SUPPLEMENT 7

Incident Mitigation

Editor’s Note: This supplement is taken from the 2002 edition of this handbook. In that
handbook, the full text of the 2002 edition of NFPA 471, Recommended Practice for Re-
sponding to Hazardous Materials Incidents, was included. Since then, NFPA 471 has
been withdrawn. This supplement is a reprint of Chapter 8, including both the standard
and commentary text. All text is now considered commentary text, as the standard no
longer exists. The material can still be useful to the reader, so it is included as a supple-
ment in this handbook.

This supplement addresses those actions necessary to en- 1. Chemical

sure confinement and containment, which is the first line
of defense, in a manner that will minimize risk to both life
and the environment in the early, critical stages of a spill or
leak. Both natural and synthetic methods can be employed
to limit the releases of hazardous materials so that effective
recovery and treatment can be accomplished with mini-
mum additional risk to the environment or to life.
The well-respected hazardous materials expert Lud-
wig Benner, Jr. offered a popular definition of hazardous
materials: Something that jumps out of its container at you
when something goes wrong and hurts or harms the thing
it touches [1]. An important element of that definition is
that the harmful “something” is normally controlled or
contained. Only when the hazardous material is outside its
normal controlling element does a hazardous materials in-
cident occur.
It is only reasonable, then, that mitigating an incident
must involve controlling the material that is presenting the
problem. Control methods are divided into confinement
and containment, and the methods of mitigation are either
physical or chemical. This approach presents some order
to the process and simplifies it for better understanding.
2. Biological
3. Radioactive
Other safety hazards exist at every emergency site.
NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Program, is a complete standard de-
voted to the elimination or reduction of risks associated
with fire fighting and other emergencies [2].
Chemical Materials
Chemical materials are those materials that pose a hazard
based upon their chemical and physical properties. Exam-
ining the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) list of
hazard classes reveals that most of the classes would fall
under the chemical hazard type of material [3]. The effect
of exposure to chemical hazards can be either acute or
chronic. An acute exposure occurs in a relatively short pe-
riod of time. Hazardous materials responders need to con-
sider acute exposure limits when choosing their personal
protective equipment, treating the victims, and selecting
the methods to mitigate an incident. A worker who is ex-
posed for up to 40 hours per week would run the risk of
chronic exposure.

TYPES OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Biological Materials

All hazardous materials can be organized into the follow- Biological materials are those organisms that have a path-
ing three general categories, based on the principal charac- ogenic effect on life and the environment and can exist in
teristic that makes them harmful or dangerous: normal ambient environments. Examples of biological

