Module 02

Physics
Preliminary Module 2 Matter

Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 1
2.1.1 Nature of Matter
2.1.1.1 Atomic Structure
All matter is built up from around a hundred different chemical elements. The
smallest components of these elements are
V atoms.
These are incredibly small and therefore cannot be directly observed. The physical
processes taking place at the atomic level are extremely complicated and have still
not been fully researched.
In the meantime, however, physicists have developed several models with which
atomic structure can be described in a simplified manner. In practice a knowledge of
the basic principle of Bohr’s model of the atom is quite sufficient (Niels Bohr was a
Danish physicist).
Bohr’s model is very similar to our solar system, in which a number of planets travel
along different orbits round the sun as the centre.
Bohr’s model of the atom thus consists of an

V (atomic) nucleus,
around which
V electrons
circle in the orbit.
Figure 1 shows a highly simplified two--dimensional representation of the atomic

model.
The atomic nucleus consists of

V protons and
V neutrons.
These two types of nuclear components are the same in all elements, and almost the
entire mass of an atom is concentrated in them. The structure of an atomic nucleus is
represented in Figure 2.
The atomic nuclei of elements differ in the number of protons and neutrons present
and consequently also in their spatial extent and weight. Normally, each atom has
exactly the same number of electrons as protons, whereas the number of neutrons
present in atoms of the same element can vary.
The electrons circle the nucleus in different orbits. Orbits with roughly the same
radius are combined together to form
V electron shells.
There are seven such electron shells, which are designated from inside to out by the
numbers 1 to 7, or by the capital letters K to Q. Only a specific maximum number of
electrons can occupy any of these shells.
E ITS International Training & Support GmbH. All rights reserved. For training purposes only -- Rev. 10/08
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 2
In the following table, the maximum occupancies for shells 1 to 4 are given.
1st shell = K shell with a maximum of 2 electrons

2nd shell = L shell with a maximum of 8 electrons
3rd shell = M shell with a maximum of 18 electrons
4th shell = N shell with a maximum of 32 electrons
The simplest atom is the hydrogen atom. Hydrogen has the symbol H (from Latin
Hydrogenium) and the atomic number 1, because its nucleus contains only 1 proton
and only 1 electron circle in the K shell.
The scale can only be conveyed by using examples from our own experience:
Accordingly, the atomic nucleus is equivalent to a ball with a diameter of some 5

to 6 centimetres orbited by an electron the size of a pinhead at a distance of
approximately 100 metres.
An atom thus consists principally of empty space. The mass of the atomic nucleus of
a hydrogen atom is incredibly small (massProton = 1672.52 S 10 --27 g) and the mass of
an electron (massElectron = 0.91091 S 10 --27 g) is even smaller by a factor of 2000.
The noble (or inert) gas helium has an atomic number 2 and has two protons and two
electrons. Silicon, which is an important basic material in semiconductor engineering,
has an atomic number of 14, and consequently has 14 protons in the atomic nucleus,
around which a total of 14 electrons circle in three electron shells.
Figure 3 shows the models of atoms for the three elements hydrogen (detail a)),
helium (detail b)) and silicon (detail c)) in simplified form.
The more protons and neutrons, and consequently also electrons, an atom has, the
greater will be its mass and the atomic weight of the corresponding element. When
all the elements were first arranged systematically according to their atomic weights,
periodic regularities were observed.
This led to the arrangement of all the elements in the form of a ’Periodic Table’ (often
referred to as Mendeleyev’s Table, after the Russian who made the discovery).
Figure 4 shows an extract from this Periodic Table of elements.
In this Periodic Table, the elements are classified according to the number of electron
shells -- increasing from top to bottom -- whereas elements with similar properties are
arranged in columns.
The extract given in Figure 4 includes almost all the chemical elements of relevance
in electrical engineering and electronics. The data for each element in Figure 4 is
explained in more detail in Figure 5.
As shown in Figure 5, the element silicon has the symbol Si and atomic number 14,
i.e. 14 protons in the nucleus. It also indicates the two electrons are circling in the K
shell, 8 electrons in the L shell and four electrons in the M shell.
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called

V valence electrons.
These have a particular bearing on the ability of an atom to enter into chemical
bonds with other atoms.
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 3
2.1.1.2 Ions
A normal (complete) atom always has the same number of electrons as protons. All
positive and negative charges then cancel each other out. A normal atom is therefore
externally electrically neutral (Figure 6, detail a)).
Under certain circumstances, however, a normal atom can give up electrons to
neighbouring atoms or can accept electrons from neighbouring atoms. This process
is called ’ionisation’. Such a structure is no longer a normal atom and is referred to as
an
V ion.
If an atom has given up electrons, it contains more positively charged than negatively
charged particles. It is then positively charged and is referred to as a
V positive ion (detail b)).
If, on the other hand, an atom has more electrons than protons, an excess of
negative particles occurs. It is negatively charged and is called a
V negative ion (detail c)).
In Figure 6 the relationships are illustrated in simplified form.
2.1.1.3 Chemical Bonds

The atoms of most elements strive to populate their outermost shell with the
maximum possible number of electrons. However, only the noble gases, such as
helium and neon, have such an atomic structure with a complete outer electron--
shell. The atoms of all other elements therefore seek to achieve this state by entering
into bonds with other atoms.
The three different types of bonds are:
V Ionic bonds
V Atomic bonds
V Metallic bonds.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds are only possible between atoms of different elements. If, for example,
the atom of a particular element has only a few valence electrons, it willingly gives
these up. It thereby becomes a positive ion. On the other hand, the atom of an
element with several valence electrons willingly accepts extra electrons in order to fill
its outermost shell.
It thereby becomes a negative ion. Since, however, the positive and negative ions
thus produced attract each other because of their opposite charges, they enter into a
firm bond and a new substance is produced. The smallest particles of this chemical
compound produced from chemical elements are referred to as
V molecules.
Wether a molecule is composed of two or more atoms depends on the valency of the
elements involved. Figure 7 shows a diagrammatic representation of an ionic bond.
The mechanism of the ionic bond is of significance in the movement of electric
charges in liquids and gases.
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 4
Atomic Bonds
Whereas an ionic bond is only possible between atoms of different elements, atoms
of the same element can also enter into bonds through the mechanism of the atom
bond. For example, oxygen atoms (atomic number 8, symbol O, valency 2) have six
electrons in their outermost shells.
They can enter into a bond with each other by virtue of the fact that two atoms each
make two electrons in their outermost shell available to the other atom.
In this way, two pairs of electrons are produced, each containing one electron from
either atom, which are then shared by the two atoms. The outer shells of each of the
two oxygen atoms are then temporarily occupied by eight electrons and are
consequently fully occupied.
Figure 8 shows a diagrammatic representation of the atomic bond of an oxygen

molecule O2.
The atomic bond is of great significance in the manufacture of semiconductor

materials and thereby in the conduction mechanism in diodes, transistors and other
semiconductor components. Because of the firm anchorage of valence electrons to
neighbouring atoms, the electrical conductivity of pure silicon or germanium is very
low, but it can be varied within wide limits by the controlled diffusion of particular
impurity atoms.
Metallic Bonds
Metal atoms have only a few valence electrons. For example, a Cu atom has only
one valence electron and an Al atom only three. These valence electrons are readily
given up, thereby producing positive metal ions, which combine with each other to
form a stable metallic lattice or space lattice. Figure 9 shows the diagrammatic
structure of a metal lattice.
Whereas the positive metal ions are connected into a rigid ion lattice, the valence
electrons given up can move around within this lattice almost unhindered. They are
consequently referred to as ’free electrons’. Since each of these free electrons
carries one negative electron charge e -- , it constitutes a very small electric current by
virtue of its random motion.
This current is not apparent externally, however. Only when all the free electrons
move in the same direction under the influence of a force are a very large number of
extremely small electric charges combined to form an aggregate current which is
externally measurable. By virtue of this property, metals are good electrical conduc-
tors.
2.1.1.4 States of Matter and Change of State
Matter is composed of several molecules. The molecule is the smallest unit of a

substance that exhibits the physical and chemical properties of the substance. All
molecules of a particular substance are exactly alike and unique to that substance.
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 5
Matter may exist in one of three physical states:

V solid
V liquid
V gaseous.
All matter exists in one of these states. A physical state refers to the physical
condition of a compound and has no affect on a compound’s chemical structure. In
other words, ice, water and steam are all H2O and the same type of matter appears
in all three states.
All atoms and molecules in matter are constantly in motion. This motion is caused by
the heat energy in the material. The degree of motion determines the physical state
of matter.
Solid
A solid has a definite volume and shape, and is independent of its container. For
example, a rock that is put into a jar does nor reshape itself to form to the jar.
In a solid there is very little heat energy and therefore, the molecules or atoms
cannot move very far from their relative position.
Liquid
When heat energy is added to solid matter, the molecular movement increases. This
causes the molecules to overcome their rigid shape. When a material changes from
a solid to a liquid, the material’s volume does not significantly change. However, the
material conforms to the shape of the container it is held in. An example for that is a
melting ice cube.
Liquids and solid bodies are considered incompressible. Although the molecules of a
liquid are farther apart than those of a solid, they are still not far enough apart to
make compressing possible.
In a liquid, the molecules still partially bond together. This bonding force is known as
surface tension and prevents liquids from expanding and spreading out in all
directions. Surface tension is evident when a container is slightly overfilled.
Gas
As heat energy is continually added to a material, the molecular movement increases

further until the liquid reaches a point where surface tension can no longer hold the
molecules down. At this point the molecules escape as gas or vapour.
The amount of heat required to change a liquid to a gas varies with different liquids
and the amount of pressure a liquid is under. For example, at a pressure that is lower
than atmospheric pressure, water boils at a temperature less than 100 °C. Therefore,
the boiling point of a liquid is said to vary directly with the pressure.
Gases differ from liquids and solids in the facts that they have neither a definite
shape nor volume. Chemically, the molecules in a gas are exactly the same as they
were in their liquid or solid state. However, because the molecules in a gas are
spread out, gases are compressible.
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 6
Electron
Nucleus
Electron
B 0137 B
Electron Electron
Figure 1 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 7
Neutron
B 8020
Proton
Figure 2 Structure of a (Atomic) Nucleus
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 8
a) H atom
1 proton
1 electron
b) He atom
2 protons
2 electrons
c) Si atom
14 protons
14 electrons
B 8965
Figure 3 Simplified Atomic Models
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 9
1st group 2nd group 3rd group 4th group 5th group 6th group 7th group Noble gases
Valency in
relation to 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
hydrogen
Period Shell 1H 2 He
Hydrogen Helium
1.
K 1 1.00797 2 4.0026
3 Li 4 Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10 Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
2.
K 2 6.939 2 9.0122 2 10.811 2 12.011 2 14.007 2 15.999 2 18.998 2 20.183
L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminiuum Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
3: K 2 22.990 2 24.312 2 26.982 2 28.086 2 30.974 2 32.064 2 35.453 2 39.948

L 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese
K 2 39.102 2 40.08 2 44.956 2 47.90 2 50.942 2 51.996 2 54.938

L 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
M 8 8 9 10 11 13 13
N 1 2 2 2 2 1 2
4.
29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
K 2 63.54 2 65.37 2 69.72 2 72.59 2 74.922 2 78.96 2 79.909 2 83.80

L 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
M 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium
K 2 85.47 2 87.62 2 88.905 2 91.22 2 92.906 2 95.94 2

L 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
M 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
N 8 8 9 10 12 13 14
O 1 2 2 2 1 1 1
5.
47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 J 54 Xe
Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
K 2 107.87 2 112.40 2 114.82 2 118.69 2 121.75 2 127.60 2 126.90 2 131.30

L 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
M 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
N 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FB 8966
Figure 4 Extract from the Periodic Table

of Elements
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 10
Atomic number
14 Si Chemical symbol
Silicon
2 28.086 Atomic weight
4
B 8967
Number of electrons in shell
Figure 5 Data given in the Periodic Table
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 11
a) Normal atom
13 electrons
13 protons
b) Positive ion (one electron lost)
12 electrons
c) Negative ion (one electron collected)
14 electrons
B 0140 B
Figure 6 Ionisation of Atoms
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 12
Positive sodium ion: 11 protons

10 electrons
11+ Na+
Negative fluorine ion: 9 protons

10 electrons
9+ F--
B 8968
Figure 7 Ionic Bond
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 13
Oxygen molecule (O2)

B 8969
Figure 8 Atomic Bond
Physics
Notes 2.1 2.1.1 - HO - 14
Metal lattice (ion lattice)
B 8970
Free electrons
Figure 9 Metal Lattice
Physics
Preliminary Module 2 Mechanics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 1
2.2.1 Statics
2.2.1.1 Properties Associated with Bodies and Matter

A body, in the physical sense, is a piece of matter that has mass and occupies
volume. Mass and volume are, also, associated with gaseous and liquid matter.
However in contrast to liquid matter, a body is normally associated with a solid piece
of matter that can resist considerable forces without being enclosed in a container.
’Weight’ is often taken as a synonym for ’mass’.
The popular definition relates ’weight’ to the measurements taken by scales. This
suggests an identity of weight and mass. However, weight depends on the way
measurement is carried out. The second, or physical definition of ’weight’ is adopted
by engineers. It defines weight as a force resulting from gravitation, or, as symbolic
formula, as follows:
W = F = m ⋅ g,
where:
W = weight
F = force
m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration.
The unit of force in the SI system is the newton, represented by the symbol N. This
unit requires that kg is used for mass and m/s2 for gravitational acceleration, as the
equivalent to the newton is 1 N = 1 kg m/s2. On the earth’s surface, the gravitational
constant g = 9.81 m/s2 is normally used for calculations.
Force has quantity and direction and, thus, it has vector qualities. In case of
gravitational forces, the line of action is determined by a direct line between the
centres of gravitation of the involved masses and, particularly on earth, the line of
action is related to the earth’s centre. This natural fact is utilized for perpendicular
and for level measuring.
Figure 1 shows an example of the measurement of perpendicularity on a construc-
tion site, with the aid of a plumb line and with respect to the earth’s centre.
The profile of the building is determined by the four taut sides of a string, which is
level and at right angles fastened to four profile frames at the corners of the building
to be erected. The plumb line is attached in the crossings of the string. The plumb
line is used as reference for exact perpendicular brick laying, while the four tout line
sides serve as reference for level brick laying.
When gravity pulls an object towards the earth, it always appears to pull at the same
point on the object. So an object behaves as if its whole weight was a single force
which acts through a point ’G’ called its ’centre of gravity’.
The centre of gravity in an object is defined as the point on which its whole weight is
acting. In solving engineering problems, it is often assumed that a body has every
property of mass but has no extension. Such a body is known as centroid. Applied
physics that focuses on a centroid, or any other reference reduced to a particle, is
known as ’particle physics’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 2
Figure 2 shows examples of the location of the centre of gravity, in the case of some
regular--shaped objects. It is interesting to note that the centre of gravity may be
located outside the object. An example is shown in detail e).
The body in detail c) is said to be in equilibrium of forces when it rests on a support,

as it exerts a downward force on the support, and the downward force is counter-
acted by an equal upward force of the support on the body. According to the concept
of gravitation centres, the common line of action should be determined by the
perpendicular extension of the body’s gravity centre. In other words, the active
gravitational force results in an equal reactive force on the body, and this is known as
the ’principle of action and reaction’.
The relation between the action force and the reaction force is explained by Newton’s
third law of motion:
’To every action there is always an equal reaction’ opposed; or, ’the mutual
actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal. They are directed
opposed to each other.
In the subtitle of detail c), reference is made to the uniform density of the shown
body.
Density is defined as the ratio of mass and volume, in accordance with the following
formula:
m
ρ= ,
V
where:
ρ = density
V = volume.
The unit of density in the SI system is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). The
inverse of density, 1/ρ, is known as ’specific volume’, and the symbol of the specific
volume is the low case letter ’v’.
Figure 3 shows some samples of various common substances. The samples have
equal volumes of 1 cubic centimeter each. But the mass of each sample is different.
That is, the density describes the mass per unit volume, and, when people compare
the masses of equal volumes of substances they are comparing their densities.
Refer to Figure 2 again.
Note: Uniform density is a prerequisite for adopting the mass centre locations indicated
in details a) to e). Thus, if a body consists of various parts of different density, the
mass centre cannot be determined with the aid of the formulas shown.
If a solid body, as shown in detail c), rests on a level, solid surface and the meeting
surfaces are in perfect contact, then the body exerts a constant pressure, which may
be defined as force over area, according to the following, basic, symbolic formula:
p = F,
A
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 3
where:
p = pressure
A = area, in this case, size of the contacting area.
The unit of pressure in the SI system is the pascal. The symbol of pascal are the
letters ’Pa’. Respective SI unit equivalents are 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/(m s2).
In combination with the formula of forces, the formula before can be converted to
m⋅g
p= .
A
When working with pressure, reference is made to the gravitational centre of areas,
in order to determine the effective force and the line of action on a particular area
subject to pressure. It should be noted that the line of action may be located outside
the centre of gravity, as shown in detail e).
The gravitational centre of areas is, also, known as gravitational centre of ’lamina’, or as
’area centroid’. In order to prevent misinterpretations and for brevity, ’area centroid’ and
’mass centre’ should be used, respectively.
2.2.1.2 Combining and Resolving Forces
Force is a vector quantity of physics. That means, in all operations using forces, the
direction to which the force acts is an important factor. Therefore, additions must be
performed considering the laws of vector addition.
Combining Forces
Figure 4 shows two cases requiring force addition leading to a resultant force ’R’.
The resultant force can be understood as the single force that will produce the same
effect as the sum of the forces acting on a body.
Detail a) shows an example where two tugs of different pulling force tow a ship on a
common line of action. The true--to--scale and true--to--direction vectors are shown
below. Due to the line of action identity, the resultant is simply determined by arithmetical
addition of the vector quantities.
Detail b) shows an example where two tugs of different pulling force tow a ship on
different lines of action. Again, the diagram below shows the respective vector
diagram, and the conditions make evident that the resultant is determined by
geometric addition.
Solving a vector addition problem like the one shown in detail b) offers quite a
number of solution procedures. The short lines crossing the vectors in the vector
diagram in detail b) and the vector directions drawn true--to--reality make evident that
a semi--graphical method has been chosen by drawing a vector parallelogram.
The construction of the vector parallelogram would be started by drawing the lines of
action and the true--to--scale arrows FA and FB, which represent the summand
vectors. The arrows are tail--to--tail arranged, as determined by the common pulling
point of the tugs.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 4
In the given case, the angle between the arrows is 25° + 35° = 60°, and for the scale
equivalent 1 cm = 100 kN (kilo Newton) has been chosen.
The parallelogram is completed by parallel shifting the lines of action through the arrow
heads, and the length and location of the resultant ’R’ is determined by the diagonal that
connects the origin of the summand forces with the intersecting point of the parallel--
shifted lines of action. In the given case the length of the arrow measures 60 mm,
approximately (place a ruler beside the arrow). By multiplying this value by the scale
factor 1 = 10 kN/1 mm R = approx. 600 kN is obtained.
The arrangement of lines in the vector parallelogram makes two rules of vector
addition evident:
V Vector addition can be achieved by placing respective arrows head--to--tail.
This is evident through the equality of length, in the case of a summand
vector arrow and its parallel--shifted line of action.
V The sequence of placing arrows head--to--tail has no effect on the resultant
’R’. This is evident through the resemblance of triangles above and below the
resultant.
For more exact calculation, the trigonometric laws and functions must be applied.
In the case of detail b), the law of sines is applicable:
FA FB R .
= =
sin 25° sin 35° sin 120°
Resolving Forces
Figure 5 shows an example of resolving a force into two components. The upper
section shows the corresponding arrangement plan, including all geometrical details,
while the lower section gives the respective vector parallelogram.
The block is subject to gravity and in accordance with the formula of force it exerts a
force W = F = m × g. This force is resolved into
V a component FN, which normally acts onto the plane of the slope and
V a component Fd, which tends to draw the block down the slope.
This procedure can be understood as the reverse operation to finding the resultant
force.
It should be noted that the body is not in equilibrium, as the reactive forces are not
included in the diagram. Whether the force Fd makes the body slide down the slope
or not is subject to friction and matter of another investigation.
Again, the force parallelogram can be drawn and the required details can be
determined with the aid of the arrangement plan. However, it is much easier to apply
mathematic formulas, after the conditions have already been analyzed. Thus, among
others, the following formulas can be used:
F 2 = F 2N + F 2d
F N = F ⋅ sin α = F ⋅ cos β
F d = F ⋅ sin β = F ⋅ cos α.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 5
2.2.1.3 Moments
A moment is defined as the product of a quantity and its perpendicular distance of its
line of action to a reference point. The reference point is the centre of a real or of an
assumed turning point. Names used for the turning point include pivot, axis, fulcrum
and knife--edge. Axles, shafts, hinges and the edges or corners of objects can act as
turning points.
In static problems, basically, three types of moments are to be considered:
V moment of force
V moment of mass
V moment of area.
Moment of Force
Accordingly, the moment of a force is defined as the product of a force’s magnitude

