Nitrogen isotopes in bivalve shells from the Colorado River estuary:

Evaluating a potential proxy for changes in riverine nutrient delivery

by

Robert D. Dietz

A Prepublication Manuscript Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
2008
 STATEMENT BY THE AUTHOR

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in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Science degree at The University of
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As members of the Research Committee, we recommend that this prepublication manuscript be

accepted as fulfilling the research requirement for the degree of Master of Science.

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__David L. Dettman_____________________________ ________________

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 ABSTRACT

Could stable isotopes of N be used to detect the source of nutrients in modern and past
estuarine ecosystems? We examined δ15N from organic material contained in the shells of live-
collected and sub-fossil bivalve mollusks from the Colorado River and its estuary. We compared
δ15N in 3 species: Corbicula fluminea, an introduced freshwater species, Mulinia coloradoensis,
a brackish-water species once abundant in the estuary, and Chione fluctifraga, a fully marine
species. All three species are found alive today, and the latter two also occur in historical shell
deposits. δ15N values obtained from modern C. fluminea are low (δ15N = 9.6 ‰) with respect to
live-collected M. coloradoensis and Ch. fluctifraga (δ15N = 14.77 and 13.87, respectively),
documenting a distinct difference between fluvial N signals and marine N signatures. We
hypothesized that a significant difference in δ15N values would also exist between live-collected
individuals and sub-fossil individuals of the same species. Riverine nutrients are largely absent
from the modern Colorado River estuary because the river no longer reaches the sea, yet prior to
dam construction and large-scale water diversions, such nutrients were likely available to
estuarine biota. However, no significant difference in δ15N was found between modern and pre-
dam shells. To test for possible diagenetic distortion of the δ15N signal preserved in fossil shells,
we subjected modern shells to conditions of strong heat (60oC in a drying oven) and intense
sunlight (rooftop exposure in Tucson, Arizona) for 180 days. Whereas no significant directional
shift in δ15N was detected in rooftop shells relative to controls, heated shells became depleted in
15
N. Diagenesis therefore cannot be ruled out as a source of bias in δ15N measurements. The
similarity of δ15N in modern and pre-dam shells nevertheless suggests that either riverine
nutrients were not generally a significant component of the estuarine nutrient pool or that their
isotopic character was lost during biogeochemical transformations prior to incorporation into
bivalve shells.

INTRODUCTION

Under natural conditions, estuaries function as sites of material exchange between

continental and marine environments. Rivers deliver sediments and nutrients generated on the
land, as well as an authochthonous component derived from aquatic primary production, to their
deltas. Nitrogen transported in the fluvial environment enters the estuary in multiple forms,
namely dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN), and particulate
organic nitrogen (PON). These “riverine nutrients” may then be used by estuarine biota. Tidal
flushing and oceanic circulation mix and redistribute the river-derived materials among the
marine nutrient pool.
Freshwater flows and nutrient delivery to an estuary can vary over broad timescales in
response to climatic shifts, geomorphologic processes (e.g. stream capture), and changes in
landscape ecology (Correll et al. 1992; Spencer and Pearthree 2003; Jickells et al. 2000, Ingram
et al. 1996). In recent times, the timing and quantity of river discharge and nutrient delivery has
been altered by anthropogenic activities, including agriculture (water withdrawals, fertilizer
runoff), urbanization (polluted stormflow, wastewater discharge, increased overland flow),
vegetation clearance (reduced terrestrial organics), and damming and water diversions
(diminished flow and suspended load).

3
 It is important to document these changes because they can affect estuarine productivity
and ecosystem composition (Mallin et al. 1993). Whereas recent changes can be observed and
measured, historical variation can be discerned only indirectly from aquatic archives.
Reconstructing former estuarine conditions requires the use of chemical and biological indicators
preserved in sediments or the remains of organisms. In this study, we determine whether stable
isotopes of nitrogen contained in the shells of bivalve mollusks record changes in riverine
nutrient delivery to modern and past estuarine ecosystems.
Suspension-feeding bivalves filter and assimilate phytoplankton, detritus,
microzooplankton, and suspended organic sediments – and in some cases they additionally
absorb dissolved organic material directly from water (Péquignat 1973; Manahan et al. 1982).
Ferguson (1982) suggested that the uptake of dissolved free amino acids (DFAA) can support as
much as 20% of bivalve metabolism, and Rice (1999) estimated that DFAA can account for up
to 14% of total organic N uptake in the clams of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Changes in the
relative availability of these various nutrient types and their source regions (e.g. terrestrial,
freshwater, or marine) are relevant to bivalve feeding and may be reflected as isotopic
differences in their tissues and shells.
Nitrogenous materials derived from terrestrial and marine sources possess distinct
nitrogen isotope signatures (Sweeney et al. 1978; Sweeney and Kaplan 1980), with the latter
being more enriched in 15N than the former. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (δ15N = 0 ‰) by
land plants produces organic matter with δ15N values also near 0‰, typically between –3 ‰ and
+1 ‰ (Kendall 1998). Partial degradation of these materials as they are transported downstream
may raise their δ15N signatures some, but they typically remain strongly depleted relative to
marine organic materials. Nitrogen-fixing phytoplankton (namely cyanobacteria) also generate
organic matter with low δ15N and can be important in riverine environments. They are not
abundant in the ocean, however, and usually comprise < 1 % of the phytoplankton biomass or
they are absent altogether (Howarth et al. 1988). Marine N pools are strongly influenced by
denitrification, which discriminates strongly against 15NO3- and drives the δ15N of residual N to
high values (Liu and Kaplan 1989).
The δ15N of PON is most relevant in our study, as this is the dominant fraction used by
benthic consumers. Isotopic separation between marine and terrestrial suspended organic matter
is often quite large. Marine end members for the δ15N of PON are geographically variable but
generally are within the range of 6.3 ‰ to 10 ‰ (Liu and Kaplan 1989). Mariotti et al. (1984),
using δ15N to trace the source of suspended PON in the Scheldt Estuary in northern Europe,
applied a marine end member (North Sea) of 8 ‰ and terrestrial end member of 1.5 ‰
(Δ15Nmarine-terrestrial = 6.5 ‰). Wada et al. (1987) calculated a maximum Δ15N of 7 ‰ for marine
and terrestrial primary producers in the Otsuchi River-Otsuchi Bay environment of Japan.
Isotopic separation between only the autochthonous fraction of riverine and marine PON can
also be large. Cloern et al. (2002) calculated mean δ15N values of 5.0 ‰ and 8.0 ‰ for
freshwater and estuarine-marine phytoplankton, respectively, in the San Francisco Bay Estuary.
Although the range of possible δ15N values for terrestrial, freshwater, and marine PON is large,
these trends (terrestrial < freshwater < marine) appear to be widespread and systematic (France
1995). These distinct isotopic signals are also recorded in consumers, thus opening the
possibility of using consumer δ15N values to determine local nutrient sources. Synthesizing the
data available in the literature at the time, France (1994) determined that a mean separation of 3
‰ existed between marine and freshwater zooplankton as well as marine and freshwater
zoobenthos. Reanalyzing data from Peterson et al. (1985), he also determined that estuarine

4
mussels (Geukensia demissa) have δ15N values reflecting their position along a freshwater-
marine gradient. Similarly, Kasai and Nakata (2005) showed a clear relationship between the
δ15N of PON and the δ15N of Corbicula japonica foot tissue in different regions of the Kushida
Estuary in Japan. PON in the Kushida River had a mean δ15N of 5.5 ‰ while marine PON was
elevated at 9.0 ‰; estuarine PON δ15N was of an intermediate value (6.3 ‰). Co. japonica δ15N
values increased from 8.6 ‰ in the upper estuary to 11.8 ‰ in the lower estuary, reflecting the
physical mixing of nutrient sources and the increasing dilution of riverine PON down estuary.
The offset between tissue and PON δ15N values, about 3.0 ‰, could be explained by normal
trophic enrichment. Animal tissues are usually 2-5‰ enriched relative to diet (mean = 3.4‰,
Minagawa and Wada 1984).
Numerous other studies have reported δ15N values for bivalve soft tissues (see Table 1).
Measurements of tissue δ15N, often complimented by measurements of δ13C, have been used to
discern the relative importance of different dietary sources, to address spatial variability in
available nutrient sources, and to track anthropogenic N pollution (see references within Table
1). Some investigators have also attempted to extract seasonal information from bivalve tissues
harvested at different times of the year. Soft tissues cannot be used to study long-term
environmental changes, however, because they are not preserved following the death of the
organism. Bivalve shells, on the other hand, can serve as archives of paleoenvironmental
information. Nitrogen contained within the organic material of bivalve shells may, like the N
contained within soft tissues, record changes in bivalve diet and, thus, in sources of available
nutrients. Shell organic matrices, which form prior to mineralization, are thought to provide a
framework for crystalline growth (Bevelander and Nakahara 1969; Weiner and Hood 1975).
Calcium carbonate and the organic constituents of the shell pass through mantle epithelia to the
extrapallial fluid, where shell deposition occurs (Wilbur 1964; Neff 1972). While much of the
organic material in the shell is contained within the “matrix” component, some of it becomes
encased in the mineral crystals; this latter fraction is perhaps less likely to be affected by
diagenesis and more likely to be preserved in fossil shells (Crenshaw 1980; O’Donnell et al.
2003).
To our knowledge, only two studies have reported δ15N values for organic material
within bivalve shells. O’Donnell et al. (2003) measured 15N (and δ13C, δ34S) in the soft tissues
and shell material (ventral margin) of modern and sub-fossil Mercenaria spp. collected from the
Atlantic coastal plain of the United States. Mae et al. (2007) measured 15N (and 13C) in both
modern and fossil deep-sea bivalve shells for the purpose of evaluating whether historical
populations utilized chemosynthetic production. In this study, we compare the nitrogen stable
isotope composition of modern and sub-fossil bivalve shells collected from the Colorado River
estuary.
The Colorado River estuary serves as an ideal investigatory setting because the
completion of massive dams on the Colorado River during the early-to-middle 20th Century all
but shut down the inflow of river water. Biota in the modern “no-flow” estuary have access to
only marine nutrients, but the same biota in the pre-dam estuary likely received a mixture of
marine and riverine nutrients. The Colorado River would have transported terrestrial organic N
and its degradation products, as well as an autochthonous component from freshwater primary
producers, and possibly heterotrophic bacteria. We hypothesized that pre-dam bivalves would
have “seen” these riverine nutrients and that their shells would therefore record a distinct
(depleted) δ15N signature relative to shells collected from live individuals in the modern
environment. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that the shells of freshwater bivalves

