Professional Documents
Culture Documents
premonowati@gmail.com; 081804192227,
Pin 228D4DBF
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 5
I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 6
CONCEPT OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 7
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONATE
ROCKS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 9
LIMESTONE
MARL
RELATIONSHIP
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 10
CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION
Increase of CO2 concentration in the solution will shift the equation to the
left, resulting dissolution of the calcium carbonates.
Increase of CO2 concentration may due to increasing depth (PCO2)
Input of meteoric water or input of CO2 due decay of organic material
Decreas of CO2 concentration will shift the equation to the right, resulting
into carbonate deposition
Decrease of CO2 concentration may be due to:
Evaporation, increase of temperature due heating of the sea water by the
sun, escpecially in shallow waters
CO2 capture by organism, especially algae for photo-synthesis
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 11
CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF
CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION
CARBONATE
Calcite
COMPENSATION
ACD
DEPTH
D
e
p
t Aragonite
h
I Isocline
n
CCD
K
m
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 13
Carbonate Compensation Depth
(CCD)
• Deep-ocean waters undersaturated with calcium
carbonate & opalline silica.
• Biogenic particles dissolve in water column and on
sea floor
• Pronounced for carbonates
• Calcareous oozes absent below CCD depth
• CCD varies from ocean to ocean
– 4,000 m in Atlantic.
– 500 - 1,500 m in Pacific
• Siliceous particles dissolve more slowly as sink & not
so limited in distribution by depth
• Nutrient supply controls distribution of siliceous
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 14
sediments
CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 15
GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
OF CARBONATES
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 16
WORLD WIDE DISTRIBUTION OF
CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 17
WET TROPICAL AREAS COINCIDING WITH WITH
REGIONS OF ABUNDANCE OF SILICICLASTIC INPUT
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 18
DEPTH DISTRIBUTION OF
CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 19
Deep Water Carbonate Deposits
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 20
PROCESSES OF CARBONATE
DEPOSITION
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 21
Controls on Carbonate
Accumulation
• Temperature (climate) -Tropics & temperate regions
favor carbonate production: true of ancient too!
• Light – Photosynthesis drives carbonate production
• Pressure – “CCD” dissolution increases with depth
• Agitation of waves - Oxygen source & remove CO2
• Organic activity - CaCO3 factories nutrient deserts
• Sea Level – Yield high at SL that constantly
changes
• Sediment masking - Fallacious!
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 22
Limestones – Chemical or
Bochemical
Distinction between biochemical & physico-chemical
blurred by ubiquitous cyanobacteria of biosphere!
• Shallow sea water is commonly saturated with
respect to calcium carbonate
• Dissolved ions expected to be precipitated as
sea water warms, loses CO2 & evaporates
• Organisms generate shells & skeletons from
dissolved ions
• Metabolism of organisms cause carbonate
precipitation
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 23
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 24
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 25