and its perpendicular distance of its line of action to a reference point. Using
mathematical symbols, this purely verbatim formula is translated to
moment of force = force ¡ perpendicular distance to reference point.
Using the capital letter symbol ’M’ for moment of force and the low case letter symbol
’d’ for distance, the following basic formula is applicable:
M=F⋅d
The unit for moment of force is the newton meter. The respective SI unit equivalent is
1 N m = 1 kg m2/s2.
When moments act on an object, the sum of the clockwise moments about the turning
point must equal the sum of the anti-clockwise moments, in order to gain equilibrium in
accordance with Newton’s 3rd law.
Figure 6 shows the details of two force moments having effect on the pedal of a
bicycle pedalling crank. A vertical foot push force ’F’ is assumed.
Detail a) shows the crank arm in horizontal position. Thus, the perpendicular distance
’d’ of the foot push force ’F’ to the reference point in the centre of the axle is identical
with the pedal arm length ’l’ and, therefore, the formula M = F × l can be used.
Detail b) shows the crank 60° displaced. Obviously, this has shortened the perpendicular
distance ’d’ of the reference point to d = l × cos 60°, so that the formula M = F × l × cos 60°
is applicable.
The force parallelogram of the resolved force ’F’ makes evident that the effective
moment is the product of length of crank arm ’l’ and tangential force component Ft,
where Ft = F × cos 60°, and the applied formula for the force moment is the same as in
the previous cases.
It should be noted that the radial force component Fr causes no force moment in the
observed plane, as its line of action runs through the turning centre and, therefore, its
distance ’d’ is zero.
Additionally, it should be noted that the details of the left turning force moment are not
given. The force of the left turning moment is tangentially effective in the radial distance
determined by the pitch radius of the sprocket wheel.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 6
According to the law of action and reaction, the left turning moment should be of the
same magnitude as the right turning moment.
Figure 7 shows a few devices that operate on moments of force, together with the
respective sketches serving as mathematical model to solve a problem involving
moment of force determination.
The basic device employed is the lever. The lever and the inclined plane are
regarded as fundamental machines and the lever and the inclined plane principles of
operation are included in every second part of a mechanism. This includes pulleys,
gear wheels, screws, etc.
The mathematical models are called a ’free body diagram’. The free body diagram
represents a single part of a mechanism to which all details are added that permit an
analysis of the particular problem.
In the case of the levers, the essential geometrical details are the lever arm lengths
and the force vectors that represent the external forces acting on the lever.
In a free body diagram, details of the shape of the body are only important as far as
these details contribute to the geometric essentials of applied physical laws.
Therefore, the freed body is more or less reduced to a symbol. In the given case, the
lever is reduced to a line, while the turning point is represented by a fulcrum.
The free body diagram must not necessarily be drawn true--to--scale. In case
calculation is preferred, preparation of a sketch that includes the geometrical details
is sufficient.
However, an analysis of the problem under the laws of physics is required, in order to
draw the free body diagram under the proper perspective with reference to the real
thing.
Experience helps to chose the proper perspective, for example, the following natural
facts:
V constant direction of weight force
V ropes, chains, belts, etc. can only transmit a pulling force (as in the example
of a towed car)
V the significance of rods lies in the fact that they are provided with a turning
device at both ends and, therefore, a rod can only transmit co--axial forces.
In detail a), the cable reel, and in detail d), the shaft, are subject to torque. Principally,
there is no difference between moment of force and torque. The maximum moment
of force induced by the levers into the system is identical with the effective torque.
However, the term ’torque’ is used, when an item is subject to torsion, or the
tendency of twisting a body about a rotary axis exists. Shafts are always subject to a
torque moment, while levers are subject to a bending moment.
Moment of Mass
Moment of mass is a quantity that is used to determine the mass centre of a body
that consists, in sections, of different material, or of items of different shape, in
accordance with the following formula:
m ⋅ d = m 1 ⋅ d 1 + m 2 ⋅ d 2 + m 3 ⋅ d 3 + ........ m n ⋅ d n,
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 7
where:
m ⋅ d = the total mass moment of the body.
The mass moments with indices stand for mass moment fractions of the same body,
that are separately accounted for, because of different material or shape.
In case of unsymmetrical bodies the formula must be applied up to three times, with
reference to different axes, in order to determine the location of a body’s mass
centre. Where mass is missing in a body, i.e. when the body is provided with a bore,
for instance, a minus sign would be used for the respective mass moment fraction in
the above formula.
Moment of Area
Moment of area is a quantity that is used to determine the area centroid of a lamina
that consists in sections of different shape, in accordance with the following formula:
A ⋅ d = A 1 ⋅ d 1 + A 2 ⋅ d 2 + A 3 ⋅ d 3 + ........A n ⋅ d n,
where:
A ⋅ d = the total area moment of the area.
The area moments with indices stand for area moment fractions of the same area, that
are separately accounted for, because of different shape.
As mentioned before, the area centroid is required in case the force action point of
forces resulting from pressure has to be determined. An example is the wind
pressure acting on a ship’s surfaces. The rules applied to determine the area
centroid are similar to those for mass centre determination.
2.2.1.4 Static Equilibrium and Stability of Position
Static equilibrium and stability of position are closely related. A body is in static
equilibrium when the forces and force moments acting on it are balanced. A solid or
rigid body has a maximum stability of position when it rests on an equally solid
surface, and is maintained in its position by a maximum of opposed force moments.
Static Equilibrium
Figure 8 shows the three standard states of equilibrium by the examples of continuous--
outlined cones. The dash--outlined cones shall make evident what happens, in case the
standard state is changed by a deflection of the cone. The cone is supposed to be placed
on a level, hard surface.
In all three cases there are two vertical forces acting on the cone (ignoring any
frictional forces and forces required to displace the cone). They are the weight ’W’,
as active force, and the contact force ’C’, as reactive force.
In the case of the unstable equilibrium, detail a), balance is effectively impossible.
The continuous--outlined figure shows that the cone is vertically placed on its peak.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 8
As shown by the dashed outline, the slightest tilt of the cone results in a moment
about its point of contact, and this makes it fall. Characteristics of the shown cases
are:
V Under unstable equilibrium, the mass centre attains its highest position with
respect to the turning point, and the lines of forces are coincident.
V As the cone tilts, the mass centre lowers, and continues lowering, as long as
falling is in progress.
V The line of action of the weight force ’W’ passes outside the (very small) area
of contact with the table’s surface.
V As a limiting condition of progressive cone falling, detail c) is applicable.
In the case of stable equilibrium, detail b), the continuous--outlined cone rests on its
flat surface. The dashed--outlined cone is slightly turned and slightly destabilized.
Characteristics to the shown cases are:
V Under stable equilibrium, the mass centre attains its lowest position with re-
spect to potential turning points and the lines of forces are coincident.
V As the cone tilts, its mass centre is raised and the contact force moves to-
wards its turning point, the edge of its base.
V As the cone tilts, the moment originating from the body’s mass tends to lower
the mass centre, in order to resume a stable position.
V The line of action of the weight passes inside the base area of the cone.
V As a limiting condition of progressive cone tilting, the cone is subject to un-
stable equilibrium, where, with respect to further turning, the conditions in
detail a) are applicable again.
In case of neutral equilibrium, detail c), it is possible to roll the cone to many new
positions and let it rest there. The centre of gravity neither rises nor falls, and the two
forces which can be observed do not change their vector characteristics with respect
to the geometric references of the cone.
The classical devices operating on neutral equilibrium are the wheel and the axle. In this
case, the neutral equilibrium of the wheel is given by the location of the axle in the centre
of the wheel. Beside, shaft and axle are discriminated by the fact that the latter does not
transmit torque.
Stability of Position
Figure 9 shows the elevation of a chimney, together with a number of free body
diagrams, which show significant cases of stability and instability, respectively. From
left to right, cases of reduced stability are shown (as they might occur during an
earthquake).
The chimney has an annular cross--section and is firmly supported by the ground.
Therefore, any tendency of toppling would make it turn about the foot points of the
visible regions, and the foot points A and B are the reference points of the force
moments.
In detail b), maximum stability is shown. As mentioned initially, maximum stability
requires a maximum of opposed moments. Additionally, maximum stability is
associated with a minimum reactive force in the turning points, i.e., on the edges of a
rigid body.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 9
Considering the forces in detail b) the following can be stated: If the above statement
holds true, the minimum reactive forces are F/2 = m × g/2, due to rotary symmetry of
the chimney and due to the required equilibrium of forces.
Considering the moments in detail b), the formula
F
F⋅d= ⋅ 2d
2
is applicable, irrespective of whether the chimney is assumed turning about point A
or about point B.
Detail c) shows reduced stability. The rotary axis of the chimney is displaced from the
vertical.
As a result, the line of the active force is shifted by the distance x, which reduces the
perpendicular distance to the turning point A, so that, with sufficient accuracy, the
following balanced force moment formula is applicable:
F ⋅ (d − x) = F B ⋅ 2d
This formula permits calculating FB, and it shows that the active moment is reduced.
Due to equilibrium of moments, also, the reactive moment must be reduced and,
therefore, FB must be smaller than F/2, as the lever arm to point B is not changed.
From that results that FA must be greater than F/2, and FA must have increased by the
magnitude of FB reduction, due to the equilibrium of active and reactive forces.
In detail d), maximum instability is shown. In the given case, the significance lies in
the absence of the reactive force in point B, in addition to the significant details of the
reduced stability discussed before. Under unstable condition, a minimum horizontal
force acting from right to left would make the chimney topple, and this may be
caused by a slight breeze.
In detail e), the case of static instability, or the out--of--balance case is shown, where
the chimney is in the progress of falling down. Again, the force FB is missing and the
reactive force is of the same magnitude as the active force.
The most significant detail of case d) is the appearance of a force couple. Force couples
are responsible for torque. In tilting of solid bodies, they occur when the body is turned to
the extent that the contacting surfaces separate, simultaneously maintaining contact by a
turning point.
The turning moment of a force couple is determined by the formula:
M = F ⋅ d.
This results from the fact that the turning point of a force moment pertaining to a
couple can be located at either line of action, in order to determine the effective force
moment, and whatever line of action is adopted as reference, the moment will always
turn out to be M = F × d.
Naturally, on toppling in the case of detail e), there is only a left turning moment
effective. Apparently in contrast to the law of action and reaction, there is no right
turning moment and, therefore, the free body diagram seems not to be correct in all
details.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 10
However, it is correct with respect to statics, and the case e) depicts a dynamic
problem, as the toppling body is subject to motion changes, due to free fall. Static
and dynamic equilibrium and, consequentially, static and dynamic problems, can be
discriminated by the following details:
V In static systems, rules of equilibrium of forces and moments are applied to
bodies at rest or to bodies at constant speed, and equilibrium exists when the
conditions of rest or of constant speed are not changed.
V In dynamic systems, forces are applied to change the speed of bodies.
2.2.1.5 Friction
Friction is the force that must be overcome before sliding or rolling of one object on
another is possible. Friction prevents contacting materials from sliding freely.
Friction is responsible for reduced efficiency of machinery. The energy invested to

oppose friction, in order to maintain the nominal speed of the machine, generally,
cannot be recovered, as this energy causes contacting surfaces to heat up. Under
this aspect, part of invested energy is wasted.
Apart from special cases, however, friction is useful. For example, it gives shoes and
tyres grip on the ground, it is utilized in braking systems, and a ladder is only useful,
because of the friction effective in the contacting points.
Basically, two types of friction can be discriminated. In Figure 10 they are given for
sliding friction:
V static friction, the force that must be overcome to start motion
V dynamic friction, the force that must be overcome to maintain motion.
Figure 10 shows how friction resistance can be measured in a towing test, and that the
static friction force is higher than dynamic friction force, as indicated by the different
deflections of the force meter pointer. Similar friction force differences can be observed
under rolling contact friction conditions.
Refer to Figure 11.
Under the conditions shown in Figure 10, the following formulas are applicable, which can
be derived from the free body diagrams in Figure 11:
F ts F fs
ms = = and
W FN
F td F fd
md = = ,
W FN
where:
m = angle that relates to the forces involved in the tangent formula

t = index for tow
s = index for static
d = index for dynamic
f = index for friction
N = index for normal, or for reactive to the support.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 11
The tangent between the involved forces is per definition the friction factor. Thus,
from the previously discussed special cases, the basic formula for friction force
calculations can be derived:
Ff = m ⋅ F N ,
where:
m = friction factor
Ff = friction force
FN = the normal reaction between the surfaces in contact.
The close relation between the friction factors and the tangents of the effective forces
can be made evident by analogies to a simple test. If a block is put on the end of a
beam and the end of the beam is lifted slowly until the block starts sliding, then the
tangent to the angle produced by the beam at the very instant when the block starts
moving is identical with the static friction factor between the items.
Likewise, the dynamic friction factor is determined in the same test, when the beam
end is lowered until the block assumes constant speed.
Friction factor values depend on the nature of the surfaces in contact. They are
independent of velocity and area of contact. However, they depend on the following
material properties and side conditions:
V roughness
V hardness
V temperature
V adhesion
V crystalline structure on surfaces
V absence and presence of lubricating films.
The number of side conditions for friction factor determination shows that -- to a great
extent -- it is useless to use a table of friction factors. Whenever possible, friction
forces and friction factors should be determined on a present object, for example, by
a towing test.
In an applied towing test of a road vehicle, however, it has to be borne in mind that
the towed object, generally, consists of many different details, involving all types of
friction.
Occasionally, values are needed to cope with design problems. In this case,
reference is made to friction factor tables given in engineering reference books.
The sliding friction factor table of a well reputed engineering reference book, for
instance, discriminates the following details:
V material types in contact
V static and dynamic cases
V dry sliding and lubricated sliding.
According to the recently discussed details of friction variables, these discrimination
aspects are not sufficient to cover all side conditions of friction problems, especially
because of the missing roughness. Therefore, such tables must be used with
caution.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 12
The same handbook does not give any friction factors of rolling contact resistance. In
case of respective type bearings, such details may be found in the catalogues of
bearing manufacturers, and these data are based on experience and probability
statistics.
A technician should remember the following details:

V Lowest resistance is achieved by rolling contact, by utilizing rollers or wheels
as large as the side conditions permit and by employing hard contact ma-
terial.
V Large contact forces and reduction of wear require lubricated slide bearings,
and lubricated slide bearings are the only type of bearings that can be de-
signed with exact data and reliable formulas.
2.2.1.6 Stress and Strain
Mechanical properties describe the behaviour of a material subjected to mechanical

forces. Materials used in load--bearing applications are called ’structural materials’
and may be metals, ceramics, polymers or composites.
Selecting a material for a structural application is a difficult process; it typically

involves considerations of several suitable materials whose mechanical properties
must be compared under a given set of operating conditions as well as financial
aspects in order to make the best choice. Additional considerations may include
processing options, available resources, or both.
Deformation and Fracture of Engineering Materials
All materials undergo a change in dimensions in response to mechanical force. This

change is called ’deformation’. If the material reverts back to its original size and
shape upon removal of the load, the deformation is said to be ’elastic’. On the other
hand, if the application and removal of the load results in a permanent shape
change, the specimen is said to have undergone ’plastic’ deformation.
’Fracture’ occurs when a structural component or specimen separates into two or

more pieces. While fracture clearly represents failure of a component, it should be
noted that depending on the design criteria, failure (an inability of a component to
perform its desired function) may occur prior to fracture. For example, in many
applications plastic deformation represents failure without fracture. A car axle that
bends when you drive over a pot--hole or a lawn chair that buckles and collapses are
examples of components that have failed without fracture.
Elastic Deformation
Refer to Figure 12.
Detail a) shows a cylindrical specimen with an original cross--sectional area A 0 and

length l 0 subjected to a uniaxial force F (pulling in both directions).
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 13
Engineering stress σ and engineering strain Á are defined as follows:

force F
V stress = area σ= (1)
A0
change in length ∆l (l − l 0)
V strain = ε= = (2)
original length l0 l0
where l is the instantaneous length of the rod.
Figure 12, detail b) shows the stress--to--strain relationship when a tensile specimen
is subjected to a small load. For small strains, stress and strain are linearly related.
Furthermore, the specimen is restored to its original condition when the force is
removed (that is, the strain is elastic).
The ratio of stress to strain in the linear elastic region is called ’Young’s modu-
lus’, (E).
The physical significance of Young’s modulus, also known as the ’elastic modulus’, is
that it measures the stiffness of the material. A material with a high elastic modulus is
comparatively stiff which means it exhibits a small amount of deformation under an
applied load.
Examples of high--modulus materials include most ceramics with covalent or mixed

ionic/covalent bonds such as diamond, graphite (in the direction of covalent
bonding), and alumina ( Al 2 O 3). The bond energies and elastic moduli of metals are
also relatively high but below those of most ceramics.
In general, unoriented thermoplastic polymers display lower E--values than ceramics

and metals because of the comparatively weak secondary bonds between adjacent
chains. When polymer molecules are well aligned along the direction of stress,
polymers may also have high moduli.
When two materials with different modulus values are subjected to the same stress,
the material with the higher modulus value experiences less deformation.
Example: Three cylindrical specimens are considered, each with a diameter of 10 mm and
a length of 1 m. One specimen is aluminium (E = 70 GPa), the second is Al 2 O 3
(E = 380 GPa), and the third is polystyrene (E = 3.1GPa).
A force of 2,000 N is applied along the axis of each specimen. The deformation is
assumed to be elastic. The elongation in each specimen is to be estimated.
Solution:
The definitions of stress, strain and modulus must be applied. The elongation can
be obtained from equation (2) if the strain in the sample is known. That is
∆l = ε ⋅ l 0
The strain, in turn, can be determined using the modulus equation in the form
σ
ε = , and the stress can directly be calculated using equation (1)
E
σ= F
A0
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 14
Substituting the modulus equation and the definition of stress in the elongation
yields:
σ
∆l = ⋅l
E 0
F ⋅ l0
=
A0 ⋅ E
Since the sample dimensions and loads are the same in all samples, the
elongation equation is reduced to:
2, 000 N ⋅ 1 m
∆l =
(0.01m) 2⋅π
⋅E
4
(25.5 MPa − m)
∆l =
E
Finally, by substituting the appropriate moduli in this expression, it is found that
the elongations for aluminium, Al 2 O 3 and polystyrene are 0.36 mm, 0.067 mm
and 8.2 mm, respectively. It should be noted that the elongations are inversely
proportional to the moduli. That is, the deformation in polystyrene is more than
two orders of magnitude greater than that in Al 2 O 3, since the modulus of the
polymer is less than 1 % of that of the ceramic.
As shown in Figure 13, elastic elongation in the direction of the applied load (known
as axial strain, ε a) is accompanied by contraction in the perpendicular directions.
The perpendicular or transverse strain is defined as
∆d
εt =
d0
where d 0 is the original diameter and ∆d is the change in diameter (as the length
stretches, the width narrows).
The negative ratio of transverse strain to axial strain is constant for a given material
and is known as ’Poisson’s ratio’, ( ν):
εt
ν=−ε
a
It should be noted that the Poisson’s ratio is a non--dimensional quantity. The