5
collected from several locations within the lower Colorado River drainage basin would be
depleted in 15N relative to the shells of estuarine bivalves (both modern and pre-dam). Our
analyses assume a constant isotopic offset between soft tissue and shell, such that any rise in the
δ15N of ambient nutrients translates into higher shell δ15N and any decline in the δ15N of nutrient
sources also reduces shell δ15N. Knowing the absolute value of that offset is not important for
this study, but it may be critical in future investigations that aim to reconstruct historical trophic
relationships.
Hydrologic transformation of the Colorado River estuary following the cessation of flows
off the river has affected many local fauna adversely (Aragón-Noriega and Calderon-Aguilera
2000; Galindo-Bect et al. 2000; Rowell et al. 2005), including bivalve mollusks and their
predators (Rodriguez et al. 2001a; Cintra-Buenrostro et al. 2005). Kowalewski et al. (2000)
estimated that the standing crop of bivalve mollusks, namely Mulinia coloradoensis and Chione
fluctifraga, has declined by as much as 94% from an original size of about 6 billion individuals.
It is unclear whether the disappearance of riverine nutrients has contributed to population
declines. Despite the sharp reduction in consumer productivity, nutrient levels and primary
productivity in the estuary remain high (Hernández-Ayón et al 1993; Millán-Núñez et al. 1999).
We undertook this investigation not only with the aim to evaluate whether shell δ15N reflects the
availability of nutrients derived from the Colorado River, but also with the objective to shed
some light on whether riverine nutrients were important for benthic production in the pre-dam
environment. Were riverine nutrients a significant component of the bivalve diet?

METHODS

Study site

The Colorado River estuary is located between the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja
California, at the terminus of the 2800-km-long Colorado River. Mean monthly air temperatures
range from 16oC in winter and 34oC in summer, while mean monthly water temperature varies
between 15oC and 30oC (Thompson 1968; Thompson 1999). The area receives less than 60 mm
of annual rainfall (Hastings 1964), making local runoff into the estuary negligible (Dettman et al.
2004). The estuary lies within a shallow basin (1 to 40 m) and is characterized by a very large
tidal range (up to 10 m) (Carbajal et al. 1997; Lavín and Sánchez 1999). Sediment resuspension
by the strong tides generates turbid conditions (Hernández-Ayón et al. 1993; Santamaría-del-
Ángel et al. 1996), and the circulation of materials in the estuary generally follows a
counterclockwise pattern (Carriquiry and Sánchez 1999).
The completion of massive dams on the Colorado River during the early-to-middle 20th
Century and subsequent diversion of enormous quantities of water profoundly altered the
hydrological and ecological characteristics of the estuary. Prior to the dams and diversions, an
unrestrained Colorado River annually discharged 8 x 109 to 30.8 x 109 m3 yr-1 of freshwater into
the upper Gulf of California (Harding et al. 1995), creating a mixing zone that stretched at least
65 km southward from its mouth (Rodriguez et al. 2001b). For approximately the last 50 years,
the river has rarely reached the Gulf, discharging only during unusually wet periods. Absent its
flow, the modern Colorado River fails to deliver sediments and nutrients from the land to the sea.
Delta wetlands have declined to a small fraction of their original area, oligohaline conditions in
the upper estuary have vanished, and sediments are now eroded – not deposited – in intertidal
areas (Lavín and Sánchez 1999; Thompson 1968; Carriquiry and Sánchez 1999). Cessation of

6
freshwater flows has introduced marine salinity conditions (35-42 psu) and inverted the normal
salinity gradient of the estuary such that higher values occur toward the head (Alvarez-Borrego,
2001; Dettman et al. 2004).

Sample collection

Live specimens of Mulinia coloradoensis and Chione fluctifraga were collected in

December 2005 from Estero del Chayo (31o40.12’ N, 114o41.53’ W), a tidal channel cutting into
the deltaic sediments of Isla Montague (Fig. 1). Both species are infaunal suspension feeders
native to the Colorado River estuary. Whereas Mulinia prefer brackish conditions (which are
today absent), Chione can be considered fully marine. In the absence of inflow from the
Colorado River, shells from these individuals are presumed to represent marine conditions. To
obtain a representation of the modern fluvial environment, Corbicula fluminea were collected
from multiple locations in the Lower Colorado River drainage. C. fluminea is an introduced
freshwater species that colonized the lower Colorado River only after the completion of the
major upstream dams. Live individuals were collected from Mitry Lake and Imperial Lake
(December 2004), and from a section of river flowing through the city of Yuma, AZ (April
2007). The shells of recently expired individuals were obtained from Lake Mead (March 2008)
and Walter’s Camp and Island Lake (November 2007). In addition, two unionid mussels were
obtained – one from Mitry Lake (live collected, December 2004) and one from Smithsonian
archives (shell only, collected in the 1880s from the Colorado River at the Mexican border). All
live-collected specimens were kept in cold storage until preparation for isotopic analysis.
Mitry Lake and Island Lake are small, shallow backwaters connected to the main river
channel. Walter’s Camp, located on the river, is a privately owned concession in the Cibola
National Wildlife Refuge. Each of these 3 sites is found within a short distance (<50 km) to the
north of Yuma, as is Imperial Lake, a major impoundment formed by the Imperial Dam. Lake
Mead, formed by waters impounded by Hoover Dam, is located much further north, near Las
Vegas.
Subfossil shells of Mulinia and Chione were collected from cheniers, or long shelly
beaches, on the western shores of the estuary. Amino acid racemization and radiocarbon dates
(Kowalewski et al. 1994, 1998) indicate that the shells in these locations were produced by
bivalves living prior to the construction of upstream dams. Oxygen isotope data (Rodriguez et
al. 2001b; Dettman et al. 2004) confirm that the bivalves were influenced by freshwater inflows
off the Colorado River. Pre-dam Mulinia specimens used in this study were obtained from a
chenier at Las Isletas (December 2001); pre-dam Chione were collected at a chenier on Isla
Sacatosa (November 2005) (Fig. 1). All shells were obtained from > 25 cm depth to minimize
any diagenetic effects from surface exposure.

Sample preparation

All shells were thoroughly cleaned and rinsed prior to taking δ15N measurements. Soft
tissues were removed with a scalpel from live-collected bivalves. Both live-collected and pre-
dam shells were scrubbed with a stiff nylon brush to remove attached dirt and debris. The
periostracum, an organic coating on the exterior shell surface that can differ isotopically from
shell material (unpublished data), was removed using a dental drill. Most pre-dam shells
appeared to have lost their periostracum, but the exterior shell surface was still cleaned with the

7
drill to be certain that all of the coating had been removed. Shell surfaces were rinsed with
deionized water after brushing and drilling to remove loosened material.
One valve of each shell was approximately bisected using a low-speed ISOMET lapidary
saw with diamond-tipped wafer blade. One of these halves was then ground into a powder and
homogenized using a mortar and pestle (Fig. 2). δ15N measurements on these “whole-shell”
powders reflect the average isotopic composition of shell material over the lifetime of the
bivalve. Some Chione shells were too thick to grind with a mortar and pestle; in such instances a
cross-sectional slice (about 2-3 mm wide) was cut along the axis of maximum growth between
the umbo and ventral margin. The slice was then easily ground with mortar and pestle. Powders
obtained from ground cross-sections should be equivalent to “whole-shell” powders in their
average isotopic composition.
For some bivalve samples, shell material was additionally obtained from the ventral
margin of the other valve half. Drilling at the margin produced a fine powder that did not require
further grinding with a mortar and pestle. δ15N measurements on “margin” powders reflect the
isotopic composition of the most recently deposited shell material only.
The remaining valve was, for some individuals, spot sampled along a vertical transect
between the umbo and ventral margin. Shallow circular drill holes were made at semiregular
intervals in the exterior shell surface to extract small amounts of powder for carbonate δ18O
measurements. The δ18O data were then used to identify portions of the shell deposited during
early summer, which, in the pre-dam environment, is when the strongest freshwater flows off the
Colorado River would have occurred (Harding et al. 1995). These summer growth bands were
subsequently sampled for δ15N measurements.

