Calculus I Chapter IV: Integration: Dr. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

Calculus I
Chapter IV: Integration
Dr. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

Department of Mathematics
International university
Saigon, Vietnam
Email:phangoc@hcmiu.edu.vn
May, 2012
4.5 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
4.5.1 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
Some practical problems require us to integrate algebraic functions that

contain an expression of the form
p p p
a2 − x 2 , x 2 + a2 , x 2 − a2 ...
For example,
Z ap Z p Z p
a2 − x 2 dx, x2 x 2 + a2 dx, x 2 − a2 dx...
0
How to evaluate such an integral?

Some practical problems require us to integrate algebraic functions that

contain an expression of the form
p p p
a2 − x 2 , x 2 + a2 , x 2 − a2 ...
For example,
Z ap Z p Z p
a2 − x 2 dx, x2 x 2 + a2 dx, x 2 − a2 dx...
0
How to evaluate such an integral?
Usually, we make a trigonometric substitution that gets rid of the root

sign.
Trigonometric Substitution
R1√
Example: Evaluate 0
1 − x 2 dx.
R1√
Example: Evaluate 0
1 − x 2 dx.
Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t.

R1√
Example: Evaluate 0
1 − x 2 dx.
Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,

we restrict t so that 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 . Then we have t = 0 when x = 0 and
t = π2 when x = 1 and dx = cos t dt.
R1√
Example: Evaluate 0
1 − x 2 dx.

Thus
Z 1p Z π2 p
2
1 − x dx = 1 − sin2 t cos t dt
0 0
R1√
Example: Evaluate 0
1 − x 2 dx.

Thus
Z 1p Z π2 p Z π2
2 2
1 − x dx = 1 − sin t cos t dt = | cos t| cos t dt
0 0 0
Z π Z π π
2
2
2 1 + cos 2t t sin 2t 2 π
= cos t dt = dt = + = 4.
0 0 2 2 4 0
Example Evaluate
Z 1/2 p
x2 1 − x 2 dx.
0
Example Evaluate
Z 1/2 p
x2 1 − x 2 dx.
0
Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 ,

t = π6 when x = 1/2.
Example Evaluate
Z 1/2 p
x2 1 − x 2 dx.
0

t = π6 when x = 1/2. Thus
Z 1 Z π Z π
2 p 6 p 6
x2 1 − x 2 dx = sin2 t 1 − sin2 t cos t dt = sin2 t| cos t| cos t dt
0 0 0
Example Evaluate
Z 1/2 p
x2 1 − x 2 dx.
0

t = π6 when x = 1/2. Thus
Z 1 Z π Z π
2 p 6 p 6
x2 1 − x 2 dx = sin2 t 1 − sin2 t cos t dt = sin2 t| cos t| cos t dt
0 0 0
π Z π Z π
1 6 1 − cos 4t
Z 6
2 2 1 6 2
= sin t cos t dt = sin 2tdt = dt
0 4 0 4 0 2
π
1 sin 4t 6 1 π 1
= t− = ( + ).
8 4
0 8 6 4
The most common substitutions are x = a sin θ, x = a tan θ, and

x = a sec θ.
Remark:
We can make a substitution of the form x = g (t) by using the
Substitution Rule in reverse. Assume that g has an inverse function, that
is, g is one-to-one.
Then,
Z Z
f g (t) g 0 (t)dt

f (x)dx =
This kind of substitution is called inverse substitution.

