Diagenesis & Reservoir Quality

Evolution of Carbonates
Azureen Alya Abu Bakar (MKP171013)
Submitted for MKPP1213-02 Applied Geoscience & Geophysics
Assignment 2

1. DEFINITIONS & INTRODUCTION

Diagenesis concerns the processes that a sediment undergoes from the time of deposition until
the onset of metamorphism is reached. A sediment body deposited on land or in the sea normally
undergoes significant modification before it becomes a sedimentary rock. Physical, chemical and,
to some extent, biological processes act on the sediment at scales that range from the molecular
to basin-wide. These processes change sediment into sedimentary rocks by which consists of
mechanical compaction and cementation. Chemical changes occur to form new minerals and
organic substances while physical processes affect the layers on large and small scales. An
important product of these post-depositional processes is the formation and concentration of fossil
fuels: coal, oil and natural gas, which are all products of processes within sedimentary strata that
occurs with diagenesis.

While diagenesis occurred in both clastic and carbonate reservoirs, it is integral to understand
the uniqueness of carbonates. The main characteristics that make up carbonates are (Moore,
1989):

a. The biological origins of its sediments

b. The complexity of its classifications
c. Carbonates’ response to sea level fluctuations and tectonic movements
d. The diagenetic results of the its high chemical reactivity

2. CARBONATES CLASSIFICATION
Prior to understanding the post-depositional changes of carbonates, the architecture and
components of carbonates must be considered. The classification of carbonates revolve around
textural properties, similar to sandstones, to reflect the general level of energy present at the site
of deposition. Dunham (1962) and Folk (1959) incorporated the concept of interdependency of
sediment texture and energy levels into two widely used carbonate classifications. Dunham’s
classifications are based on organic binding presence or lack thereof, carbonate mud and the grain
vs. matrix support. Dunham had attempted to mirror the sandstone classification terminologies
into the carbonate tables. On the other hand, Folk highlights the most abundant constituents that
defines the biological/physical environment of deposition.

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 Figure 1 Folk's (left) and Dunham's (right) classifications

2.1. Carbonate Porosity Classification

The porosity classification for carbonates by Choquette and Pray (1977) are used widely. The
main classes of porosity are recognized in this classification e.g. intergranular, moldic,
framework and fenestral. A simplified version of their classification is as per below diagram:

Figure 2 Basic porosity types based on fabric (solid depositional and diagenetic constituents) selectivity (Woo,
2015)

3. CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION & DIAGENETIC PROCESSES1

3.1. Origins of Carbonate Sediments

Over 90% of carbonates found in modern day environments are of biological origin that formed
under marine conditions. The distribution of carbonate sediments depend on the parameters of
the environment that is favourable for the growth of calcium carbonate organisms. Among the
main environmental parameters that play a role in this are temperature, salinity, substrate and
siliclastic presence (Lees, 1975).

Unlike sandstones, carbonate sediments are generally deposited near to the site of their origin.
Carbonate-secreting organisms can significantly change their environment and produce a reef
through physical and chemical processes e.g. encrusting, framebuilding and binding.

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Only processes that modify porosity will be discussed.
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 Figure 3 Symbolized reef structure showing interaction bewttn frame, detrital fill, cementation & bioerosion
(Patrick Corbett, 2015)

The sequence of forming these reefs depends on a unique interaction between several elements
e.g. 1) framework organisms 2) internal sediment 3) bioeroders and 4) cementation. Describing
each element may be too complex for this paper, however it is important to note that the scenario
of which these elements are present is consistent. As iterated, these reef complexes are
significantly driven by various complex, unique, biological and diagenetic processes without any
siliciclastic counterpart. Present day reef frames consist of corals and red algae. Reef organisms
have gone through progressive evolution through geologic time, which is very interesting to
observe.

The biological origin of most carbonate sediments makes it complex to investigate. Size and
sorting in carbonate sediments may be influenced by characteristics such as the population
dynamics of the originating organism, as well as its ultrastructure peculiarity or uniqueness. For
instance, tidal flats could have carbonate grains composed solely of a single gastropod species,
as the mean size and its sorting is controlled by the natural size distribution of their population.
Thus, it is hard to directly deduce the depositional environment as it occurred. Other than that,
textural parameters like roundness of carbonate grains may be due to the original shape of the
organism, like foraminifera (Figure 4) for instance, and not indicating transportation distance like
siliclastics. Oncoids are ooids could also be round due to originating from an environment where
layers were formed while grains were travelling over the bottom, where the final product forms a
rounded shape (Bathurst, 1971).