Isotope measurement

For δ15N measurements, homogenized shell powder, usually in a quantity between 40 mg

and 90 mg, was loaded into tin capsules. Sample capsules were combusted using a Costech
elemental analyzer coupled to a Finnigan Delta Plus XL continuous-flow gas-ratio mass
spectrometer. δ15N values were reported with precisions between + 0.1 ‰ and + 0.5 ‰ (1σ), as
the amount of sample powder available for analysis was not always sufficient to obtain
maximum precision. For simplicity, a standard error of + 0.5 ‰ should be assumed for all δ15N
values reported in this study. Mass spectrometer standardization is based on IAEA-N-1 and
IAEA-N-2 for δ15N. Shell carbonate δ18O was measured using an automated carbonate
preparation device (Kiel-III) coupled to a Finnigan MAT 252 gas-ratio mass spectrometer.
Powdered samples were reacted with dehydrated phosphoric acid under vacuum at 70oC. The
isotope ratio measurement is calibrated based on repeated measurements of NBS-19 and NBS-18
and precision is + 0.1 ‰ for δ18O (1σ).

Diagenesis experiment

To test for possible diagenetic distortion of the δ15N signal preserved in pre-dam shells,
we subjected a subset of modern shells to conditions of strong heat and intense sunlight – the
most likely causes of any diagenetic effects – for ½ year, between April 4, 2007 and September
29, 2007. For each shell (n=10; 4 Corbicula, 3 Mulinia, and 3 Chione), one valve was used for
experimentation and one valve was kept aside as a control. The experimental valve was bisected
using the low-speed lapidary saw; one half was then placed in a drying oven set to a constant

8
temperature of 60oC and the other was rested upon a rooftop in Tucson, Arizona to receive
maximum sunlight exposure. A thin wire meshing was fixed over the rooftop shells to prevent
translocation by wind or animals, and a HOBO® datalogger placed 10 cm away recorded local
temperature and light intensity beginning on April 19. Maximum daily temperatures frequently
exceeded 60oC after April (Table 2) and averaged < 40oC. Maximum daily light intensity
between 1.6 x 105 and 2.3 x 105 lux were common.

RESULTS

Fluvial vs. marine δ15N signals

To be able to interpret temporal δ15N shifts (pre-dam vs. modern Mulinia and Chione) in
terms of changes in riverine nutrient delivery, we first needed to establish whether fluvial and
marine δ15N signals are indeed distinct in the area of investigation. For this, we compared the
shells of Corbicula collected from portions of the lower Colorado River drainage to the shells of
modern estuarine clams, which have been subject to only marine conditions since the starvation
of river flow. Mean whole-shell δ15N values for Corbicula at each sampling site (Table 3) range
from 4.88 ‰ (Mitry Lake) to 12.51 ‰ (Lake Mead). Reasons for this extremely large range are
postulated in the discussion section. Each site mean is lower than the mean whole-shell δ15N
values obtained for modern Mulinia and Chione (13.87 ‰ and 14.77 ‰, respectively; Table 4).
Likewise, the overall location-based mean for Corbicula (9.55 ‰) is far lower than the marine
signal obtained from Mulinia and Chione. If each sampling location is not given an equal weight
and a mean is instead constructed from all Corbicula shells, regardless of site, the value falls
slightly to 9.04 ‰.
In addition, 2 unionid mussels, 1 from Mitry Lake and the other from a stretch of river at
the international border, record depleted δ15N signals (whole-shell values < 6 ‰), which further
illustrate that bivalves in the fluvial environments of the Colorado River are isotopically distinct
(lighter) from bivalves in the marine conditions of the modern Colorado River estuary.

Modern vs. Pre-dam δ15N signals

Whole-shell δ15N values for modern Mulinia exhibit a fair amount of variability (std .
dev. = 1.11) and range from 11.49 ‰ to 14.71 ‰. The overall whole-shell mean equals 13.87
‰. This differs slightly from the whole-shell mean of pre-dam Mulinia (12.14 ‰). The pre-
dam mean is pushed downward by shells D11 and D12, which possess anomalously low whole-
shell values (7.85 ‰ and 7.96 ‰, respectively) compared to all other whole-shell data for
Mulinia and Chione. If these two values are removed, the pre-dam whole-shell mean becomes
13.22 ‰ and the remaining values show a standard deviation of 0.74. However, even using the
full dataset, pre-dam and modern populations of Mulinia do not show statistically significant
differences in whole-shell δ15N (1-way ANOVA, p = 0.406).
Whole-shell δ15N values for modern Chione range from 14.26 ‰ to 15.43 ‰ and are
fairly consistent (std. dev = 0.42). The overall whole-shell mean equals 14.77 ‰. Pre-dam
values are more variable (std. dev = 1.46) and range from 12.41 ‰ to 16.10 ‰. The whole-shell
mean is nearly identical to that of modern Chione, however, and there is no statistically
significant difference between the two populations (p = 0.760). Comparisons between species
(not across time) reveal statistically significant differences. Whole-shell δ15N values for Mulinia

9
were consistently lighter than for Chione (p= 0.006 for modern shells; p = 0.031 for pre-dam
shells)

Intra-shell δ15N variation

Table 5 displays multiple series of δ18O values obtained from drill samples of surface
carbonates in the shells of 3 pre-dam Mulinia (D10-D12), 3 pre-dam Chione (G1-G3), 1 modern
Mulinia (C4), and 1 modern Chione (B4). Pre-dam δ18O series include much more negative
values than modern δ18O series, reflecting the presence of Colorado River water (Dettman et al.
2004). The lowest values in each of the pre-dam bivalve profiles, highlighted in the Table 5 and
boxed in Fig. 3, are interpreted to represent the early summer growth period (approx. May
through July), when strong pulses of snowmelt produced most of the Colorado River’s annual
flow (Harding et al. 1995). Because the δ18O profiles of modern bivalves are not affected by
river flow, they record a simple temperature cycle. The lowest values mark shell growth during
the warmest part of the year (i.e. summer).
Once identified, the summer shell bands in both pre-dam and modern bivalves were
drilled for 15N measurements. In a few instances, marked differences in δ15N between summer
shell bands and whole-shell material are apparent, but these differences are not consistent in sign.
Although the summer-shell δ15N means reported in Table 4 for each bivalve population are less
than corresponding whole-shell means, they are based on fewer data points and may be biased
toward shells that, for whatever reason, have lighter isotopic values than the “average” bivalve
within the population. It is therefore more useful to turn to Table 6, which compares summer-
shell δ15N values and whole-shell δ15N for individual bivalve specimens. These data show no
obvious relationship between the nitrogen isotopic signatures of whole-shell and summer-shell
material. In addition, there is no statistically significant difference between the pre-dam whole-
shell values and pre-dam summer shell values for either species (Mulinia, p = 0.406; Chione, p =
0.760)
Interestingly, δ15N values obtained from shell material at the ventral margin are, with a
single exception, lighter than whole-shell values, regardless of bivalve species. In many cases,
there is a wide separation (> 3 ‰) between margin and whole-shell values, particularly in
modern Mulinia. There is a statistically significant difference between margin δ15N and whole-
shell δ15N for modern Mulinia (p = 0.007) but not for modern Chione (p = 0.257).

Diagenesis experiment

δ15N values obtained from shells placed on a Tucson rooftop for approximately ½ year
were similar to δ15N values obtained from controls. Differences in isotopic signature were minor
and bi-directional in sign (Table 7, Fig. 4), suggesting that preferential degradation of specific N
species within the shell had not occurred. Data obtained from shells placed in the drying oven
appear to indicate a diagenetic shift toward lighter values, as the difference in δ15N between
controls and oven samples was, with only a single exception, always negative in sign. This
suggests that heating may be more important than sunlight exposure in terms of its diagenetic
effect on stable isotopes of N. The δ15N of pre-dam estuarine bivalve shells could have been
shifted toward lighter values due to heat-related diagenesis.

10
 DISCUSSION

Fluvial vs. marine δ15N signals

Whole-shell δ15N values for Corbicula varied strongly between sampling locations; this
may reflect differences in denitrification rates, anthropogenic N inputs, and/or other
environmental factors. Yuma and Walter’s Camp are the only sites where Corbicula were
collected from the Colorado River proper (not a deep artificial lake or off-channel backwater
lake), and δ15N means from these locations (9.60 ‰ and 9.52 ‰, respectively) are nearly
identical. Island Lake, located between these two sites, produced shells with a similar signature
(9.88 ‰). Island Lake and Walter’s Camp are located in sparsely populated areas north of the
city and are not likely influenced by wastewater discharges or other anthropogenic N inputs. The
absence of an enriched δ15N signal in the Yuma shells suggests that the collection site is located
upstream from the city’s major effluent releases. δ15N values from these 3 sites may best
represent the pre-dam fluvial N signature.
High δ15N values from Lake Mead shells were not surprising, since the shells were
collected in the lake’s western basin, which receives wastewater from Las Vegas. Human wastes
(and other animal wastes) are enriched in 15N and generally have an isotopic composition
between +10 to +20 ‰ (Kendall 1998; McClelland et al. 1997). Denitrification in deep
sediments may have also contributed to an enriched δ15N signal. No major wastewater inputs to
Imperial Lake are known; intermediate δ15N values obtained from shells collected at this site
likely reflect isotopic enrichment from denitrification. The reasons for much lower δ15N values
in Mitry Lake shells are unclear.
It is notable that whole-shell δ15N means obtained from bivalves at each sampling
location in the lower Colorado River drainage – even locations with enriched δ15N signals due to
wastewater inputs and higher levels of denitrification – are less than whole-shell δ15N means
obtained from bivalves living in the modern Colorado River estuary. This supports the
assumption that riverine nutrients are isotopically distinct (lighter) from marine nutrients.
Interestingly, the mean whole-shell δ15N values for modern Mulinia and Chione differ by almost
1 ‰. Local habitat variation does not explain this difference because individuals of both species
were collected from the same sample site. This instead suggests species-specific differences in
feeding strategy. For example, one species may filter a specific size class of particles more
efficiently than the other.

