>>> By William P. Bahnfleth, PhD, PE & Eric B.

Peyer

Varying Views
on Variable-Primary Flow
C H I L L E D - W A T E R S Y S T E M S

Variable -primary flow sur-
vey of designers, chiller
manufacturers, and sys-
tem users
V
ariable-primary flow chilled-water systems are of
much current interest. It has been suggested that
the primary/secondary chilled-water system con-
cept has outlived its lifespan and that variable-pri-
mary flow is the answer to the problems that have led to its
“demise”. 1 This view is not universally held and certainly de-
serves close scrutiny before it is accepted. As part of a recent re-
search project investigating variable-primary flow systems, 2
the authors summarized available literature and conducted
surveys and interviews of designers (43), chiller manufacturers
(4), and system owner/operators (8). This article presents se-
lected findings of this state-of-the-art review.

WHAT IS VARIABLE-PRIMARY FLOW?

For several decades, most large chilled water systems have
used primary/secondary pumping. A highly simplified
schematic of a primary/secondary system is shown in Figure 1.
Hydraulically, the system is com-
prised of two independent circuits
Secondary pumps separated by a decoupling bypass
pipe, through which water may flow
freely in either direction. On the pri-
mary (plant) side of the system,

Chiller Chiller Load Load A member of HPAC Engineering’s

Editorial Advisory Board, William P.
Bahnfleth PhD, PE, is an associate
Decoupling professor and director of the Indoor En-
bypass vironment Center in the Department
of Architectural Engineering at Penn
State University in University Park,
Primary
Pa. He can be reached at wbahn-
pumps fleth@psu.edu. Eric Peyer, an engi-
neer with Grumman/Butkus Assoc. in
Evanston, IL., can be reached at
FIGURE 1. Schematic of primary/secondary system. EBP@grummanbutkus.com

March 2004 CHILLED WATER ENGINEERING S5

C H I L L E D W A T E R E N G I N E E R I N G

less than the sum of the design

flows of operating chillers. In a
System pump(s) primary/secondary system, this
scenario would result in excess
primary flow and recirculation
from supply to return through
the bypass. This excess primary
Chiller 1 Chiller 2 Load 1 Load 2 flow does not occur in a variable-
primary flow system except
when cooling load is so low that
the bypass must open. Energy
Low-flow savings are also possible when
bypass
conditions permit flow to one or
more chillers to exceed design
flow. This is possible when the
system flow is within the sum of
the maximum flows of the active
chillers and cooling load is less
FIGURE 2. Schematic of a primary-only, variable-primary flow system. than or equal to the sum of their
capacities. In this case, chilled
pumps typically operating at pass as shown. This bypass is water pumping energy may not
constant speed are matched to normally closed and opens only be saved, but auxiliary energy
design evaporator flow rates of under low load conditions to en- consumption of cooling tower
the chillers. Primary flow occurs sure that minimum flow is fans and condenser water pumps
in steps as chillers are staged on maintained through the evapo- is saved if variable flow prevents
and off. On the secondary rators of operating chillers. the starting of an additional
(load) side of the system, pumps chiller.
typically operating at variable BENEFITS AND COSTS The first cost of a primary-
speed maintain a differential Proponents of variable-pri- only variable-primary flow plant
pressure set point at a hydrauli- mary flow systems point to three is likely to be lower than that of
cally remote location in the dis- main potential benefits of this a primary/secondary plant sim-
tribution system, while control system type relative to the pri- ply because two sets of pumps
valves modulate the flow of wa- mary/secondary system: energy are replaced with one.
ter as required to meet the cool- and operating cost savings, first The capacity produced by a
ing load. cost savings, and better ability to chiller is proportional to the
Variable-primary flow chilled- tolerate below-design chilled wa- product of the evaporator flow
water plants permit variation in ter temperature differentials. rate and the temperature differ-
evaporator-water flow rate to Energy savings are possible ence of entering and leaving
match the demand for flow of a whenever the secondary flow is chilled water. “Low ∆T syn-
variable-flow distribution
system. Consequently, it
is not necessary to have 2.0
separate primary and sec- 1.5
Percent design flow rate
Percent difference, KW per ton

ondary circuits, and only a 120

1.0 80
single set of pumps is re- 60
quired. A simple primary- 0.5 40
only, variable-primary
flow system is shown 0.0
schematically in Figure 2. -0.5
As in the primary/second-
-1.0
ary system, chilled water
flow rate is controlled to -1.5
meet the cooling load, and -2.0
variable-speed pumps 100 80 60 40 20
control differential pres- Percent design load
sure at a remote location
in the distribution system.
A variable-primary flow FIGURE 3. Chiller part-load performance (KW per ton) for various combinations of
system should have a by- flow rate and chilled-water temperature difference.4