587
588 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation
materials that are hazardous are those whose packaging
requires an “Etiologic Agents” label. Biological hazards
include toxins or microorganisms that cause diseases, such
as anthrax, botulism, cholera, and typhus. Disease-causing
organisms are also likely to be found in waste from hospi-
tals, laboratories, and research institutions. Medical waste,
such as used needles, hospital dressing gauze, and band-
ages, should be disposed of in red bags with medical waste
and biohazard warnings printed on the plastic bag.
Biological warfare and terrorist devices and the illegal
disposal of medical waste are all biological hazards. Such
materials are often not labeled and might be packaged in
unmarked containers or not packaged at all.
Radioactive Materials
Radioactive materials are those materials that emit ioniz-
ing radiation. Ionizing radiation is radiation that has suffi-
cient energy to remove electrons from atoms. One source
of radiation is the nuclei of unstable atoms. For these ra-
dioactive atoms to become more stable, the nuclei eject or
emit subatomic particles and high-energy photons (gamma
rays). This process is called radioactive decay. The major
types of radiation emitted as a result of spontaneous decay
are alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. X-rays, an-
other major type of radiation, arise from processes outside
of the nucleus.
Radioactive materials can be generated through nu-
clear processes. These materials also exist naturally in
things such as uranium ore, thorium rock, and some forms
of potassium. Some commonly used and transported ra-
dioactive materials include radiopharmaceuticals, radi-
ographic sources, radioactive waste, and uranium ores. In
transportation, radioactive materials can be identified by
markings on the exterior of the package, warning labels at-
tached to the package, or by vehicle placards.
PHYSICAL STATES OF HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS
Hazardous materials can be classified into three states:
gases, solids, and liquids. They can be stored and con-
tained at a high or low pressure. All three states can be af-
fected by the environment in which the incident occurs.
The emergency responder needs to take into account such
conditions as heat, cold, rain, or wind, each of which can
have a significant effect on the methods used to accom-
plish a safe operation.
All matter exists as a gas, a solid, or a liquid. Each
state has specific properties that have a bearing on how a
particular material appears or behaves in the environment.
For example, a liquid with a boiling point below 100°F
2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook
(37.8°C) tends to give off vapor at ambient temperatures.
Similarly, a gas with a vapor density that is substantially
heavier than the surrounding air can collect in ditches and
other low points at the scene and migrate along the ground
as it mixes with air. Although in many cases gas cannot be
seen, it acts like water that has been poured on the ground.
If the gas is a flammable gas such as propane, a fire or ex-
plosion occurs if the gas finds an ignition source at ground
level.
METHODS FOR MITIGATION
There are two basic methods for mitigation of hazardous
materials incidents: physical and chemical. Table S7.1 lists
many physical methods for mitigation of hazardous mate-
rials incidents, and Table S7.2 lists many chemical meth-
ods. Recommended practices should be implemented only
by personnel prepared by training, education, or experi-
ence.
Many of the methods listed for mitigating an incident
require a high degree of specialized training and the use of
sophisticated technical equipment, whereas other methods
might be carried out by personnel at the first responder op-
erational level. For example, diking or blanketing a liquid
spill of diesel fuel can often be accomplished easily by the
first responder operations. Plugging a hole in a damaged
tank truck to stop a leak, however, would require special-
ized training and equipment that only a technician would
possess. Other operations, such as vent and burn tech-
niques, should be attempted only by technicians with a
tank car specialty. In every case, the incident commander
should be the primary decision maker on which personnel
are assigned to deal with each specific incident.
Physical Methods
Physical methods of control involve any of several
processes or procedures to reduce the area of the spill,
leak, or other release mechanism. In all cases, methods
used should be approved by the incident commander. The
selection of personal protective clothing should be based
on the hazardous materials and/or conditions present and
should be appropriate for the hazards encountered.
The venting of low-vapor-pressure radiological gases
is allowed after consultation with a radiation protection
technologist and a hazardous materials technician with a
radioactive material specialty.
Absorption. Absorption is the process in which materials
hold liquids through the process of wetting. Absorption is
accompanied by an increase in the volume of the sorbate/
sorbent system through the process of swelling. Some of
the materials typically used as absorbents are sawdust,
 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation 589

TABLE S.7.1 Physical Methods of Mitigation of Hazardous Materials Incidents

Chemical Biological Radioactive
Gases Gases Gases

Method LVP* HVP** Liq. Sol. LVP HVP Liq. Sol. LVP HVP Liq. Sol.

Absorption yes yes yes no no no yes4 no no no yes no

Covering no no yes yes no no yes yes no no yes3 yes3
Dikes, dams, diversions, and retention yes yes5 yes yes no no yes yes no no yes yes
Dilution yes yes5 yes yes no no no no yes no yes yes
Overpack yes no yes yes yes no yes yes yes no yes yes
Plug/patch yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Transfer yes no yes yes yes no yes yes yes no yes yes
Vapor suppression (blanketing) no no yes yes no no yes yes no no no no
Vacuuming no no yes yes no no yes yes no no yes yes
Venting1 yes yes yes no yes no no no yes2 no no no

Note: For substances involving more than one type, the most restrictive control measure should be used.
*Low Vapor Pressure
**High Vapor Pressure
1
Venting of low-vapor-pressure gases is recommended only when an understanding of the biological system is known. Venting is al-
lowed when the bacteriological system is known to be nonpathogenic, or if methods can be employed to make the environment hostile
to pathogenic bacteria.
2
Venting of low-vapor-pressure radiological gases is allowed when the gas(es) is/are known to be alpha or beta emitters with short half-
lives. Further, this venting is only allowed after careful consultation with a radiation protection technologist, the technician with a radioac-
tive material specialty, or certified health physicist.
3
Covering should be done only after consultation with experts.
4
Absorption of liquids containing bacteria is permitted where the absorption medium or environment is hostile to the medium.
5
Water dispersion on certain vapors and gases only.