Modern vs. Pre-dam δ15N signals

Riverine nutrients may be acquired directly or indirectly by estuarine bivalves. PON

generated in the river (freshwater phytoplankton, small zooplankton, and bacteria) may pass into
the estuary and be filtered out of suspension. Likewise, PON produced on land but transported
by the river (terrestrial detritus) may reach the estuary and be removed from the water column.
Dissolved inorganic nutrients (NO3-, NH4+) from the river cannot be acquired directly, but they
may be utilized by estuarine phytoplankton, which are then filtered by the bivalve. DON may be
obtained either directly (absorbed) or indirectly (first consumed by estuarine bacterioplankton or
phytoplankton). Given these several modes of riverine nutrient utilization and the strong
separation of fluvial and marine isotopic signatures discussed above, it is surprising to find an
absence of significant difference between whole-shell δ15N values in the modern and pre-dam

11
estuarine bivalve populations. The similarity of δ15N in modern and pre-dam shells presents
several possibilities:

1) Riverine nutrients were not a significant component of the total nutrient pool utilized
by estuarine bivalves;
2) Riverine nutrients represented a sizeable fraction of the total nutrient pool but lost
their distinctive (depleted) isotopic signature during biogeochemical transformation;
or
3) Depleted signals from riverine nutrients were recorded in the shell but
counterbalanced by processes leading to isotopic enrichment

1. “Riverine nutrients were insignificant”

Page & Lastra (2003) found no evidence from 15N and13C measurements on bivalve
stomach contents and muscle tissue that river-derived PON was a significant portion of bivalve
diets in the Ría de Arosa estuary of northwest Spain. δ15N values did not track distance from
riverine resources. This estuarine system, however, is marine-dominated and freshwater inputs
are small compared to tidal exchange. The pre-dam Colorado River estuary experienced much
stronger freshwater flows.
Unless strongly affected by anthropogenic N loading, most rivers do not contain high
concentrations of DIN, and a significant portion of what does reach the mouth can be intercepted
by coastal wetlands (Schlesinger 1997). The intercepted N may be assimilated into plant
biomass, recycled within the wetland, removed via sedimentation or denitrification, or exported
in dissolved and particulate fractions. N losses due to denitrification are equivalent to 40-50 %
of the DIN entering from rivers (Seitzinger 1988). Organic forms generally dominate the total
nitrogen load transported by rivers (Ittekot and Zhang 1989; Seitzinger & Sanders 1997; Scott et
al. 2007). Some particulate organics may settle in the wetlands as the velocity of surface waters
slows, but tidal action can be expected to mobilize some material and send it into the open waters
of the estuary. Overall, tidal flushing results in a net movement of nutrients away from coastal
marshes and toward the open estuary (Valiela and Teal 1979; Correll 1981; Nixon 1980). We
therefore assume that a significant quantity of nutrients were flushed into the pre-dam Colorado
River estuary. Moreover, because the wetlands in the delta were far more expansive than today,
it is likely that more organic N was produced within these environments and delivered to the
open estuary.
The presence of nutrients does not necessarily guarantee their biologic availability,
however. If too refractory, nutrients cannot be metabolized. Suspension-feeding bivalves
separate particles with low nutritional value, such as refractory detritus, and deposit them as
pseudofeces (Kiørboe and Mohlenberg 1981). According to Fry (1999), most riverine seston
entering the North Bay of San Francisco is refractory, and it comprises only a minor portion of
the diet of suspension feeders. Canuel et al. (1995) generalize that the pool of organic matter in
estuaries consists primarily of refractory components. In the Miya Estuary of Japan, for
example, 90% of PON originates from terrestrial materials and yet this fraction represents only
10% of the diet of resident bivalves (Ruditapes philippinarum and Mactra veneriformis) (Kasai
et al. 2004). Much of the DON that reaches estuarine environments is also refractory, and its
resistance to microbial attack favors its passage through coastal marshes and into the open waters
of the estuary (Valiela and Teal 1979). Unlike the labile, low molecular weight compounds (e.g.

12
amino acids and urea), which generally represent less than 20% of the riverine DON (Thurmann
1985), these components may not be readily utilized by the local biota.

2. “Riverine nutrients lost their depleted δ15N signatures”

Biogeochemical transformations of nitrogenous materials in estuaries and their adjacent

wetlands can exert strong influence over δ15N signals, sometimes to a greater extent than the
physical mixing of riverine and marine nutrient sources (Cifuentes et al. 1988; Sato et al. 2006)
δ15N may vary spatially and temporally within these environments due to changes in the
rate/amount of phytoplankton N uptake and microbially-mediated N conversions (i.e.
nitrification, denitrification) (Montoya et al. 1990). Isotopic fractionation during assimilation by
phytoplankton depends on N availability, the chemical form that is utilized, and the species of
phytoplankton (Waser et al. 1998), and the range of potential fractionation values is quite large
(Needoba and Harrison 2004; Waser et al. 1999). In the Sumida River Estuary of Japan,
seasonal variations in the δ15N of suspended PN were attributed to changes in the taxonomic
composition of phytoplankton (Sato et al. 2006). Denitrification in coastal marshes and estuarine
sediments is important not only because it removes some riverine nutrients (as discussed above)
but also because it raises the δ15N of residual N moving into the water column of the estuary
(Valiela and Teal 1979). Producers utilizing this 15N-enriched nutrient source then become
isotopically enriched themselves. Nitrification has the opposite effect – it creates a pool of 15N-
depleted nitrate – but nitrification and denitrification are often coupled processes, such that
nitrates generated via the former support the latter (Seitzinger 1988; Kemp et al. 1990). In
addition, nitrification has the effect of increasing the δ15N of residual ammonium. Because
phytoplankton preferentially utilize ammonium over other DIN fractions (Glilbert et al. 1982;
Dortch 1990; L’Helguen et al. 1996), this can mean that the enriched δ15N signal is transferred to
phytoplankton and upward to consumers. Mariotti et al. (1984) found that nitrification in the
Scheldt Estuary produced higher δ15NNH4 values downstream and argue that the isotopic
signature of suspended organic matter, which also becomes more enriched downstream, responds
to nitrification. If these various biogeochemical transformations cause a net increase in the δ15N
of DIN, and if primary producers utilizing this enriched nutrient source constitute a significant
fraction of consumer diets, local bivalves will record higher δ15N values than they would if no
biogeochemical alteration took place and only physical mixing of riverine and marine nutrient
sources mattered.

3. “Depleted signals were counterbalanced by other factors”

Any process or influence which raises the δ15N values of pre-dam shells or lowers the
δ N values of modern shells would reduce the expected temporal contrast in δ15N between the
15

two bivalve populations.

 Ontogeny

We assume that ontogenetic changes do not influence the nitrogen isotopic composition
of adult bivalves. Minagawa and Wada (1984) concluded that the δ15N of soft tissues in two
species of marine mussels, Septifer virgatus and Mytilus edulis, is independent of both age and
internal nitrogen mass balance – except during “early stages” of growth. Other studies have

13
noted δ15N offsets between juveniles and adults of the same species (Kang et al. 1999;
O’Donnell et al. 2003), perhaps due to the utilization of different food resources. However, all
isotope measurements in this study were performed on adult individuals.

 Anthropogenic nitrogen loading

Agricultural return flows and sewage effluent supply a very minor quantity of water and
nutrients to the modern Colorado River estuary. Animal wastes are also minimal. We do not
expect these inputs to influence the marine nutrient signal preserved in modern bivalve shells.
Any anthropogenic influences on nutrient types or levels in the pre-1930 estuary should likewise
have been small.

 Diagenesis

The organic matrix of bivalve shells is composed of a complex assemblage of proteins,

glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and lipids (Addadi 2006). Selective degradation of one of these
components, or a subset of one of these components (e.g. specific amino acids), could potentially
produce a shift in δ15N. Vallentyne (1969) measured differential decomposition rates for amino
acids in Plesitocene Mercenaria shells during pyrolization at 174-252oC. He observed the
following order of amino acid stability (from least to greatest): tyrosine < phenylalanine <
isoleucine < leucine < proline < valine < glycine < alanine < glutamic acid. Risk et al. (1997), in
a nuclear magnetic resonance spectral analysis of modern and fossil bivalve shells (Mya
truncata, Hiatella arctica, Macoma baltica, and Mya arenia), found that Chitin, a
polysaccharide, undergoes breakdown early in diagenesis relative to other components, and
analyses on Mya truncata suggested selective degradation of some amino acids over others.
Spatial heterogeneity in the distribution of nitrogenous compounds may also lead to diagenetic
δ15N shifts if degradation processes favor one region of the shell over another. Goodfriend et al.
(1997) found that the concentration of amino acids in each of the 3 structural layers of Ch.
fluctifraga differed, with the middle layer containing the lowest concentration and the inner layer
containing the highest. In addition, diagenesis may occur more rapidly in thin shells than in
thick shells (Risk et al. 1997). Mulinia have much thinner shells than Chione, but the data
obtained in our diagenesis experiment do not appear to indicate a more pronounced isotopic shift
in one species relative to the other.
Our data do suggest that diagenetic alteration of δ15N signals in the shells of pre-dam
Mulinia and Chione is possible and that such alteration is more likely attributable to warm
temperatures rather than sunlight exposure. Shells heated in a drying oven at 60oC for a half year
are characterized by lower δ15N values than controls, while shells resting upon a sunlit rooftop
for the same period showed no obvious directional shift in δ15N values relative to controls.
However, δ15N values obtained from shell M4 (Corbicula) may indicate diagenetic effects from
sunlight exposure. The shell was collected from a paleoshoreline of Lake Mead. One valve,
fully buried in sediment, retained all of its periostracum while the other valve, partly exposed,
had lost most of its periostracum, thus suggesting differential degradation of the two valves.
After cleaning in the laboratory and complete removal of the periostracum, each valve was
separately ground into a powder and homogenized. The δ15N value obtained from the exposed
valve was over 1 ‰ lighter than the value obtained from the buried valve. Pre-dam Mulinia and
Chione shells were collected from below 25 cm depth and were completely buried by other

