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Under-irrigated plants
• reduced photosynthesis
• less growth
• lower yields
Water deficits
When is Irrigation Needed?
2.5
2.0
Rainfall (in.)
1.5
Blueberry harvest
Effective
1.0 rainfall
threshold
0.5 23 d
18 d 11 d 10 d 12 d
9d 25 d 19 d 69 d 10 d 9d
0.0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
2011 2011
Rapid onset of water stress in blueberry
Leaf water potential declined as predicted As leaf water potential began to decline after
when soil water was depleted over time 3 to 4 days, transpiration also declined
Elliott Elliott
Predawn
0.0 70
Irrigated
60
Leaf water potential (MPa)
-0.5
Transpiration (ml/h)
50
-1.0
Midday
40
-1.5 Non-irrigated
30
-2.0
Onset of leaf wilting
20
-2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Reduced photosynthesis
Leaf wilting
Leaf death/senescence
Drought Stage Effects on Yield
Bluecrop
3500
a
3000 100%
b b
2500 79% b
78%
Yield (g/plant)
74%
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Control Fruit growth Ripening Harvest
Bluecrop
1400
a a
1200 100% 102% a
96%
Flower buds per plant
1000 a
91%
800
b
600 53%
400
200
0
Control Fruit growth Ripening Harvest Post-harvest
Over-irrigated plants
• reduced root function
• increased soil erosion
& nutrient leaching
• higher incidence of root
rot diseases
Flooding
„Perfect‟ Irrigation
Transpiration
Irrigation
Rainfall
Evaporation
Sprinklers Drip
12
'Bluetta'
10
Microspray
8
Yield (t/ha)
6 Drip
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
Years after planting
Sprinklers
Drip
Irrigation rates:
Cultivars: • 50% ET (deficient)
c
• „Duke‟ • 100% ETc (optimum)
• „Elliott‟ • 150% ETc (excessive)
Microsprays
ETc = crop evapotranspiration
Objective: Identify the best irrigation method for
growth, production, and water use efficiency in blueberry
Irrigation manifold
50% ETc A
600 100% ETc a
150% ETc AB
B
500 ab
bc bc a-c
Plant dry weight (g/plant)
bc
bc cd
400 C C b-d
de
de
de e
300
ef ef
D
200
fg
g g
100
0
Sprink. Microspr. Drip Sprink. Microspr. Drip
Duke Elliott
Duke was smaller with drip
and growth was quite variable
20 ab
Phytophthora
ab
15 b-d a-c
b-d
10
c-e
5
de
de
e e e e e e e e e
0
Sprinkler Microspray Drip Sprinkler Microspray Drip
Duke Elliott
Root rot reduced growth in Duke –
especially with drip
Drip
Sprinklers
Sprinkler
Microspray
Drip
0.60
0.55
100% 150%
Total dry wt. (kg/plant)
0.50
0.45 150%
100%
50%
100%
0.40
150%
0.35 50%
50%
0.30
0.25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Irrigation (in.)
Elliott was first cropped in Year 3
while Duke was cropped the following year
Marketable Fruit Production (2006-2010)
Duke Elliott
5.5 12
Microspray
Microspray
5.0
10
8
Yield (ton/acre)
4.0 Drip
3.5 6
3.0 Drip
4
Microsprays produced
2.5 highest yields in Elliott
Drip caused (so far)
2
2.0 severe problems with
root rot in Duke
1.5 0
3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7
“Right”
source
“Right”
time
“Right”
place “Right” rate
Control
Weekly fertigation Granular (drip)
(liquid urea) (ammonium sulfate)
0 lbs/acre N 0 lbs/acre N
45 lbs/acre N 45 lbs/acre N
90 lbs/acre N 90 lbs/acre N
135 lbs/acre N 135 lbs/acre N
15 45
2006 (Year 1) 2007 (Year 2)
14
40
13
12 35
Canopy cover (%)
Weekly fertigation
2.1 2.1
Split fertigation
Granular (drip)
Granular (microspray)
Leaf N (%)
Leaf N (%)
1.8 1.8
1.5 1.5
0 lbs/acre
60 45 lbs/acre
90 lbs/acre
135 lbs/acre
50
Dead plants (%)
40
30
20
10
0
Weekly Split Granular Granular
fertigation fertigation (drip) (microspray)
Fertilizer application
Soil solution samplers
150
NH4+-N (ppm)
NH4+-N (ppm)
2
120
90
1
60
30
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
NH4+-N (ppm)
9 600
6 400
3 200
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
0 lbs/acre N
45 lbs/acre N
90 lbs/acre N
135 lbs/acre N
Electrical conductivity (mS cm-1)
2
1
1
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
Electrical conductivity (mS cm-1)
2 8
1 4
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
0 lbs/acre N
45 lbs/acre N
90 lbs/acre N
135 lbs/acre N
NO3--N (ppm)
100 100
50 50
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
NO3--N (ppm)
300
100
200
50
100
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2007 2007
Visible Near-infrared
15 45
2006 (Year 1) 2007 (Year 2)
14
40
13
12 35
Canopy cover (%)
Weekly fertigation
2.1 2.1
Split fertigation
Granular (drip)
Granular (microspray)
Leaf N (%)
Leaf N (%)
1.8 1.8
1.5 1.5
Continuous fertigation
(N-pHURIC)
120 lbs N/acre
Weekly
Split fertigation
fertigation Granular (microspray)
(ammonium
(liquid urea)sulfate) (ammonium sulfate)
0 lbs/acre N 0 lbs/acre N
60
45 lbs/acre N 60 45 lbs/acre N
120
90 lbs/acre
lbs/acre NN 120 90 lbs/acre N
135
180 lbs/acre N 180 135 lbs/acre N
0 lbs/acre N
60 lbs/acre N