Poisson’s ratio is a ratio of the lateral contraction of width (per unit) to the longitudinal
extension of length (per unit), when a material is stretched.
The shear modulus, G, is defined as the ratio of the applied shear stress, σ, to the
resultant shear strain, γ, which makes G similar to E. Shear stress and strain are
illustrated in Figure 14.
The quantities E, G and ν are called elastic constants. For isotropic materials the
following relationship is valid:
G= E
2(1 + ν)
For anisotropic materials such as composites, oriented polymers and single crystals,
the number of elastic constants varies with the degree of symmetry.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 15
Visco--elastic Deformation
In thermoplastic polymers the bonds between adjacent macromolecules are

comparatively weak secondary bonds. Thus, these materials have much lower elastic
moduli than crystalline metals and ceramics.
Refer to Figure 15.
The behaviour of highly cross--linked thermoset polymers is quite different from that
of thermoplastics because of the existence of the strong primary bonds in three
dimensions. Such bonds limit the mobility of the ’chains’ and result in modulus values
that are less sensitive to temperature than those of most thermoplastics.
Example: The damping characteristics of polymers are highly desirable for many forms of
applications. For example, vibrating equipment, such as pumps and motors, are
often mounted on pads designed to absorb the vibrations and isolate the
equipment from the surroundings. In this case a polymer with a high dissipation
factor, such as polychloroprene, is selected to be used in the fabrication of the
mounting plate or engine mounts in cars.
Plastic Deformation
Refer to Figure 16.

When the applied stress exceeds a critical value called the ’elastic limit’, deformation
becomes permanent. When a specimen is loaded beyond this limit, it no longer
returns to its original length upon removal of the force. Such behaviour is termed
’plastic’ or ’permanent deformation’.
In most materials elastic deformation is associated with bond stretching. In crystals,
plastic deformation is primarily associated with the movement of dislocations. In most
thermoplastic polymers, plasticity is associated with sliding of entangled long--chain
molecules past each other, an essentially irreversible process. In either case the
stress--strain relationship becomes non--linear when the elastic limit is exceeded.
Although the slope of the σ–ε curve in the plastic region decreases with increasing
strain, continued plastic deformation requires a continuing increase in stress. That is,
materials harden upon plastic straining. This phenomenon, known as ’strain
hardening’, is the result of dislocation/dislocation interactions in metallic crystals.
These interactions either significantly reduce the dislocation mobility or stop
dislocations from moving entirely. In the case of polymers, strain hardening is a result
of chains aligning in the stress direction.
Another way to understand the phenomenon of strain hardening is to imagine an
experiment in which the specimen in Figure 16 is reloaded from point C. To promote
dislocation motion upon reloading, a stress corresponding to point B will be required.
The effective strength of the material, as measured by the stress necessary to cause
dislocation motion, has increased as a result of plastic straining during the first
loading.
Strain hardening becomes evident when forming a component into a desired shape.
The material may become so hard during forming that specialised intermediate
thermal treatments are necessary to soften the metal so that it can be formed into its
final shape. A similar process, known as ’mechanical conditioning’, is used to
improve the properties of polymer fibre by straining to align the molecules.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 16
Another difference between elastic and plastic deformation is the size of the volume
and shape changes in the specimen associated with each type of strain. Elastic
deformation (that is, atomic bond stretching) changes the equilibrium separation
distance between atoms and therefore changes the volume of the sample.
Since atoms retain the same nearest neighbour during elastic deformation, there are
no major changes in the shape of the specimen. In contrast, plastic deformation does
not alter significantly either the bond length or crystal volume, but the slip process
changes the shape of the material.
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 17
B 0618
Plumb line
Wall
(plumb bob)
Plummet
Use of a Plumb Line (Example)

Figure 1
Profile
frame
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 18
a) Square cross--section meter ruler
0 50 100
G
Center of gravity at the 50--cm mark

W
b) Rectangle of thin material
Diagonals
c) Solid cube of uniform density

Diagonals
d) Disc of uniform thickness
G Center of gravity
in the center
e) Ring of uniform thickness
G Center of gravity
in the center, but
B 0601 D
not on the ring
Figure 2 Center of Gravity of Some

Regular--shaped Objects
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 19
Expanded Oak
Cork wood
polystyrene
0.016 g 0.24 g 0.65 g

or 16 mg or 240 mg or 650 mg
Ice Glass Lead

A 8336 B
0.92 g 2.6 g 11 g
or 920 mg
Figure 3 1 cm3 Samples of Various Common

Substances
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 20
a) Tugs towing the ship on a common line of force
Tug B, 400 kN pulling force Tug A, 300 kN pulling force
Resultant line of action
FB = 400 kN FA = 300 kN Resultant R = 700 kN
b) Tugs towing the ship on different lines of action
Tug A, 300 kN pulling force
0 35° Resultant line of action

25°
Tug B, 400 kN pulling force
FA
35°
0 R
25°
B 0602 B
FB
Figure 4 Combining Forces

(Example of a Towed Ship)
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 21
Block
G
Slope
b
Lines of action
Fd
b
FN
B 0603
W=F
Figure 5 Resolving Forces

(Example of a Body on an Inclined Plane)
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 22
a) Crank arm in horizontal position
Axle
Crank arm
Pedal
Line of action
Length of crank l
d=l
Foot push force F
b) Crank at 60°° to horizontal position
60°
Line of action
Ft
60°
F
B 0604 A
Fr
Figure 6 Details of the Moment of Force

at a Bicycle Pedalling Crank
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 23
a) Crank and reel
d1
d2
F1
F2
F1
b) Press
d1
d2
F2
F1
c) Tongs
d1
d2
F2
d) Shaft
F1 F2
d1 d2
A 0175 B
Figure 7 Examples of Devices Operating on

Moments of Force
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 24
a) Unstable
Falls over
G G
W W
C C
Table
b) Stable
Falls back
G G
W
W
C C
c) Neutral
G
W
C
B 0605 A
Level surface
Figure 8 Static Equilibrium Characteristics

(Example of a Cone)
a) Elevation b) Maximum c) Reduced d) Maximum e) Out of balance
stability stability instability (instability)
Notes
Preliminary
F F F F
2d
E ITS International Training & Support GmbH. All rights reserved.

Module 2
2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b)
A B
FB
F F x d
2 2 FA
F F
B 0571 C
Figure 9 Kinds of Position Stability (Example of a Chimney)
For training purposes only -- Rev. 10/08

Mechanics
2.2.1 - HO - 25
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 26
B 0606 A
Figure 10 Results of a Towing Test of Sliding Friction

b) Dynamic friction
a) Static friction
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 27
B 0564 A
Ffd
FrN
md
b) Dynamic friction
FN
Figure 11 Force Parallelograms of the Towing Test

W
md
Fr
Ftd
Ffs
FrN
ms
FN
W
ms
a) Static friction
Fr
Fts
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 28
Figure 12 Response of a Cylindrical Specimen to a Tensile Force

E 2658 A
A (,l/l0)
Unloading
E
Loading
l
I (F/A0)
b)
l>l0
F
F
A0
a)
l0
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 29
d0
df
l0 lf
E 2659 A
Figure 13 Elastic Elongation
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 30
Dl
l
E 2660 A
Figure 14 Shear Stress and Strain
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 31
a) Thermosetting
ε
s s
Time
b) Thermoplastic
ε s
s
Time
E 2661 A
Figure 15 Visco--elastic Deformation in Polymers
Physics
Notes 2.2.1, 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.1 - HO - 32
s
B
Elastic limit A
Loading
Unloading
C
O
e
E 2662
Permanent Recoverable
plastic elastic
deformation deformation
Figure 16 Plastic Deformation
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 1
2.2.2 Kinetics
2.2.2.1 Speed and Velocity

The average speed of a moving object is the distance the object has moved during
the time taken for the motion. Using mathematical symbols, this purely verbatim
formula is translated into
distance moved
average speed = .
time taken
With distance measured in meters [m], and time taken in seconds [s], the speed is
measured in meters per second [m/s].
Example: A car travels 1,200 m in 100 s.

By using the above formula and substituting the mathematical symbols the
average speed is obtained:
distance moved 1, 200 m m
average speed = = = 12 s .
time taken 100 s
If the speed is determined in accordance with the example above a minimum of side
conditions are required, among them
V reduction of the moved object to an object of no extension
V choosing two points A and B for measuring the travelled distance
V required time.
Note: If the direction between A and B is neglected and no other details as the time and
the travelled course are defined, this means that no other side conditions are
taken into account.
In such cases, the adjective ’average’ is added to the speed formula, and -- particularly
because the side conditions do not include the travelled direction -- the term ’speed’ has
to be chosen. From mathematics it is known that physical quantities which only include
the information related to a one--dimensional coordinate system are called scalar
quantities, that is, speed is a scalar quantity.
In contrast to speed, velocity is a vector. Expressed in a formula
distance moved in a particular direction
average velocity = .
time taken
A comparison with the initially discussed formula for speed shows that the average
velocity formula includes speed and the direction of a body’s motion.
The difference between speed and velocity can also be made obvious by the
following specifications:
V speed is the scalar constituent of the velocity vector
V the definition of speed does not require any additional definition of motion
direction.
Irrespective of the definitions of ’speed’ and ’velocity’, the terms ’speed’ and ’velocity’
are used as equal terms. Even scientists use the terms ’speed of light’ and ’speed of
sound’, although light and sound, under standard conditions, travel radially and
constantly from their origin. However, speed and velocity must be discriminated when
velocity vectors are added or resolved. A few examples will be discussed later on.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 2
The average speed, or average velocity of a travelling object is usually different from
actual speed/velocity. For example, the speedometer of a car measures the actual
speed with close proximity, as the distance covered by the circumference of one of
the car wheels is directly used to control the pointer’s angular deflection of a
speedometer.
On the other hand, average speed determination requires a distance meter and a
time piece for respective measurements. Ordinary speedometers, as used in cars,
are not the suitable instruments for measuring average speed under normal traffic
conditions, as they measure actual speed, which is apparent by the irregular pointer
deflections observed during a journey in a car.
Figure 1 shows a distance--time graph of a travelling car, from start to stop and as
continuous curve of the diagram. The diagram axes are marked in kilometers and
hours, as shown by the speedometer and by the travelled distance counter of an
automobile. In order to convert the diagram into a meter--second diagram, the
equivalents 1 km = 1,000 m and 1 h = 3,600 s are used.
The continuous curve of the diagram makes evident that the driver starting at point A
accelerates the car up to point B, travels at constant velocity between points B and
C, then he starts decelerating the car at point C and, finally, stops at D.
In order to enable drawing the curve, distance and time have to be determined quite
often, especially in the ranges of acceleration and deceleration.
The characteristic sections of the continuous curve can be recognized by the
following details:
V acceleration region: the curve is concave
V constant velocity region: the curve is straight
V deceleration region: the curve is convex.
The following symbolic formulas are used for determining the velocity:
∆s s2 − s1
v= = ,
∆t t2 − t 1
where:
v = velocity
s = distance
t = time
D = quantity interval, where the intervals are determined by the measures 2
and 1, as taken in the sequence of the numeric indices.
Note: ’v’ is used as symbol of both, specific volume and velocity. If there is any risk of
confusion write the words and avoid the symbol.
With the aid of the formula above and with the symbolic data that can be obtained
from the continuous curve of Figure 1, the constant velocity of the straight region can
be exactly determined by reference to the coordinates of the limiting points C and B,
as follows:
∆s sC − sB
v= = .
∆t tC − tB
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 3
Likewise, the average speed of the car can be determined for the total distance
travelled. In this case, index ’a’, for average, is added to the velocity symbol, in order
to discriminate it from constant speed:
∆s sD − sA
va = = .
∆t tD − tA
In Figure 1 the performance curve of the average speed is illustrated as a line with
dots and dashes.
A comparison between the two performance curves makes evident that time and
distance are only identical in the points A, E and D.
The differences, obviously, result from the acceleration and deceleration periods. The
average speed performance curve shows uniform (constant) speed characteristics,
because it is represented as a straight line in the distance--time graph.
The discrepancy in the performance curves shows that the diagram cannot be used
to determine the variables of the velocity function versus the average speed
performance curve without errors. For instance, determination of time versus
distance provides tBa, which is lower than tB, or tCa, which is higher than tC.
Calculating the distance or time with the aid of the average velocity formulas would
result in errors of the same magnitude.
However, there is no reason to abandon average velocity formulas and performance

curves completely.
Note: The performance assumed in Figure 1 is exaggerated. Extremely long acceler-

ation and deceleration periods were adopted in contrast to the uniform velocity
period, in order to show the errors that might occur, if the formulas and perform-
ance curves are not used cautiously.
The diagram of the average speed performance curve shows that the formula given
can be used for uniform speed without the quantity interval symbol D, in the form
s
v= .
t
This standard formula is used for calculating the constant velocity in an isolated
environment. The use of this formula requires that the starting point coordinates of
the constant velocity curve are located in the origin of the coordinate system, with
zero values for distance and time. The standard formula would be used under normal
test conditions, in order to determine one of the variables.
Once again a distance--time graph is shown.
This curve resembles the curve section near the coordinate origin region of the
diagram in Figure 1, i.e. the curve in Figure 2 also shows the performance of a
moving object during acceleration.
But in this example additional details are given, so that the instantaneous (actual)
velocity can be determined with the aid of the formula v = Ds/Dt.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 4
2.2.2.2 Velocity Changes

Acceleration as well as deceleration of a moving object are the changes of velocity
during the time taken for the changes. Using mathematical symbols, this purely
verbatim formula is translated into
change of velocity
average acceleration (deceleration) = .
time taken for the change
When the velocity is measured in meters per second [m/s] and the time taken in
seconds [s], the unit for acceleration and deceleration results in meters per square
second [m/s2].
Example: A car is subject to a velocity change of 30 m/s (approx. 110 km/h) within 7.5 s.
By using the above formula and substituting the mathematical symbols the
average acceleration is obtained:
30 m m
average acceleration = = 4 2.
7.5 s ⋅ s s
Acceleration and deceleration have vector qualities or scalar qualities, depending on
whether they originate from speed or from velocity. Experience made as a car driver
or as a passenger shows that acceleration is normally inconstant. Acceleration
depends on
V the power of the engine
V the momentary mass of the car
V the time chosen for gear changes, etc.
Therefore, the adjectives ’average’, ’constant’ and ’instantaneous’ have to be added
to acceleration and deceleration, as required by the side conditions discussed
before.
The symbol of acceleration and deceleration in formulas is the low case letter ’a’.
When this symbol is applied the following symbolic formulas are obtained:
∆v v 2–v 1
a= = .
∆t t 2–t 1
The acceleration and deceleration of an object are represented in a velocity--time
graph. Figure 3 shows an example of such a graph that is given for a similar
performance of a moving object as discussed in conjunction with Figure 1.
The same capital letters have been used for the significant points, and the character-
istic sections of the curve can be recognized by the following details:
V Constant acceleration region A to B:
The performance curve A to B is a straight line, inclined at an angle between
0 and 90° to the time axis.
V Constant velocity region B to C:
The performance curve B to C is a straight line that runs parallel to the time
axis.
V Constant deceleration region C to D:
The performance curve C to D is a straight line, inclined at an angle between
90° and 180° to the time axis.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 5
The diagram in Figure 3 shows the acceleration of an object moving from point A to B
which can exactly be determined by their coordinates, as follows:
∆v v B − vA
a= = .
∆t t B − tA
Normally the low case letter indices ’f’, for final, and ’i’, for initial are used. Figure 3
shows that final velocity vf, in the acceleration range, is identical with the initial
velocity vi, in the deceleration range.
It is obvious that the final velocity vf is identical with vB in the starting point of
constant velocity. Since point A is located in the coordinate system’s origin, the
acceleration formula is reduced to
vf
a= .
t
This standard formula is used when the zero value is assumed for the starting point and
acceleration is investigated in an isolated environment.
Likewise, the deceleration of a moving object can exactly be determined by reference to
the coordinates of the limiting points C and D, as follows:
∆v v D − vC
a= = .
∆t t D − tC
According to Figure 3, the coordinates of point D are zero. However, under normal
test conditions a coordinate system will be adopted, where the velocity axis runs
through point C. Therefore, vD = 0 and tC = 0 are obtained as replacements in the
lately developed formula, which results in
− vC
a= .
tD
This formula makes evident that -- if mathematical rules are strictly applied -- deceler-
ation is discriminated from acceleration by a negative sign, and this is the reason why
the uniform deceleration curve specified in a velocity--time graph is limited to an
inclination between 90° and 180° to the time axis.
Figure 3, also, makes evident that the initial velocity vi is identical with vC in the end
point of the constant velocity curve.
Thus, the standard deceleration formula can be deduced from the latter formula by
replacing vi for vC:
− vi
a= .
t
The convenience offered by velocity--time graphs is based on two facts:
V Constant velocity, constant acceleration and constant deceleration are repre-
sented as straight lines.
V The distances travelled by the moving object are represented by the perform-
ance curve projections onto the time axis, and this holds true, even if velocity,
acceleration and deceleration are inconstant.
The sum of these velocity--time graph characteristics makes it possible to determine
the distance travelled by moving objects by analogies to simple formulas and rules of
plane geometry. Additionally, a vast number of formulas can be developed, applicable
to specific conditions by reference to a few basic formulas and a few basic facts.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 6
The simplest case of plane geometry analogy application to determination of

travelled distance is given by the rectangle under the constant velocity curve B to C.
In analogy to the rectangle formula, and applied to standard conditions, the following
formula is obtained:
s = v⋅t.
The areas under the constant acceleration and deceleration curves are triangles,
which are half the size of the respective rectangles. Applied to the latter formula:
1
s= ⋅v⋅t.
2
In this case the velocity ’v’ is identical with the final velocity ’vf’. From the latter
formula the following one is obtained by alternative substitution of ’v’ and ’t’:
1 vf
2
1
s= ⋅ a ⋅ t 2 = ⋅ a.
2 2
Similar rules can be applied to deceleration, where
1 vi
2
1
s=− ⋅ a ⋅ t 2 = − ⋅ a.
2 2
Isolation of the individual variables provides another set of eight formulas. It should
be observed, however, that deceleration ’a’ must be entered with a negative sign. If
this rule is not applied, negative results for the travelled distance will be provided.
With reference to Figure 3, it should be obvious that the total displacement of the moved
object can be determined by adding the travelled distances calculated for the characteris-
tic sections in accordance with the given formulas. This is a sort of indirect velocity vector
addition, as distances moved in a particular direction are added and calculations with
velocities are carried out that are determined under this priority.
Refer to Figure 4.
In case of uniform acceleration from an initial velocity, an analogy to trapezium
formulas is drawn, instead of analogies to the rectangle and the triangle.
Analogous to the area of a trapezium of the shown shape, which is obtained by the
multiplication of width by medium height, the displacement formula is given by
1
s= ⋅ (v i + v f) ⋅ t.
2
This formula can be applied unchanged to deceleration from a higher value vi to a
lower value vf. In fact, the trapezium analogous formula is universally applicable, as it
includes the rectangle and the triangle as limit cases of the trapezium.
The analogies to areas make it possible to determine the displacement of a moved
object with satisfactory accuracy, even if the function curves in a velocity--time graph
are not straight.
2.2.2.3 Circular Motion

