Evaporation

) The evaporation process

) Estimation of evaporation from water surface
Water balance method
Mass transfer method
Energy budget method
Combined method

) Potential evapotranspiration

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 Evaporation in hydrology

Water supply reservoir

– Loss of resources

Soil moisture condition

– Affect runoff conditions

Continuous watershed simulation models

– Overall water balance

Atmospheric science Agricultural science

- generation of precipitation - soil moisture available for
plants

2
 e

Vapor pressure gradient

es Saturated air
Lake surface

3
 Factors affecting evaporation

1. Availability of energy (latent heat)

• Qe: Energy available for evaporation [cal/cm2-day]
• E : evaporation [cm/day]
• Le : latent heat of evaporation [cal/g]

Qe = MLe [M : mass]
= E × (1 cm2 )ρ Le
Qe
E= [cm / day]
ρLe

2. Saturation deficit, es-e

• Evaporation rate proportional to es-e
E = C(es-e)
4
3. Temperature
• Warm water will evaporate faster (less latent heat
required)
Le = 597.3 − 0.57 T [cal/g], T in o C

• Warm air can hold more vapor

4. Wind
• Removes saturated air and maintains vapor pressure
gradient.

Transpiration
• Vegetation
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 Potential evapotranspiration

Potential evapotranspiration from land surface

≈
Evaporation from open water surface

Actual evapotranspiration depends on the dryness of the

soil.

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 Method 1: Water budget

Applicable to lake evaporation

∆storage = input − output

∆S = (I + P) − (O + E + GW)

Or E = -∆S+I+P-O-GW

I : inflow [cm]
P : precipitation [cm]
O: outflow [cm]
E : Evaporation [cm]
GW: Groundwater seepage [cm]

Limitations:
– Estimation of seepage (GW)
– Estimation of precipitation 7
 Mass transfer method

Evaporation driven by
– Vapor pressure gradient
– Wind speed

E = f(u)(es − ea )
= ( a + b u)(es − ea )

es : saturation vapor pressure at temperature above surface

ea : vapor pressure at some level above surface
u : wind speed at some level above surface
a,b : empirical constants

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 Example

Using Meyer's formula

 u 
E = 0.0269 1 +  (e − e ) [cm / day]
8

 16 
s a

[u in km / h, e in mb]
8

determine lake evaporation for a month in which

– average air temperature = 20°C,
– average water temperature = 15 °C,
– average wind speed at 8 m = 15 km/h
– average relative humidity is 50%

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Solution

Saturated vapor pressure above water surface

Air temperature above surface ≈ water temperature = 15 °C

 4278.6 
es = 2.7489 × 108 exp − 
 (T = 25) + 242.79 
= 17.0 mb

Vapor pressure at height of 8 m

es(20 °C) = 23.3 mb

e = RH es = 0.5×23.3 = 11.7 mb
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 u
E = 0.0269 1 +  (e − e )
8

 16 
s a

25 
= 0.0269 1 +  (17.0 − 11.7 )
 16 
= 0.37 cm / day
= 11.1 cm / month

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 Energy budget method

QN Qe Qh

Qθ Qv

QN : net radiation [cal/cm2-day]

(solar radiation – reflection – radiation from lake)
Qe : evaporation energy
Qh : sensible heat transfer (water heats the air)
Qv : advected energy
Qθ : change in stored energy

QN = Qe + Qh - Qv + Qθ
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 Energy budget method

Sensible heat transfer difficult to measure

Qh ≈ R × Qe
where
Ts − Ta [Eq. 1.16]
R=γ
es − ea

Ta : air temperature [°C]

Ts : water surface temperature [°C]
ea : vapor pressure of the air [mb]
es : saturation vapor pressure at water surface temp. [mb]
γ : psychrometric constant = 0.66 (P/1000), P in mb

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 Energy budget method
Qe
Daily evaporation depth: E = [cm / day]
ρLe

Energy balance QN = Qe (1 + R) − Qv + Qθ
= EρLe (1 + R) − Qv + Qθ

QN + Qv − Qθ
or E = [cm / day]
ρLe (1 + R)

with Q in [cal/cm2-day]
Le in [cal/g]
ρ in [g/cm3] 14
 Combined method (Penman)

Combined 'mass transfer' and 'energy budget':

∆ γ
EρL = Q + E [units as before – Eq. 1.17]
∆+γ ∆+γ
e N a

∆ : slope of es vs t curve (at air temperature - equation 1.18)

Ea = ρLe ( a + bu)(esa − ea ) [cal / cm2 − day]

where a,b : empirical constants

esa : saturation vapor pressure at air temp.
ea : actual vapor pressure

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 Example (textbook Ex. 1.5B)

Assume Meyer's formula applies to a lake:

E = 0.0269 (1+0.1 u)(es-ea) [cm/day]

u in mi/h, e in mb

Given:
Ta = 32.2°C
u = 32 km/h = 20 mi/h
RH = 30%
QN = 400 cal/cm2-day

estimate daily evaporation using Penman's formula.

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Solution
2.7489 × 108 × 4278.6  4278.6 
∆= exp −  [eq. 1.18]
(T + 242.79) 2
 T + 242.79 

with T = 32.2oC, ∆ = 2.72 mb /oC

Actual and saturation vapor pressure:

esa (T = 32.2o C) = 48.1 mb [eq. 1.6]
ea = RH × esa = 0.3 × 48.1 = 14.4 mb

Latent heat of evaporation at air temperature:

Le = 597.3 − 0.57 × 32.2 = 579 cal / g [eq. 1.7]

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Ea = ρLe 0.0269(1 + 0.1 u)(esa − ea )
= 1 × 579 × 0.0269(1 − 0.1 × 20)( 48.1 − 14.4)
= 1590 cal/cm2 −day

Penman's equation:
∆ γ
EρLe = QN + Ea
∆+γ ∆+γ
2.72 0.66
= 400 + 1590
2.72 + 0.66 2.72 + 0.66

= 632 cal/cm2 − day

632
Or: E= = 1.1 cm/day
1 × 579 18