Example Find Z
1
√ dx.
x2 x2 + 4
Example Find Z
1
√ dx.
x2 x2 + 4
Solution: Making the substitution x = 2 tan θ, − π2 < θ < 0 or
0 < θ < π2 , we have
Z Z
1 1 2
√ dx = √ 2θ
dθ
2
x x +42 2 2
4tan θ 4 tan θ + 4 cos
Example Find Z
1
√ dx.
x2 x2 + 4
Z Z
1 1 2
√ dx = √ 2θ
dθ
2
x x +4 2 2 2
Z Z
1 2 1 2
= p 2
dθ = q 2
dθ
4tan θ 4(1 + tan θ) cos θ
2 2
4tan2 θ cos42 θ cos θ
Z Z
1 cos θ 1 1 1
=
4 2 dθ = 4 2 d(sin θ) = − 4 sin θ + C
sin θ sin θ
Example Find Z
1
√ dx.
x2 x2 + 4
Z Z
1 1 2
√ dx = √ 2θ
dθ
2
x x +4 2 2 2
Z Z
1 2 1 2
= p 2
dθ = q 2
dθ
4tan θ 4(1 + tan θ) cos θ
2 2
4tan2 θ cos42 θ cos θ
√
x2 + 4
Z Z
1 cos θ 1 1 1
= dθ = d(sin θ) = − + C = − + C.
4 sin2 θ 4 sin2 θ 4 sin θ 4x
Note that
x
sin θ = √
x2 + 4
Example Find
Z 1
1
dx.
−1 (1 + x 2 )2
Example Find
Z 1
1
dx.
−1 (1 + x 2 )2
Solution: Making the substitution x = tan t, − π4 ≤ t ≤ π4 . We have
t = − π4 when x = −1 and t = π4 when x = 1 and dx = (1 + tan2 t) dt.
Example Find
Z 1
1
dx.
−1 (1 + x 2 )2
Solution: Making the substitution x = tan t, − π4 ≤ t ≤ π4 . We have
t = − π4 when x = −1 and t = π4 when x = 1 and dx = (1 + tan2 t) dt.
Therefore,
Z 1 Z π4
1 1
2 2
dx = 2 2
(1 + tan2 t)dt
−1 (1 + x ) − π4 (1 + tan t)
Z π Z π
4 1 4
= dt = cos2 tdt
− π4 1 + tan2 t − π4
Z π π/4
4 1 + cos 2t 1 sin 2t π 1
= dt = (t + ) = + .
− π4 2 2 2 −π/4 4 2
Example Evaluate
Z
dx
√ , (x > 3).
x2 − 9
Example Evaluate
Z
dx
√ , (x > 3).
x2 − 9
Solution:
p
= log(x + x 2 − 9) + C (x > 3).
4.5.2 THE METHOD OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Question:
How to evaluate
Z 5
x − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
Z
4 3 2
dx, dx;
x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1 x 4 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Z
1
dx ?
(x − 1)2 (x 2 + x + 1)
Question:
How to evaluate
Z 5
x − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
Z
4 3 2
dx, dx;
x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1 x 4 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Z
1
dx ?
(x − 1)2 (x 2 + x + 1)
Answer:
The method of Partial Fractions provides a way to integrate all rational
functions.
Recall that a rational function is a function of the form

P(x)
,
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials. Hence, we want a technique to find the

integral Z
P(x)
dx.
Q(x)
The technique requires that the degree of the numerator be less than the
degree of the denominator.
If this is not the case then we first must divide the denominator into the
numerator.
Let’s consider a rational function

P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials.

• f (x) is called proper if the degree of P(x) (denoted deg(P)) is less
than the degree of Q(x).

P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

Example: The rational function
6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
x 4 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
proper

P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
x 4 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
proper because the degree of the numerator (3) is less than the degree
of the denominator 4.

P(x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
x 4 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
proper because the degree of the numerator (3) is less than the degree
of the denominator 4. However,
x 5 − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
f (x) =
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
is not proper (improper)
• If f is improper, that is, deg(P) ≥ deg(Q), then we must take the

preliminary step of dividing Q into P (by long division). This is done until
a remainder R(x) is obtained such that deg(R) < deg(Q):
P(x) R(x)
= S(x) +
Q(x) Q(x)
where S and R are also polynomials.
Example:
x 5 − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2 4x 3 − 4x 2 + 4x − 2
4 3 2
=x+ 4
x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1 x − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
We are now interested in Z

R(x)
dx
Q(x)
R(x)
where Q(x) is proper.
We are now interested in Z

R(x)
dx
Q(x)
R(x)
where Q(x) is proper.
• The first step is to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as possible.
R(x)
• The next step is to express the proper rational function Q(x) as a sum
of partial fractions of the form:
A Ax + B
or .
(ax + b)m (ax 2 + bx + c)n
We explain the details for the four cases that occur.
Case 1: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors:
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ),
where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of

another). Then there is a partial fraction decomposition
R(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 ak x + bk
for suitable constants A1 , A2 , ..., Ak .

