Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Some of the things we measure are determined simply by their magnitudes

such as mass, length, or time but others need more information for description
like force, velocity, and displacement. we need to record the direction in which it
acts as well as how large it is. These quantities are called vectors and they are
represented by a directed line segment.
*Definition.
A vector in the plane is a directed line segment. The directed line segment

𝐴𝐵 has initial point A and terminal point B; its length is denoted by ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |𝐴𝐵|. Two
vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.

Component Form
If v is a two-dimensional vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial
point P(x1ˏy1) and terminal point Q(x2ˏy2) then the component form of v is:
v = ˂v1 , v2˃
If v is a three-dimensional vector equal to the vector with initial point
P(x1ˏy1ˏz1) and terminal point Q(x2ˏy2ˏz2) then the component form of v is:
v = ˂v1 , v2 , v3˃ ; where:
v1 : displacement in X – direction = x2 – x1
v2 : displacement in Y – direction = y2 – y1
v3 : displacement in Z – direction = z2 – z1

20
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

The magnitude or length of a vector.

The magnitude or length of the vector v is the nonnegative number:

|v| = √v12 + v22 + v32 = √(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

Ex: Find the component form and the length of the vector with an initial point
P(-3ˏ4ˏ1) and terminal point Q(-5ˏ2ˏ2) ?
Sol.
v1 = -5 – (-3) = -2
v2 = 2 – 4 = -2
v3 = 2 – 1 = 1
v = ˂ -2 , -2 , 1 ˃
|v| = √(−2)2 + (−2)2 + 12 = 3 unit length.

*Vector Algebra Operations.

Let u = ˂ u1 , u2 , u3 ˃ , v = ˂ v1 , v2 , v3 ˃ be vectors.
1. Addition:
u + v = ˂ u 1 + v 1 , u 2 + v2 , u 3 + v3 ˃

21
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

2. Scalar multiplication:
ku = ˂ ku1 , ku2 , ku3 ˃ , k: scalar (number.)

Ex: Let u = ˂ -1 ˏ 3 ˏ 1 ˃ and v = ˂ 4 ˏ 7 ˏ 0 ˃. Find?

a. 2u + 3v , b. u – v , c. |12u|?
Sol.
a. 2u+3v = 2 ˂ -1 ˏ 3 ˏ 1 ˃ + 3 ˂ 4 ˏ 7 ˏ 0 ˃ = ˂ -2 ˏ 6 ˏ 2 ˃ + ˂ 12 ˏ 21 ˏ 0 ˃
= ˂ 10 ˏ 27 ˏ 1 ˃
b. u – v = ˂ -1 ˏ 3 ˏ 1 ˃ - ˂ 4 ˏ 7 ˏ 0 ˃ = ˂ -5 ˏ -4 ˏ 1 ˃
−1 3 1
c. 12 u = 1
2
〈−1 , 3 , 1〉 = 〈 , , 〉
2 2 2

2 2 2
|12u | = √(−1
2
) + (32) + (12) = 12√11 unit length.

Properties of Vector Operations.

Let u , v , w be vectors and a , b be scalars.
1. u + v = v + u
2. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
3. u + (-u) = 0 (zero vector)
4. u + 0 = u
5. 0u = 0
6. 1u = u
7. a(bu) = ab u
8. a(u + v) = au + av
9. (a+b) u = au + bu
22
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Vectors in plane.
1. Addition of vectors.
Given two vectors u and v. translate v so that its initial point coincides with the
terminal point of u. the third vector w with the same initial point of u and the
terminal point of v is the sum u+v.

2. Subtraction of vectors.
For any two vectors u and v, the difference u – v = u + (-v).

Ex: For the following vectors find: u+v , u + v + w , u – w ?

Sol.

23
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Unit Vectors.
A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors are:
𝑖 = 〈1,0,0〉 , 𝑗 = 〈0,1,0〉 , 𝑘 = 〈0,0,1〉

Any vector v = ˂ v1 , v2 , v3 ˃ can be written as a linear combination of

the standard unit vectors as follows:
𝑣 = 𝑣1 𝑖 + 𝑣2 𝑗 + 𝑣3 𝑘
v
Unit vector of v = |v| , |v| ≠ 0

Ex1: Find the unit vector of u from A(1ˏ0ˏ1) to B(3ˏ2ˏ0)?