TABLE S7.2 Chemical Methods of Mitigation of Hazardous Materials Incidents

Chemical Biological Radioactive
Gases Gases Gases

Method LVP* HVP** Liq. Sol. LVP HVP Liq. Sol. LVP HVP Liq. Sol.

Absorption yes yes yes no yes3 yes yes3 no no no no no

Burn yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no
Dispersion/emulsification no no yes yes no no yes3 no no no no no
Flare yes yes yes no yes yes yes no no no no no
Gelatin yes no yes yes yes3 no yes3 yes3 no no no no
Neutralization yes1 yes4 yes yes2 no no no no no no no no
Polymerization yes no yes yes no no no no no no no no
Solidification no no yes no no no yes3 no no no yes no
Vapor suppression yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Vent/Burn yes yes yes no yes yes yes no no no no no

*Low Vapor Pressure

**High Vapor Pressure
1
Technique may be possible as a liquid or solid neutralizing agent, and water can be applied.
2
When solid neutralizing agents are used, they must be used simultaneously with water.
3
Technique is permitted only if resulting material is hostile to the bacteria.
4
The use of this procedure requires special expertise and technique.

2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook

590 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation

clays, charcoal, and polyolefin-type fibers. These materials
can be used for confinement, but it should be noted that the
sorbed liquid can be desorbed under mechanical or thermal
stress. When absorbents become contaminated, they retain
the properties of the absorbed hazardous liquids and are,
therefore, considered to be hazardous materials and must
be treated and disposed of accordingly.
Many commercially available products are suitable for
use as absorbents. Different types of absorbents are de-
signed for different types of spilled materials so labels
should be carefully checked prior to each use. Absorbents
can help reduce vapor generation and can facilitate cleanup
procedures.
Absorbents saturated with volatile liquid chemicals
can create a more severe vapor hazard than the spill alone
because of severely enlarged surface area for vapor release.
Covering. Covering is a temporary form of mitigation for
radioactive, biological, and some chemical substances,
such as magnesium. It should be done after consultation
with a certified health physicist (in the case of radioactive
materials) or other experts.
Covering might be used for solids or liquids. The form
of covering to be used is influenced by the type of incident.
The responder needs to make sure that the hazardous mate-
rial does not permeate the covering material. At a spill of dust
or powder, the cover may be a plastic cover or tarp. Where
alpha or beta radioactive materials are involved, a thicker
cover might be needed to reduce the radiation emission.
Flammable metals could require a covering of an appropriate
dry powder agent. Any covering should be accompanied by
an effective sealing mechanism to prevent the cover from
blowing away or the covered material from escaping freely.
Dikes, Dams, Diversions, and Retention. Dikes, dams,
diversions, and retention refer to the use of physical barri-
ers to prevent or reduce the quantity of liquid flowing into
the environment. Dikes or dams usually refer to concrete,
earth, or other barriers temporarily or permanently con-
structed to hold back a spill or leak. Vapors from certain
materials, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), can be
dispersed by means of a water spray.
These techniques are the most commonly employed
methods of controlling releases because responders can al-
ways improvise, and simple methods of confinement can
be devised with a little ingenuity. In the case of substantial
liquid spills, hazardous materials can pose significant chal-
lenges and, in some rare cases, insurmountable problems
for the first hazardous materials response team to arrive on
the scene.
In addition to the techniques listed, trenches can be
used to collect spilled liquids, and pumps can transfer ma-
terials to containers or to a containment system. Earthen
dikes or dams can be erected quickly under favorable con-
ditions, and even sandbags can be used in the damming ef-
fort. Commercial booms, such as the one shown in Exhibit
S7.1, are available and are widely used to control spills, es-
pecially spills on waterways.