Example: Find a decomposition for
x
.
x2 + 2x − 3
x
.
x2 + 2x − 3
Solution: We begin by factoring the denominator:
x 2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3).
Thus, we have
x A B
= +
x2 + 2x − 3 x −1 x +3
x
.
x2 + 2x − 3
Solution: We begin by factoring the denominator:
x 2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3).
Thus, we have
x A B A(x + 3) + B(x − 1) (A + B)x + 3A − B
= + = = .
x2 + 2x − 3 x −1 x +3 2
x + 2x − 3 x 2 + 2x − 3
This gives A + B = 1, 3A − B = 0 or A = 14 , B = 34 . Hence,
x 1 3
= +
x 2 + 2x − 3 4(x − 1) 4(x + 3)
Example: Evaluate Z
x
dx.
x 2 + 2x − 3
Example: Evaluate Z
x
dx.
x 2 + 2x − 3
Solution:
+C
Example Evaluate
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x
Example Evaluate
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x
Solution: The denominator can be factored as a product of linear factors
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x = x(x + 2)(2x − 1).
Example Evaluate
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x = x(x + 2)(2x − 1).Thus, we can write the given rational
function as a sum of partial fractions
x 2 + 2x − 1 A B C
= + +
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x x x + 2 2x − 1
Example Evaluate
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x = x(x + 2)(2x − 1).Thus, we can write the given rational
function as a sum of partial fractions
x 2 + 2x − 1 A B C
= + +
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x x x + 2 2x − 1
A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2)

= .
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x
This gives
x 2 + 2x − 1 = A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2) ∀x ∈ R,
or
x 2 + 2x − 1 = (2A + 2B + C )x 2 + (3A − B + 2C )x − 2A ∀x ∈ R.
Since
x 2 + 2x − 1 = (2A + 2B + C )x 2 + (3A − B + 2C )x − 2A ∀x ∈ R
it follows that
2A + 2B + C = 1; (3A − B + 2C ) = 2; −2A = −1
1 1 1
A= ;B = − ;C = .
2 10 5
Therefore,
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
dx = dx − dx + dx
2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x 2x 10(x + 2) 5(2x − 1)
1 1 1
= ln |x| − ln |x + 2| + ln |2x − 1| + C .
2 10 10
Case 2: Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.
(for example, Q(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)2 (x − 3)4 .)
Suppose the linear factor (ax + b) is repeated m times. That is,

(ax + b)m occurs in the factorization of Q(x). Then, instead of the single
term A/(ax + b), we would use:
A1 A2 Am
+ + ··· + .
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b)m
x2 − 2
.
(x − 2)(x + 1)3
x2 − 2
.
(x − 2)(x + 1)3
This time, the decomposition is:
x2 − 2 A B C D
= + + + .
(x − 2)(x + 1)3 x − 2 x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
x2 − 2
.
(x − 2)(x + 1)3
This time, the decomposition is:
x2 − 2 A B C D
= + + + .
(x − 2)(x + 1)3 x − 2 x + 1 (x + 1)2 (x + 1)3
This gives
x 2 − 2 = A(x + 1)3 + B(x + 1)2 (x − 2) + C (x + 1)(x − 2) + D(x − 2).
We need to find A, B, C, and D.

x 2 − 2 = A(x + 1)3 + B(x + 1)2 (x − 2) + C (x + 1)(x − 2) + D(x − 2).
2
If x = 2 then 2 = 27A. Thus A = 27 .
If x = −1 then −1 = −3D. Thus D = 13 .