14
shells. Differential sunlight exposure would not have occurred and total exposure prior to burial
was probably minimal.
We observed that more shell material was needed for pre-dam shells than for modern
shells to obtain precise δ15N measurements on the mass spectrometer. This implies nitrogen loss
from the shell with age. Similarly, O’Donnell et al. (2003) found a 50-70% decrease in the
concentrations of both carbon and nitrogen in Pleistocene Mercenaria shells relative to modern
shells. They warn that this reduction could amplify the influence of any contaminants.
Thus our results confirm the possibility that this N loss bears an isotopic effect and
suggest that prolonged heating can lead to lighter δ15N values, but it is not possible to ascertain
based on available data whether the δ15N signatures of the pre-dam bivalves sampled in this
study were, in fact, altered by diagenesis. If diagenetic effects were significant, they would have
likely lowered δ15N values and increased the isotopic contrast between pre-dam and modern
shells. Because we observe little to no temporal contrast in δ15N values in the first place,
diagenesis cannot be used to explain the “missing” riverine signal.

Intra-shell δ15N variation

In the absence of strong evidence from whole-shell δ15N measurements for isotopically
distinct pre-dam and modern bivalve populations, we sought to identify whether summer shell
deposits recorded unique δ15N values that were masked by whole-shell averaging. Most of the
Colorado River’s annual flow occurs between May and July due to strong pulses of snowmelt in
the upper basin (Harding et al. 1995). For the San Pedro River, an arid-zone tributary to the
Colorado River, Brooks et al. (2007) showed that large flood pulses following summer monsoon
storms can produce substantial increases in the flux and concentration of both dissolved and
particulate organic matter transported downstream. In a subestuary of Chesapeake Bay, Correll
(1981) found that increased exports of total nitrogen from intertidal marshes into the estuarine
basin were synchronous with periods of high flow from the Rhode River. The period of greatest
discharge of the pre-dam Colorado River may therefore be expected to bring the greatest quantity
of riverine nutrients to the estuary relative to marine sources.
Whole-shell δ15N values for pre-dam bivalves represent the average of all organic
material deposited in the shell over the lifetime of the individuals, during flood periods and low-
flow periods alike. Because a greater total quantity of shell material is deposited during low-
flow periods, whole-shell averages may obscure the brief utilization of low-δ15N nutrients during
the flood season. Given this possibility, we constrained the portions of bivalve shells deposited
during peak river flow and measured the δ15N organic material within these specific shell zones.
Whole-shell and flood-pulse values in Chione, for both pre-dam and modern shells, are fairly
similar (< 1‰ separation). Results from pre-dam Mulinia show variable isotopic separation
between whole-shell values and summer values and do not necessarily indicate greater riverine
nutrient utilization during flood periods. In the pre-dam Mulinia shell D10, a surprisingly large
isotopic separation (4.2 ‰) was observed between the whole-shell value and summer value.
Because the summer value is lower, it may reflect the incorporation of riverine nutrients.
However, in shells D11 and D12, measured whole-shell δ15N values are more depleted relative to
flood-pulse values. This is difficult to interpret, particularly since the whole-shell values are
anomalously low compared to all other whole-shell values obtained from both modern and pre-
dam Mulinia. The low whole-shell values, regardless of how they compare to flood-pulse
values, suggest that riverine nutrients reached the bivalves for the majority of their lives. Did

15
these two shells grow during exceptionally wet years? δ18O profiles for D11 and D12 carbonates
do not seem to support this interpretation, as they do not differ substantially from the δ18O profile
for D10, which has a more “typical”δ15N value. However, more pronounced seasonal minima in
18
O are apparent for D11 and D12. Taken together, the results from these 3 shells are
ambiguous. Measurements on additional pre-dam Mulinia shells may reveal a significant trend
that is not apparent from our limited data. Our sample size is too small to reveal the true
complexity and variability of this dynamic ecosystem.
A single modern Mulinia shell (C4) was also examined and showed negligible isotopic
separation between whole-shell and summer values, which is what we expected for the present
no-flow environment.
The absence of a clear riverine nutrient signal in the summer growth bands of the
sampled shells may be due to slow rates of tissue turnover. Because the shell organic matrix is
secreted by mantle epithelia (Wilbur 1964; Neff 1972), its isotopic composition may be subject
to the same temporal averaging as internal soft tissues. Table 8 summarizes published rates of
tissue turnover in bivalves (Unfortunately, the turnover rates of mantle tissue have not been
investigated.) These long turnover rates imply that shell δ15N does not record transient
conditions but rather long-term average conditions. It may therefore be unreasonable to expect
shell organics deposited during flood periods to bear distinctly lower δ15N signatures. This also
suggests that fine-resolution sampling of changes in diet (and of nutrient source) may not be
possible. Moreover, δ15N measurements (unlike δ13C and δ18O) require large quantities of shell
material, often upwards of 30 mg, which precludes sampling within very narrow growth bands.
In northeastern freshwater lakes, McKinney et al. (2002) found that the δ15N of
Unionidae mussel (Elliptio spp.) tissues correlated with long-term nitrate concentrations but not
with nitrate concentrations measured on a single sampling date. This, they argue, suggests that
mussels act as long-term integrators of the δ15N of primary producers and that they do not record
transient shifts. Gustafson et al. (2007) also assert that bivalve tissues cannot be used as proxies
for pulse events or rapid changes in DIN loads. On the other hand, some studies have shown
significant short-term changes in the δ15N of bivalve soft tissues (Goering et al. 1990; Fry and
Allen 2003; Piola et al. 2006). Our own data from other portions of bivalve shells seem to
suggest sub-annual δ15N changes. δ15N values obtained from the ventral margins of the bivalve
shells seem to be lighter than whole-shell δ15N values in most instances. Because all estuarine
bivalve samples were collected in late November or early December, shell margin material –
which represents the most recent growth – was likely deposited just prior to winter growth
shutdown (Mulinia and Chione generally cease to grow for several months during winter because
of low temperatures (Goodwin et al. 2001). River flow is not substantial at this time of year,
suggesting that the shift to lighter δ15N is controlled by factors unrelated to freshwater flow.
If the deposition of organic material in bivalve shells responds to transient conditions,
sub-annual changes in δ15N may reflect seasonal variability in the size of nutrient pools and the
rates of biogeochemical transformations in the estuary and surrounding wetlands (e.g. Kaplan et
al. 1979; Cifuentes et al. 1988; Sato et al. 2006). Reduced denitrification in winter may help to
explain lower margin δ15N values and, in some cases, higher summer values (where they occur).
Rates of denitrification vary as a function of temperature (Jorgensen 1989; Kaplan et al. 1979).
In the Tama estuary of Japan, for example, Nishio et al. (1983) found that denitrification rates
increased by a factor of four between December (9.3oC) and May (18.0oC). Reduction of
dissolved oxygen availability in summer may also promote increased denitrification during
summer. York et al. (2007) noted higher δ15N of ammonia during summer in the Waquoit Bay

16
estuary of Massachusetts, which they attribute to more rapid biologic processing of the nutrient;
they also found higher δ15N of phytoplankton. In the Scheldt estuary of northen Europe, Mariotti
et al. (1984) measured sharp increases in the δ15N of suspended PON. Whereas in winter, the
estuary showed a clear continental-to-marine gradient in the δ15N (most suspended PON during
this season was from the mixing of terrestrial and marine sources), summer δ15N values were
high in both the upper and lower estuary (due to strong authochthonous production that utilized
enriched ammonium generated by nitrification). Seasonal differences in circulation and
upwelling in the Gulf of California are probably unimportant. The northern Gulf is shallow (<
200m) and partially separated from the main gulf by a sill and midrift islands (Santamaría-del-
Ángel et al. 1994; Pagau et al. 2002). The extent to which southern currents and upwelling
nutrients seasonally affect the northern Gulf is unclear.