EXHIBIT S7.1 Commercial

booms can be placed
across a waterway to
collect hazardous materials
spilled into the waterway.

2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook


Dilution. Dilution is the application of water to water-
miscible hazardous materials. The goal is to reduce the
hazards to safe levels. Responders should not use water in-
discriminately or without knowing what effect it has on the
hazardous material involved in a hazardous materials inci-
dent. Even if a hazardous material is water-soluble, the
amount of water necessary to achieve a safe level could
render dilution an impractical approach. Adding water to a
liquid spill can also increase confinement problems. Un-
confined diluted hazardous materials have the potential to
cause widespread, long-lasting environmental problems.
Many hazardous materials can also react with water, thus
increasing the intensity of the incident. Water is nonethe-
less a viable option for mitigation in many instances and
should be considered when appropriate.
Overpacking. The most common form of overpacking is
accomplished by the use of an oversized container. Over-
pack containers should be compatible with the hazards of
the materials involved. If the material is to be shipped,
DOT specification overpack containers need to be used.
The spilled materials should still be treated or disposed of
properly.
A leaking drum or container should be temporarily re-
paired, if possible, to reduce spillage before the container
is placed in an overpack container. Reducing a leak can
sometimes be accomplished by repositioning the original
container. Holes can be covered, and temporary patches
can be applied. See Exhibit S7.2 for examples of overpack
containers.
EXHIBIT S7.2 Overpack containers are shown here.
(Photo courtesy of WYK Sorbents, LLC, St. Louis, MO)
2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook
Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation 591
A leaking container can be put into an overpack drum
or container by placing the overpack on its side and sliding
the smaller container into it, by lowering the overpack over
the leaking container and then tipping it upright as demon-
strated in Exhibit S7.3, or by using mechanical equipment
to raise and lower the leaking container into the overpack
container. The overpack container must be labeled in ac-
cordance with DOT regulations for the particular product
carried inside.
EXHIBIT S7.3 One method of overpacking involves
lowering the overpack over the leaking container and then
tipping it upright.
Responders should make sure that other containers
without visible leaks or punctures that might be weakened
by deterioration or impact do not fail. Responders should
also try to avoid physical injury when lifting or moving
large or heavy containers. Based on the hazards that are
present, personnel should wear the appropriate chemical-
protective clothing and respiratory protection.
Plug and Patch. Plugging and patching is the use of com-
patible plugs and patches to reduce or temporarily stop the
flow of materials from small holes, rips, tears, or gashes in
containers. The repaired container should not be reused
without inspection and certification.
Limiting or restricting a leak is an important condition
of the mitigation process, so it is essential that responders
master the skill of plugging and patching. At all times,
however, the safety of the responder must be paramount.
Plugging involves putting something into a container
hole to reduce both the size of the hole and the flow from
the hole. Tapered wooden plugs are often used. See Exhibit
S7.4 for examples of plugs and wedges. Regardless of the
plug’s material, however, it must be compatible with both
the product and the container. For example, soft pine might
592 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation
EXHIBIT S7.4 Plugs and wedges are commercially
available to fill holes in containers and stop leaks. (Photo
courtesy of Michael Callan)
not be appropriate for plugging a strong acid leak. As with
overpacking, responders must wear the appropriate chem-
ical-protective clothing and respiratory protection before
attempting any plugging activity.
Patching involves placing something over a hole to
keep the material inside the container from leaking out.
Patches are generally secured with clamps or adhesives.
Patches designed to repair leaks in pipes of various sizes
are commercially available, as are patching kits as shown
in Exhibit S7.5.
EXHIBIT S7.5 Commercially available patching kits
provide a variety of tools and patching materials to stop
leaks in pipes and containers. (Photo courtesy of Edwards
and Cromwell Spill Control)
2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook
Transfer. Transfer is the process of moving a liquid, gas,
or some other form of solids, either manually, by pumps,
or by pressure, from a leaking or damaged container or
tank. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the pump, trans-
fer hoses and fittings, and container selected are compati-
ble with the hazardous material. When a product transfer
presents a fire or explosion hazard, concern for electrical
continuity, such as bonding and grounding, needs to be ob-
served.
Materials should be transferred from one tank truck to
another by personnel who are skilled and practiced in the
procedure, such as technicians with a tank car, cargo tank,
or intermodal tank specialty. The incident commander is in
charge of the transferring operation and is responsible for
seeing that proper precautions are taken. Responders must
also rely on the experience of industry personnel or spe-
cialty technicians who are appropriately trained and
equipped to perform the transfer operation.
All electrical equipment used to transfer flammable
liquids must be grounded or bonded and all equipment
must be approved for such usage.
Vacuuming. Many hazardous materials can be placed in
containment simply by vacuuming them up. This method
has the advantage of not causing an increase in volume.
Care needs to be taken to ensure compatibility of materi-
als. The exhaust air can be filtered, scrubbed, or treated as
needed. The method of vacuuming will depend on the na-
ture of the hazardous material.
Vacuuming can reduce the hazard for solid materials,
such as fibers and dusts. Specialized equipment offers ef-
fective filtering, but ordinary shops vacs are not designed
for the filtering required by hazardous materials and could
distribute the agent back into the air. Vacuums with HEPA
(high-efficiency particulate air) filters provide extra filter-
ing. Some vacuums are made specifically to pick up mer-
cury without releasing mercury vapors into the air.
Vapor Dispersion. Vapors from certain materials can be
dispersed or moved by means of a water spray. With other
products, such as LPG, the gas concentration can be re-
duced below the lower flammable limit through rapid mix-
ing of the gas with air, using the turbulence created by a
fine water spray. Reducing the concentration of the mate-
rial through the use of water spray can bring the material
into its flammable range. A fine water spray is recom-
mended in some cases to reduce the concentration of a ma-
terial, as is shown in Exhibit S.7.6.
Vapor Suppression (Blanketing). Vapor suppression is
the reduction or elimination of vapors emanating from a
spilled or released material through the most efficient
method or application of specially designed agents. A rec-