Sol.
𝑢 = (3 − 1)𝑖 + (2 − 0)𝑗 + (0 − 1)𝑘 = 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
|𝑢| = √22 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3 unit length
𝑢 2 2 1
= 𝑖+ 𝑗− 𝑘
|𝑢| 3 3 3
Ex2: Find the unit vector of v = 3i – 4j ?
Sol.
|v| = √32 + (−4)2 = 5 unit length
𝑣 3 4
= 𝑖− 𝑗
|𝑣| 5 5

24
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Midpoint of a Line Segment

The midpoint M of line segment joining P1(x1,y1,z1) and P2(x2,y2,z2) is The
point:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑀( , , )
2 2 2

Ex: Find the midpoint of the line segment joining P1(3ˏ-2ˏ0) and P2(7ˏ4ˏ0) ?
Sol.
3 + 7 −2 + 4 0 + 0
M( , , )
2 2 2
M( 5ˏ 1ˏ 0 ).

25
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

The Dot Product.

In physics, the dot product of two vectors like force and displacement is:
u. v = |u||v| cos θ

Definition.
The dot product (scalar product) of vectors u = ˂ u1 , u2 , u3 ˃ and v = ˂ v1 ,
v2 , v3 ˃ is:
u. v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
Ex: Find the dot product of the following vectors:
Sol.
1. 〈1, −2, −1〉.〈−6, 2 , −3〉
= (1)(-6)+(-2)(2)+(-1)(-3)
= -6 + (-4) + 3 = -7
2. (1/2 i + 3j + k).(4i – j + 2k)
= (1/2)(4) + (3)(-1) + (1)(2)
=2–3+2=1
Angle between two vectors.
The angle between two nonzero vectors u = ˂ u1 , u2 , u3 ˃ and v = ˂ v1 , v2
, v3 ˃ is:
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
θ = cos−1
|u||v|

26
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find the angle between u = i – 2j – 2k and v = 6i + 3j + 2k ?

Sol.
u. v = (1)(6) + (−2)(3) + (−2)(2) = −4
|u| = √12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 3 unit length.
|v| = √62 + 32 + 22 = 7 unit length.
−4
θ = cos−1 = 1.762 rad.
(3)(7)
Ex: Find the angle of vertex C in the triangle ABC determined by the vertices
A= (0,0) , B= (3,5) , C=(5,2)?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
CA = -5i – 2j
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
CB = −2i + 3j
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ . CB
CA ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = (−5)(−2) + (−2)(3) = 4

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = √(−5)2 + (−2)2 = √29 unit length.

|CA
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = √(−2)2 + 32 = √13 unit length.
|CB
4
𝜃 = cos−1 ≈ 78.1°
√29. √13
Orthogonal vectors.
Vectors u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if: u.v = 0
Ex: show that u and v are orthogonal if:
a. u = ˂ -3 , 2 ˃ , v = ˂ 4 , 6 ˃
u.v = (-3)(4) + (2)(6) = -12 + 12 = 0
b. u = 3i – 2j + k , v = 2j + 4k
u.v = (3)(0) + (-2)(2) + (1)(4) = 0 – 4 + 4 = 0
27
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Vector projection and scalar component.

The scalar component of u in the direction of v is:

u. v
|u| cos θ =
|v|
And the vector projection of u on to v is:
v u. v v u. v
Projv u = |u| cos θ . = . = v
|v| |v| |v| |v|2
Ex: Find the vector projection of u = 6i + 3j + 2k on to v = i – 2j – 2k and the
scalar component of u in the direction of v ?
Sol.
u.v = (6)(1) + (3)(-2) + (2)(-2) = -4

|v| = √12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 3 unit length.

u. v −4 −4 8 8
Projv u = . v = (i − 2j − 2k ) = i + j + k
|v|2 9 9 9 9
u.v −4
Scalar component of u in the dir. of v = |v|
=
3

Ex: Find the vector projection of F = 5i + 2j on to v = i – 3j ?