SUMMARY

A distinct difference between the whole-shell δ15N signatures of freshwater bivalves and
their estuarine-marine counterparts suggests that bivalve shells can be used to determine
historical nutrient sources and changes in the availability of a particular class of nutrients over
time. However, we found no clear evidence of a riverine nutrient signal in the shells of bivalves
that lived in the pre-dam Colorado River estuary. It may be that riverine nutrients were not a
significant component of the total nutrient pool in the pre-dam estuary. Alternatively,
biogeochemical modification of riverine nutrients in the estuarine environment and its fringing
marshes could have diminished the isotopically-distinct (depleted) riverine nutrient signal. Other
processes that might “mask” a riverine nutrient signal (by raising δ15N) are probably
insignificant. We determined that heat-related diagenesis can reduce the δ15N of older shells, but
a diagenetic shift toward lighter δ15N values would only lead to overestimation of riverine
nutrient utilization. Because we find no clear evidence of a riverine nutrient signal, the
possibility of diagenesis did not influence our analysis. The results of this study do not support
the use of whole-shell δ15N signatures in estuarine bivalves as an indicator of riverine nutrient
availability. However, observed sub-annual differences in shell δ15N raise the possibility of
detecting short-term changes in estuarine conditions. Better understanding of intrashell δ15N
variability, tissue turnover time, and the relationship between soft tissues and shell organics is
needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Majie Fan and Chris Eastoe for processing our sample materials in the
Environmental Isotope Laboratory and for providing helpful suggestions on sample preparation.
We are also grateful to the fishermen of El Golfo de Santa Clara for transporting us to clam
collection sites in the Colorado River Delta. The Smithsonian Institute provided an 1880s
unionid mussel collected from the lower Colorado River, on which we conducted δ15N
measurements. This research project was supported by the National Science Foundation (Grant
No. 044381, awarded to KWF) and the Colorado River Delta Research Coordination Network.
RDD received an Exxon Scholarship and Geosciences General Scholarship (University of
Arizona) and was provided additional support through the Bert S. Butler Fund and Charles
Evenson Fund.

17
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Table 1. δ15N values reported for suspension-feeding bivalve mollusks in various environments