EXHIBIT S7.6 A fine water spray can be used to disperse
some hazardous vapors.
ommended vapor suppression agent is an aqueous foam
blanket.
While vapor suppression, or blanketing, does not
change the nature of a hazardous material, it can greatly re-
duce the immediate hazard and danger associated with the
presence of uncontrolled vapor. In addition, this method
buys additional time to use other measures that can control
and resolve the incident under safer circumstances. See
Exhibit 7.7 for an example of a free-standing foam extin-
guisher. Hazmat response training should include informa-
tion on how to identify when to use foam and which type
of foam is the most appropriate to use.
EXHIBIT S7.7 Chemical methods of hazardous materials
mitigation include the use of foam, available in free-
standing foam extinguishers as shown here, or in
specialized compartments on other vehicles.
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Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation 593
Venting. Venting is the process that is used to deal with
liquids or liquefied compressed gases where a danger, such
as explosion or mechanical rupture of the container or ves-
sel, is considered likely. The method of venting will de-
pend on the nature of the hazardous material. In general, it
involves the controlled release of the material to reduce
and contain the pressure and diminish the probability of an
explosion.
Chemical Methods
Chemical methods of control involve the application of
chemicals to treat spills of hazardous materials. Chemical
methods can involve any one of several actions to reduce
the involved area affected by the release of a hazardous
material. In all cases, methods used should be acceptable
to the incident commander. The selection of personal pro-
tective clothing should be based on the hazardous materi-
als and/or conditions present and should be appropriate for
the hazards encountered.
Adsorption. Adsorption is the process in which a sorbate
(hazardous liquid) interacts with a solid sorbent surface.
See ASTM F 726, Standard Test Method for Sorbent Per-
formance of Adsorbents, for further information [4]. The
principal characteristics of this interaction are as follows:
1. The sorbent surface, unlike absorbents, is rigid and no
volume increase occurs.
2. The adsorption process is accompanied by heat of ad-
sorption whereas absorption is not.
3. Adsorption occurs only with activated surfaces, for
example, activated carbon, alumina, and so forth.
Spontaneous ignition can occur through the heat of
adsorption of flammable materials, and caution should be
exercised.
Adsorbents saturated with volatile liquid chemicals
can create a more severe vapor hazard than the spill alone
because of the severely enlarged surface area for vapor re-
lease.
The term sorbents encompasses both absorbents and
adsorbents. Adsorbents act in such a way that the internal
structure of the material is not penetrated. They can be nat-
ural or synthetic materials and can be used on liquid spills
on land and, to some degree, in water. Adsorbents should
be nonreactive to the spilled material. Porous clay and sand
are two commonly used adsorbents.
Controlled Burning. Controlled combustion is consid-
ered a chemical method of control. However, it should be
used only by qualified personnel trained specifically in this
procedure. In some emergency situations, where extin-
594 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation
guishing a fire will result in large, uncontrolled volumes of
contaminated water or threaten the safety of responders or
the public, controlled burning is used as a technique. It is
recommended that consultation be made with the environ-
mental authorities when this method is used. The deliber-
ate burning of a hazardous material should be attempted
only by personnel at a technician level with appropriate
specialty training or by a specialist employee A.
Some occasions exist when extinguishing a fire is not
the proper approach because of the large amount of con-
taminated runoff that is generated by fire fighting. A Swiss
pharmaceutical company fire, for example, was responsi-
ble for years of pollution to the Rhine River that was
caused by the water runoff from the extinguishment of that
fire. However, a similar fire in a paint factory in the United
States was allowed to burn out without applying the large