120 lbs/acre N
180 lbs/acre N
NH4+-N (ppm)
6 120
5
4 90
3 60
2
30
1
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
NH4+-N (ppm)
2000
15
12 1500
N-pHURIC
9
1000
6
500
3
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
0 lbs/acre N
60 lbs/acre N
120 lbs/acre N
180 lbs/acre N
Electrical conductivity (mS cm-1)
5
2
4
3
1
2
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
20
2
15
N-pHURIC 10
1
5
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
0 lbs/acre N
60 lbs/acre N
120 lbs/acre N
180 lbs/acre N
NO3--N (ppm)
400 400
200 200
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
NO3--N (ppm)
400 400
0 0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
2008 2008
Plants were first cropped in 2008 (Year 3)
Fertigation (ammonium sulfate) - [previously split fertigation]
Fertigation (urea)
Granular (ammonium sulfate)
Granular (urea) - [previously granular (drip)]
Yield (kg/plant)
Yield (kg/plant)
Yield (kg/plant)
a a ab a
a a 3.5
a a
a a
0.6 b 1.6 a ab
b a ab
b
a b b 3.0
a b a
0.4 1.4 b a b bc
b NS
F ** F a F **
N ** b N ** 2.5 N **
0.2 F xN ** 1.2 F xN ** a F xN * c
a
0.0 1.0 2.0
0 60 120 180 0 67 133 200 0 75 150 225
N application (lb/acre) N application (lb/acre) N application (lb/acre)
1 kg = 2.2 lbs
Most Important Findings in Years 3-6:
Irrigated Non-irrigated
Fertilized Non-fertilized
Gough (1984)
Field site
6-year-old „Elliott‟
blueberry plants
Irrigation treatments
Wetting
front
Wetting Wetting
front front
Each treatment received
the same amount of water
Fertilizer treatments
An unfertilized treatment
was also included
All measurements were
taken on the east and west
sides of the plants
separately
Soil water content
0-0.3 m depth
35 35
Soil water content (%)
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Jun 1 Jun 15 Jun 29 Jul 13 Jul 27 Aug 10 Aug 24 Sep 7 Jun 1 Jun 15 Jun 29 Jul 13 Jul 27 Aug 10 Aug 24 Sep 7
2009 2009
Measured by TDR
Plant water status
Ho: Lower water potential on un-irrigated side of the plant
Handle
Computer
Camera &
light source Power source
Minirhizotron
tube (clear)
1. Water applied to only one side reduced shoot & fruit production;
N fertilizer applied to only one side reduced leaf N%
2. No evidence for lateral isolation of water & nutrients
3. Plant water & nutrient status were higher when irrigation &
fertilizer were applied to the east side than to the west side
Study 4
Cultivar Comparisons
Influence of Application Method
(planted Oct. 2008)
Six cultivars
Earliblue Draper Elliott
Duke Bluecrop Aurora
Level raised
planting beds
Rectangular
spray pattern
(5‟ x 10‟)
KISSS (Kapillary Irrigation Sub Surface System)
Drip Drip
lateral lateral KISSS
lateral
Wetting
Wetting front
front Wetting
front
Bluecrop
Drip Microspray
KISSS
Elliott
Drip Microspray
KISSS
Why is KISSS better?
Drip Drip
lateral lateral KISSS
lateral
NH4+ NH4+
NH4+ NH4+ NH4+ NH4+
NH4+ NH4+
NH4+ NH4+
NH4+ NH4+
Wetting
Wetting front
front Wetting
front
Fruit Production
(Year 3) 1 kg = 2.2 lbs
Yield (kg/plant)
Irrigation
method Earliblue Duke Draper* Bluecrop Elliott Aurora
1. Yield was similar between Drip and KISSS in each cultivar but
lower with Microsprays
2. With drip, low N had no effect on yield in the early- and mid-
season cultivars but reduced yield in the late-season cultivars
Study 5
Rapid Field Establishment
More on Fertilizer Source, Timing & Placement
(planted Oct. 2010)
• Pre-plant fertilizers
• Fertilizer timing
Current Drip Recommendations
During Establishment
4. Either move the drip lines closer to the plants the first
few months after planting…or…make a couple small
applications of granular fertilizer…or…use slow-
release fertilizer to establish the plants.
Acknowledgements
Graduate students:
• Oscar Vargas
• Luciane Letzke
Cooperators
• Bernadine Strik (OSU) • Wei Yang (OSU)
• Rui Machado (U. Evora) • David Ehret (Ag Canada)
• Bob Linderman (retired)
Technical Support
• Amber Shireman
• Will Fummerton
• OSU undergrads
Funding
• Oregon Blueberry Commission
• Northwest Center for Small Fruit Research
• Fall Creek Farm & Nursery
Irrigation System Maintenance
Uniformity of Water Application
Common assumption:
Irrigation water is applied uniformly across the field
Reality:
All irrigation systems apply water non-uniformly
Drought stress
Deep
Deep
percolation
percolation
Non-uniform distribution
Uniformity of Water Application
Goal:
Avoid drought stress & yield loss
NH4+ K+ Deep
Deep H2PO4 -
percolation
percolation
NO3- NO3- NO3- NO3-
Non-uniform distribution
NO3- NO3-
Distribution Uniformity
*Target range.
Washington Berry Fields
100
90
Good
80
Distribution uniformity (%)
Fair
70
60
Poor
50
40
30
Blueberry
Failed
20 Raspberry
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Evaluation rank
*From Walters et al.
Non-Uniformity with Drip