S6 CHILLED WATER ENGINEERING March 2004


# of
Description respondents
Energy savings/
reduced 12
operating costs
Lower first cost 11
Less space 8 lower minimum velocities in
required
Minimize
number of
6 particular machine depend on
chillers on line
and KW/ton
Simplicity 4 Clearly, maximum turndown
Owner 2 25 percent. In a plant with two
preference
TABLE 1. Survey respondents’
reasons for using variable-
primary flow.
drome” can be a serious problem
for primary/secondary systems
with constant primary flow be-
cause it is not possible to reach
full chiller capacity, unless design
∆T is available. Variable-pri-
mary flow controls permit flow
through evaporators to be in-
creased above design value, mak-
ing it possible to adjust to less
than ideal chilled-water return
temperatures.
The major challenges of vari-
able-primary flow are control
complexity and stability. Pri-
mary/secondary system chiller
staging sequences are relatively
simple, well understood, and do
not pose a serious challenge to
the controls of packaged chillers.
Variable-primary flow chiller
staging requires more care so
that chillers are not inadvertently
shut down during simultaneous
flow and load changes. The de-
signer must also understand and
properly apply low flow bypass
controls.
HARDWARE ISSUES
The key component perform-
ance issue for variable-primary
flow systems is the ability of
chillers to respond to changes in
flow. The minimum and maxi-
mum chilled water flow rates
and maximum rate of change of
C H I L L E D
flow are important application
considerations.
Flow rate ranges are deter-
mined by maximum and mini-
mum tube velocity limitations.
A typical range is 3 to 12 ft per
sec, although newer tube de-
signs may be capable of even
the 1.5-ft-per-sec range. Maxi-
mum and minimum flows for a
where the design tube velocity is
selected within this range.
cannot be lower than roughly
or more chillers, this allows pri-
mary flow to vary over most of
the hours of a typical cooling
season.
Manufacturers differ greatly
in their allowances for maxi-
mum rate of change. These var-
ied from “not recommended”
for some models to as much as
30 percent of design per minute
for others. One manufacturer
recommends slower flow modu-
lation for systems with shorter
“turnover time” (i.e., the time re-
quired to circulate the entire vol-
ume of the piping system
through the primary pumps).
Absorption chillers can be used
in variable-primary flow applica-
tions, although their ability to
accommodate high flow rate
variations is not as good as that
of vapor-compression chillers.
The effect of evaporator-flow
variation on the energy con-
sumption of chillers is also of in-
terest to those considering the
use of variable-primary flow.
Published research and data pro-
vided by manufacturers indi-
cates that to a first approxima-
tion, the energy use
characteristics of constant speed
drive vapor compression chillers
are not affected by flow varia-
tion.3,4 Figure 3 shows variation
in energy consumption (KW per
ton) of a chiller as both load and
evaporator flow rate are varied.
Energy use is within ±2 percent
of design in all cases and within
±1 percent in most cases.
W A T E R E N G I N E E R I N G
SYSTEM CONTROL
Successful system control in a
variable-primary flow system re-
quires working within the limi-
tations of system components to
adjust flow and chiller capacity
to changing load conditions.
The greatest risk to a variable-
primary flow system is a sudden
drop in flow rate when a new
chiller is started and flow is di-
verted from the evaporators of
active chillers to the evaporator
of the starting chiller.
For example, suppose that a
variable-primary flow plant is
just meeting a 50-percent cool-
ing load with one of two identi-
cal chillers. Further increase of
the load will require the addition
of the second chiller. If its isola-
tion valve is opened,
there will be a rapid re- # of
duction of flow Description respondents
through the active
chiller by as much as Lack of
50 percent that is guidance/support from 13
likely to cause the ac- manufacturers
tive chiller to shut and literature
down. To prevent this Recent
problem, the capacity technology 7
of active chillers /unproven
should be limited Concerned
prior to staging and about chiller 5
the isolation valve for performance
the added chiller Have not found
should open slowly. right client/ 4
5
Eppelheimer gives a application
detailed discussion of Complexity 4
this issue that includes
a comparison with Unfamiliarity 3
chiller staging in pri- with the system
mary/secondary sys-
TABLE 2. Survey respondents’
tems. He notes that
reasons for not using variable-
the decoupling of pri-
primary flow.
mary and secondary
circuits makes it possible to
maintain design flow in the ac-
tive chiller during staging, with
excess primary flow recirculating
through the bypass.
Control of the low flow by-
pass is also a potential concern.
The bypass should operate when
one chiller is online and system
flow is lower than its minimum
flow. Modulation of the bypass
valve is controlled by the flow or
March 2004 CHILLED WATER ENGINEERING S7
C H I L L E D W A T E R E N G I N E E R I N G
pressure difference measured across the
evaporator of the chiller. The valve, how-
ever, can be located almost anywhere in
the system, so it must be capable of func-
tioning under the range of differential
pressure that it will experience.6 The
most critical constraint is that the bypass
valve be able to pass its maximum flow at
the lowest possible pressure differential,
Circle 180
S8 CHILLED WATER ENGINEERING March 2004
which is the minimum control head of
the system. An alternative to this ap- turers revealed a wide variety of experi-
proach is to use a limited number of