quantity of water that would have been necessary to extin-
guish the fire. The air and area water supply were thus pro-
tected from pollution.
Controlled burning can also be used to incinerate the
spilled hazardous material. Transportable incinerators are
designed to promote combustion of spilled materials, es-
pecially oil.
Dispersants, Surface Agents, and Biological Additives.
Certain chemical and biological agents can be used to dis-
perse or break up the materials involved in liquid spills.
The use of these agents results in a lack of containment and
generally results in spreading the liquid over a much larger
area. Dispersants are most often applied to spills of liquids
on water. The dispersant breaks down a liquid spill into
many fine droplets, thereby diluting the material. Use of
this method can require prior approval of the environmen-
tal authority.
Dispersants are chemical formulations with surfac-
tants, which are chemicals designed to blend oil and water.
Surfactants reduce the surface tension of oil and water and
result in smaller oil droplets. Smaller droplets result in
more oil surface area exposed to the water. These oil
droplets can better move into the water, helping to speed
the natural biological breakdown and dispersion of the oil.
Dispersants generally result in oil-in-water emulsions
because chemicals are used to reduce the surface tension of
water so it can mix with oil. Chemical dispersants should
not be used in situations where they might produce in-
creased biological damage. Environmental authorities
should/must be consulted prior to the use of these agents.
Surface-active agents also increase emulsification and dis-
persion of a spill.
Surface cleaning equipment is available for soil sur-
face cleaning. This equipment agitates the soil’s surface
with water to form a slurry. The contamination is then re-
2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook
moved through a separation process that takes place in a
specially designed sand separator.
Biological additives can be used to degrade a haz-
ardous material by biochemical oxidation. Biochemical
accelerators are useful for mitigation of certain hazardous
materials spilled on land or in water.
Flaring. Flaring is a process that is used with high-vapor-
pressure liquids or liquefied compressed gases for the safe
disposal of the product. Flaring is the controlled burning of
material in order to reduce or control pressure and/or dis-
pose of a product.
Flaring is the controlled destruction and/or consump-
tion by fire of a hazardous material. When this process is
chosen, flaring, like any other de-inventory process, has
advantages and disadvantages. This technique must be un-
derstood, used, and/or controlled to ensure a safe opera-
tion. Other factors that play a part in the decision-making
process involved in using this type of physical control
method include the following:
1. Conditions of the environment
2. Topography
3. Materials to be burned
4. Area demographics
5. Local authorities (i.e., Incident Command System)
6. Applicable regulations
7. Equipment availability
Gelation. Gelation is the process of forming a gel. A gel
is a colloidal system consisting of two phases, a solid and
a liquid. The resulting gel is considered to be a hazardous
material and needs to be disposed of properly.
Gelling agents used on hazardous chemicals produce
a gel that is more easily cleaned up by either mechanical or
physical methods. Gelling agents can be used on liquids
spilled in water and, to a lesser degree, liquid spilled on
land.
Neutralization. Neutralization is the process of applying
acids or bases to a spill to form a neutral salt. The applica-
tion of solids for neutralizing can often result in confine-
ment of the spilled material. Special formulations are
available that do not result in violent reactions or local heat
generation during the neutralization process. In cases
where special neutralizing formulations are not available,
special consideration should be given to protecting persons
applying the neutralizing agent because heat is generated
and violent reactions can occur. One of the advantages of
neutralization is that a hazardous material can be rendered
nonhazardous.
The pH scale is used to categorize compounds as acids
or bases. A value of 7 on the scale is neutral, while de-
 Supplement 7 ● Incident Mitigation 595