38
If x = 0, we get 2B + 2C = 27 .
17
If x = 1, we get 2B + C = 27 .
38 17 2
Solving the system 2B + 2C = 27 , 2B + C = 27 , we get B = − 27 and
C = 97 . Finally, we have
x2 − 2 2 2 7 1
= − + + .
(x − 2)(x + 1)3 27(x − 2) 27(x + 1) 9(x + 1)2 3(x + 1)3
Example: Evaluate
x2 − 2
Z
dx.
(x − 2)(x + 1)3
From the above decomposition, it follows that
x2 − 2
Z Z Z
2 2
3
dx = dx − dx+
(x − 2)(x + 1) 27(x − 2) 27(x + 1)
Z Z
7 1
dx + dx
9(x + 1)2 3(x + 1)3
2 2 7 1
= ln |x − 2| − ln |x + 1| − − + C.
27 27 9(x + 1) 6(x + 1)2
Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is

repeated.
If Q(x) has the factor ax 2 + bx + c, where b 2 − 4ac < 0, then the

expression for R(x)/Q(x) will have a term of the form
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
where A and B are constants to be determined.
Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is

repeated.
If Q(x) has the factor ax 2 + bx + c, where b 2 − 4ac < 0, then the

expression for R(x)/Q(x) will have a term of the form
Ax + B
ax 2 + bx + c
where A and B are constants to be determined.
Example: Write a decomposition for
x
.
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2)
x
.
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2)
The decomposition is given by
x Ax + B Cx + D
= 2 + 2 .
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2) x +1 x +2
x
.
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2)
x Ax + B Cx + D
= 2 + 2 .
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2) x +1 x +2
We now determine A, B, C , D. We have
x
R
Example Evaluate (x 2 +1)(x 2 +2) dx.
Solution: Since
x x −x
= 2 + ,
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2) x + 1 x2 + 2
it follows that
−x
Z Z Z
x x
dx = dx + dx
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2) x2 + 1 x2 + 2
Z Z
1 1 2 1 1
= 2
d(x + 1) − 2
d(x 2 + 2)
2 x +1 2 x +2
1 1 x2 + 1
= [ln(x 2 + 1) − ln(x 2 + 2)] + C = ln 2 + C.
2 2 x +2
Case 4: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.
Suppose Q(x) has the factor (ax 2 + bx + c)m where b 2 − 4ac < 0. Then,
the sum
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Am x + Bm
2
+ 2 2
+ ··· +
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax 2 + bx + c)m
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R(x)/Q(x). Each of the

terms in this formula can be integrated by first completing the square.

2x − 1
.
(x 2 + x + 1)3

2x − 1
.
(x 2 + x + 1)3

2x − 1 Ax + B Cx + D Ex + F
= 2 + 2 + 2 .
(x 2 + x + 1) 3 (x + x + 1) (x + x + 1) 2 (x + x + 1)3
We would find the coefficients A, B, C , D, E , F as above.

Example Find a decomposition for

2x − 1
.
(x − 1)2 (x 2
+ x + 1)3
Example Find a decomposition for

2x − 1
.
(x − 1)2 (x 2
+ x + 1)3
Example Evaluate
x3
Z
dx.
x2 − 1
Example Evaluate
x3
Z
dx.
x2 − 1
x3
Solution: The expression (x 2 −1) can be rewritten as
x3 x
=x+ 2
x2 − 1 x −1
Example Evaluate
x3
Z
dx.
x2 − 1
x3
x3 x x A B
=x+ 2 =x+ =x+ + .
x2 − 1 x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x −1 x +1
Example Evaluate
x3
Z
dx.
x2 − 1
x3
x3 x x A B
=x+ 2 =x+ =x+ + .
x2 − 1 x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x −1 x +1
It is easy to get A = 21 , B = 12 . Thus,
x3
Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
2
dx = xdx + dx + dx
x −1 2 x −1 x +1
x2 1 1
= + ln |x + 1| + ln |x − 1| + C .
2 2 2
Example Evaluate
Z 5
x − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
dx.
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Example Evaluate
Z 5
x − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
dx.
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Solution: First note that the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator. We use polynomial division to rewrite the
fraction
x 5 − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2 4x 3 − 4x 2 + 4x − 2
4 3 2
=x+ 4
(x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1) x − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Example Evaluate
Z 5
x − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
dx.
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Solution: First note that the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator. We use polynomial division to rewrite the
fraction
x 5 − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2 4x 3 − 4x 2 + 4x − 2
4 3 2
=x+ 4
(x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1) x − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1
Moreover, the denominator can be factorized as
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
and thus the decomposition is