Principally, a distinction is made between translational motion and circular motion. In
some cases there exist superimposed motions, involving translational motion and
circular motion. The principal differences lie in the adopted reference frames.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 7
Figure 5, detail a), shows an object that moves along a path drawn as broken line in
a main axes coordinate reference frame, designated by the letters x and y. Another
pair of auxiliary coordinates, with the axes designations x’ and y’, is assigned to the
moving object, in order to fix the reference point of the object’s motion. The char-
acteristic of translational motion lies in the fact that the main axes and the auxiliary
axes always run parallel.
In contrast to translational motion, circular motion only requires the reference to one
axis as the origin of angular deflection, as shown in detail b). From mathematics it is
known that such a coordinate system is known as polar coordinates. In the given case,
the polar axis is designated by the low case letter ’r’, for radius.
For solving a circular motion problem, the centre of rotation is placed in the origin of
the polar coordinates, a reference plane perpendicular to the rotary axis and one of
the object’s radial axes to the axis of rotation as reference origin are adopted for
angular displacement.
Thus, in a rotating system, angular displacements, angular velocities and angular

velocity changes are the discriminators of motion.
The formulas recently discussed for translational displacement can also be used for
velocity and velocity changes in circular motion, when the following different symbols
are adopted:
V low case Greek letter ’j’ instead of the symbol ’s’ for angular displacement in
radians
V low case Greek letter w instead of the symbol ’v’ for angular velocity in ra-
dians per second
V low case Greek letter ’a’ instead of the symbol ’a’ for angular acceleration/de-
celeration in radians per square second.
By exchange of symbols, the angular velocity formulas are obtained as follows:
∆φ φ2 − φ1 φ
ω= = and ω= .
∆t t2 − t 1 t
The angular acceleration/deceleration formulas are:
∆ω ω2 − ω 1
α= =
∆t t2 − t 1
ωf
α=
t
− ωi
α= .
t
The angular displacement formulas are obtained as follows:
1 ωf
2
1
φ= ⋅α⋅t2= ⋅ α
2 2
1 ωi
2
1
φ=− ⋅α⋅t2=− ⋅ α
2 2
1
φ= ⋅ (ω i + ω f) ⋅ t.
2
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 8
It is shown by the given analogies that there is no reason to learn another set of
formulas by heart to deal with the majority of circular motion cases, if a few simple rules
are followed. The graphs recently discussed can be analogously used to determine the
characteristics of circular motion. This requires designation of the vertical diagram axes
by j and w, respectively.
Circular motion formulas are frequently required to determine peripheral velocity,
number of revolutions, frequency and time period per revolution of rotary systems.
Electrical engineers are used to working with frequency, and their key to the recently
discussed circular motion formulas is given by the following formulas:
1
ω = 2π rad ⋅ f = 2π rad ⋅ ,
T
where:
f = frequency
T = time per period or time required per cycle.
The key to velocity is given by the formula
v = r ⋅ ω,
where:
r = radius.
This formula can be used to determine the velocity of any particle of a rotating body
separately. However, the majority of problems involves calculating the peripheral
velocity.
Mechanical engineers often have to determine ’speed’ as number of revolutions per time
unit by using a revolution counter and a stop watch, or they have to determine the
number of revolutions of a drill or cylindrical workpiece on the basis of an admitted
cutting speed for a particular tool material. The following formula is used for solving such
problems:
z v ω
n= = = ,
t C 2π rad
where:
n = rotary speed or revolutions per time unit
z = number of revolutions
t = time
v = velocity
C = circumference.
Under the described conditions, the formula n = z/t is used for measuring the rotary
speed, while the remaining formulas are used to determine the maximum admitted rotary
speed.
According to the speed labels found near the speed change facilities of machine tool
gearboxes, the rotary speed must normally be calculated in revolutions per minute
(rpm). In a given case, the nearest lower speed to the calculated, maximum admitted
rotary speed must be chosen, in order to prevent damaging a tool.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 9
There exists no difference between frequency and rotary speed, as can be shown by
isolating ’f’. The preference to rotary speed in mechanical engineering is only a
matter of convenience, as working with frequency provides lower number values, in
accordance with the number of seconds in the minute.
2.2.2.4 Free Fall (Motion under Gravity)

Free fall involves a special case of uniform acceleration and translational motion.
Therefore, basically, the same formulas and same type of motion diagrams are
used, as in the case of acceleration and deceleration. However, the following
symbols are adopted:
V low case letter ’h’ instead of the symbol ’s’ for height of free fall
V low case letter ’g’ instead of the symbol ’a’ for gravity constant.
The formula for the free fall is written as follows:
1 vf
2
1
h= ⋅ g ⋅ t 2 = ⋅ g.
2 2
Considering the side conditions, the other, recently discussed formulas and
diagrams, can be adapted to free fall in a similar way. Again, there is no reason to
learn another set of formulas by heart. However for solving free fall problems,
normally, the formulas derived in the latter case are sufficient.
As discussed in the previous lessons, the gravity constant value of g = 9.81 m/s2
is used, although this value varies slightly from place to place on the earth’s
surface, due to changing distance to the earth’s centre. The gravitation constant
of a particular place provides a uniform acceleration, so that there is no need,
particularly for engineering purposes, to worry about inconstancy in this respect.
Using the laws of free fall, it is assumed that no air resistance occurs. If,
according to this assumption, different solid bodies fall the height ’h’, they will
reach the same final velocity ’vf’.
Note: Experience shows that in earth atmosphere a leaf falls slower than a solid
body. Therefore, this law only applies in vacuum ambience.
2.2.2.5 Motions Involving Vector Calculation

A few significant and practical cases of vector calculation will be discussed in the
following.
Navigators use the term ’speed over ground’. This results from the fact that the
reference frame that is adopted to control travelling is the earth’s topography. Speed
over ground is only one detail required to determine expected time and expected
average speed in directing a used vehicle from point A to point B, as the course to be
taken must be considered, in order to prevent collisions, to follow a demanded track,
etc.
In order to determine the speed over ground of a ship, the velocity vectors of the
following must be summed:
V own ship’s speed
V velocity of water currents
V wind velocity.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 10
Similar conditions must be considered for air and road vehicles. Even in case a
pedestrian walks on an escalator, his speed is determined by vector addition,
resulting from escalator speed and speed of walking.
Figure 6 shows the trajectory of a projectile as a broken line in Cartesian coordi-

nates. The projectile is fired from the origin of the coordinates with muzzle velocity v0
at an elevation angle b. The trajectory has been constructed under the assumption of
absence of air resistance, wind, etc.
Five instantaneous vectors are shown, together with their substitute components.
By analyzing the vector properties and by reasoning, the following conclusions can
be made:
a) The projectile is reduced to a particle (as particle kinematics is applied).
b) The instantaneous velocity vectors ’v’ and v0, respectively, are always tan-
gentially directed to the trajectory curve (principal property of a vector).
c) The vector size changes continually along the trajectory, due to the fact that
the projectile is subject to gravitation, which changes the vertical components
vy only.
d) The horizontal component of the vector is constant, as the projectile is not
subject to a horizontally directed acceleration in the trajectory region; hence,
vx = vx0 = constant.
e) In the apex of the trajectory, the vertical component of the vector is zero,
therefore, v = vx = vx0.
f) The apex is perpendicularly located at half the distance of the impact range
’R’, as the time required for hurling the projectile up to the apex is identical
with the time required for free fall from the apex to the ground.
g) For the same reason, vertical vector components vy are of equal magnitude
at equidistant locations to the perpendicular of the apex.
h) Gun barrel elevation angle and projectile impact angle are of equal magni-
tude ’b’.
Mathematical determination of the range is quite simple. The basic formula is s =

v × t, where s is replaced for R and v for the constant horizontal vector component
vx0 = v0 × cos b. Thus, the following formula is obtained:
R = v 0 ⋅ cos β ⋅ t ,
where only the time ’t’ is left to enable the calculation of the range.
The time is ruled by twice the time required for free fall. Hence, the adapted basic
formula is t = 2 v/g, where v has to be replaced by the vertical vector component
v0 × sin b, which is effective in the origin and in the impact point. This results in:
2v 0
t= g ⋅ sin β.
The combination of the formulas before provides:
2v 20 2v 20
R= sin cos 
g ⋅ sin β ⋅ 1 − sin β.
2
g ⋅ β ⋅ β =
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 11
These formulas make not only the calculation of ranges possible. If the range is known
-- which is normal in solving a fire control problem -- the required gun barrel elevation
can be calculated, as the muzzle velocity is a constant for a particular gun. However, the
formulas are only applicable when the target is located on the same level as the gun.
Target and gun locations on different levels -- for example, in the case of air targets --
require a universally applicable formula, which relates the distance y to the respect-
ive distance x of the chosen coordinate system. Developing such a formula requires
the following procedure and reasoning.
As mentioned before, the vertical component v0 × sin b is continually reduced through

deceleration of the projectile by gravity. The reduction of velocity is subject to the
formula g × t. Therefore, the instantaneous, vertical vector component is obtained with
the aid of formula
v y = v 0 ⋅ sin β − g ⋅ t .
Considering that the horizontal component vx = vx0 = v0 × cos b is constant, the latter
formula makes it possible to calculate the momentary vector magnitude and its
direction versus time, provided barrel elevation is known. This is done with the aid of
the formulas:
vy
v = v 2y + v 2x and tan ρ = v .
x
The coordinates x and y of the trajectory are products of the factors, flight time,
horizontal and vertical vector components, in accordance with the basic formulas
s = v × t and s = 0.5 v × t, respectively.
Therefore, the following formulas are applicable:
x = v 0 ⋅ cos β ⋅ t and
g 2
y = v 0 ⋅ sin β ⋅ t − ⋅t ,
2
where the second formula is obtained by multiplying velocity by time and factor 0.5,
respectively.
The final result is obtained by combining the formulas. This is done by replacing ’t’ by
the isolated time formula:
g
y = tan β ⋅ x − ⋅ x 2.
2v 20 ⋅ cos 2 β
This function has the characteristics of a parabola of the second order. Higher
mathematics make it possible to determine that the longest range is obtained at a
barrel elevation of 45°.
2.2.2.6 Vibrations and Oscillations
We hear the vibrations of musical instruments and feel the vibrations caused by
heavy vehicles. We see light and feel the warmth of a fire. Surprisingly, all these
sensations have something in common, they all involve the transfer of energy in the
form of a wave motion.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 12
Figure 7 shows some objects which move with a regular to--and--fro motion: it is said
that the items vibrate or oscillate. In reality, the objects presented vibrate slowly
enough to observe their movement and study their characteristics. Other things vi-
brate so fast that it is impossible to see the to--and--fro motion, only the result can be
felt or seen.
The vibrating of objects is set up by displacing it from its rest position and letting it go.
Each then vibrates or oscillates naturally in a way which depends on the forces
acting on it.
All the vibrations shown in Figure 7 die away after a time, some of them more quickly
and others less quickly. The reason for this is, that the energy necessary for vibrating
is lost, e.g. by frictional forces, such as the air resistance which converts the vibrating
energy into heat energy. The vibrations are said ’to be damped’.
When the objects have lost all their vibrating energy they come to rest at the same
position or level which is usually the central position of the vibration.
Period and Frequency

The pendulum shown in Figure 8 illustrates a complete to--and--fro movement from
position A to position B and back to position A. This complete movement is usually
called ’oscillation’ or ’cycle’. It also shows that one complete oscillation involves both
a forward and a backward swing of the pendulum (Figure 8, detail a)) or, when it is
started at the mid--point of its swing, the oscillation is completed when the bob
passes through the mid--point again moving in the same direction.
The time taken for one oscillation is called the ’period’ or ’periodic’ time.
Definition:
The period ’T’ is the time required for a vibrating object to make one complete
oscillation.
The period ’T’ is measured in seconds (s).
The reciprocal quantity of the period ’T’ is called the frequency ’f’ which gives the
number of periods in one second.
Definition:
The frequency ’f’ is the number of complete oscillations (or cycles) made in one
second.
The unit for the frequency is hertz (Hz).
Note: Since one hertz is defined as one oscillation per second or one cycle per second,
the abbreviation cps can be found as well.
When the period is the time taken for one oscillation and the frequency is defined as
the number of oscillations in one second, the relation between these quantities can
be described as follows:
period = 1
frequency
This can be written as a formula:
T = 1
f
s = Hz1 
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 13
Displacement and Amplitude
Definitions:
The displacement ’s’ of a vibrating object is its distance from the rest or central
position in either direction.
The amplitude ’a’ is the maximum displacement from the rest or central position
in either direction.
Figure 9, detail a), shows an arrangement used to demonstrate the displacement of

a pendulum. At the lower end of the pendulum, a felt--tipped pen is fixed. A sheet of
paper is pulled steadily across the floor at right angles to the oscillations so that the
pen traces the path of its motion on the paper.
The produced trace shows that the displacement of the pendulum varies with time,
i.e. the amplitudes become smaller.
Figure 9, detail b), presents a graph showing the trace produced by the arrangement
shown in Figure 3, detail a). The trace has a wave--like shape known as sine curve,
which is a characteristic of all simple harmonic motions.
The graph shows, that

V the amplitude ’a’ decreases from one oscillation to the next (’damped vibra-
tion’)
V the period ’T’ (shown over several oscillations) remains constant.
Natural and Forced Vibrations
Definitions:
The ’natural frequency’ of a vibrator is that frequency at which it will vibrate freely
after a single displacement or push.
A ’natural vibration’ is one in which an object vibrates freely at its natural

frequency.
A ’forced vibration’ is one in which an object is made to vibrate at the frequency

of another oscillator or forcing agent.
The oscillations of a child on a swing have a certain natural frequency, that is to say,
the child which is left to swing freely will always make the same number of complete
oscillations in a certain time. The amplitude of the oscillations decreases unless the
lost energy is replaced. To keep the swing moving it must be pushed at exactly the
right times, in fact it must be pushed at the same frequency as the swing’s own
natural frequency.
Pushing the swing means forcing it to oscillate. However, a swing can be given
regular pushes at frequencies other than its natural frequency. The swinging motion
is then said to be ’forced’, and the resulting amplitude of the oscillation is small.
The best response, or largest amplitude, is always produced when the forcing
frequency equals the natural frequency. This effect is called ’resonance’ and the
swing is said ’to resonate’. Resonance of a vibrator occurs when the forcing
frequency equals its natural frequency.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 14
There are special effects which occur at resonance:

V the amplitude of displacements of the driven vibrator increases
V the maximum amount of energy is transferred from the forcing agent to the
driven vibrator.
Note: In the example of the swing, the driven vibrator is the swing and the forcing agent
is the hand pushing it.
The vibrating or oscillating object, which may be as large as a bridge or as small as a
molecule, is called ’vibrator’ or an ’oscillator’. Both of these words are used but each
is more common in particular cases. For example, the vibrating steel strip used to
print dots on ticker tape is called a vibrator but an electrical circuit which generates
alternating electricity is called an oscillator. A movement which can be felt or heard is
usually called a ’vibration’ and the object with such a periodic motion is called a
’vibrator’.
Resonance
Resonance can occur in different ways.
Resonance in Mechanical Objects
Resonance in mechanical objects is very common. A car or a washing machine may

vibrate quite violently at particular speeds. In each case, resonance occurs when the
frequency of a rotating part (motor, wheel, drum etc.) is equal to the natural
frequency of vibration of the body of the machine. In these machines there are
usually several natural frequencies at which resonance can build up a vibration to a
large amplitude.
In 1940, the wind blowing in gusts caused a suspension bridge in the USA to sway
with increasing amplitude until it reached a point where the structure was over-
stressed and the bridge collapsed.
In order to prevent accidents like this, soldiers are instructed to break step when
crossing a bridge so that their regular footsteps cannot build up a large--amplitude
vibration by resonance with part of the bridge structure.
Resonance in Sound
Resonance in sound can be recognised for example when singing to a piano with the
damper pedal pressed down so that all the strings are free to vibrate. After singing a
steady note, the piano strings of similar natural frequency can be heard to continue
the vibration.
Without resonance effects, most musical instruments would hardly be heard. For
example, the air in a pipe or tube will only vibrate with a large amplitude when it is
caused to vibrate at one of the instrument’s natural frequencies. Similarly, the
vibration amplitude of a string or drum is only large at the natural frequency.
Resonance in Electric Circuits
Resonance in electric circuits occurs, for example, when a radio or television is tuned
to a particular frequency.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 15
The detecting circuit is forced to conduct oscillating electric currents at the fre-
quencies of all the radio signals received by the aerial. But the circuit is built to allow
a large current to flow only at one frequency, which is adjusted to match the
frequency of a particular radio station. All the forced oscillating currents are of very
small amplitude, except the selected frequency. At this frequency there is resonance
between the forcing radio signal and the oscillating electric current in the tuned
circuit.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 16
Car
D stops
sD
Car decelerates
Distance, s [km]
C Average speed
sC
performance
curve
Car travels at
constant velocity
sB B
Car accelerates
N 9536 D
sA
A tBa tB tC tCa tD
tA
Time, t [h]
Figure 1 Distance--Time Graph for Various

Speeds
Notes
Increasing gradient shows

Preliminary
increasing velocity
Tangent to the curve at P
Distance
,s
Zero gradient
2.2.2

shows zero
Module 2
initial velocity
0
B 0572 A
0 ,t
Time
Figure 2 Graphical Method for Determining the Velocity Constituents

from a Distance/Time Graph

Mechanics
2.2.2 - HO - 17
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 18
B 0575
Velocity--Time Graph for Various Speeds

Time, t
C
B
Figure 3
A 0
0
Velocity, v
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 19
vf
Velocity
vi
0
0 t
B 0573
Time
Figure 4 Velocity--Time Graph for Acceleration