scending values denote increasing acidity. Levels 8 to 14

denote bases, with the higher values indicating increas-
ingly stronger bases. Neutralizing acidic or base spills is
possible by mixing the spilled material with a neutralizing
agent.
Polymerization. Polymerization is a process in which a
hazardous material is reacted in the presence of a catalyst,
in the presence of heat or light, or with itself or another
material to form a polymeric system.
Solidification. Solidification is the process whereby a
hazardous material is treated chemically so that a solid ma-
terial results. Adsorbents can be considered an example of
a solidification process. There are other materials that can
be used to convert hazardous liquids into nonhazardous
solids. Examples are applications of special formulations
designed to form a neutral salt in the case of spills of acids
or caustics. The advantage of the solidification process is
that a small-scale spill can be confined relatively quickly
and treatment effected immediately.
Commercially available adsorbents include silica, ac-
tivated carbon, alumina, and zeolite. An online search for
“adsorbent” results in many sources.
Adsorbents can be used to solidify oily wastes that are
water insoluble. The spilled liquids are adsorbed into gran-
ules to form a solid, nonflowing mixture. The resulting
product is safer than the spilled material in its liquid form
and is more easily transported to an appropriate disposal
facility.
Vapor Suppression. Vapor suppression is the use of solid EXHIBIT S7.8 Venting, shown here, and burning
activated materials to treat hazardous materials so as to ef- techniques are often used in train accidents involving
fect suppression of the vapor off-gassing from the materi- hazardous chemicals. (Photo courtesy of Tim
als. This process results in the formation of a solid that Campbell/AP Worldwide for the Effingham Daily News)
affords easier handling but that can result in a hazardous
solid that must be disposed of properly.
Venting and Burning. The process of venting and burn-
REFERENCES CITED
ing involves the use of shaped charges to vent the high 1. Benner, Jr., L., A Textbook for Use in the Study of Haz-
vapor pressure at the top of the container and then the use ardous Materials Emergencies, 2nd ed., Lufred Indus-
of additional charges to release and burn the remaining liq- tries Inc., Oakton, VA, 1978.
uid in the container in a controlled fashion. 2. NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupa-
In a train derailment in the early 1980s, shaped explo- tional Safety and Health Program, National Fire Pro-
sive charges were first used successfully to “vent and tection Association, Quincy, MA, 2007.
burn” tank cars that were too badly damaged to attempt 3. Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 172.101,
transferring the hazardous materials to another container. Subpart B — Table of Hazardous Materials and Spe-
This procedure occurred eight days into the incident re- cial Provisions, U.S. Government Printing Office,
sponse. Venting and burning, as shown in Exhibit S7.8, is Washington, DC.
a highly sophisticated technique that should be attempted 4. ASTM F 726, Standard Test Method for Sorbent Per-
only under very controlled conditions by trained special- formance of Adsorbents, ASTM International, West
ists, such as technicians with a tank car, cargo car, or in- Conshocken, PA, 2006.
termodal tank specialty.

2008 Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Response Handbook