Sol.
(5)(1) + (2)(−3) −1 3
Projv F = 2
(i − 3j) = i+ j
(√12 + (−3)2 ) 10 10

28
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Work.
The work done by a constant force F acting through a displacement D is:

Work = (scalar component of F in the direction of D) (length of D)

= |F| cos θ |D|
= F. D
Ex: Find the work done by a force F = 2i + 3j through a displacement D = -i + 2j?
Sol.
W = F. D
= (2)(-1) + (3)(2) = 6 J

Properties of the Dot Product.

If u, v, and w are any vectors and c is a scalar, then:
1. u.v = v.u
2. (cu).v = u.(cv) = c (u.v)
3. u.(v+w) = u.v +u.w
4. u.u = |u|2
5. 0.u = 0

29
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

The Cross Product.

If u and v are two nonzero vectors, then the cross product u × v (u cross v) is:
𝐮 × 𝐯 = |𝐮||𝐯| 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝐧
⃑
Where n is a unit vector perpendicular on both u and v in the direction of u × v.

Unlike the dot product, the cross product is a vector. For this reason it's also
called the vector product of u and v, and applies only to vectors in space.
Calculating the Cross Product as a Determinant
If u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k and v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k, then

i j k
u × v = |u1 u2 u3 |
v1 v2 v3

Ex: Find u × v if u = 2i + j + k , v = -4i + 3j + k ?

Sol.
i j k
1 1 2 1 2 1
u×v=| 2 1 1| = | |i − | |j + | |k
3 1 −4 1 −4 3
−4 3 1

= -2i – 6j + 10k

30
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find a vector perpendicular to the plane through P(1,-1,0), Q(2,1,-1), and
R(-1,1,2) ?
Sol.
The vector PQ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × PR
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ is perpendicular to the plane because it is
perpendicular on both vectors.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PQ = i + 2j − k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PR = −2i + 2j + 2k
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 2 −1 1 −1 1 2
PQ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PR = | 1 2 −1| = | | i−| | j+| |k
2 2 −2 2 −2 2
−2 2 2
=6i+6k
Ex: Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC if A(2,-2,1), B(3,-1,2),
and C(3,-1,1) ?
Sol.
Since ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC is perpendicular to the plane, its direction n is a unit vector
perpendicular to the plane.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB = i + j + k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC = i + j
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 1 1 1 1 1 1
AB × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC = |1 1 1| = | | i−| | j+| |k
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0
= -i + j
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
|AB AC| = √(−1)2 + 12 = √2 unit length
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC −i + j
⃑ =
n =
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
|AB AC| √2
−1 1
= i+ j
√2 √2

31
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Parallel Vectors.
Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u × v = 0.
Ex: Let u = 5i – j + k , w = -15i + 3j – 3k. Show that u and w are parallel
vectors?
Sol.
i j k
−1 1 5 1 5 −1
|u × w| = | 5 −1 1 |=| | i−| | j+| |k
3 −3 −15 −3 −15 3
−15 3 −3
= 0i + 0j +0k = 0 (u and w are parallel).
The Area of a Parallelogram.
Because n is a unit vector, the magnitude of u × v is:
|u × v| = |u||v| sin θ |n|

This is the area of the parallelogram determined by u and v, | u | being the

base of the parallelogram and | v | sin θ is the height.
Ex: Find the area of the parallelogram whose vertices are A(-1,2), B(2,0), C(7,1),
and D(4,3) ?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB = 3i − 2j , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC = 8i − j
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × AC
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = |3 −2 0 3 0 3 −2
AB −2 0| = | | i−| | j+| | k = 13k
−1 0 8 0 8 −1
8 −1 0
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Area = |AB AC| = √0 + 0 + 132 = 13 square unit.

32
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find the area of triangle whose vertices are P(1,1,1), Q(2,1,3),and R(3,-1,1) ?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PQ = i + 2k , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PR = 2i − 2j
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = |1 0 2| = | 0
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × PR
PQ
2
| i−|
1 2
| j+|
1 0
|k
−2 0 2 0 2 −2
2 −2 0
= 4i + 4j – 2k
1
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = 1 √42 + 42 + (−2)2 = 3 square unit.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × PR
Area = |PQ
2 2

Triple Scalar or Box Product.