Starting from Initial Velocity
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 20
a) Translational motion references
y y’
x’
0’
y’
x’
0’
y’
x’
0’
x
0
b) Circular motion references

r
j
0
B 0608 B
Figure 5 Details of the Concepts of

Translational and Circular Motion
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 21
x
FB 0616 D
I = impact point
v
β
vx0
vy
Trajectory in Vacuum
v
φ
vx0
vy
A = apex point
vx0
Figure 6
φ
vx0
v
vy
β
vx0
v0
y
vy0
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 22
a) Pendulum b) Mass on a spring
Bob
Mass
c) Water in a U--tube Blow
1 meter or more
Water
d) Loaded lath Lath or meter ruler
Mass
Clamp
e) Hydrometer f) Torsional oscillation
Hydrometer Thin
steel wire
Water
Tall beaker
or gas jar
Rod
g) Rolling marble
Curtain rail Marble
B 0071 A
(circular curver)
Figure 7 Examples of Vibrations
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 23
a) One complete oscillation (or: cycle) is from A to B

and back to A.
A B
b) One complete oscillation (or: cycle) is from A to B to C

and back to A.
B 0006 A
C B
Figure 8 One Complete Oscillation
Physics
Notes 2.2.2 2.2.2 - HO - 24
a) Six--inch nail
Pendulum
Felt--tipped pen
Trace
Paper pulled
steadily along
Heavy blocks the floor
or bricks
b)
Displacement
T T
a
a
Mean or
rest
position Time
B 0072 A
Legend: a = amplitude
T = period
Figure 9 Amplitude of a Vibrating Object
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 1
2.2.3 Dynamics
2.2.3.1 Force, Mass and Acceleration

The coherency of force, mass and acceleration is given by Newton’s laws of motion:
1. Every body persists in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line,
unless it is forced to change that state by forces impressed on it.
2. If a force acts on a particle, the particle will accelerate in the direction of the
force. The magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the particle’s mass.
3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual ac-
tions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to con-
trary parts.
The basic, symbolic formula to Newton’s 2nd law is written as follows:
F = m × a,
where:
F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration.
The unit of force in the SI system is the newton, represented by the symbol N. This
unit requires that kg is used for mass and m/s2 for acceleration, as the equivalent of
the newton is 1 N = 1 kg m/s2.
The fact that force is a vector is evident through each one of Newton’s descriptive
laws. According to the preceding lesson, the vector qualities of force originate from
acceleration and the origin of motion changes is force.
Predecessors of Newton knew the concept of inertia. Inertia is closely related to a
body’s mass, and was interpreted as a body’s inherent resistance to change its
momentary state of rest or motion. Thanks to Newton, inertia can be defined in terms
of the formula F = m × a.
Under the influence of gravitation, the mass exerts the force
F = m × g.
In the problems experienced in statics, the force resulting from the formula F = m × g
was always the active force, and mass played an active role. In contrast to that, the
concept of inertia assigns a passive role to mass, which, according to the formula F =
m × a, is subject to an external force ’F’.
Thus, a distinction is made between static force and dynamic force, and such
discriminations must be made, in case free body diagrams have to be drawn.
A static force may turn into a dynamic force, if a body gets out of balance, looses its
position stability or support and becomes subject to free fall, for instance, as shown
in detail e) of Figure 1. Instability of position has been discussed before. In the given
case, the same force formula F = m × g is applicable to both, active force and reactive
force, and the mass plays an active role, as in the case of statics.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 2
The laws of bodies in motion, or the laws of kinetics and dynamics, are an alliance of
the laws of kinematics and of the laws associated with mass. The following formulas
are applicable to the force formula F = m × a, in the case of uniform acceleration ’a’,
in accordance with formulas developed in conjunction with the triangle analogy:
∆v 2s v 2f
F=m⋅ =m⋅ 2 =m⋅ .
∆t t 2s
Similar to the concepts related to mass in statics and kinematics, the concept of the
mass centre is adopted. Where the line of action of an external force runs outside the
mass centre of a body -- as in the case of a force acting outside the fixed rotary
centre of a rotating body -- the body is subject to a force couple and, hence, it is
subject to circular motion.
Detail e) of Figure 1 gives, also, an example of the correctness of this statement.
The formula F = m × a, however, cannot be used for rotary systems. Multiplication of the
mass of a rotating body with angular velocity ’a’ would not provide a result in newtons.
Additionally, a rotating body consists of many particles to which formula v = r × w is
applicable.
Therefore, the moment of inertia is used in conjunction with rotary systems. It is defined
as the sum of all mass particles multiplied by the square of their distance to the rotary
centre. However, determining the moment of inertia is beyond the scope of this lesson
and requires a great number of additional formulas.
A prime example of a device that uses the concept of moment of inertia is the
flywheel. For example, a flywheel in a motor-car or steam-roller tends to prevent any
change in speed. The flywheel is deliberately made heavy and large, with most of the
mass arranged at the rim of the wheel, so that, when it rotates, it stores considerable
energy.
When the vehicle meets an incline or bump, the speed of the vehicle is maintained
near to constant, due to the inertia of the moving masses, of which the inertia of the
flywheel makes up a considerable part.
2.2.3.2 Impulse and Momentum
An impulse changes a body’s momentum in accordance with the following formulas:
F ⋅ ∆t = m ⋅ a ⋅ ∆t = m ⋅ ∆v.
These formulas should not include any unknown quantities given by single symbols.
Literally, the formula can be given as follows: if a body is subject to an impulse,
consisting of the product of force and time interval the force is applied, the body’s
linear momentum is changed by the product of its mass and its velocity change.
When mass is subject to changes, the formula must be varied to
F ⋅ ∆t = a ⋅ ∆(m ⋅ t) = ∆(m ⋅ v).

This formula can be applied to a rocket, where thrust F is constant, due to continuous
fuel feed and constant acceleration of combustion gases, while the mass of the rocket
is changing, due to fuel consumption.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 3
The concept of momentum is important to solve quite a number of physical and

engineering problems involving the law of conservation of momentum. For example,
in the case of direct collision of two ’inelastic’ bodies ’1’ and ’2’, the momenti of the
bodies are simply added to find the common velocity v1,2 after collision with the aid of
the total momentum. The following formula is applicable:
m 1 ⋅ v 1 + m 2 ⋅ v 2 = (m 1 + m 2) ⋅ v 1,2,
where the common velocity is found by isolating v1,2.

For instance, if a projectile of mass m1 and velocity v1 is fired at a stationary box
holding cotton wool of mass m2 and velocity v2 = 0, conservation of momentum
requires that both items travel on at a common velocity, when the projectile gets
stuck in the box. As v2 is zero, the former formula is written as follows:
m1 ⋅ v1
v 1,2 = m + m .
1 2
Example: When a body of mass m2 is dropped from a bridge onto a lorry of mass m1,
which travels at velocity v1, then again, v2 is zero and the momentum of m2 and
v2 is zero. The momentum of the body gathered by free fall only depresses the
shock absorbers of the lorry and makes it swing up and down.
The momentum gathered by free fall is not coincident with the momentum deter-
mined by the velocity vector of the lorry. Therefore, the latter formula is applicable
again.
2.2.3.3 The Nature of Moment of Inertia
The SI unit equivalent for moment of inertia is 1 N m s2 = 1 kg m2. As this unit is

beyond comprehension, a little background knowledge should be helpful to solve
dynamic problems associated with rotation.
The nature of moment of inertia can be made evident by reference to a cylinder,
which is free to turn in bearings and is accelerated by a wrapped rope and an
attached weight, as shown in Figure 2, detail a). Beside this functional reference
frame, the previously discussed profile to the momentary tangential velocities is
shown.
Experience tells us that a large and heavy cylinder will be slower accelerated than a
small and light cylinder. Hence, acceleration under the same force, depends on the
cylinder’s mass and dimensions.
The weight of the mass m1 exerts a right turning impulse on the cylinder, subject to
the formula
F r ⋅ ∆t = m 1 ⋅ g ⋅ ∆t.
The hollow cylinder section, ∆mn, shown under detail b), shall be one part of the
complete cylinder which opposes the turning impulse on the cylinder. Its mean
radius, rmn, shall be the reference dimension to the velocity vector shown by example
in the momentary velocity profile. Therefore, the difference, ∆vn, of some adjacent
velocity vectors to the depicted one should be determined by the same time interval
that rules the impulse duration of the external force Fr.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 4
According to the recently stipulated conditions, the angular momentum that contrib-
utes to opposing the right turning impulse, due to the mass fraction ∆mn, should
amount to
∆F n ⋅ ∆t = ∆m n ⋅ ∆v n = ∆m n ⋅ r mn ⋅ ∆ω.
By isolating for ∆Fn, we obtain
∆ω
∆F n = ∆m n ⋅ r mn ⋅ = ∆m n ⋅ r mn ⋅ α.
∆t
As it is, the body consists of several fractions ∆mn. Therefore, the external force Fr is
opposed by
F R = Σ∆F n = α ⋅ Σ∆m n ⋅ r mn.
However at the lever arm between the turning axis ’X’ and the outside radius ’R’, the
individual forces ∆Fn act at different distances to the ends. An example is shown in
the free body diagram under detail b). For this reason, we have to rise rmn of the
latter formulae to the square, in order to obtain the torque that opposes the torque of
the external force.
Thus, we obtain
T = F r ⋅ R = m ⋅ g ⋅ R = α(Σ∆m n ⋅ r 2mn) = α ⋅ I, where
The final expressions shows that
Σ∆m n ⋅ r 2mn = I.
Through the previous lessons we know that angular acceleration is measured in

radians per square second. As the radian has no basic unit of its own, the respective
SI unit equivalent is 1/s2. Therefore, the respective SI unit equivalent for moment of
inertia is 1 N m s2 = 1 kg m2.
The fact that that rmn is raised to the square makes the bottom enveloping curve of
the velocity profile for Fn a parabola and the latter shows that -- where a great
moment of inertia of a rotating body is desired -- its mass should be arranged as
close to its circumference, as the design conditions permit.
A prime example of a device that uses a great moment of inertia for its intended
purpose is the flywheel. The flywheel in a motor-car or steam-roller tends to prevent
any change in speed. The flywheel is deliberately made heavy and large, with most
of the mass arranged at the rim of the wheel, so that, when it rotates, it stores
considerable energy. When the vehicle meets a short incline or bump, the speed of
the vehicle is maintained near to constant, due to the inertia of the moving masses,
of which the inertia of the flywheel takes a considerable part. The flywheel, particu-
larly, makes machines of the reciprocating piston type run more smoothly.
2.2.3.4 Centrifugal and Centripetal Force and Acceleration
Centrifugal and centripetal force and acceleration occur where a mass ’m’ is subject
to constant circular motion.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 5
Detail a) of Figure 3 shows an example taken from athletics. When the hammer is
whirled around, a force toward the turning centre must be exerted, in order to
maintain the hammer on the circular path. All of us have made similar experiences,
mainly by playing.
The force that pulls at the handle is radially outward directed and is known as the
centrifugal force. The force the thrower exerts, in order to compensate the centrifugal
force, is radially inward directed and is known as the centripetal force. Exerting the
centripetal force, makes the hammer thrower adopt an inclined position toward the
vertical, in order to compensate the centrifugal force by shifting his mass centre.
Centrifugal and centripetal force are subject to the 1st law of dynamics, F = m × a, and
to the 1st law of statics, ΣF = 0. Therefore, there exist centrifugal and centripetal
accelerations, which are identical with the action line of the respective forces. This
permits us to draw the vectors, as shown under detail b) of Figure 3, and these
should show equilibrium by drawing equal lengths and opposed directions.
The LH figure to detail c) shows the displacement sector to the circular motion of the
hammer head, together with the vectors to constant tangential speed, ’v’. The
centroid of the mass ’m’ describes the arc AB, and the length of this sector is a
function of the radius ’r’ and the angular displacement ’φ’.
The RH figures of detail c) show the velocity triangles we obtain by parallel shifting of
the velocity vectors ’v’ and by connecting the arrow heads by an arrow ’∆v’ that
stands for the velocity difference. According to the above given initial conditions, this
difference does not exist in changing the tangential velocity magnitude, but in
displacing the velocity vectors, the mass ’m’ and the resultant force vectors.
Actually, the velocity changes exist in pairs and compensate each other, as compari-
son of the upper and the lower velocity triangles for the centripetal and the centrifugal
case show. Thus, in terms of vector addition and in case of the upper velocity
triangle, the lower vector must be understood as the resultant of the upper velocity
vector and the respective velocity change vector ∆vcp.
Due to the geometric similarity of the hatched areas -- particularly, in case of

extremely small angles φ -- we can deduct the following ratios:
AB = v ⋅ ∆t = ∆v
r r v
By isolating for radial acceleration, ar = ∆v/∆t, and by considering that tangential

velocity is subject to the formula v = ω × r, we obtain
∆v = a = v 2 = ω 2 ⋅ r.
∆t r r
Applying the formula to the 1st law of dynamics, F = m × a, and considering that the
radial forces and accelerations, basically, are translational, although they result from
circular motion, we obtain, adapted to the case,
F r = m ⋅ a r = m ⋅ vr = m ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ r.
2
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 6
Centrifugal and centripetal forces occur wherever a body is constrained to move

along a curved path. It is not necessary to have the involved mass tied to a string,
like in the discussed case of the hammer thrower. Such cases are only significant for
circular motion. However, where the curved path is not exactly circular, there usually
arises the problem to determine the momentary radius and respective turning centre.
From the spin drier we find in many households, we know that the involved masses
of wet cloth are subject to centripetal acceleration by the effect of the drum, while
water is admitted to escape through holes in the drum, as it is subject to centrifugal
force. Similar devices, at larger or smaller scale, are used for industrial separation
processes. This includes separators for fluids of different density, where circumferen-
tially closed drums are used.
Particularly in case of gas/gas separators, high speed centrifuges, or ultracentrifuges

are used, and in such devices, the radial acceleration achieved is many thousand
times greater than the gravitational acceleration of the earth. In fact, the rotary
motion of the earth is another reason for the reduced gravity near the equator and
the increasing gravity toward the poles of the earth.
Even in cases of a complete absence of a material limit to the spinning mass, the
centrifugal force exists. Often the existence is obvious by an inclination toward the
turning centre, as in case of the hammer thrower of Figure 3. Similar inclinations can
be observed in case of bike drivers, air-- road-- and rail vehicles, which take a bend
and move parallel to the earths’ surface.
In other cases, the centrifugal force is completely or partially compensated by friction

between adjacent bodies. For this reason, bends in roads or railways are built with
an inclination toward the curve centre, in order to have the resultant of the vehicles’
own weight and the centrifugal force perpendicular to the track and to reduce wear
by friction. Naturally, such inclinations can only be prepared for a particular velocity.
Therefore, you can still be carried away by centrifugal force, in case you are driving
at excessive speed in an inclined road bend.
Within a rotating body, centrifugal forces occur, when a bodies’ centre of rotation is
located outside its mass centre, where the axis of rotation runs through the mass
centre, but deviates by an inclination from the axis of symmetry, or even in cases
where the previously mentioned details are fulfilled, but the body is not homogene-
ous. Such rotating bodies are attributed as unbalanced.
Unbalanced rotating parts of a machine cause its vibration and exert an undue load
on the part itself and on meshing members. For instance, in case the steering wheel
of your car starts vibrating, the front wheels need balancing, and this is done by
attaching a respective weight to the steel rim of the unbalanced wheel, after the
degree and direction of unbalance is determined with the aid of a balancing machine.
2.2.3.5 Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency
Mechanical work is defined as the product of a force and displacement in the line of
the force’s action. Using mathematical symbols, this purely verbatim formula is
translated into
work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 7
Using the capital letter symbol ’W’ for work, the following basic formula is applicable:
W=F⋅s.
The unit of work is the joule. The symbol of the joule is the capital letter ’J’. Respect-
ive SI unit equivalents are 1 J = 1 N m = 1 kg m2/s2.
Note: ’W’ is used as a symbol of both work and weight. If there is any risk of confusion
write the words and avoid the symbol.
The unit of work has identical equivalents of the moment of force. Therefore, the
proper units -- joule, in the case of work and energy -- and -- newton meter, in the
case of moment of force -- must be used, in order to discriminate the physically
different quantities.
Mechanical work is can also be defined as the transfer of energy that results when a
force is applied to a body, in order to move it against some resistance. On the other
hand, mechanical energy is defined as the capability of a body to do work.
Both, mechanical work and mechanical energy thus correspond to Newton’s 3rd law.
It requires work to store mechanical energy, but work can be obtained from stored
mechanical energy, and the unit of both, work and energy, is the joule.
Energy appears in various forms, e.g., mechanical energy, thermal (heat) energy,
electrical energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy, etc. The type of energy discussed
here is the one associated with motions, the mechanical energy.
According to the law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be made or de-

stroyed, but it can be changed from one form into another. The same holds true for
work, as a special, conceptual form of energy.
The conservation of energy law holds true under all conditions. On the other hand,
practical considerations and special conditions prevent the utilization of energy
potentials, for instance, the heat energy resulting from friction forces is generally not
recovered. The same applies to energy invested for permanent deformation of
material.
The main types of mechanical energy are known under the names ’potential energy’
and ’kinetic energy’.
Potential energy is the type of energy which is stored in objects if they have been moved
into a position from which they can do work when released. The potential energy gained
by the object is equal to the work done in lifting. Thus, if ’s’ is replaced by ’h’ and ’F’ by m
×g
Ep = m ⋅ g ⋅ h
is obtained, where:
Ep = potential energy.
Kinetic energy is the type of energy possessed by a moving object. Work conversion
to kinetic energy, therefore, requires the following substitutions:
F=m⋅a
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 8
and
1 1 v2
s= ⋅a⋅t2= ⋅ a
2 2
in accordance with the kinematics laws.
These substitutions provide
1
Ek = ⋅ m ⋅ v 2,
2
where:
Ek = kinetic energy.
Figure 4 shows three examples of devices operating on conversion of potential and
kinetic energy.
The ballistic pendulum, detail a), is a device that makes it possible to measure the
velocity of a projectile with simple means. It consists of a large wooden block of mass
’M’, which is suspended by cords. When a projectile of mass ’m’ with the velocity vi is
fired into the block, the block swings, rising by a maximum height ’h’.
It only requires to attach a scriber to the block and to place a taut sheet of paper
parallel to the block to determine the vertical displacement of the block.
In the given case, the kinetic energy of the projectile is intermediately converted into
potential energy, and this causes the pendulum to swing. However, it should be
considered that the potential energy is applied to both, the mass ’M’ of the wooden
block and the mass ’m’ of the projectile. Thus, the following is applicable:
1
⋅ m ⋅ v 2i = (M + m) g ⋅ h.
2
Details b) and c) show two well--known examples of machines that convert potential
and kinetic energy in the building and construction trade. In both cases, the formula
1
m⋅g⋅h= ⋅ m ⋅ v 2f
2
is applicable, where vf is the final velocity of the dropping item. Regarding the pile
driver, only the mass of the drop hammer is lifted and converted into kinetic energy.
The rammer, the mass of the complete unit is subject to energy conversion.
Refer to Figures 5 and 6.
Figure 7 shows a force--displacement diagram of the recently discussed towing test.
In this type of diagram, work and energy are represented as areas under the force
curves.
In the towing test, the resistance offered to the motion of the block was given by
friction. In the static friction period no work is performed, as far as the block is
concerned, as the block is not moved.
The pulling person, however, performs work by displacing the mobile section of the
force meter. This happens in the displacement region from 0 to s1, up to the
maximum force Fts. The applied formula is
1
W= F ⋅ s 1.
2 ts
where ’s1’ is understood to be the displacement of the pointer.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 9
The use of the factor 0.5 in the formula is evident by analogy to the triangle. It results
from the fact that the pulling force of a helical spring--type meter is proportional to the
displacement, while force indication rises from zero to maximum.
As long as the block is not moved, the work expended by the pulling person is stored
in the spring of the meter. This would become evident by the pointer returning to zero
on slow release of the meter.
From point s1 onward, the block starts moving. Between the points s1 and s2, the pull
on the block drops from Fts to Ftd, by partial relief of the spring tension. The
difference between Fts and Ftd serves to accelerate the block, while the towing force
Ftd is required to counteract the friction force Ffd, in order to maintain motion.
As friction is independent of velocity, the work expended to overcome dynamic

