velocity vectors, is presented in Fig.
3b. Examples of traces of groups of particles released from the burners group assigned as B1 (Fig.
1) in the cases with (a) and without (b) lower air introduction are presented in Fig. 4, showing
obvious reduction of the number of particles that fall through the hopper hole.

Table 4. Typical operating conditions of the boiler

Variable Unit Test 1 Test 5 Test 6 Test 10
Unit electrical output MWel 218 215 200 219
Feed water flow kg/s 195.3 194.2 178 195
o
Feed water temperature C 250 250 245 250
Primary steam flow kg/s 193.6 193.9 175 193.3
o
Primary steam temperature C 539 540 537 537
Primary steam pressure bar 134 133 133 135
Fuel lower calorific value kJ/kg 7528 6557 6490 7227
Fuel consumption t/h 304.5 352.7 327.4 318.
Boiler gross efficiency % 85.3 83.0 83.4 84.6
Total air flow mn3/s 230 268 270 260
Ratio of the lower air to total air flow - 0.15 0.06 0.11 0.12

a) b)
Fig. 3. Velocity vectors in the central vertical cross-section

a) b)
Fig. 4. Traces of groups of particles released from the group of burners B1: a) case with lower air
introduction; b) case without lower air introduction
Simulation results of typical temperature distribution in the central vertical intersection of the
computational domain at 97 % load are presented in Fig. 5 (temperature in oC). The plots highlight
the flame shape and furnace high temperature regions outside the near-burner-flame boundaries.

Fig. 5. Temperature contours (in oC)

Figure 6 illustrates contours of mass fraction of oxygen in the central vertical intersection of the
furnace. Profiles of O2 concentration in the upper parts of the near burner regions show relatively
low values of O2 mass fraction, which is a consequence of the equilibrium chemistry assumption
inherent in the PDF model. Although, there are no available site operation records regarding the O2
mass fraction at the furnace outlet, comparison to the values of O2 concentration in the boiler
convective channel shows that the numerical results are close to the real values. CO contours in the
central vertical cross-section are given in Fig. 7, in general, expressing the regions of CO extensive
appearance and its extinction.

Fig. 6. Contours of O2 mass fraction Fig. 7. Contours of CO mass fraction

Calculated temperature profiles along the furnace height at several operating modes and average
measurement values at several elevations (13.0 m, 16.1 m, 20.6 m, 24.0 m, 30.4 m) are displayed in
Fig. 8. Despite the certain discrepancy, the general trend-line is well predicted with the calculations.
It must be noted that the results obtained with the other sets of parameters show similar agreement
with the respecting tests measurements.

1700

1500

1300

1100
T, K

CFD-1
900 CFD-2
CFD-3
700 Test 1
Test 5
500 Test 6
Test 10
300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
h, m

Fig. 8. Temperature along the central axis – cases with and without lower air introduction
CFD-1 – simulations, test 1; CFD-2 – simulations, test 6; CFD-3 – simulations, without lower air
introduction; Test 1, 5, 6, 10 - measurements

Comparison between the heat losses due to inefficient combustion, in the considered cases, is given
through the results presented in Tab. 5.

Table 5. Measured and calculated heat losses due to the inefficient combustion
Number of test 1 2 3 4 5 6
Measured 1.55 1.37 1.57 3.11 1.96 1.71
Calculated, with LAI 1.28 1.25 1.45 2.60 1.72 1.62
Calculated, without LAI 2.25 2.17 2.28 2.75 2.10 2.04

Number of test 7 8 9 10 11 12
Measured 1.36 1.28 1.50 1.88 2.12 1.82
Calculated, with LAI 1.12 1.35 1.42 1.75 1.80 1.68
Calculated, without LAI 2.10 2.34 2.15 2.32 2.25 2.05

Obtained results regarding the field, temperature profiles, heat flux, particles trajectories, combustion
efficiency and other important parameters are in the expected limits and the comparison with the
measurements shows quite satisfactory agreement. Thus, the provided research can be a good basis for
further investigation of this facility and other similar cases.
5. CONCLUSION
The paper demonstrates a methodology used to model and simulate processes in pulverised coal
boilers’ furnaces, based on CFD technology. The described methodology gives a possibility to
investigate the operation of fossil fuel boilers in various modes and situations, with different load,
as well as with redistribution of fuel and air mass flow at the inlets, which would lead to changes of
the flame position and other parameters. On a basis of the comparisons with available site records a
conclusion can be drawn that the model produces realistic insight into the furnace processes. Flow
fields, temperature fields, particles traces and other parameters generated without and with lower air
introduction, are examined in the research. A general conclusion is that the obtained flow field with
the lower air introduction enables decrease of the heat loss due to the incomplete combustion and,
consequently, higher overall gross boiler efficiency, compared to the case without lower air
introduction. The complete assessment should comprise the investment costs for design
modification, as well as the operational costs. The presented case and other experiences with CFD
modelling show that it can be successfully applied to practical combustion systems.

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