LOCATION ENVIRONMENT SPECIES TISSUE δ15N Comment Source

low high mean
Mangrove creeks and
estuary
Creek Meretrix meretrix Stomach content 8.1 8.1 8.1
Creek Tellina spp. Stomach content 6.2 8.0 7.2
Creek Macoma spp. Stomach content 8.5 8.5 8.5 Limited utilization of mangrove and
Creek Placuna placenta Stomach content 8.7 9.1 8.9 terrestrial sources. Local algal sources
Coringa Wildlife
All bivalves - creek 6.2 9.1 7.6 of OM are dominant portion of diet.
Sanctuary and
Kakinada Bay, Andra
Bay Meretrix meretrix Stomach content 9.5 12.0 9.9 δ15N of tissues from bivalves in creek < Bouillon et al. (2002)
Bay Tellina spp. Stomach content 6.8 9.3 7.7 bay; ~3.2 permil gradient between the
Pradesh, India
Bay Macoma spp. Stomach content 8.9 8.9 8.9 environments for bivalves and other
Bay Placuna placenta Stomach content 9.3 9.5 9.4 benthic invertebrates
Bay Paphia undulata Stomach content 7.7 12.9 9.7
Bay Pinctada radiata Stomach content 11.6 11.6 11.6
Bay Siliqua albida Stomach content 7.6 7.6 7.6
All bivalves - bay 7.6 12.9 9.0
San Francisco Bay, No significant differences in δ15N Brusati and Grosholtz
Salt marsh Macoma petalum Whole body 14-15
USA between salt marsh habitats (2007)
Estuary
Upper ARE Rangea cuneata (93%) Foot 7.4
Middle ARE and Corbicula fluminea Foot 6.3 δ15N values of bivalves from NRE >
Neuse River Estuary
Lower ARE (7%) Foot 6.1 ARE; POM follows same trend. Reflects
(NRE) and Alligator
All bivalves - ARE 6.4 higher wastewater and animal waste N Bucci et al. (2007)
River Estuary (ARE),
Upper NRE Rangea cuneata (93%) Foot 10.7 in Neuse. δ15N decline toward sea due
North Carolina, USA
Middle NRE and Corbicula fluminea Foot 10.9 to high-δ15N N loading upstream
Lower NRE (7%) Foot 9.3
All bivalves - NRE 10.4
Various Various
Ontario and Quebec, Lampsilis sp., Anodonta
Freshwater lakes ? 1.2 9
Canada sp., Elliptio spp.
High variability. δ15N values correlate
Lake Oneida, USA Freshwater lakes Dreissena polymorpha ? ~8 Cabana and
Assiminea lutea, with degree of anthropogenic N loading
Rasmussen (1996)
Gamo Lagoon, and human population within watershed
Nuttalia olivacea,
Nanakita River Estuary ? ~9.5
Corbicula japonica,
Estuary, Japan
Laternula limicola
Pleasant Bay, Cape Estuary δ15N values correlate with %
Carmichael et al. (2004)
Cod, USA Multiple subestuaries Mercenaria mercenaria Whole body ~6.5 ~10.5 wastewater
Estuary
Modiolus demissus Muscle 7.1 8 7.8
Plum Island Sound,
Middle estuary Crassostrea virginica Muscle 6.5 Deegan and Garritt
Massachusetts, USA
Mya arenia Muscle 8.3
Lower estuary Mya arenia Muscle 8
Muscle or "body wall
Laternula elliptica 5.7
Antarctic Peninsula, tissue"
Nearshore marine Dunton (2001)
near Anvers Island Muscle or "body wall
Yoldia eightsi 6.5
tissue"
Estuary
North Bay
Potamorcorbula Whole (minus gut
10.7 11.5-11.9
12 δ15N values elevated in South Bay
amurensis contents) relative to North Bay due to stronger
San Francisco Bay,
South Bay - spring Potamorcorbula Whole (minus gut Fry (1999)
USA 14.3 anthropogenic N loading. Values within
bloom 1990 amurensis contents) North Bay higher upstream due to
South Bay - spring Potamorcorbula Whole (minus gut
13 anthropogenic inputs
bloom 1991 amurensis contents)
River Seasonal changes as large as 5 ‰ (in
Baton Rouge Dreissena polymorpha Whole body 11 16 Baton Rouge); max values at end of
Mississippi River,
Illinois Dreissena polymorpha Whole body 10 16 summer phytoplankton bloom and low Fry and Allen (2003)
USA
in early spring; spatial differences due
to anthropogenic loading
Macoma nasuta Whole body 6.1 8.6 7.6
Auke Bay, Alaska, Significant seasonal differences in δ15N
Estuary Saxidomus giganteus Whole body 9.1 Goering et al. (1990)
USA of Macoma
Yoldia spp. Whole body 7.6
Piedmont region, Bivalve δ15N correlate with long-term
Freshwater streams Elliptio complanata Foot 4.9 9.1 7.5 Gustafson et al. (2007)
North Carolina, USA means of dissolved nitrate δ15N
Northeast Atlantic
Ocean (Irish Sea, Jennings and Warr
Offshore marine Aequipecten opercularis Adductor muscle 4.18 11 7.45
English Channel, (2003)
North Sea)
Relative importance of
Marennes-Oléron Bay,
Estuary Certastoderma edule Whole body 7.6 9.3 8.4 microphytoplankton vs. algal POM Kang et al. (1999)
France
inferred from δ15N
Estuary Enriched values in lower estuary reflect
Kushida Estuary, Upper estuary Corbicula japonica Foot 8.6 greater % marine POM; depleted Kasai and Nakata
Japan Lower estuary Corbicula japonica Foot 11.8 values in upper estuary reflect greater (2005)
% terrestrial POM
Coastal brackish lakes
Lake Jusan Corbicula japonica Foot 8.5 11.6 10.4
Upstream Corbicula japonica Foot 9
Downstream Corbicula japonica Foot 11
Gradient in δ15N between river mouth
Lake Ogawara Corbicula japonica Foot 10.3 11.5 11
and downstream areas in Lake Jusan
Japan Upstream Corbicula japonica Foot 11.1 Kasai et al. (2006)
(increasing toward ocean); less
Downstream Corbicula japonica Foot 10.9
apparent in other lakes
Lake Shinji Corbicula japonica Foot 11.7 10.2 10.9
Upstream Corbicula japonica Foot 10.6
Downstream Corbicula japonica Foot 11.4
All bivalves 8.5 11.7 10.8
Miya Estuary, Ise Bay, High % terrestrial POM but little
Estuary Ruditapes philippinarum Muscle 9.9 10.6 10.1 Kasai et al. (2004)
Japan utilization by the bivalves
Mactra veneriformis Muscle 10.2 11.2 10.5
Freshwater lakes and Elevated δ15N correlate with a higher %
Rhode Island, USA Elliptio complanata ? 4.9 13.3 8.4 residential development & wastewater Lake et al. (2001)
ponds
N
Pecten maximus Adductor muscle 9.4
Pecten maximus Gonad 7.8 Significant separation in δ15N of
Bay of Brest, France Marine Lorrain et al. (2002)
Bay of Brest, France Marine Significant separation in δ N of Lorrain et al. (2002)
Pecten maximus Digestive gland 6 different tissues
Pecten maximus Whole body (est.) 8.5
Estuary Bivalves in Childs River Estuary
Waquoit Bay, Cape
Childs River Estuary Mya arenia Whole body ~7.9 enriched relative to Sage Lot Pond
Cod, Massachusetts, McClelland et al. (1997)
Sage Lot Pond Estuary Mya arenia Whole body ~5.6 Estuary due to stronger wastewater
USA
influence
Bivalves with diets dominated by
terrestrial and marsh sources show
Narragansett Bay,
22 Salt marshes Geukensia demissa Whole body 9 12.1 depleted δ15N; where marine sources McKinney et al. (2001)
Rhode Island, USA
dominate = enriched δ15N. Values
correlate with land use practices
Correlation with % residential
Rhode Island 19 Freshwater lakes Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 4.9 12.6 development and often with dissolved McKinney et al. (2002)
nitrate concentration
Freshwater ponds, lakes,
reservoirs
Quidnick Reservoir Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 6.2 6.5 6.4
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 4.7 5.1 4.9
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 4.3 4.8 4.6
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 5.3
Tucker Pond Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 6 6.5 6.3
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 5.1 5.2 5.2
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 5 5.3 5.1
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 5.5
Browning Mill Pond Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 6.9 7.2 7.1
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 5.9 6.7 6.3
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 6 6.3 6.2
Adductor muscle consistently enriched
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 6.5
relative to other tissues. All tissues
Rhode Island Spring Lake Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 8.8 8.9 8.8 McKinney et al. (1999)
enriched in locations with stronger
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 8.2 8.3 8.2
anthropogenic N loading
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 8.2 9 8.5
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 8.5
Mishnock Lake Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 9.9 10.6 10.3
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 8.6 9.6 9.2
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 8.3 9.3 8.9
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 9.5
Tiogue Lake Elliptio spp. Adductor muscle 13.1 13.4 13.2
Elliptio spp. Foot tissue 11.7 11.9 11.9
Elliptio spp. Mantle tissue 11.2 11.6 11.4
Elliptio spp. Mean of 3 tissues 12.2
All bodies Elliptio spp. All muscle 8.7
Elliptio spp. All foot 7.6
Elliptio spp. All mantle 7.5
Usujiri coast,
Marine
Septifer virgatus Whole body 9 δ15N independent of age and nitrogen Minagawa and Wada
Hokkaido, Japan Mytilus edulis Whole body 8.7 mass balance in bivalve body (1984)
Marine
Modern shell (Inner &
Assateague Channel,
Mercenaria mercenaria middle layers, ventral
Chincoteague, VA
margin) 11 13.7
Modern shell (ventral
Mercenaria mercenaria
margin) 10.1 11.6 10.6
Mercenaria mercenaria Foot 11.5
Mercenaria mercenaria Mantle 11
Mercenaria mercenaria Muscle 12.2
Mercenaria mercenaria All soft tissue 11.3
Mercenaria Modern shell (middle
Cedar Key, FL
campechiensis layer) 7.2 9.9
Fossil shell (Late
Gomez Pit, Virginia Pleistocene; inner &
Mercenaria mercenaria
Beach, VA middle layers, ventral
margin) 4.5 13.2
Very large intrashell variation. Mean
Fossil shell (Mid
Atlantic coastal plain separation between tissue and shell O'Donnel et al (2003)
Pleistocene; inner &
Mercenaria mercenaria material at the ventral margin = 0.7 ‰
middle layers, ventral
margin) 7.2 9.3
Fossil shell (Early
Mercenaria Pleistocene; inner &
campechiensis middle layers, ventral
margin) 6.5 9.3
Fossil shell (Holocene;
Bass site, North Carolina
Mercenaria mercenaria inner & middle layers,
shelf
ventral margin) 3.7 9.8
Fossil shell (Late
Mark Clark Pit,
Mercenaria mercenaria Pleistocene; middle
Charleston, SC
layer) 3.8 4.5
Fossil shell (Late
Jones site, Skidaway
Mercenaria mercenaria Pleistocene; middle
Island, Georgia
layer) 7.2 7.2
All sites Mercenaria mercenaria All shells 3.7 13.7
Cerastoderma edule Stomach 9.5 Muscle tissue enriched relative to
Cerastoderma edule Muscle 10.7 stomach tissue. Spatial pattern in δ15N
Tapes decussatus Stomach 10.1 values from multiple stations does not Page and Lastra (2003)
Ria de Arosa, Spain Estuary
Tapes decussatus Muscle 11.3 suggest utilization of riverine N
Mytilus galloprovincialis Stomach 9.6 (freshwater inputs small relative to tidal
Mytilus galloprovincialis Muscle 10.8 exchange)
Amiantis purpurata Stomach content 12.3 Values suggestive of low trophic
Northern Argentina Coastal marine Penschaszadeh (2006)
Solen tehuelchus Stomach content 10.9 position
Great Sippewissett Generally lower δ15N values for
Marsh, Falmouth, Salt marsh Geukensia demissa Muscle ~5.5 ~8.5 individuals from innermost marsh, Peterson et al. (1985)
Massachusetts, USA increasing toward the ocean
Saccostrea glomerata Adductor muscle 8.5 10.4 Bivalves transplanted from Wallis Lake,
Saccostrea glomerata Ctenidia 6.9 10.1 New South Wales. Measured after 3
Manning River
Viscera (= whole body - mo. δ15N records position in estuary
Estuary, New South Estuary Piola et al. (2006)
Saccostrea glomerata ctenidia & adductor (enriched seaward) and sewage outfall.
Wales, Australia
muscle) 4.6 8.7 Suggests seasonal information can be
Saccostrea glomerata Whole body 2.9 10.1 6.8 recorded in tissue.
Estuary
 Passeonkquis Cove
Low intra-annual and minor interannual
(Upper Bay) Geukensia demissa Whole body 10.4 11.6 11.0
Naragansett Bay, variability. Significant spatial trend
Prudence Island (Middle Pruell et al. (2006)
Rhode Island, USA (depleted oceanward) that likely relates
Bay) Geukensia demissa Whole body 10.7 11.2 10.9
to sewage inputs
Fox Hill Salt Marsh
(Lower Bay) Geukensia demissa Whole body 10.0 10.2 10.1
Sphaerium striatinum Whole body 4.4
Pleurobema sintoxia +
Eagle Creek, Dominance of deposit feeding (vs. Raikow and Hamilton
Freshwater creek Fusconaia flava Muscle 4.8
Michigan, USA suspension feeding) inferred (2001)
Pleurobema sintoxia +
Fusconaia flava Stomach 3.3
Estuary
Elevated tissue δ15N in Westerschelde
Oosterschelde Estuary Cerastoderma edule Whole body 10.4
Estuary, which is more affected by
Oosterschelde Estuary Crassostrea gigas Whole body 10.1
Scheldt Estuary, urbanization. Utilization of
Oosterschelde Estuary Mytilus edulis Whole body 10.9 Riera et al. (2000)
Netherlands riverine/terrestrial material is low while
Westerschelde Estuary Cerastoderma edule Whole body 18.7
utilization of 15N-enriched (from
Westerschelde Estuary Crassostrea gigas Whole body 19.6
wastewater) benthic algae is high
Westerschelde Estuary Mytilus edulis Whole body ~18
Estuary
Port Neuf (freshwater POM more enriched seaward, yet
end) Crassostrea gigas Whole body 11.5 oysters show opposite trend. Suggests
Marennes-Oléron Bay, Fort Lupin Crassostrea gigas Whole body 10 that oysters at head of estuary at higher
Riera (1998)
France Les Palles Crassostrea gigas Whole body 9 trophic level (not feeding directly on
Chassiron (marine end) Crassostrea gigas Whole body 8.3 terrestrial detritus but perhaps on
Les Baleines (marine bacterial intermediary).
end) Crassostrea gigas Whole body 8.8
Corbicula fluminea Whole body? 6.7 Tissue preservation (formalin, EtOH) on
Unknown Freshwater? Corbicula fluminea Whole body? 6.3 archived specimens found to not Sarakinos et al. (2002)
produce δ15N shift > 0.5 ‰
Elands Bay, SW Cape
Marine Chromytilus meridionalis ? 8.1 8.9 8.46 Sealy et al. (1987)
of South Africa
Estuary 15
Both bivalve and POM δ N track the
Waquoit Bay, Sage Lot Pond Estuary Geukensia demissa Whole body 7.4
level of anthropogenic N Yelenik et al. (1996)
Massachusetts, USA Quashnet River Estuary Geukensia demissa Whole body 8.4
(Childs>Quashnet>Sage)
Childs River Estuary Geukensia demissa Whole body 9.3
Mactra veneriformis
Mouth of Shirakawa
(juvenile) Whole body 8.2
River, Ariake Sound,
Estuary Ruditapes philippinarum Yokoyama et al. (2005)
Western Kyushu, Whole body 8.5
(juvenile)
Japan
 Las Isletas

Fig. 1. Study area. (a) Regional map of Baja, Mexico and Gulf of
California. (b) Colorado River Delta and Upper Gulf of California, with
bivalve collection sites identified by arrows. Adapted from Rodriguez et al.
(2001a).
 Ground &
homogenized for
whole-shell δ15N
average Summer growth
(Umbo)
bands

Spot samples
Ventral margin for δ18O
(most recent measurement
growth)

Fig. 2. Sampling scheme for whole-shell, margin, and

summer shell powder
Table 2. Rooftop conditions during diagenesis experiment.