friction should be determined by the hatched rectangle of Ftd height in the range of s1
to s3. Hence, the triangle above this rectangle should represent that part of the
meter’s spring energy that was consumed to impart kinetic energy to the block.
Pulling at the force meter is stopped at point s3. The block and the mobile part of the
force meter continue moving a bit in decelerated motion. In the deceleration region
between s3 and s4, the residual spring energy and the kinetic energy of the block are
consumed by the dynamic friction energy.
Mechanical power is defined as work rate, or as work done, or energy expended in

response to time taken. Using mathematical symbols, this purely verbatim formula is
translated into
work done energy transferred

power = or .
time taken time taken
Using the capital letter ’P’ for power, the following basic formulas are applicable:
W E
P= = .
t t
The unit of power is the watt. The symbol of the watt is the capital letter ’W’.
Respective SI unit equivalents are 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s = 1 kg m2/s3.
As the formula for work is W = F × s, power can be defined as
s
P=F⋅ ,
t
where displacement ’s’ over time ’t’ is identical with velocity ’v’ and, therefore
P=F⋅v
is applicable, where force and velocity have the same line of action. Under the same
line of action condition, the formula
P=F⋅r⋅ω
is applicable to rotary systems, where force and velocity are related to the radial
distance of the rotary axis.
Refer to Figure 8.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 10
A Prony brake is one type among dynamometers used for determining the output
power of engines and motors. It has two friction blocks clamped loosely to a pulley on
the shaft of the engine or motor to be tested. A beam is fastened at one end of the
brake assembly, while the other end is equipped with a force measuring device.
The force measuring device consists of a platform provided for standard weights.
Screws make it possible to clamp the friction blocks down, in order to vary the friction
force which is effective at the pulley circumference.
Note: Force moments are only balanced when the beam does not touch the retainers.
Under this condition, the right turning force moment results from the product of the
weights ’W’ and beam arm length ’l’, while the left turning force moment is the
product of friction force Ff and pulley radius ’r’. Thus, the equilibrium of force
moments is subject to the formula:
m ⋅ g ⋅ l = Ff ⋅ r .
According to the latter formula, friction force amounts to
m⋅g⋅l
Ff = r .
Replacement of friction force ’Ff’ by F= P/(r × w), in accordance with the recently
developed formula for the rotary system, provides the formula that makes it possible
to determine the power with the aid of the applied weights and the measured speed:
P = m ⋅ g ⋅ l ⋅ ω.
Prony brakes were widely used in former times, but the difficulties of maintaining exactly
balanced adjustment and of dissipating the friction heat led to the development of better
types of dynamometers. Nowadays, the Prony brake is mainly used for instruction
purposes. Its place is taken over by electric, fluid--friction and torsion--type dynamome-
ters.
The efficiency can be related to many aspects. However in mechanics, efficiency is
related to the performance of machines, and is, basically, defined as the ratio of
useful work produced to the energy expended in producing it. Using mathematical
symbols, this verbatim formula can be translated into
work gained
efficiency = .
energy invested
Using the low case Greek letter ’h’ (Eta) for efficiency and the indices ’g’ for gained
and ’i’ for invested, the following basic formula is applicable:
Wg
η= .
Ei
As ratio of equal unit magnitudes, efficiency has no specific unit of its own. However,
the ratio is often given as percentage value. Then the conversion factor 1 = 10 --2/100
% is used.
As power is defined as the rate of work/energy, the following formula is applicable, if
measured in the same time intervals:
Pg
η= .
Pi
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 11
The power gained can be measured by a dynamometer, like the Prony brake, for
instance. In an electric motor, the energy invested can be measured with the aid of a
power meter.
Since efficiency determination offers so many aspects, especially when fuel is

invested, the rules of efficiency determination had to be standardized. Therefore,
efficiency specifications must be based on the same national standards, in order to
enable objective comparison.
Friction has been introduced as a source that reduces the efficiency, and friction is
mainly responsible for the reduced efficiency of simple machines like the wedge, the
pulley and other simple machines based on the same principle of operation.
Further sources of efficiency reduction, in more sophisticated machines, are the

energy required for lubrication, cooling and the energy lost through vibration of
machine parts, or of the complete machine.
If all energy losses are added, the following formula is applicable:
Wg Pg
η= = ,
Wg + W l Pg + Pl
where the index ’l’ stands for loss of energy and power, respectively.
It should be noted that lost energy cannot generally be regarded as not useful.
Useful, in this sense, means that the energy does not serve the intended purpose of
the machine. For instance, the energy lost in the bumpers of a car is not useful in
taking persons from point A to point B.
However, the same energy is useful in that it serves the comfort of car driver and
passengers. Similar reasons for usefulness can be specified for energy expended for
lubrication and cooling, where the usefulness, more or less, arises from necessities
dictated by technical side conditions.
2.2.3.6 Gyroscopic Principles
Functional Principle
Refer to Figure 9.
The gyroscope is one of the most important devices used in aircraft instrumentation.
A gyroscope is defined as a spinning mass (a heavy metal wheel or rotor) mounted
in such a way that the spin axis is free to rotate around one or 2 axes at right angles
to the spin axis. This means that the gyroscope may have up to 3 axes of freedom
(including the spin axis).
Due to the mass inertia of the fast rotating wheel the direction of the spin axis always
remains unchanged (stabilised) in space, even if the suspension is turned or moved.
This important property is used for measuring and indicating several flight character-
istics, e.g. turning, banking, climbing and descending.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 12
A gyroscope, as used in aircraft instruments, is a mechanical system containing a

rotor inside a frame construction. The rotor is free to spin around the X--axis on
bearings in the inner frame (or: ring). The inner ring is free to turn around the Y--axis
on pivots in the outer ring. The outer ring is free to turn around the Z--axis on pivots
in the support. Such a construction is known as ’gimbal rings’.
When the gyroscope is in its normal position all the axes are at right angles to each
other and intersect at the center of gravity of the rotor.
Parts of a Gyroscope
A gyroscope usually contains 3 movable parts:

V rotor
V inner gimbal
V outer gimbal.
Rotor
The rotor is a perfectly balanced rotating mass. lt is mounted on anti--friction bearings

within a ring or frame known as ’gimbal’. The rotor axis is called ’spin axis (X--axis)’.
Inner Gimbal
The inner gimbal which supports the rotor is pivoted in a supporting frame. The rotor
is therefore free to turn relative to the frame which is at right angles to the spin axis.
A gyroscope having only an inner gimbal is said to have ’one degree of freedom’.
Outer Gimbal
Between the inner gimbal and the supporting frame a second gimbal may be
mounted which is known as the ’outer gimbal’. The type of gyroscope containing both
an inner and an outer gimbal is said to have ’2 degrees of freedom’.
Properties of a Gyroscope
The fundamental characteristics of any gyroscope are

V rigidity and
V precession.
Rigidity is the property of a rotating mass to maintain its plane of spin. This means
that the spin axis tends to remain in a fixed direction in space as long as the
rotational speed is high enough. This effect is caused by the inertia of the mass.
Refer to Figure 10.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 13
Precession is the effect which occurs when the spin axis of a rotating body changes
its direction due to the application of an external force. The following 3 types of
precession can be distinguished, depending on the type of force applied:
V apparent precession:
this is the tilt due to the earth’s rotation and curvature
V random precession:
this is precession created by pivot and bearing friction and out--of--balance
assemblies
V actual precession:
this is caused by the application of an external force, e.g. when the support of
the system (i.e. the aircraft) is turned or moved.
The direction of the precession can be determined, provided the direction of rotation of
the rotor and the direction of the applied external force are both known. The change in
direction does not take place in line with the applied force, but always at an angle of 90°
in the direction of rotation.
It is of major importance that the gyro’s speed of rotation is kept constant, since
precession of the rotor is directly proportional to its speed.
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 14
e) Out of balance B 0571 C

(instability)
F
d
F
Kinds of Position Stability of a Chimney

F
F
instability
d) Maximum
FB
c) Reduced
stability
x
FA
F
2
b) Maximum
stability
F
2
Figure 1
2d
B
a) Elevation
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 15
a) Functional references
Momentary velocity
profile
Cylinder of
mass m2
Rotary
axis X
Frictionless Weight of
bearings mass m1
b) Geometrical reference frame related to mass m2

=X ∆m n
r mn
h
= Fr
c) Free body diagram
r m1 r m3
r m2 etc. r mn
X
+ = R
= Fn
B 1008 A
Figure 2 Figurative References to the Nature of

Moment of Inertia
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 16
a) Reference performance, hammer throw

m
β, release angle
b) Respective acceleration and force vectors
Fcf
Centrifugal acf
β
Centripetal acp
Fcp
c) Geometric similarity of displacement and velocity triangles at constant

speed
A v v
B j
∆vcp
r
j r v
j
∆vcf
0
B 1230 A
Figure 3 Centrifugal and Centripetal Force and

Acceleration (Example of Athletics)
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 17
a) Ballistic pendulum
M
m
h
vi
b) Pile driver c) Rammer
Drop
hammer
Hanging
leader
B 0621 A
Figure 4 Devices Operating on

Mechanical Energy Conversion
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 18
B 0606 A
Results of a Towing Test of Sliding Friction

Figure 5
b) Dynamic friction
a) Static friction
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 19
B 0564 A
Ffd
FrN
md
b) Dynamic friction
FN
Force Parallelograms of the Towing Test

W
md
Fr
Ftd
Ffs
FrN
ms
FN
Figure 6
W
ms
a) Static friction
Fr
Fts
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 20
B 0609 A
s4
Displacement, s
Force/Displacement Diagram of the Towing Test

s3
s2
s1
Figure 7
0
Fts = Ffs
Ftd = Ffd
Force, F
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 21
Details of the Determination of Force Moments at a Prony Brake

W
B 0619 B
Retainers
L
r
Friction block
Shaft
Figure 8
Pulley
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 22
The earth -- a huge gyroscope
X X Y X
X X X Y
Rotor Rotor and inner Gyro and
gimbal (gyro) outer gimbal
Z
Basic gyroscope
Z
Resistance
X
Y
X
Y
Pressure Force
Drift
Precession
B 0929
Gyro resists Z
pressure
Figure 9 Fundamentals of the Gyroscope
Physics
Notes 2.2.2, 2.2.3 (a), 2.2.3 (b) 2.2.3 - HO - 23
Resulting
precession
Force
Plane of precession
FB 0930 B
Plane of applied force
Plane of spin
Figure 10 Precession
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 1
2.2.4 Fluid Dynamics
2.2.4.1 Density and Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

As discussed in conjunction with solid matter, density describes how much matter is
contained in a certain volume and is related to the mass of substances in accordance
with the formula
m
ρ= ,
V
where:
ρ = density
V = volume.
Technicians rarely have to determine the density of pure substances. Such data have
already been available from tables included in scientific and engineering handbooks. The
table shown in Figure 1 may be an excerpt.
If the density of smaller substance samples has to be determined, this will be done by
weighing and determining the volume with the aid of a measuring cylinder. Sometimes
the density is determined by measuring and calculation, in order to identify the type of a
material with the aid of the material density tables.
A measuring cylinder or other calibrated vessel makes it possible to measure the
volume of irregularly shaped solid samples by indicating their displacement in liquids
through the rise of the level. If the solid floats in the liquid, it can be weighed with a
lump of metal. Thus, the total volume is found. The volume of the metal is measured
in a separate experiment and then subtracted from this total.
The density of gases can be found by measuring the mass before and after sample
evacuation of a volumetrically calibrated vessel.
When the density is either determined by tables or by experiments performed, two
details concerning volume variations have to be kept in mind:
V Densities of solids and liquids vary slightly with temperature and pressure. In
most cases,
-- the volume of solids and liquids get a little bigger when they are heated
-- the volume decreases with increasing pressure.
V In contrast to solids and liquids, the densities of gases can vary enormously,
depending on temperature and pressure.
The density data given in tables are normally based on room temperature and
ambient, atmospheric pressure. Thus, all data given without any special remark in
such table should be based on a temperature value of 20 °C.
Special remarks are given for
V glass, brick, stone, a class of substance known as ’earthen material’
V the density of the earth (planet), as a mixture of different materials, where the
higher density value of earthen material partially results from the increasing
pressure toward the earth’s centre (additionally, the material below the earth’s
crust is extremely hot and the earth’s centre is assumed to consist of molten
metals)
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 2
V water with a temperature value of 4 °C, where it reaches its highest density
(above and below 4 °C, water expands)
V ice (of water) having its highest temperature value at 0 °C under normal
ambient conditions
V air, where reference is made to the pressure at sea level.
For gases, like air, the densities are normally given as NTP values, or ’normal
temperature and pressure values’, which is a standardized reference. Beside the
standard atmospheric pressure reference, NTP values include the reference to 0 °C.
Working with such values is a subject of thermodynamics.
The relative density or specific gravity of a substance describes by how many times
the substance is denser than water. That means:
density of a substance
relative density = .
density of water
Example: When the density of lead is considered to be 11,300 kg/m3 and the density of
water 1,000 kg/m3, then the relative density of lead is calculated as follows:
11, 300 kg∕m 3

= 11.3.
1, 000 kg∕m 3
The relative density of lead is 11.3. The equation above proves that the relative
density has no units. The relative density is known as ’specific gravity’.
2.2.4.2 Pressure
Pressure has also been discussed in conjunction with solid matter, where the
following formula was found:
F
p= ,
A
where:
p = pressure
A = area.
The same formula is applicable to fluid systems, if it is understood that fluids are a
medium to transfer pressure, as is the case in hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
However, pressure exerted by liquids shows some important qualities:
V When a liquid is poured into a set of connected, open tubes of various
shapes the liquid flows in the tubes until all the liquid is at the same level, as
shown in Figure 2. It can be said, a liquid finds its own level.
V The pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions, as shown in Figure 3.
V The pressure in a liquid increases with the depth below the surface, as, also,
shown in Figure 3.
A formula to the third statement can be developed based on the formula p = F/A. If a
liquid column of mass m is considered, then the force that this column exerts is F =
m × g. The mass formula is m = ρ × A × h.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 3
By respective replacements in the basic formula,
ρ⋅A⋅h⋅g
p=
A
is obtained, where, by cancelling of ’A’,
p = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h,
is obtained, where the height ’h’ is known as the static head of the liquid. The above
formula shows that a level difference, or ’head’ is responsible for equal levels in a
system of connected tubes. This difference causes a pressure and makes the fluid
flow, until equal level conditions are obtained, as shown in Figure 2.
2.2.4.3 Archimedes’ Principle of Floating
More than 2,000 years ago, the Greek Archimedes was the first person who defined
the buoyant force acting on an object placed in a fluid in a scientific way:
The buoyant force of an object immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object and acts in the opposite direction.
Detail a) in Figure 4 gives the pressure profile of a prism immersed in a fluid. The
profile can be drawn in accordance with the rules that pressure in a liquid is equal in
all directions, acts normally to a plane and is subject to the the formula p = ρ × g × h.
The pressures on the sides of the object balance each other, as they result from
equal immersion depths at equal levels. Additionally, the lateral forces resulting from
the side pressures do not contribute to the buoyant force, which has a vertical line of
action. Accordingly, the lateral forces are omitted in the free body diagram given in
detail b).
On the other hand, the pressures between the top surface and the bottom surface, p1
and p2, are different and coincident with the line of action. Therefore, only the
respective forces are considered in the free body diagram given in detail b).
The diagram shows that the resultant buoyant force ’Fb’ can be determined by simple
arithmetical addition, in accordance with the formula
F b = F 2 − F 1 = (p 2 − p 1) A.
As the pressures are a function of formula p = ρ × g × h, the following holds true:
F b = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ (h 2 − h 1) ⋅ A,
where the product of height difference and area can be identified as the volume of
the prism. Therefore, it results
F b = ρ fl ⋅ g ⋅ V fl
which is the symbolic formula of the verbatim formula of Archimedes’ law given in the
initial passage of the current chapter.
The indices ’fl’ are introduced to mark respective fluid data. Although this formula had
been developed by the example of a prism, it is also applicable to irregularly shaped
bodies.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 4
So far only the buoyant force of a body had been considered. However, experience
has shown that a body may float on a fluid surface, may sink to the ground or may
float within a fluid, neither sinking, nor rising to the level. That is, to determine these
equilibrium conditions of a body in a static fluid, a body’s own weight has to be
considered as a counteractive force to the buoyant force Fb:
W = m so ⋅ g = V so ⋅ ρ so ⋅ g
The indices ’so’ are introduced to mark the respective data of the solid body. By
comparison of weight, buoyant force and respective formulas, the following con-
clusions can be drawn:
V A body will sink to the bottom of a fluid, if it weighs more than the fluid it is
capable of displacing. A prerequisite for sinking of homogeneous, solid
bodies is that the solid density is greater than the liquid density, or
ρso > ρfl.
Equilibrium of the respective static forces is subject to the formula
W = FN + Fb,
where FN stands for the normal reactive, or supporting force exerted by the
ground to the body.
V A body will float on the surface of a fluid, if it weighs less than the fluid it is
capable of displacing. Prerequisite for floating on the fluid surface is that the
solid density is smaller than the liquid density, or
ρso < ρfl.
Equilibrium of the respective static forces is subject to the formula
W = F b.
A body floating on the surface of a fluid displaces a volume ratio of its total
volume, to the extent, that the weight of the displaced fluid equals the weight
of the body.
V A body will be neutrally suspended, or float within a fluid, subject to sinking or
rising by exertion of a minimum thrust, if its weight is the same as that of the
fluid it is capable of displacing. Prerequisite for neutral suspension is that
solid and liquid density are equal, or
ρso = ρfl.
Equilibrium of the respective static forces is, also, subject to the formula
W = Fb.
According to the recently discussed rules, all solid bodies made of homogeneous
material with lower density than water float on water, while bodies made of material
with higher density than water sink to the ground.
Thinking about particular data of the table in Figure 1, the conclusion can be drawn
that the rules can be expanded to immiscible fluids, instead of solid bodies. Thus,
petrol and paraffin oil float on water. However, in this particular case the rule that
fluids find their own level is applicable. Accordingly, the floating fluid will expand on
the bearing fluid, as far as it is permitted by the free surface of the bearing fluid.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 5
Archimedes’ principle, also, holds true for cases where large amounts of fluid
displacement is achieved by solids in particular shape and design. A prime example
of floating achieved through the shape of a body are ships made of steel.
They are designed to displace a large water volume by the shape of their hull and,
irrespective of being mostly made of steel, the ship’s body includes plenty ’empty’
space and, therefore, they are carried by water, due to the basic fact that the weight
equals the buoyant force, although the density of steel is approximately eight times
the density of water.
A balloon filled with hot (expanded) air or gas of low density (hydrogen or helium) will
rise in the atmosphere for the same reason. The weight of the balloon filled with a
low--density gas is less than the buoyant force on it caused by the displaced denser
air.
2.2.4.4 Nature of Fluids
Basic Definitions
A fluid is a substance that can flow. Hence, the term fluid includes liquids and gases.
In contrast to solid bodies, which have a definite volume and shape, fluids change
their shape readily.
With respect to engineering, the essential difference between solids and fluids lies in
their different resistance to stress. Solids, at different degrees, are capable of
resisting tensile stress, compressive stress and shear stress. In contrast to that,
fluids can not resist shear stress and tensile stress at a degree which enables their
use as structural members; the fluid layers simply slide over one another, when
subjected to shear stress. It is the inability to resist sufficient shear stress which gives
the fluids the characteristic ability to change their shape and to flow.
Compressibility
The essential difference between liquids and gases lies in a distinctive difference of
compressibility. Due to the wide space between the molecules, gases can be
compressed in an enclosure to a fraction of their former volume, even down to
liquefaction. In contrast to gases, liquids are nearly incompressible and, in this
respect, the liquids resemble the solids.
For normal engineering purposes, compressibility of liquids and associated increase

