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Transmitter
Laser Nd:YAG
Wavelength 1.064 m
Power 共average兲 2.5 W
Pulse rate 500 Hz
Pulse energy 5.0 mJ
Pulse width 30 ns
Laser output beam diameter 3 mm
Beam divergence 0.3 mrad
Receiver
Sensor InGaAs
Spectral range 0.9–1.7 m
Responsivity at 1.064 m 0.4 A兾W
Diameter of lens 10 cm
Focal length 1 to 5 m
Optics transmission 0.7
冉
C n2 ⫽ 79 ⫻ 10 ⫺6
P
T2
冊 2
C T2, (2)
C T2 ⫽ 4
T R2
共kz兲 2兾3 冋
1⫹7
z
LR
⫹ 20
z
LR
冉 冊册 2 1兾3
(3)
CT 2
⫽ 4
T R2
共kz兲 2兾3 冋
1⫺7
z
LR
⫹ 75
z
LR
冉 冊册 2 ⫺1兾3
(4)
冋冉冊 册
meteorology7,9 and 共b兲 a marine model introduced in ⫺1
Ref. 24 according to the Thiermann–Kohnle concept28 zu
u R ⫽ uk ln ⫺ 共L R兲 , (5)
for an atmospheric surface layer over land, which is z0
based on the MOS theory.29,30 Both models provide
surface layer profiles of Cn2 by use of standard mete- Q0
TR ⫽ ⫺ , (6)
orological parameters as input parameters into the uR
problem. Finally, we discuss the comparison of data
predicted both experimentally and theoretically for u R2T
each model and give a new model, with two practical LR ⫽ , (7)
kgT R
variations, as an extension of the macroscale meteo-
rology model,7,9,17 for prediction of Cn2 in the turbu- where u 共in meters per second兲 is the wind velocity
lent atmosphere above the midland coastal zones, measured at height zu 共in meters兲 above the ground,
where this macroscale model has essential limita- z0 共in meters兲 is the roughness length of the ground
tions. surface, Q0 共in degrees Kelvin times meters per sec-
冦 冉 冊 冉 冊
1⫹y 1 ⫹ y2
2 ln ⫹ ln ⫺ 2 tan⫺1 y ⫹ , z u兾L R ⬍ 0, unstable
共L R兲 ⫽ 2 2 2 , (8)
⫺4.7z u兾L R, z u兾L R ⬎ 0, stable
where y ⫽ 共1 ⫺ 15zu兾LR兲1兾4. The kinematic heat surements made with an albedometer, which is spe-
flux differs during the daytime and the nighttime6,33: cifically used to measure grass-covered and rocky
surfaces.33
Q0 ⫽ For the Golan and Negev experiments the mea-
冦
␣
1⫺ 共1 ⫺ A兲 R ⫺  daytime in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. The irradiance, air
c p 1 ⫹ ␥兾s temperature, and wind speed data were used as in-
,
cu 3 puts to the model. Agreement between the mea-
nighttime surements and the model was generally good during
1 ⫹ 共cc p兾H max兲u 3
the day, but not nearly so good at night.
(9)
Figures 7 and 8 show scatterplots of the modeled
where Cn2 versus their measured values by use of data col-
lected during the day and the night, respectively.
4 k 2T Linear regressions of the data showed generally good
c⫽⫺ . agreement between the modeled parameters and the
27 5gz u关ln共 z u兾z 0兲兴 2
measurements during daytime hours. Much less
In Eq. 共9兲, 共dimensionless兲 is an empirical constant data are available for comparison at night because
equal to 0.9,33 cp 共in joules兾kilogram兾degree Kelvin兲 model calculations are often unavailable because of
is the specific heat of air, 共in kilograms兾cubic meter兲 low wind speed 共especially for the Negev experi-
is the density of air, ␣ 共dimensionless兲 is a parameter ments兲. The main reason that the modeled turbu-
between 0 共dry areas without vegetation, desert, lence parameters are in poor agreement with the
rocky land兲 and 1 共grass-covered land兲 that repre-
sents the capability of humidity in the ground to
evaporate.33 Parameter ␥ is the ratio of the specific
heat of air at constant pressure to the latent heat of
water vapor, and s is the temperature derivative of
saturation-specific humidity. The quantity A 共di-
mensionless兲 is the surface albedo, and R 共in watts
per square meter兲 is the solar irradiance. The heat
flux Hmax depends on local vegetation, ground char-
acteristics, air humidity, and cloud cover and is be-
tween ⫺5 and ⫺100 W兾m3.
A multitude of physical quantities is required for
the calculations. The specific heat of air cp is taken
to be a constant equal to 1004.6 J兾kg兾K,34 the density
of dry air , and the ratio ␥兾s are given in the follow-
ing formulas where temperature T is in degrees Cel-
sius33,34:
measurements at night is because the nighttime heat day, heat flux is driven by solar irradiation, a param-
flux estimated by Eq. 共9兲 is not as accurate as that eter that can be easily measured. At night there is
estimated for daytime measurements. During the no such dominant factor to which the heat flux can be
attributed and it is therefore difficult to estimate.
Another limitation of this model is its applicability for
wind speeds less than 2 m兾s. In these cases, the
model could not be used because of restrictions in the
applicability of the MOS theory under stable condi-
tions. Similar data and limitations were obtained in
other investigations.10
B. Concept and Application of Macroscale
Meteorological Models
In contrast with the previous model, the prediction of
turbulence values by macroscale meteorological mod-
els7,9 was carried out without a long calculation algo-
rithm and several additional data 共irradiance and
heat flux, for example兲. This model is based on the
concept of temporal hours or a relative part of the day
and is a fairly reliable way to predict Cn2. In units of
m⫺2兾3,
where
Fig. 7. Scatterplots of modeled Cn2 versus measured Cn2 for day f 共U兲 ⫽ ⫺2.5 ⫻ 10 ⫺15U ⫹ 1.2 ⫻ 10 ⫺15U 2
data: 共a兲 Golan and 共b兲 Negev experiments; m is the slope of the
regression line and r is the Pearson error value. ⫺ 8.5 ⫻ 10 ⫺17U 3, (14)