three-way valves in the system to ensure
that system flow is always at or above the
chiller minimum.
ATTITUDES
Surveys of chilled-water-system de- currently applying variable-primary flow
signers, owner/operators, and manufac-
ence and opinion regarding the use of
variable-primary flow. Roughly half of
the designers surveyed had some level of
variable-primary flow experience. This
should not be taken as an indication of
the proportion of all designers who are
concepts, but it does show that a variety
of engineers are utilizing this approach.
Reasons given for survey respondents’
decisions to use or not use variable-pri-
mary flow are shown in tables 1 and 2,
respectively. It is interesting to note that
simplicity was identified as a reason for
using variable-primary flow by those
with experience, while complexity was
cited as a negative factor by those with-
out experience. Those who favored vari-
able-primary flow focused on the bene-
fits to the owner, while those who were
not using it focused on the lack of de-
tailed information on how to apply it
and its relatively short track record.
Claims that technical support for vari-
able-primary flow from manufacturers
and in published literature is lacking are
somewhat contradicted by a growing
body of bulletins and articles (e.g.,
Schwedler and Bradley 7,8 ) that provide
specific guidance on variable-primary
flow system design. Well-documented
case studies, however, are still in short
supply.
By far, most of the variable-primary
flow systems designed by survey respon-
Chiller # of
selection
respondents
criteria
Velocity or
flow limits 14
Evaporator
water-side 6
pressure drop
Internal chiller
controls capable 4
of VPF
Rate of change 2
for flow rates
No particular
criteria specific 1
to VPF
TABLE 3. Variable primary flow
chiller selection criteria.
 C H I L L E D W A T E R E N G I N E E R I N G
dents were primary-only systems be-
cause of the first-cost advantage of that
type of system. Respondents reported
having successfully applied variable-pri-
mary flow to systems with water-cooled
and air-cooled vapor-compression
chillers, as well as with absorption
chillers. When asked which chiller selec-
tion issues were of the greatest impor-
tance, they gave the responses summa-
rized in table 3. Owners and operators of
systems who participated in the survey
had few negative comments to offer on
their experiences. Owners claimed that
conversion of their systems to variable-
primary flow had resolved low ∆T prob-
lems and reduced energy use. Most of
those surveyed would choose variable-
primary flow systems in the future. This
does not mean that variable-primary
flow systems have not experienced prob-
lems, but it does provide evidence that
successful variable-primary flow systems
are being built.
PERFORMANCE
Documentation of the energy- and
cost-saving potential of variable-primary
flow systems is not plentiful and based
mainly on simulation. These studies
show significant reductions in pump en-
ergy savings and good economic per-
formance. 7,9,10 Simulations have also
demonstrated some key characteristics
of variable-primary flow system behav-
ior. Of particular importance is the rap-
idly diminishing pump energy savings
for variable-primary flow as the number
of parallel chillers in a plant increases be-
cause the increments of flow possible in a
primary/secondary plant become
smaller and more nearly continuous.
However, the promise of simulated per-
formance needs to be confirmed by
more and more rigorous, detailed meas-
urements taken from actual systems.
CONCLUSION
Variable-primary flow chilled water
systems may, in appropriate applica-
tions, reduce both first cost and operat-
ing cost relative to primary/secondary
systems. Improved packaged chiller con-
trols make many current model chillers
suitable for variable-primary flow appli-
cation. Designers of variable-primary
flow systems are developing a record of
success and experience with this system
type that should lead to continued
growth in its use in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Survey data presented in this article
were collected as part of research project
611-20070 sponsored by the Air-Con-
ditioning and Refrigeration Technology
Institute (ARTI) under its HVAC&R
Research for the 21st Century (21CR)
program.
REFERENCES
1) Kirsner, W. (1996, November).
The demise of the primary-secondary
pumping paradigm for chilled water
plant design. HPAC Engineering, pp
73-79.
2) Bahnfleth, W., & Peyer, E.
(2004). Variable-primary flow chilled
water systems: potential benefits and ap-
plication issues. Final Report to the
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration
Technology Institute (under review).
Arlington, VA.: ARI
3) Redden, G. H. (1996). Effect of
variable flow on centrifugal chiller
performance. ASHRAE Transactions,
102 (2), 684-687.
4) Berry, F. (2000). Personal com-
munication.
5) Eppelheimer, D. (1996). Vari-
able flow—the quest for system en-
ergy efficiency. ASHRAE Transactions,
102 (2), 673-678.
6) Taylor, S. (2002, July). Piping
chillers to variable volume chilled wa-
ter systems. ASHRAE Journal, 36 (7),
43-45.
7) Schwedler, M. & Bradley, B.
(2000, April). Variable-primary-flow
systems. HPAC Engineering, pp 41-
44.
8) Schwedler, M. & Bradley, B.
(2003, March). Variable-primary flow
in chilled-water systems. HPAC Engi-
neering, pp 37-45.
9) Bahnfleth, W. & Peyer, E. (2001,
May). Comparative analysis of vari-
able and constant primary-flow
chilled-water-plant performance.
HPAC Engineering, pp 41-50.
10) Bellenger, L. (2003, Septem-
ber). Revisiting chiller retrofits to re-
place constant volume pumps. HPAC
Engineering, pp 75-76, 78-80, 82, 84,
86, 116.
Circle 152
March 2004 CHILLED WATER ENGINEERING S9