of density are neglected.
2.2.4.5 Viscosity
The terms used for the resistance of a fluid to be deformed or to change its shape
are consistency or viscosity, where viscosity is the technical term, because means
have been found to assign exact units and values to various grades of viscosity.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 6
Experience tells us, that there exist countless viscosity degrees. Thus, the liquids,
water, engine oil, honey and coal--tar are listed in the order of rising viscosity. If an
equal amount of each of these liquids would be poured on different places of an
even, impermeable surface they would show different fluidity, in that they cover a
different area within the same time. Thus, a high viscous or highly consistent fluid
shows little fluidity, while the low viscous or little consistent fluid shows high fluidity.
Substance Dynamic Viscos- Dynamic Fluidity

ity h20 [P] 1/h20 [1/P]
Air 1.81 × 10 --3 552
Water 10 --2 100

Alcohol (Ethanol) 1.2 × 10 --2 83
Lubricating Oil, thick 3.5 to 30 0.29 to 0.03
If the viscosity of a fluid is a linear function of the gradient of shear stress over the
velocity gradient, the fluid is called a Newtonian fluid.
An ideal or perfect liquid is a hypothetical liquid which is incompressible and offers no

resistance to shear and, therefore, has zero viscosity and infinitive fluidity.
The essential difference between engineering fluid mechanics and physics at public
school level lies in the fact that, in the public school, fluid mechanics has been taught
under neglection of viscosity. The respective laws of physics are applicable for
solving engineering problems in conjunction with static fluids. However, in many fluid
flow problems, highly incorrect results are obtained if viscosity is neglected.
2.2.4.6 One--Dimensional Flow
Refer to Figure 5.
A tube of flow can be imagined as the flowing contents of a pipe section. In case of a
perfect fluid, the flux in this pipe section is laminar under all conditions of flow speed
v, due to the absence of shear stress. The flux of a perfect fluid is given the name
non--viscous flow. The result of non--viscous flow is laminar flow or streamline flow.
A streamline is defined as a line which is coincident with the path of a certain fluid
particle within a stream. Laminar flow is defined as the flow in which the streamlines
remain distinct from one another over their entire length.
With respect to streamlines and flux strings of the elementary cross sections dA
surrounding the streamlines, a tube of flow can be considered as a bundle of flux
strings. Thus, the tube of flow may be part of a larger stream and independent of a
hull, like a pipe.
In the given case, the tube of flow is limited by the control surfaces A1 and A2, each
of them holding the same number of flux strings. Fluid flow is analyzed as it passes
through the control surfaces under steady flow conditions, i.e., the properties of the
fluid are considered as it enters the control surface A1 and as it leaves the control
surface A2.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 7
Steady flow conditions require that the fluid velocity v, at any given point, is constant.
That is, at a given point, the velocity of each passing fluid particle is always the same
in a steady flow.
One--dimensional flow requires that the control surfaces are erected perpendicular to
the respective velocity vectors v1 and v2.
Under the above stipulated conditions, two basic types of equations are obtained, the
flow continuity equations and the energy equations, as follows:
With respect to conversion of mass, the mass flow continuity equation states that the
rate of mass flow m entering the control surface 1 must equal the mass flow rate
leaving the control surface 2:
m = A 1 ⋅ v 1 ⋅ Ã 1 = A 2 ⋅ v 2 ⋅ Ã 2 = constant,
where A stands for the size of the control surface area, v stands for the fluid velocity,
ρ for the fluid density.
From the mass flow continuity equation, the formula for volumetric flow rate V can be
derived by cancelling the symbols for the density:
V = A 1 ⋅ v 1 = A 2 ⋅ v 2 = constant
This formula is preferred in cases of constant density, i.e., in cases of flowing liquids
or incompressible fluids.
This formula is preferred in cases of constant density, i.e., in cases of flowing liquids
or incompressible fluids.
The energy equation states that the energy entering the control surface 1 must equal
the energy leaving the control surface 2. Three forms of mechanical energy are
considered,
m⋅p
V the pressure energy Ep = Ã
m ⋅ v2
V the kinetic energy, Ek =
2
V the potential energy Eh = m ⋅ h ⋅ g
The rules of conversion of energy and mass require that
Ep1 + Ek1 + Eh1 = Ep2 + Ek2 + Eh2 = constant
With respect to mass flow passing any control surface in the flow tube range, the
following power equation is applicable:
m ⋅ p m ⋅ v2
Ã + + m ⋅ h ⋅ g = constant
2
The latter equation provides power results in Watts ’W’.
If in the latter equation m is replaced by the mass m, the results of the equation are
given in energy units Joules ’J’, Newton metres ’Nm’ or Watt seconds ’Ws’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 8
A formula that provides energy per unit volume in J/m3 or pressure energy in N/m2 is
obtained by dividing all summands of the power formula through mass flow rate m
over density ρ. This provides the Bernoulli equation in the original form:
v2 ⋅ Ã
p+ + h ⋅ Ã ⋅ g = constant
2
For engineering purposes, the Bernoulli equation is used in the majority of cases to
provide energy per unit weight or energy as head in metres. This equation is
obtained by dividing the individual summands of the power equation through the
mass flow rate and the gravitational constant:
p v2
Ã ⋅ g + 2g + h = constant
In this form of the Bernoulli equation, the first summand is named the pressure head,
the second summand is named the velocity head and the third summand the head of
location or of level. The sum of pressure head and head of location is the static head.
2.2.4.7 Flow Measurement

Pitot tubes, detail a) of Figure 6, serve to measure local or point velocities within a
stream. They operate on the principle of converting impact pressure or dynamic
pressure pdyn into static pressure at the immersed opening of the Pitot tube. This
pressure increase is indicated as liquid column height ’h’.
In the simplest case, a Pitot tube consists of an L--shaped glass tube with engraved
scale. Such a device can be used to measure the flow velocity in an open liquid
stream, as shown by the figure on the LH side of Figure 6, detail a).
In each case of known fluid velocity and size of the respective control surface, the
flow can be calculated with aid of the continuity equations. However, in case the
velocity is determined with aid of a Pitot tube, it may be necessary to measure at
several spots of the stream, to determine the medium velocity from a velocity profile
of the flow section, as the Pitot tube repeats point pressure.
To measure wind velocity, the L--shaped glass tube is extended by a U--tube with
measuring liquid charge of the density ρM, as shown on the RH side of detail a). The
U--tube serves for indicating the height of the liquid column resulting from the air
stream impact on the hydraulic lock.
The air density ρ changes under ambient pressure and dampness conditions.
A special version of the Pitot tube is the reversed Pitot tube, also known as Pito-
meter. This version is used with one pressure opening facing upstream and the other
one facing downstream. This arrangement indicates a liquid column height of
approximately 1.4 times the height shown by a standard Pitot tube and, therefore,
permits measuring low flow velocities with greater accuracy, by a better resolution.
In contrast to the Pitot tubes, a Venturi tube, detail b) of Figure 6, serves for
measuring the medium velocity.
The Venturi tube increases fluid velocity within a downstream constriction and,
therefore, converts the ratios of dynamic energy and pressure energy within two
control sections of a pipe. The pressure difference before and after conversion is
indicated as liquid column height ’h’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 9
With aid of the Prandtl tube or Pitot static tube shown in the arrangement of detail c)
of Figure 6, dynamic pressure pdyn, static pressure pstat and total pressure ptot can
be measured as local values. Under total pressure, the sum of dynamic pressure and
static pressure must be understood.
Basically, the Prandtl tube consist of two concentric arranged tubes. The inner tube is
a normal Pitot tube with pick--up opening. The outer tube is streamline tapered
towards this pick--up opening and welded or brazed to the inner tube. The outer tube
is provided with four to eight small, circumferential arranged bores as pick-up for the
static pressure. The static pressure is transmitted via the compartment between the
outer tube and the inner tube to the respective U--tubes.
As mentioned before, liquid column instruments are the most precise and reliable
instruments, if properly used and designed. In case a U--tube with connection to the
atmosphere is employed, they can be used only in low pressure systems (to reduce
instrument size) and in systems that are not subject to erratic pressure changes (to
prevent sudden acceleration of the fluid and consequential spilling of it).
The U--tube shown in the Venturi measuring arrangement may be designed to

sustain high static pressure. However, this arrangement would be equally liable to
depletion of measuring fluid, in case the distance between the pipe and the measur-
ing liquid is not sufficient. By employing Bourdon tube instruments, the range of
application of the recently discussed meters can be expanded.
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 10
Substances g/cm3 kg/m3
Platinum 21 21 × 103
Gold 19 19 × 103
Mercury 14 14 × 103
Lead 11 11 × 103
Steel 7.9 7.9 × 103
Average density of the 5.5 5.5 × 103

earth
Glass, brick, stone: 2.6 2.6 × 103

approximately
Water [4 °C] 1.0 1.0 × 103
Ice [0 °C] 0.92 920
Alcohol, petrol, paraffin oil 0.8 800
Oak wood 0.65 650
Cork 0.24 240
Expanded polystyrene 16 × 10 --3 16
Air (at sea level) 1.3 × 10 --3 1.3

A 8293 B
Figure 1 Densities of Some Common Substances
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 11
Liquid surfaces all at the same level
A 8340
Figure 2 A Liquid Finds Its Own Level
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 12
Pressure
increases Pressure acts in all directions
with
depth
A 8339
Figure 3 Pressure in Liquids Acts in All

Directions
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 13
a) Pressure profile and geometrical conditions
h2 h1 p1
A1
A1 = A2 = A
A2
p2
b) Effective free body diagram
F1 = p1 ⋅ A
F1
Fb F2
B 0607 B
F2 = p2 ⋅ A
Figure 4 Details to the Buoyant Force of an

Object Immersed in a Fluid
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 14
Tube of flow
A 7345
Streamlines v
dA2
ds
A2
Flux string
dA1
A1
Figure 5 Tube of Flow
Physics
Notes 2.2.4 (a), 2.2.4 (b) 2.2.4 - HO - 15
a) Pitot tubes
Air
h
h1 v1 v2 = 0
v1 v2 = 0
1 2
1 2
Liquid
h
b) Venturi tube ρM
1 v1 2 v2
ρM
c) Prandtl tube
h stat
htot hdyn
ptot
A 7350
pstat
Figure 6 Liquid Column Type Flowmeters
Physics
Preliminary Module 2 Thermodynamics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 1
2.3 Thermodynamics
2.3.1 Heat and Physical States of Matter
2.3.1.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
The science of thermodynamics is concerned with energy in the form of heat and
work, and the conversion of one form into the other. It is based on two laws of nature,
the first and the second law of thermodynamics.
By logical reasoning and skilful manipulation of these laws, it is possible to correlate

many of the properties of materials and to gain insight into the many chemical and
physical changes that materials have to undergo.
The First Law
The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy and energy
transfer in terms of heat and work and says:
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
The form in which energy exists can only be changed, as for example heat can be
transformed into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Heat as Energy and Work
Energy is the capacity to do work, and thus energy and work are interrelated.
Energy exists, and can be transformed into five different forms:

V light energy
V electric energy
V chemical energy
V heat energy
V mechanical energy.
In thermodynamics, heat is the energy necessary to perform work. Heat is energy

transferred between a system and its surroundings due to temperature difference.
Normally, work is defined as the application of a force through a distance. In

thermodynamics, work is defined as all other forms of energy transferred between a
system and its surroundings. Thermodynamic work can assume many forms, as for
example magnetic work, electrical work, mechanical work, etc.
To utilise the practical benefits of the knowledge that energy cannot be created and
cannot be destroyed, there must be an accounting system for energy, which is also
called the ’energy balance’. This system handles the flows of energy such as heat
and work and other various forms of energy.
A system is any portion of space or matter set aside for study and can be open or
closed. In any open system a matter can either leave or enter the system or do both,
while in a closed system no matter leaves or enters.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 2
’Matter’ is the substance that makes up the universe. Physicists and chemists have
identified and agreed upon slightly more than 100 distinct varieties of matter. These
distinct forms of matter are called ’elements’. Approx. 90 of these elements exist
naturally.
All others are produced artificially in laboratories. An element is a substance that
cannot be decomposed into any simpler substances by chemical process. Sub-
stances, whether living or non living, are composed of elements in various propor-
tions and combinations.
For example, water is the fundamental nature of elements. It is a combination of two
elements, namely oxygen and hydrogen. Water can be reduced chemically to these
two component elements, but no chemical process can further reduce the elements.
The Second Law
While the first law does not take into account energy limits during a conversion, the
second law is concerned with these limits to the conversion of heat into work, as for
example in internal combustion engines.
When heat is converted into mechanical work, not all the heat removed from a
heated reservoir is converted into work. The output is always lower than the input.
This is illustrated by Lord kelvin’s statement who said: ’It is impossible to perform a
process whose sole result is the conversion of heat into an equivalent amount of
work.’
The conclusion of this fact is the second law of thermodynamics which says:
Heat cannot be completely converted into another form of energy.
This leads to another thermodynamic property called ’entropy’.
Entropy is a measure of the thermal energy in a system which is not available for the
conversion into work and therefore not able to perform work. Because energy cannot
be considered to be lost, the entropy explains the where--abouts of this energy.
2.3.1.2 Nature of Heat and Temperature

As already explained, heat is a form of energy and can be converted into mechanical
energy, in the same way as mechanical energy can be converted into heat.
Heat is a form of energy. This energy is transferred between a system and the
surroundings.
Temperature is an aid to measure the intensity of heat.
Note: Temperature is the initial state of a body. It can be sensed, and is measured in
degrees Celsius ( ˚C) or Fahrenheit (˚F) or in kelvin (K). Heat actually is a
measure of the quantity of heat in a body. It depends on the mass of the body, its
material and its temperature. Heat is measured in joules (J).
It is common to use the terms ’temperature’ and ’heat’ interchangeably. However, they
have quite different meanings in engineering, and must therefore be clearly differen-
tiated. For example, there is 6 times as much heat in 6 l of water at 80 °C as in 1 l of
water at the same temperature.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 3
Temperature Measurements
Temperatures are measured with the help of temperature scales. Temperature scales
can vary depending on the measuring units.
The most common scales have the units measured in degrees Celsius or in degrees
Fahrenheit. In physics, temperature is measured in kelvin. Kelvin is also the temperature
unit in all countries which have adopted the ISO norm (International Standardization
Organization).
Note: In the following only Celsius and kelvin will be considered.
The Celsius temperature scale deals with the water freezing point (0 °C) and the
boiling point (100 °C) at the ambient pressure of 1,013.25 hPa (atmospheric
pressure).
The kelvin temperature scale has also an origin with zero temperature but starts at a
point known as the ’absolute zero’ point. Kelvin discovered that at this point the
motions of all elementary particles had stopped and are at standstill. The particles,
called molecules, no longer have kinetic energy and cannot produce heat anymore.
The particles are so densely packed, that they have no freedom to move. The matter
is solid.
Absolute Zero
Refer to Figure 1.
The result of experiments carried out with different masses and gases at different
pressures were plotted on a volume/temperature graph. On studying the results it was
found that all the straight lines produced, if extended to the temperature line, cut the axis
at the same point.
The point zero, at which all these lines cut the axis, is the absolute zero point or 0
kelvin (K), also expressed as ’absolute temperature’. The unit of absolute tempera-
ture is kelvin. Compared to the Celsius scale, absolute zero equals --273.15 °C on
the Celsius scale. Therefore 0 °C = 273 K and 100 °C = 373 K.
Note: 1 kelvin is equivalent to 1 degree Celsius.
When temperature is stated in kelvin, as for example in a diagram, symbol T is used.