Carbonate Mineralogy
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 29
Carbonate Components – The Key
• Interpretation of depositional setting of
carbonates is based on
– Grain types
– Grain packing or fabric
– Sedimentary structures
– Early diagenetic changes
• Identification of grain types commonly used in
subsurface studies of depositional setting
because, unlike particles in siliciclastic rocks,
carbonate grains generally formed within
basin of deposition
• NB: This rule of thumb doesn’t always apply
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 30
Carbonate Rock Components
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 32
ORGANIC FRAMEWORK
• SKELETAL FRAMEWORK
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 33
ORGANIC FRAMEWORK
Boundstone - Biolith
Organic framework can be constructed by:
• FRAME BUILDERS
– formed entirely of skeletal frames secreted by
organism
• SEDIMENT BINDERS
– formed by carbonate grains and fragments bound by
organically secreted carbonate encrustations (red
algae etc)
• SEDIMENT BAFFLERS:
– formed by sparse frame-builders (corals) and
carbonate sediments trapped in between
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 34
ORGANIC FRAMES TYPES
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 35
FRAME BUILDERS AND NON FRAMEBUILDERS
FRAMEBUILDERS NON-FRAMEBUILDERS
Tetra-corals
Crinoids
(Asquith, 1979) Prem-Carbonate Rocks 36
FRAME-BUILDERS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 37
COMMON SKELETAL COMPONENTS AND
THEIR MINERALOGY
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 38
MINERALOGICAL
EVOLUTION OF BENTHIC
AND PLANKTONIC
EVOLUTION DURING
PHANEROZOIC TIME
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 39
TYPE OF SKELETAL ORGANISM VARIATION WITH
LATTITUDE
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 40
ABUNDANCE OF CARBONATE ORGANISM TYPE
RELATIVE TO LATTITUDE
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 41
CARBONATE GRAINS
• SKELETAL GRAINS
– BIOCLASTS
– CLASSIFIED BY THE FOSSIL NAMES
• NON-SKELETAL GRAINS
– LIME-CLASTS
• Exoclasts
• Intraclast
– COATED GRAINS
• Oolite
• Pisolite
• Oncolite
– PELOIDS
• Ovoids
• Pellets
• Grapestones
• Lumps
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 42
COATED GRAINS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 43
SKELETAL GRAINS
• NON-FRAGMENTAL SKELETAL
GRAINS:
– IN SITU ACCUMULATION
– BENTHIC AND PLANKTONIC FORAMS
• FRAGMENTAL SKELETAL GRAINS
– TRANSPORTED/ WAVE AGITATED
– CORALGAL
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 44
EFFECT OF CLIMATE / LATTITUDE ON
SKELETAL GRAIN COMPOSITION
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 45
EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
NON-SKELETAL GRAINS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 46
CARBONATE MATRIX
MICRITE –(LIME)MUDS
• ACRONYM FOR MICRO-CRYSTALLINE (Folk, 1960)
• CONSISTS OF DENSE FINE-GRAINED CALCITE
CRYSTALS
• GRAIN-SIZE: < 62 MICRONS
• UNDER THE MICROSCOPE APPEARS DARK.
• NOT NECESSARILY CONTAINS CLAYS
• OTHER NAMES:
– Fine crystalline to aphano-crystalline calcite
– Limemud or mud (Dunham, 1960)
– Calcilutite (Grabau, 1902)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 47
MACRO-CRYSTALLINE
CARBONATE COMPONENT
• CARBONATE CEMENT
• NEOMORPHICS:
– PSEUDO-SPAR
• MICROSPAR
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 48
CARBONATE CRYSTAL
TERMINOLOGY
• MACROCRYSTALLINE
– SPAR : General term for visually visible clear
transparant calcite, usually reserved for
cement.
– PSEUDO-SPAR: Clear carbonate crystals as
the result of recrystallization (neomorphism)
• MICROSPAR
• MICRITE (MICRO-CRYSTALLINE): often
referred to as lime-mud (MUD)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 49