Figure 4 Foraminifera as host sediments (left) and oolites (right) (not linked)

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 Skeletal remains of organisms make up most of the sediments deposited in carbonates, and it is
widely understood that their grain composition reflects the depositional environment strongly. As
mentioned earlier, carbonate sediments are deposited near their original location and there is a
lack of transport. Hence, a direct tie could be made to the biological components of the
environment. These wide ranges of possibilities of carbonate origins shows how care must be
taken when their textures are being described and used as a reference of physical conditions at
the site of deposition.

3.2. Carbonate Sedimentation Style and Shelf Evolution

The carbonate realm is marked by the local biological as well as chemical production of enormous
volumes of carbonate sediments. These can outstrip the most rapid sea level rise. Thus,
sedimentation above base level is normal for carbonate shelves, resulting in stacked, shoaling
upward sequence that gives the carbonate shelf its typical cyclical architecture. The lag time
between two sedimentation beginnings determines the nature of the carbonates’ internal cycles,
other than the period and height of sea level changes.

Figure 5 Effects of base level fluctuation on carbonate sedimentation (Sutter, 2008)

Carbonate shelves have been identified to have two scales through the geologic times, namely
large epicontinental platform (1000’s to 100’s of kms wide) and small (100’s to 10’s of kms wide)
carbonate platforms on intracratonic basins. Plate tectonics have also played a role in the temporal
distribution of these platform types.

Carbonates precipitate in the marine environment is active due to the abundant biological
activities in the environment, taking three different forms i.e. whitings (tiny carbonate crystals in
water column), ooids (calcium carbonate on moving nuclei in high energy) and cement (like
sandstones, precipice in pore spaces).

3.2 Diagenetic Environments

Three main environments of diagenesis exist, nameline marine, meteoric and subsurface. The
most carbonate sediments originate from marine conditions due to the rich carbonate mineral
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 species existing in the pore fluids. Extensive porosity destruction occurs at this environment,
while secondary porosity is rare due to lack of dissolution. However, dolomitization is
rampant in evaporite marine waters. As for meteoric environments, characterized by exposure
to subaerial conditions, the presence of dilute waters encourage dissolution for secondary
porosity development. This could be expedited by rapid rates of fluid flow through the
phreatic zone of the system. Finally, the subsurface environment is defined by the pore fluid
composition of marine and meteoric waters or a long interaction between rock and water
under high temperatures and pressures. These fluids are then supersaturated with respect to
the most stable carbonate species such as calcite and dolomite. These fluids, when cemented,
assist porosities destruction in subsurface environments together with the pressured solution
it is subjected to. Nevertheless, undersaturated areas under thermal degradation may
encourage secondary porosity by dissolution.

Our understanding of deep subsurface diagenesis is incomplete, but we know that

dolomitization, pore-fill cementation and pressure solution occur at depth and may be
extremely important. During uplift, fracturing, additional cementation and leaching may
occur.

Figure 6 Diagenetic variation with environment

Shape and geochemistry of cement crystals and zones are important to their interpretation in
ancient deposits, since the mineralogy has changed and is probably in equilibrium with the
present subsurface fluids. For instance, in marine waters aragonite and magnesium calcite
form fibers, blades and micrite which can be recognized despite later replacement by calcite.
Fresh waters and deep subsurface brines generally precipitate calcite cements as silt-sized or
larger rhombic crystals or micrite. Marine waters with high salinities or fresh waters with high
magnesium to calcite ratios may form dolomites.

3.3 Petrography-cement relationships

Carbonate cements contain trace elements. Those that are of immediate interest to the
carbonate geologist are strontium, manganese and iron because they provide data that can be
used to interpret cement origin. Strontium substitutes for calcium in the aragonite lattice,
whereas when the waters in contact with the cement are reducing, manganese and iron
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 substitute for calcium in the calcite lattice. Manganese and iron are especially important
because they occur in ancient limestones and dolomites. Trace element composition of
carbonates is studied by staining of rock slabs or thin sections, chemical analysis,
cathodoluminescence, and EDAX or microprobe. Stable isotope composition of carbonates
can be used, like trace elements, to unravel carbonate diagenetic history. For instance, the two
most common isotopes of oxygen, 180 and 160, have different compositional ratios depending
on the diagenetic environment. The lighter 160 is more common in cements precipitated from
fresh water and/or subsurface waters with elevated temperatures and is rarer in cements
associated with marine waters. Similarly the common isotopes of carbon, 13C and 12C, show
much the same relationship.