4x 3 − 4x 2 + 4x − 2 A B Cx + D
= + + 2 .
x4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x +1
We get the identity
4x 3 −4x 2 +4x−2 = A(x−1)(x 2 +1)+B(x 2 +1)+(Cx+D)(x−1)2 , ∀x ∈ R,
or equivalently
4x 3 −4x 2 +4x−2 = (A+C )x 3 +(−A+B−2C +D)x 2 +(A+C −2D)x+(−A+B+D)
Therefore
A+C = 4
−A + B − 2C + D = −4
A + C − 2D = 4
−A + B + D = −2
Solving this system, we have A = 3, B = 1, C = 1, D = 0.
4x 3 − 4x 2 + 4x − 2 3 1 x
4 3 2
= + 2
+ 2 .
x − 2x + 2x − 2x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1) x +1
x 5 − 2x 4 + 6x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 2
Z Z
3 1 x
dx = (x+ + + )dx.
x 4 − 2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x 2 + 1
Z Z Z Z
3 1 x
= xdx + dx + dx + dx
x −1 (x − 1)2 x2 +1
x2 1 1 1
= + ln |x − 1| − + ln (x 2 + 1) + C .
2 3 x −1 2

Calculus I Chapter IV: Integration: Dr. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

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Calculus I Chapter IV: Integration: Dr. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

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Calculus I

Chapter IV: Integration

Dr. Pham Huu Anh Ngoc

Some practical problems require us to integrate algebraic functions that

How to evaluate such an integral?

Some practical problems require us to integrate algebraic functions that

How to evaluate such an integral?

Usually, we make a trigonometric substitution that gets rid of the root

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t.

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 ,

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 ,

Solution: Make the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Since 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 ,

The most common substitutions are x = a sin θ, x = a tan θ, and

This kind of substitution is called inverse substitution.

Recall that a rational function is a function of the form

where P and Q are polynomials. Hence, we want a technique to find the

Let’s consider a rational function

where P and Q are polynomials.

Let’s consider a rational function

where P and Q are polynomials.

Let’s consider a rational function

where P and Q are polynomials.

Let’s consider a rational function

where P and Q are polynomials.

• If f is improper, that is, deg(P) ≥ deg(Q), then we must take the

where S and R are also polynomials.

We are now interested in Z

We are now interested in Z

• The first step is to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as possible.

We explain the details for the four cases that occur.

Case 1: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors:

Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk ),

where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of

for suitable constants A1 , A2 , ..., Ak .

This gives A + B = 1, 3A − B = 0 or A = 14 , B = 34 . Hence,

A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2)

Case 2: Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated.

(for example, Q(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)2 (x − 3)4 .)

Suppose the linear factor (ax + b) is repeated m times. That is,

Example: Find a decomposition for

Example: Find a decomposition for

This time, the decomposition is:

Example: Find a decomposition for

This time, the decomposition is:

x 2 − 2 = A(x + 1)3 + B(x + 1)2 (x − 2) + C (x + 1)(x − 2) + D(x − 2).

We need to find A, B, C, and D.

If x = −1 then −1 = −3D. Thus D = 13 .

Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is

If Q(x) has the factor ax 2 + bx + c, where b 2 − 4ac < 0, then the

Case 3: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is

If Q(x) has the factor ax 2 + bx + c, where b 2 − 4ac < 0, then the

Case 4: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.

occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R(x)/Q(x). Each of the

Example: Write a decomposition for

Example: Write a decomposition for

The decomposition is given by

We would find the coefficients A, B, C , D, E , F as above.

Example Find a decomposition for

Example Find a decomposition for