Crustal Deformation

Previous Class: Earth’s history and Geological

Time Scale
(Radioactive Dating)
 Structural  Geology  
•  Structural geologists study the architecture
and processes responsible for deformation of
Earth’s crust.
•  The basic features resulting from the forces
generated by the interactions of tectonic plates
= tectonic structures » folds
» faults
» joints
» foliation, rock cleavage
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 Deforma1on,  Stress,  and  Strain  
•  Deformation is a general term that refers
to all changes in the original form and/or
size of a rock body.

•  Most crustal deformation occurs along

plate margins.

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 Deforma1on,  Stress,  and  Strain  
•  Deformation involves:
•  Stress—force applied to a given area
•  Types of stress
» Compressional stress shortens a rock
body.
» Tensional stress tends to elongate or pull
apart a rock unit.
» Shear stress produces a motion similar to
slippage that occurs between individual
playing cards when the top of the stack is
moved relative to the bottom.

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 Deforma1on,  Stress,  and  Strain  
•  Strain—changes in the shape or size of a rock
body caused by stress

•  Strained bodies lose their original configuration

during deformation

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 How  Rocks  Deform  
•  Rocks subjected to stresses greater than their
own strength (elastic limit) begin to deform
by flowing or fracturing.

•  General characteristics of rock deformation

– Elastic deformation—The rock returns to nearly
its original size and shape when the stress is
removed.
– Once the elastic limit (strength) of a rock is
surpassed, it either flows (ductile deformation) or
fractures (brittle deformation).

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Deforma1on  of  Rocks  

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 Mapping  Geologic  Structures  
•  Describing and mapping the orientation or
attitude of a rock layer involves determining
the features.
•  Strike (trend)
– The compass direction of the line produced by
the intersection of an inclined rock layer or fault
with a horizontal plane
– Generally expressed as an angle relative to north

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Mapping  Geologic  Structures  
•  Dip (inclination)
– The angle of inclination of the surface of a rock
unit or fault measured from a horizontal plane
– Includes both an of inclination and a direction
toward which the rock is inclined.

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Strike  and  Dip  of    
a  Rock  Layer  

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 Folds  (Duc1le  Deforma1on)  
•  Along convergent plate boundaries, rocks are often bent
into a series of wave-like undulations called folds.
•  Characteristics of folds
•  Most folds result from compressional stresses that
shorten and thicken the crust.

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Characteristics of folds
•  Parts of a fold
– Limbs refer to the two sides of a fold.
– An axial plane is an imaginary surface that divides a
fold symmetrically.
– A line drawn along the points of max curvature of each
layer is the hinge

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                                              Folds  
•  Common types of folds
•  1. Anticline—upfolded or arched rock layers
•  2. Syncline—downfolds or troughs of rock
layers

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                                    An1clines  and  Synclines  
•  Depending on their orientation, anticlines
and synclines can be described as:
a) Symmetrical - the limbs are mirror images of
each other

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                                  An1clines  and  Synclines  
b) Asymmetrical - one limb dips more steeply than
the other

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                                    An1clines  and  Synclines  

c) Overturned – one or both limbs

are tilted beyond vertical
» in areas with intense deformation

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                                    An1clines  and  Synclines  
d) Recumbent – a plane
extending through the axis
of the fold is horizontal (it
“lies” on its side)

» Common in highly
deformed mountainous
regions

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                                      An1clines  and  Synclines  
•  Depending on the fold axis:
•  Plunging – the axis of the fold penetrates the
ground

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                                    An1clines  and  Synclines  

•  Depending on the fold axis:

•  Non-plunging – the axis of the fold is horizontal

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Activity

A  Geologic  Map  Showing  the  Strike    

and  Dip  of  Structures-­‐Iden1fy  the  An1cline  and  Syncline    

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 Faults  (BriFle  Deforma1on)  
•  Faults are fractures in rocks along which
appreciable displacement has taken place.
•  Sudden movements along faults are the
cause of most earthquakes.
•  Classified by their relative movement, which
can be horizontal, vertical, or oblique.

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 Faults  
•  Types of faults
•  1. Dip-slip faults
– Movement is mainly parallel to the dip
(inclination) of the fault surface
– Parts of a dip-slip fault include the hanging wall
(rock surface above the fault) and the footwall
(rock surface below the fault)

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 Hanging  Wall  and  
Footwall  Along  a  Dip-­‐Slip  Fault  Surface  

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 Dip-­‐Slip  Faults  
•  Types of dip-slip faults
a) Normal faults
» The hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall.
» Accommodate lengthening or extension of the
crust
» Most are small with displacements of 1 meter
or so.

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Normal  Fault  
Tensional Stress

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 Dip-­‐Slip  Faults  
•  Types of dip-slip faults
b) Reverse and thrust faults
» The hanging wall block moves up relative to
the footwall block.
» Reverse faults have dips greater than 45
degrees and thrust faults have dips less then
45 degrees.
» Accommodate shortening of the crust
» Strong compressional forces
» Thrust faults are most pronounced along
convergent plate boundaries
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Reverse  Fault  

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 Strike-­‐Slip  Faults  
•  Strike-slip faults
•  Transform faults
– Large strike-slip faults that cut through the
lithosphere
– Accommodate motion between two large
crustal plates
– Many cut the oceanic lithosphere and link
spreading ridges
– Others accommodate displacement between
continental plates that move horizontally with
respect to each other

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Transform  Fault  Boundaries  

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The  San  Andreas  Fault  System  

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 Joints  
•  When tectonic forces cause upwarping of the crust, rocks
near the surface are stretched and pulled apart to form
fractures
•  A joint is a fracture with no appreciable displacement
•  Most occur in roughly parallel groups.

Arches Natl. Park, UT Devil’s Tower, WY

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•  Significance of folds/faults/joints
•  Many economically important mineral
deposits are emplaced along joint systems
(important for Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Pb, and U).
•  Highly jointed rocks often represent a risk to
construction projects.
•  Chemical weathering tends to be
concentrated along joints.

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Petroleum Exploration