Lighter carbon is associated with fresh water and deeper burial. Some of the light carbon may
be derived from organic carbon associated with migrating hydrocarbons. In cases where
oxygen and carbon isotopes have been systematically analyzed through a cement, they lighten
from the base of a crystal to its margins.

The setting and timing of diagenesis is interpreted by the petrography and geochemistry of
cement crystals along with their distribution within the rock. For instance, cement crusts form
in both marine and fresh-water phreatic environments. The marine crusts are commonly
isopachous fringes of aragonite fibers or magnesium calcite blades. Unfortunately the latter
may be confused with fringes of calcite blades that form in fresh waters. Irregular crusts are
associated with poor permeabilities or low rates of calcium carbonate precipitation, and
isopachous crusts are associated with good permeabilities. Cements precipitated from fresh
waters in the vadose zone typically have a patchy distribution, reflecting the occurrence of
both air and water in the pore space. Where pores are incompletely filled, the cement occurs
only at grain contacts and crystals have curved meniscus faces. Late-stage, deep burial cement
crystals are also unique. They commonly are large crystals filling more than one interparticle
pore. They can be confused with early-formed epitaxial overgrowths on echinoderm plates in
a rock that contains echinoderm debris.

Figure 7 Distribution of cement crystals within a carbonate rock

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4. CARBONATES PRIMARY AND SECONDARY POROSITY
Porosity and permeability are important parameters when considering sediment diagenesis and
the flow of fluid through rocks.

4.1. Primary porosity

Primary porosity is any porosity present in a sediment or rock at the termination of
depositional processes. Primary porosity is formed in two basic stages, the predepositional
stage and depositional stage. The former begins when individual sedimentary particles form
and includes intragranular porosity such as is seen in forams, pellets, ooids, and other
nonskeletal grains. This type of porosity can be important in certain sediments.

The depositional stage is the time involved in the final deposition, at the site of the final
burial of a sediment or a growing organic framework. Porosity formed during this stage is
termed depositional porosity. Among states of primary porosity in carbonates are
interparticle, intragranular, porosity of mud-bearing sediments and framework/fenestral
porosity. Primary porosity in carbonates are often higher than siliciclastic sequences because
of this.

Figure 8 Some primary porosity types

4.2. Secondary porosity

Secondary porosities in carbonates is dominated by dissolution processes that may affect the
sequence at any time during burial. If early, fabric-selective, secondary porosity is common
with its configuration controlled by individual grain mineralogy. If late, porosity in non-
fabric selective, but its distribution if controlled by porosity that is existing at the time of
dissolution event.

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5. CONCLUSIONS
The biological influence over the origin and nature of carbonate sediments is reflected in distinct
climatic controls over their distribution, their cyclicity, as well as architectural control over
sediment textures. The reef is a system that is key to describe, define and further investigate
carbonates.

High chemical reactivity in carbonates encourage extended early diagenesis, influencing porosity
types and resulting limestone quality. As burial diagenesis is reached, carbonates react to pressure
solution more readily, thus creating further losses of porosity. It is important to recognize that the
study of porosity and permeability changes are key for oil and gas operators to optimize both
primary and secondary recoveries of the reservoir.

6. REFERENCES

Bathurst, G. R. (1971). Carbonate Sediments and Their Diagenesis. In Developments in

Sedimentology 12 (p. 658 pp). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Dunham, R. J. (1962). Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture.

Classification of Carbonate Rocks, pp. 108-121.

Fothergill, C. A. (1955). The cementation of oil reservoir sands and its origin. Proceedings of the 4th
World Petroleum Congress, (pp. 301-314).

Lees, A. (1975). Possible influence of salinity and temperature on modern shelf carbonate
sedimentation. Marine Geology, 159-198.

Moore, C. H. (1989). Carbonate Diagenesis and Porosity. In Developments in Sedimentology 46.

Baton Rouge: Elsevier.

Nichols, G. (2009). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. In G. Nichols, Post-depositional Structures and

Diagenesis (pp. 274-298). Wiley-Blackwell.

Patrick Corbett, F. Y. (2015, February 26). Microbial carbonates: a sampling and measurement
challenge for petrophysics addressed by capturing the bioarchitectural components.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, pp. 69-85.

Sutter, A. (2008). Retrieved from

http://www.seddepseq.co.uk/SEQ_STRAT/Sequence_Stratigraphy/sequence_strat_basic.ht
m

Woo, K. S. (2015). CaCO3 Its characteristics and geological application. Retrieved from
http://slideplayer.com/slide/10303235/

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