Max temp Min temp Avg temp Max light

Month (oC) (oC) (oC) (Lux)
April (19th-) 58 7 28 231468
May 65 10 34 231468
June 67 15 39 220446
July 67 20 37 209424
August 63 21 37 165334
Sept (-29th) 62 15 34 159823
Table 3. Mean whole-shell δ15N of Corbicula
collected from the Lower Colorado R. drainage

Location
Collection site δ15N (‰)
ID
Mitry Lake A 4.88
Imperial Lake F 10.93
Island Lake L 9.88
Lake Mead M 12.51
Yuma, AZ Y 9.60
Walter's Camp W 9.52

Mean 9.55
Table 4. All δ15N values obtained from the shells of bivalves collected from the Colorado River estuary and the lower Colorado River drainage basin

Lower Colorado River Lower Colorado River Colorado River Delta Colorado River Delta Colorado River Delta Colorado River Delta
Coribcula fluminea Unionid mussels Chione fluctifraga (modern) Chione fluctifraga (pre-dam) Mulinia coloradoensis (modern) Mulinia coloradoensis (pre-dam)
15
Shell ID Shell area δ N (‰) Shell ID Shell area δ15N (‰) Shell ID Shell area δ15N (‰) Shell ID Shell area δ15N (‰) Shell ID Shell area δ15N (‰) Shell ID Shell area δ15N (‰)
margin 2.73, 3.43 S1 whole 5.77 margin 9.48 whole 12.41 margin 11.46 D1 whole 14.11
A1 B1 G1 C1
whole 4.81 U1 whole 5.59 whole 14.91* early summer 11.87 whole 11.49 D5 whole 14.31
margin 5.18 B2 whole 14.26* whole 15.39 margin 11.84 D6 whole 13.08
A2 G2 C2
whole 3.99 margin 9.39, 10.37 early summer 15.59 whole 12.32 D7 whole 12.20
B3
margin 3.15 whole 15.03* whole 12.84 margin 9.08, 10.94 D8 whole 13.07
A3 G3 C3
whole 4.81 margin 5.96 early summer 12.26 whole 13.40 D9 whole 12.82
margin 2.12 B4 whole 14.47* G4 whole 14.90 margin 13.28 whole 12.95
A4 D10
whole 4.58 summer 13.52 G5 whole 14.72 C4 whole 13.56 early summer 8.76
AX1-control whole 4.96 BX1-control whole 15.43* G6 whole 16.00 summer 13.22 7.74*,
whole
AX2-control whole 6.11 BX2-control whole 14.43 G7 whole 16.10 CX1-control whole 14.36 D11 7.89*, 9.63
FX1-control whole 10.90 BX3-control whole 15.08* CX2-control whole 13.31 early summer 9.04
FX2-control whole 10.97 CX3-control whole 14.71 whole 7.96*
D12
L1 whole 9.03 early summer 9.21, 9.71
L2 whole 10.73
W1 whole 9.83
W2 whole 9.22
Y1 whole 9.48
Y2 whole 9.72
M1 whole 11.18
M2 whole 13.50
M3 whole 12.58
whole 12.11a
M4
whole 13.18b

MEAN margin 3.38 MEAN whole 5.68 MEAN margin 8.44 MEAN whole 14.62 MEAN margin 11.58 MEAN whole 12.14
MEAN§ whole 8.61 MEAN whole 14.77 MEAN early summer 13.24 MEAN whole 13.87 MEAN early summer 9.09
MEAN$ whole 9.55 MEAN summer 13.52 MEAN summer 13.22

a = Value from buried shell valve

b = Value from exposed shell valve
* = Value based on cross-sectional slice
§ = Based on all whole-shell values
$ = Based on location means (A, F, L, P, W, Y, M)
Table 5. δ18O values obtained from shell carbonate. Gray = shell growth during the early summer flood pulse (pre-
dam); Yellow = summer shell growth (modern)

Modern Modern
Pre-dam Mulinia Pre-dam Chione
Mulinia Chione
Shell D10 Shell D11 Shell D12 Shell C4 Shell G1 Shell G2 Shell G3 Shell B4
Drill sample δ18O δ18O δ18O δ18O δ18O δ18O δ18O δ18O
1 -1.68 -1.68 -3.90 -1.43 0.03 0.48 0.86 -0.71
2 -3.11 -3.65 -4.19 -1.24 0.13 0.05 0.56 -1.38
3 -3.63 -4.44 -4.55 -1.56 -0.34 0.43 0.24 -1.52
4 -3.49 -4.96 -3.79 -1.65 -0.43 0.61 0.56 -1.72
5 -3.23 -4.30 -1.29 -0.37 -0.70 0.65 0.48 -1.68
6 -3.50 -4.20 -1.39 1.89 -2.28 no data 0.04 -2.14
7 -3.74 -2.84 -1.19 1.21 -2.72 no data -0.05 -2.24
8 -3.42 -3.91 -2.33 1.74 -3.43 0.78 0.18 -2.15
9 -3.92 -1.88 -3.28 1.69 -2.89 0.35 -0.65 -2.30
10 -4.67 -1.91 -3.55 1.19 -4.78 0.30 -2.23 -2.47
11 -4.27 -1.90 -5.38 0.87 -5.18 0.23 -3.18 -2.16
12 -4.79 -1.70 -5.02 0.30 -3.18 -0.75 -3.03
13 -4.53 -2.45 -3.16 -0.41 -1.58 -3.43 -4.44
14 -3.43 -2.28 no data -1.08 -1.41 -2.01 -4.16
15 -3.62 -2.91 -3.26 -1.64 -1.09 0.83 -2.94
16 -3.12 -3.39 -3.29 -0.70 -0.75 -2.32
17 -2.39 -3.04 -2.38 -0.20 -2.24 -0.78
18 -2.02 -4.08 -2.50 0.12 -3.43 0.44
19 -2.37 -1.00 -1.19 -2.60 0.68
20 -2.56 -0.76 -1.29 -2.53 0.70
21 -1.43
22 -4.86
23 -5.32
24 -3.79
25 -1.88
26 -1.40
Early summer 1 (predicted) -4.15 -4.31 -4.11 -1.47 -4.01 -2.70 -3.19 -2.26
Early summer 1 (sampled) -4.13 -4.73 -4.13 -1.64 -3.62 -2.85 -3.53 -2.10
Early summer 2 (predicted) -4.08 -4.66
Early summer 2 (sampled) -4.28 NS
 Mulinia Chione
2.00 Shell D10 2.00
Shell G1
Fig. 3. δ18O 1.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
values (y-axis) -1.00 -1.00

obtained from -2.00

-3.00
-2.00
-3.00
shell carbonate. -4.00 -4.00

Sample points (x- -5.00

-6.00
-5.00
-6.00
axis) were taken 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

by drill at the 2.00

Shell D11 2.00
Shell G2
outer shell 1.00 1.00

Pre-dam
0.00 0.00
surface along a -1.00 -1.00

short transect -2.00

-3.00
-2.00
-3.00
between the -4.00 -4.00
-5.00 -5.00
umbo and ventral -6.00 -6.00
margin. Boxed 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

areas represent 2.00

Shell D12 2.00
Shell G3
summertime shell 1.00 1.00
0.00 0.00
deposition and -1.00 -1.00

were -2.00
-3.00
-2.00
-3.00
subsequently -4.00 -4.00

sampled for δ15N -5.00

-6.00
-5.00
-6.00
measurement. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

Shell C4 Shell B4
2.00 2.00
1.00 1.00
0.00 0.00

Modern
-1.00 -1.00
-2.00 -2.00
-3.00 -3.00
-4.00 -4.00
-5.00 -5.00
-6.00 -6.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Table 6. Differences between whole-shell and summer-shell δ15N values

Whole-shell Summer-shell
Species Difference
δ15N δ15N
Pre-dam shells
D10 M. coloradoensis 12.95 8.76 4.19
7.74, 7.89,
D11 M. coloradoensis 9.04 -1.30 to 0.59
9.63
D12 M. coloradoensis 7.96 9.21, 9.71 -1.25 to -1.75
G1 Ch. fluctifraga 12.41 11.87 0.54
G2 Ch. fluctifraga 15.39 15.59 -0.20
G3 Ch. fluctifraga 12.84 12.26 0.58
Modern shells
C4 M. coloradoensis 13.56 13.22 0.33
B4 Ch. fluctifraga 14.47 13.52 0.95
Table 7. δ15N values obtained in diagenesis experiment.

Shell δ15N (‰) Roof δ15N shift (‰) Oven δ15N shift (‰)
Difference Difference
Direction Direction
Shell ID Control Roof Oven (control- (control-
of change of change
roof) oven)
A1X 4.96 3.48 3.93 -1.48 - -1.03 -
A2X 6.11 6.71 5.44 0.60 + -0.67 -
F1X 10.90 10.68 10.29 -0.22 - -0.61 -
F2X 10.97 10.87 10.50 -0.10 - -0.47 -
C1X 14.36 14.60 14.46 0.24 + 0.10 +
C2X 13.31 13.91 12.64 0.60 + -0.67 -
C3X 14.71 14.38 13.66 -0.33 - -1.05 -
B1X 15.23 14.26 14.78 -0.97 - -0.45 -
B2X 14.43 14.79 14.03 0.36 + -0.40 -
B3X 15.08 14.60 13.49 -0.48 - -1.59 -
 1.00
Oven-control Roof-control

0.50

0.00
-
δ15N (‰)

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50

-2.00
Fig. 4. Diagenesis experiment: Difference in δ15N between control and experimental groups
Table 8. Turnover rates for bivalve tissues.

Turnover time
Species Collection location Environment Tissue Source
(days)
Foot 357
12 species of Unionid Eagle Creek, Raikow and Hamilton
Freshwater stream Stomach 78
mussels Southern Michigan (2001)
Gut contents 85
Whitsand Bay,
Mytilus edulis Marine Whole body 250-345 Hawkins (1985)
Southwest England
North Carolina Freshwater streams Hemolymph 113 Gustafson et al. (2007)
Elliptio complanata
Whole body
206
Naragansett Bay, (30 mm animal)
Geukensia demissa Salt marshes McKinney et al. (2001)
Rhode Island Whole body
397
(50 mm animal)