Let u, v, and w are three nonzero vectors so, the product (u × v)· w is
called the triple scalar product of u, v, and w (in that order).
|(u × v). w| = |u × v||w| cos θ

the absolute value of this product is the volume of the parallelepiped

(parallelogram-sided box) determined by u, v, and w.
Calculating the Triple Scalar Product as a Determinant.
u1 u2 u3
(u × v). w = | v1 v2 v3 |
w1 w2 w3

33
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find the volume of the box (parallelepiped) determined by u = i + 2j – k ,

v = -2i + 3k , and w = 7j – 4k ?
Sol.
1 2 −1
0 3 −2 3 −2 0
(u × v). w = |−2 0 3| = 1| | − 2| | − 1| |
7 −4 0 −4 0 7
0 7 −4
= -23 = 23 units cubed.
Ex: Find the volume of a parallelepiped if four of its eight vertices are A(0, 0, 0),
B(l, 2, 0), C(0, -3,2), and D(3, -4, 5) ?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB = i + 2j , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC = −3j + 2k , ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AD = 3i − 4j + 5k
1 2 0
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
(𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 ). ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐷 = |0 −3 2|
3 −4 5
−3 2 0 2 0 −3
= 1. | | − 2. | | + 0. | |
−4 5 3 5 3 −4
= 5 unit volume.

Properties of the Cross Product.

If u, v, and w are any vectors and r, s are scalars, then:
1. u × v = -v × u
2. u × 0 = 0
3. (ru) × (sv) = (rs)(u × v)
4. u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w
5. u × (v × w) = (u.w) v – (u.v) w

34
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Lines and Planes in Space.

This section shows how to use scalar and vector products to write
equations for lines, line segments, and planes in space.
1. Parametric Equations for a line.
In space a line is determined by a point and a vector giving the direction
of the line.

The standard parametric equations of the line through Po(xo,yo,zo) and

parallel to v = v1i + v2j + v3k is:
x = xo + tv1 , y = yo + tv2 , z = zo + tv3 −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
Ex: Find parametric equations of the line through (-2,0,4) and parallel to the
vector v = 2i + 4j – 2k ?
Sol.
x = xo + tv1 = -2 + 2t , y = yo + tv2 = 0 + 4t = 4t , z = zo + tv3 = 4 – 2t
Ex: Find parametric equations of the line through P(-3,2,-3) and Q(1,-1,4) ?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
PQ = 4i − 3j + 7k
x = -3 + 4t , y = 2 – 3t , z = -3 + 7t
Or
x = 1 + 4t , y = -1 – 3t , z = 4 + 7t.
35
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

2. The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space.

To find the distance from a point S to a line that passes through a point P
parallel to a vector v, we find the absolute value of the scalar component of ⃑⃑⃑⃑
PS in
the direction of a vector normal to the line.

⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑ | |v| sin θ n

PS × v = |PS ⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑ × v| = |PS
|PS ⃑⃑⃑⃑ | |v| sin θ

⃑⃑⃑⃑ × v| = d |v|
|PS
⃑⃑⃑⃑ × v|
|PS
𝑑=
|v|

Ex: Find the distance from the point S(1,1,5) to the line L: x = 1 + t , y = 3 – t ,
z = 2t ?
Sol.
P(1,3,0) , v = i – j + 2k
⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑆 = −2𝑗 + 5𝑘
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑
PS × v = |0 −2 5| = i + 5j + 2k
1 −1 2
⃑⃑⃑⃑ × v|
|PS √12 + 52 + 22 √30
𝑑= = = = √5
|v| 2 2
√1 + (−1) + 2 2 √6

36
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

3. Equation for a Plane in Space.

A plane in space is determined by knowing a point on the plane and point
Po(xo,yo,zo) and a normal to the plan n = Ai + Bj + Ck.