CARBONATE CRYSTAL
MORPHOLOGY
• EQUANT
• BLADED/ COLUMNAR
• NEEDLES
• FIBROUS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 50
CARBONATE CRYSTAL SHAPE
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 51
MINERAL FABRIC
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 52
Crystal in Recent Oolite
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 53
CRYSTAL FABRIC DEFINING
PISOLITES
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 54
Crystal Fabric in Oncoids
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 55
Crystal Fabric Pelecypod Fragment
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 56
SPAR MICROSPAR PSEUDOSAPR
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 57
CARBONATE TEXTURES
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 58
GRAIN TO GRAIN RELATIONSHIPS IN
PACKED TEXTURE
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 59
TYPES
OF GRAIN
TO GRAIN
CONTACT
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 60
GRAIN TO MATRIX
RELATIONSHIP
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 61
TEXTURAL SPECTRUM OF
CARBONATE TEXTURE
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 62
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 63
FRAMEWORK – MATRIX
RELATIONSHIP
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 64
CHANGES IN
MINERAL
FABRIC WITH
DIAGENESIS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 65
XV. CARBONATE FIELDS XVI.
C FINAL TEST
XIV. PETROGRAPHIC CARBONATE
A
XIII. INTEGRATING WELL DATA FOR CARBONATE RESERVOIR CHAR.ZT
R
XII. FIELD TRIP (WONOSARI REEF COMPLEX-PLATFORM)
B
O IXI DISSOLUTION AND KARSTING
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
CARBONATE BUILD-UPS
REEF VS BANK
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 67
CARBONATE BUILD-UPS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 68
Carbonate Buildup vs
Carbonate Mass
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 69
THE MODERN REEF GROWTH WINDOW
( after James and Bourque , 1992 with modification)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 70
Skeletal Limestones
• Transported or fragmental
skeletal Limestones
(Allochtonous)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 71
Terms Related to in place accumulated
skeletal Limestones
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 74
Biostrome vs Bioherm
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 75
Breadth: Height Ratio
for distinguishing Bioherm
from Biostrome
• Useful Guide: 1 : 30
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 76
Reef:
Lowenstam (1950)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 78
Stratigraphic Reef vs
Ecologic Reef
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 79
FRAME BUILDERS AND NON
FRAMEBUILDERS
FRAMEBUILDERS NON-FRAMEBUILDERS
Sediment Binders Sediment Bafflers
Massive & Tabular Blue-green Algae Fenestrate Bryozoan
Stromatoporoids
Massive Tabulate Encrusting Red Algae Phylloid Algae
Corals
Hexacorals Tubular Forams Dendroid Stromatoporoids
Hydrozoans Tubiphytes Dendroid Corals
Rudists Encrusting Bryozoan Branching Red Algae
Calcareous Sponge Branching Bryozoan
Richtofenid Segmented Green Algae
Brachiopods
Tetracoorals
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 80
(Asquith, 1979) Crincids
Reef types in a
Reef-dominated Platform Margin
(Wilson, 1975)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 81
Reef facies model Wilson, 1975
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 82
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 83
“REEF TYPES”
(Longman, 1985):
1.Walled Reefs
2.Low Relief Carbonate Mud
Banks
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 84
Low Relief Carbonate Mud Banks:
(Longman, 1985)
a. An abundance of skeletal packestones and
wackestones containing branching coral
fragments
b. Abundant depositional micrite matrix
c. An absence of rigid framework and marine
cements
d. A generally low relief , lenticular shape
e. Development of a relatively flat carbonate
shelves with associated argillaceous
carbonates being deposited
contemporaneously in slightly deeper water
off the build-upPrem-Carbonate Rocks 85
Reef Types
(Tucker and Wright (1992)
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 86
Reef Mounds:
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 87
Internal Structure of a Reef Mound
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 88
SUMMARY OF REEF TERMINOLOGY
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 89
XV. CARBONATE FIELDS XVI.
C FINAL TEST
XIV. PETROGRAPHIC CARBONATE
A
XIII. INTEGRATING WELL DATA FOR CARBONATE RESERVOIR CHAR.ZT
R
XII. FIELD TRIP (WONOSARI REEF COMPLEX-PLATFORM)
B
O IXI DISSOLUTION AND KARSTING
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 91
REEF CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON LATERAL EXTENT
• NON-LINEAR REEFS
– Patch Reefs
– Table Reefs
– Pinnacle Reef
• LINEAR and CIRCULAR REEFS
– Fringing Reef
– Barrier Reef
– Atols
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 92
Non Linear :Reef Types
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 93
Non Linear: Reef Types
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 94
Non Linear Reef
: Zonation
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 95
LINEAR/CIRCULAR REEF
COMPONENTS
• Fore reef:
– the seaward side of the reef trend, composed primarily of reef
detritus, interfinger with the reef and basin sediments.
• Reef Core or Reef Wall
– composed of rigid framework built in the reef crest and reef
front of a living reef.
• Back reef:
– the landward side of the reef trend, largely reef-derived fossil
debris, calcarenite, and calcilutite, which may interfinger with
both the reef and lagoonal facies, may include the reef flats or
recent reefs.
• Lagoon :
– The area between the reef complex and the shoreline or in the
area completely circumscribed by the reef complex.
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 96
TYPICAL REEF
: ZONATION
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 97
Wave energy and coral zonation in reef
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 98
: and Wave Energy
Coral Growth Shapes
Prem-Carbonate Rocks 99
Stages in Reef Core Facies
Development :(James, 1979)
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Processes:
•Biological (encrustation, bioerosion, and soft tissue
destruction)
•Geological (mechanical destruction and cementation)
a. CEMENTATION
b. COMPACTION
c. DISSOLUTION
d. NEOMORPHISM
a. INVERSION
b. RECRYSTALLIZATION
e. REPLACEMENT
Influx of
Magnesium
Rich
Influx of Continental
sea water 1. Aragonite Ground
2. Gypsum Waters
3. Anhydrite
4. Dolomite
5. Halite
accumulate
in this order
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
• Tangential (A)
• flattened (B)
• concavo-convex (C)
• sutured (D) Prem-Carbonate Rocks (after Bruce Railsback)
134
:
Stylolites
• Decompression of rocks
• Interaction with water percolating through fractures.
• Pedogenesis
Results:
• Corrosive and intensive dissolution, it form caves, big fissures.
• Collapse breccia.
• Underground river
• Dolomitisation/dedolomitisation
V. DIAGENETIC PROCESSES
R
O IV. CLASSIFICATION AND ORIGIN OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Strain recrystallization
Replacement by aphanocrystalline
dolomite.
Medium crystalline
complete replacement
dolomite