Let P(x,y,z) be any point in the plane M

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Po P = (x − x° ) i + (y − y° ) j + (z − z° ) k
n. ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
Po P = 0
𝐴(x − x° ) + 𝐵(y − y° ) + 𝐶 (z − z° ) = 0
So, The equation of plane M through Po(xo,yo,zo) normal to n = Ai + Bj + Ck is:
Ax + By + Cz = D where:
D = Axo + Byo + Czo
Ex: Find an equation for the plane through P°(-3,0,7) and perpendicular to
n = 5i + 2j – k ?
Sol.
D = Axo + Byo + Czo = 5(-3) + 2(0) + (-1)(7) = -22
Ax + By + Cz = D
5x + 2y – z = -22

37
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find an equation for the plane through A(0,0,1), B(2,0,0), and C(0,3,0) ?
Sol.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB = 2i − k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AC = 3j − k
i j k
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
AB × AC = |2 0 −1| = 3i + 2j + 6k
0 3 −1
3(x – 0) + 2(y – 0) + 6(z – 1) = 0
3x + 2y + 6z = 6
4. Line of intersection of two planes.
The line of intersection of two planes is perpendicular to both planes'
normal vectors n1and n2 and parallel to n1 × n2. Turning this around, n1 × n2 is a
vector parallel to the planes' line of intersection.

Line of intersection of two planes = n1 × n2

Ex: Find the line of intersection of planes x + y + z = 1 and x + y = 2 ?
Sol.
n1 = i + j + k , n 2 = i + j
i j k
n1 × n
⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 = |1 1 1| = −i + j
1 1 0
38
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

Ex: Find parametric equations for the line in which the planes 3x – 6y – 2z = 15
and 2x + y – 2z = 5 intersect ?
Sol.
n1 = 3i – 6j – 2k , n2 = 2i + j – 2k
i j k
n1 × n2 = |3 −6 −2| = 14i + 2j + 15k
2 1 −2
3x – 6y – 2z = 15 ---------- (1)
2x + y – 2z = 5 ---------- (2) put z = 0
3x – 6y = 15 ---------- (3)
2x + y = 5 ---------- (4)
P(3,-1,0)
L: x = 3 + 14t , y = -1 + 2t , z = 15t
Ex: Find the point where the line L: x = 8/3 + 2t , y = -2t , z = 1 + t intersects
the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6 ?
Sol.
The point (x,y,z) satisfies the parametric equations of the line and the equation of
the plane, thus:
3(8/3 + 2t) + 2(-2t) + 6(1+t) = 6
8 + 6t – 4t + 6 + 6t = 6
8t = -8
t = -1
The point of intersection is:
(2/3,2,0)

39
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

5. Angles between planes.

The angle between two intersecting planes is defined to be the acute angle
between their normal vectors.

n1 . n2
Angle between planes θ = cos−1 ( )
|n1 ||n2 |
Ex: Find the angle between the planes3x - 6y - 2z = 15 and 2x + y - 2z = 5 ?
Sol.
n1 = 3i – 6j – 2k
n2 = 2i + j – 2k
n1.n2 = (3)(2) + (-6)(1) + (-2)(-2) = 4
|n1 | = √32 + (−6)2 + (−2)2 = 7 unit length

|n2 | = √22 + 12 + (−2)2 = 3 unit length

n1 . n2
θ = cos−1 ( )
|n1 ||n2 |
4
= cos−1 ( ) ≈ 1.38 rad.
(7)(3)

40
Chapter two Mathematics II Vectors.

6. The Distance from a Point to a Plane.

If P is a point on a plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S
to the plane is the length of the vector projection of ⃑⃑⃑⃑
PS onto n. That is, the
distance from S to the plane is:
n
⃑⃑⃑⃑ .
𝑑 = |PS |
|n|
Ex: Find the distance from S(I, 1, 3) to the plane 3x + 2y + 6z = 6 ?
Sol.

N = 3i + 2j + 6k
P(2,0,0)
⃑⃑⃑⃑
PS = −i + j + 3k

|𝑛| = √32 + 22 + 62 = 7 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ.

𝑛 3 2 6
= 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘
|𝑛| 7 7 7
n 3 2 6
⃑⃑⃑⃑ .
𝑑 = |PS | == (−1) ( ) + (1) ( ) + (3) ( )
|n| 7 7 7
17
=
7

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