Temperature measured in degrees is represented by the symbol J.
Zero (0) kelvin is --273.15 °C which is regarded as absolute zero temperature. All
materials are in the solid state and the movements of all atoms are at standstill.
Zero (0) °C corresponds to the melting point of ice, 100 °C to the boiling point of
water at normal ambient air pressure of 1,013.25 hPa.
Heat
Heat as energy, as well as mechanical energy, is expressed with the SI unit of energy
and specific heat capacity: joule (J).
The unit ’joule’ has replaced the former unit ’calorie’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 4
Note: 1 joule≈ 0.24 calories, or 1 calorie is 4.1868 joules ≈ 4.2 joules (J).
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of material by 1 K is
called the ’specific heat capacity’ (cm) of a material.
Example: To convert 1 kg of ice at 0 °C into 1kg of water at 0 °C, 336 kJ of heat must be
supplied.
In technical literature, thermal energy may also be given in other units. The following
equivalent formulas can be used:
1 BTU = 778.21 ft lbf = 0.252 kcal = 1.05506 kJ,
where:
BTU = British thermal unit
ft lbf = foot per pound force
kcal = kilocalorie
kJ = kilojoule.
Thermal Expansion
Refer to Figure 2.
Modern physics interprets temperature and heat levels as kinetic energy levels of
elementary particles. The table in Figure 2 gives the general tendencies associated
with the solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter.
This volumetric expansion is comparatively small in solids, but greater in liquids and
very much greater in gases. If temperature drops, the bodies contract at the same
ratio.
Solids
In solids, volumetric expansion is measured in one direction only, as linear expansion

per 1 kelvin temperature increase, and specified as the mean coefficient of linear
expansion.
Example: For every 1 K of temperature increase, steel expands by approx. 12 of

1, 000, 000
its length.
Aluminium expands per 1 K temperature increase by approx. 24 of its

1, 000, 000
length.
Thermal expansion or contraction occurs when heat is added or removed from
material, respectively. Dimensional changes due to heat transfer must be taken into
account in engineering. Steam pipes must be provided with expansion joints.
Tanks must be provided with breathing, expansion and/or other safety devices. When
laying rails and building bridges, a certain amount of free space is left at joints, and
one bearing is designed to rest on rollers or slides, so that dimensional changes will
not cause undue strains.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 5
The following formula is applicable to the change of length, ∆l12:
∆l 12 = α m12 ⋅ l 1 ⋅ ∆J 21,
where:
am12 = mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion in the range of DJ12 (the
mean coefficient is the average coefficient)
l1 = original length
DÂ21 = Â2 -- Â1 = temperature change in degrees Celsius (1/°C), with
Â2 = final temperature
Â1 = original temperature.
The conditions of heating or cooling a body, or the resultant signs of the physical
magnitudes marked by the Greek letter ∆, determine whether the body is expanding
or shrinking and symbolise the difference between these 2 conditions.
Thermal expansion coefficients can be taken from manufacturers’ pamphlets or from
engineering handbooks. Normally, expansion coefficients are positive; that means
the materials expand on heating. However, there exist a few substances with
negative expansion coefficients in some temperature ranges, for instance, water and
rubber.
Similar formulas can be applied to changes of area, volume and density. However, in
a given case, expansion coefficients have to be adopted in accordance with the
number of changing dimensions.
The coefficient of linear expansion a is the increase in unit length per degree
temperature rise.
The coefficient of area expansion b (2--dimensional) is the increase in unit area per
degree temperature rise.
The coefficient of volume expansion g (3--dimensional) is the increase in unit volume
per degree temperature rise.
A close proximation is: b=2⋅a
g = 3 ⋅ a.
Special measures are needed if machine components are made from materials with
very different coefficients of thermal expansion, and which have to work together in
very hot conditions.
This is the case, for example, when light alloy pistons of internal combustion engines
run in cast iron cylinder liners. Tapered ring zones, steel stripes, cast into the skirts,
etc. are methods of compensating for expansion.
Liquids
The volumetric expansion of liquids is usually significantly greater than that of solids.
It is particularly high in the case of gasoline (petrol) which increases in volume by
approx. 1 %o for each degree of temperature rise.
Water is a special case. The volume of water decreases in the heating range from 0
°C to 4 °C. The density of water is therefore greatest at 4 °C.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 6
Gases
In the case of gases, the thermal expansion coefficient is nearly constant, irrespec-
tive of the kind of gas. This rule is derived from Charles’s law. Charles’s law, also
called Gay--Lussac’s law, is based on the statement that the volume of a given mass
of gas increases by approx. 1/273 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius
temperature rise, subject to the condition that the pressure of the gas is kept
constant.
Note: Charles’s law will be discussed in more detail in the following Chapter.
2.3.1.3 Gas Expansion and Compression
Refer to Figure 3.
Gas Pressure and Gas Volume
Gas pressure and gas volume have a direct relationship. This was discovered by the
Irish scientist Sir Robert Boyle.
Boyle’s Law
If, at a constant temperature, the gas pressure increases by a certain proportion, the
gas volume decreases in inverse proportion, and vice versa.
p V
This law results in the formula: p 1 = 2 .
2 V1
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the changes in gas volume and in gas
pressure.
Example: In an oxygen cylinder, 6,000 l of oxygen are compressed from 1 bar to 1 of the
150
original volume, i.e. to 40 l. The final pressure will then be 150 times the initial
pressure, i.e. 150 bar.
If the volume becomes greater, the gas expands to fill the available space and its
pressure reduces. If gas pressure was originally the same as air pressure, a positive
gauge pressure results if the volume is reduced, and a negative gauge pressure if
the volume is increased.
Note: Vacuum always introduces a potential suction effect.
Air pressure always tries to eliminate a vacuum. Either air or liquid on which air
pressure is exerted will flow into the vacuum zone. This process is called ’suction’.
Expansion and Compression
Refer to Figure 4.
In combination with heat, gases expand considerably more than liquids.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 7
Boyle’s experiments dealt solely with the effects of pressure and volume. He did not
consider the effect of temperature. The influence of temperature on gas behaviour
was first explored by the French scientist Jacques Charles, while Gay--Lussac later
published Charles’s work. The gas law therefore is named after both as Charles’s
law, or also Gay--Lussac law.
Charles’s Law
The amount of change in either volume or pressure of a given gas volume is directly
proportional to the change in the absolute temperature.
Stated in another way the law says: if the pressure of a gas is kept constant within a
container, the volume of the gas increases as the temperature increases. If the
volume remains constant, the pressure increases when the temperature increases.
Figure 4 detail a), shows the volumetric expansion of gases at a constant pressure
(isobaric condition). At a constant pressure, all gases have the same coefficient of
volumetric expansion.
At 0 °C, this is 1 of the volume per degree of temperature increase.

273
Given as a formula, the following applies:
V J = V0 (1 + γ ⋅ J) = V0 (1 + 1 ⋅ J).
273 °C
Index ’J’ denotes the volume at a given Celsius temperature, index ’0’ denotes the
volume at 0 °C, and, obviously, the thermal expansion coefficient of gas amounts to
1/273 °C.
Charles’s law is applicable over a wide temperature range. By adopting indices 1 and 2,
for initial and final states, the following ratio formula applies:
K
V1 Â 1 ⋅ °C + 273 K T
= = 1.
V2 K
Â ⋅ + 273 K T2
2 °C
Note: The capital letter T is the formula symbol of the thermodynamic temperature and
K is the symbol of the respective Kelvin temperature unit.
Figure 4, detail b), shows, how pressure builds up if an increase in volume is
prevented (isochoric condition). If an increase in volume is prevented while heating,
the pressure will increase instead.
By comparing temperature nominators and denominators in the above given formula,
it becomes evident that the relations between Kelvin and Celsius temperatures are
subject to the formula
T = J ⋅ K + 273 K, J = T ⋅ °C − 273 °C.

°C K
Absolute zero, in terms of the conventional Celsius scale units, can be found by
adopting T = 0 K in the last formula, which provides
J = 0 K ⋅ °C − 273 °C = − 273 °C.

K
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 8
Refer to Figure 5.
Figure 5 shows the pressure increase caused by compression. On compression,
heat is generated by internal friction in the gas. Compression means a reduction in
volume, and therefore causes heat to build up.
If these 2 processes are considered as taking place in succession during compres-
sion, the volume reduction can be regarded as having caused an increase in
pressure. A further increase in pressure takes place because the resulting heat
cannot cause expansion (increase in volume).
When expansion takes place, an increase in volume also results in a cooling effect,
which, in turn, leads to a drop in pressure.
2.3.1.4 Heat Gained or Lost, Involving Temperature Changes

The amount of heat gained or lost, ∆Q12, when a substance of certain mass
undergoes a temperature change -- not involving a change of aggregation state, or
chemical state -- is given by the equation
∆Q 12 = m ⋅ c m ⋅ ∆T 21,
where:
m = mass of the substance
cm = mean (average) specific heat capacity of the material in the tempera-
ture range DT
DT21 = T2 -- T1 = temperature difference of the substance, with T2 = final
temperature and T1 = initial temperature of the substance.
Again, as in the case of dimensional changes of a body, the conditions of heating or
cooling a body, or the resultant signs of the physical magnitudes in formula applica-
tion, determine whether the body gains or loses heat.
If ’cm’ is isolated from the equation, it becomes evident that ’specific heat’ can be
associated with the heat necessary to change a unit mass of a substance by one
temperature unit degree. In other words, the explanation of specific heat is:
Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise a temperature of 1
kg of a substance by 1 kelvin.
Principally, specific heat capacities are a function of temperature. They vary with
temperature. Required values can be taken from engineering handbooks.
Where specific heat is determined by a certain DJ, or a very small temperature
increment, the mean specific heat is said to be the true specific heat, hence cm = c.
True specific heat capacities can only be used with sufficient accuracy in a limited
temperature range, which depends on the degree of its variation with temperature.
Refer to Figure 6.
Figure 6 shows a bar chart of the specific heat capacity of various substances at 20
°C. The diagram shows that water has an exceedingly greater specific heat than the
metals. Even air exceeds the specific heat of aluminium, the metal with the largest
specific heat capacity given in the bar chart. This, beside the abundant availability of
air and water, explains why these media are utilised in so many thermodynamic
processes, particularly for cooling purposes and in processes involving combustion.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 9
The heat capacity of water is only exceeded by oils, fats and some salt solutions. For
this reason, engine oil is the proper medium to remove heat from engine parts that
are so hot that water would evaporate under atmospheric pressure conditions.
In the case of gases, a distinction must be made between the specific heat at a
constant pressure cp, and the specific heat at a constant volume cV. Thus, in the
case of gases, 2 versions of the previously discussed formula are applicable:
for p = constant: ∆Q 12 = m ⋅ c pm ⋅ ∆T 21
for V = constant: ∆Q 12 = m ⋅ c vm ⋅ ∆T 21.
Liquids and solids are regarded as incompressible and they only change a little in
volume, when heated. That is, the specific heat capacities given for liquids and solids
in engineering handbooks can be used with good results, irrespective of whether
they are given with the index ’p’ or ’V’.
2.3.1.5 Conditions at Phase Changes
Conversion of a material from a solid into a liquid state is described as ’melting’.

Conversion from a liquid into a gaseous state is called ’evaporation’.
Melting of a solid takes place at a definite conversion temperature, the melting point.
The quantity of heat which must be supplied when the melting point has been reached
before melting actually takes place, is called ’melting heat’. It acts only as conversion
heat, without increasing the temperature and is quoted in kJ/kg.
Evaporation of a liquid takes place at the boiling temperature (boiling point). The
quantity of heat required for evaporation, which must be supplied when the boiling
point has been reached, is called ’evaporation heat’. It serves to convert the liquid
into a gaseous state and is also quoted in kJ/kg.
When a melted mass solidifies or a gas recondenses into liquid, the same amount of
heat as that previously needed for conversion is released again.
Phase changes, in the given case, must be understood as changes from an existing
solid, liquid or gaseous state into another state of the named alternatives. These
changes are known as ’changes of the aggregation state’.
Refer to Figure 7.
Figure 7, detail a), shows the effect of heat changes on a pure substance under
constant--pressure conditions. The diagram makes evident that it is possible to add
heat to a substance without raising its temperature. In the diagram, the heat added
during phase changes is marked by the performance curve sections hf and hv, the
significant, constant temperatures to the phase changes are marked by Âf and Âv.
Note: The designations ’hf’ and ’hv’ represent the specific latent heats of the substance
under observation.
For example, when a block of ice is slowly heated at the standard pressure of 1 atm
and at the melting or fusion temperature Jf = 0 °C, it changes into water at 0 °C. The
temperature of the ice and water mixture will not change before all ice is molten, and
the temperature of water will only increase after this has happened.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 10
As water boils, the temperature no longer rises. During boiling, as long as there is
water present, it is impossible to increase the temperature of the water or the
produced steam. Steam evolved under these conditions is known as ’saturated
steam’. Saturated steam stands for ’wet steam’ which still contains water droplets. If
saturated steam, in the absence of water, is further heated, it is known as ’super-
heated steam’. This steam is a dry steam which has no contents of water droplets in
any way.
The statements above show 3 distinct phases:
Phase 1: Water temperature increases to saturation temperature: the energy

required to produce this temperature rise is called ’liquid enthalpy’.
Phase 2: All the water changes into steam. The energy required to produce this
total change from all water into steam is ’enthalpy of evaporation’.
Phase 3: The saturated steam is further heated. The amount of energy added
during the superheat phase is called the ’superheat enthalpy’.
Note: The term ’enthalpy’ denotes the total thermodynamic heat content of a system
under actual conditions.
According to the diagram in Figure 7, detail a), a certain amount of heat is required to
obtain a phase change. This quantity of heat is referred to as ’heat of fusion’, Hf, or
’heat of vaporisation’, Hv, respectively.
The term ’latent heat’ is used for fusion and vaporisation heat, because it does not
show in temperature changes, and because it can rule reversible processes.
Note: ’Latent heat’ is the heat required to change the state of mass of a substance from
solid into liquid or from liquid into gaseous without changing temperature.
For instance, fusion heat absorbed by a substance on melting, must be removed

from the substance during cooling, and the heat invested for the generation of
saturated steam can be recovered by liquefaction, or condensation. The latter
process may be employed to control the terminal pressure for a steam turbine, for
instance.
Latent heats, Hf and Hv, can be calculated with the aid of the specific latent heats hf
and hv shown in Figure 7, detail a). The following formulas are applicable to a given
mass ’m’:
Hf = m ⋅ hf
H v = m ⋅ h v.
Specific latent heats can be obtained from engineering handbooks. Particularly in the
case of water, they are found by the evaluation of steam tables.
Figure 7, detail b), shows the phase diagram of water in a pressure/ temperature
diagram. It is believed that similar diagrams can be developed for all substances. By
the example of water, the given diagram makes evident that solid phase, liquid phase
and vapour phase of a substance depend on temperature and pressure.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 11
Limiting curve Ι determines the equilibrium conditions (temperature and pressure

conditions) for the coexistence of ice and water. Generally, this curve is referred to as
’fusion curve’.
For marking respective pressure and temperature pairs, the attribute ’fusion’ is used.
However, subject to cooling conditions, also the attribute ’solidification’ may be used
to distinguish respective terms.
Limiting curve ΙΙ, the vapour curve, determines the equilibrium conditions for the
coexistence of liquid and saturated steam. For similar reasons as discussed in the
case of the fusion curve, the attributes ’liquefaction’ or ’condensation’ may be used
instead of vapour.
Limiting curve ΙΙΙ determines the equilibrium conditions for the coexistence of ice and
saturated steam. Conversion from solid state into gaseous condition and vice versa
is named ’sublimation’.
Accordingly, this curve is referred to as ’sublimation curve’. Sublimation involves

respective latent heats of sublimation for changes under equilibrium conditions.
However, this is rarely an engineering problem, as the standard thermodynamic
process requires a flowing medium.
Curves Ι, ΙΙ and ΙΙΙ meet in the triple point (TP). Under the invariant equilibrium
conditions determined by the triple point, substances can exist in all 3 states of
matter, side by side, and it requires only a minute pressure, temperature or
absorbed heat change to alter the existing equilibrium determined by the triple
point.
The critical point (CP) limits the vapour curve toward higher temperatures and
pressures. Beyond the critical point, steam cannot be liquefied by increase in
pressure. While steam at a temperature of 100 °C, for example, can be liquefied by a
pressure increase beyond 1 atm, liquefaction is no longer possible by a pressure
increase at and above the critical temperature.
’Mixed phase’ is a term used to describe the mutual coexistence of solid, liquid and
gaseous matter. Accordingly, the limiting curves Ι, ΙΙ and ΙΙΙ, which determine the
equilibrium conditions for the mixed phases, may be referred to as ’mixed--phase
limit curves’.
With respect to curves Ι and ΙΙ, the previously discussed phase changes of water
are ruled by the 1--atm isobaric curve and the respective limits 0 °C and 100 °C.
The diagram makes evident that this is a special (although not uncommon) case,
due to the standard atmospheric pressure, as the liquid--phase limiting curves
divert toward higher equilibrium values and convert toward lower equilibrium
values.
Note: In the case of technical gases, the term ’vapour’ has the same meaning as
’saturated steam’ has in the case of water. The term ’gas’, generally, has the
same meaning as ’superheated steam’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 12
2.3.1.6 Gas Laws
Basic Gas Laws
The state of a gas can be described with its basic variables, pressure P, volume V
and temperature T. The basic variables are the variables that can be directly
measured with the aid of conventional instruments.
V Charles’s law: V/T = constant,
which is applicable to isobaric or constant--pressure conditions
V Charles’s law: p/T = constant,
which is applicable to isochoric or constant--volume conditions
V Boyle’s law: p×V = constant,
which is applicable to isothermal or constant--temperature conditions.
The above given gas laws include the specific volume ’v’ and must be applied to an
invariable gas mass. This indicates that Boyle’s law, as well as Charles’s law, can be
altered to include volume V, density ρ (rho), and mass m. The low--case letter ’v’ can
be replaced by the respective capital letter in the formulas. Further modifications are
possible with the aid of the formulas
ρ=m
V
1= V.
ρ m
Additionally, the basic gas laws can be used to determine changing conditions of
state. To this end, the variables of the formulas are marked by appending indices to
show initial, final and intermediate states.
For example, applied to Boyle’s law, p1 × V1 = p2 × V2 = pn × Vn. The gas mass, as it is

invariable from state 1 to state n, would not get an index number.
The basic gas laws can be combined in a single formula, which is known as the
’equation of state’:
p⋅V
= constant.
T
Refer to Figure 8.
The equation of state can be proved by a simple experiment, by reasoning and by

applying a few mathematical operations, as shown in Figure 8. The procedure
involves
a) creation of isobaric conditions
b) application of the first version of Charles’s law
c) establishment of isothermal conditions and application of Boyle’s law.
The mathematical link between the steps is given by the volume marked as V’
(Vee--stroke), which -- determined by Charles’s law in b) replaces the same magni-
tude ruled by Boyle’s law in c).
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 13
The equation of state contains all measurable variables initially stipulated for a gas.
Therefore, it describes the physical state of a gas completely (the only missing detail
is the energy status, which is indirectly given by the temperature).
Perfect Gas Law
By replacing the ’constant’ in the equation of state by a constant with the symbol ’R’,
we obtain the perfect gas formula, which is
p ⋅ V = R ⋅ T where
’R’ is the specific gas constant, the magnitude of which is a constant for all gases
having the same chemical formula.
Note: Specific gas constants, also, can be obtained from technical handbooks.
The perfect gas formula expresses mathematically what the ’perfect gas law’, also
called ’ideal gas law’, states namely that the perfect gas (or: ideal gas) is an
abstraction with molecules of zero size, which follows the perfect gas formula through
all temperature and pressure ranges. Gases which follow this law with almost perfect
precision are called ’noble gases’, like helium and neon.
The ideal gas law is represented by one of the most versatile formulas of physics.
Subject to the side conditions of an engineering problem, it can be manipulated to
obtain Charles’s law, Boyle’s law, the equation of state and to contain physical
magnitudes related to specific volume, so that quite a number of formulas can be
derived from it.
Ideal gas is assumed not to change its state into liquid or solid and has therefore a
single value of specific volume for every pressure at constant temperature. Another
characteristic of an ideal gas is that its internal energy (U) does not change with volume
at constant temperature.
V = constant and to V 1 = V 2 .
T T1 T2
p p p
= constant and to 1 = 2 .
T T1 T2
p ⋅ V = constant and to p 1 ⋅ V 1 = p 2 ⋅ V 2.
p⋅V p ⋅ V1 p ⋅ V2
= constant and to 1 = 2 .
T T1 T2
Ideal gas does not exist in reality. Non--ideal gases, of course, condense into liquid in
certain pressure/temperature ranges and change into solids in others.
Due to the fact that pressure, volume and temperature influence each other,
guaranteed performance data of compressors, boilers and other technical plants are
often given for STP conditions, as a unique basis for the comparison of plant
performance.
Note: The short code STP stands for ’standard temperature and pressure’, which are
JS = 0 °C, pS = 1 atm = 760 Torr = 1,013.25 hectopascal (hPa).
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 14
Accordingly, calculation of the performance data under the specific conditions of a

designed plant location is left to the planning engineer, and the perfect gas law
formula is one of the essential tools required for calculating the adapted perform-
ance.
Mixture of Gases
Another law concerning gas pressures but in connection with mixed gases is Dalton’s
law, which says:
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of the individual gases making up the mixture.
In other words: each gas acts as if it alone were present and occupied the total
volume.
When gases mix, they become diffused. Even gases with different molecular weights
and sizes will mix evenly within the mixture. This phenomenon is explained with their
constant state of motion. Still, each gas will continue to demonstrate its own
behaviour under pressure and acts independently of the others.
A good example is air. Air is a mixture of 21 % oxygen, 78 % nitrogen and 1 % of a

combination of argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium, krypton, radon and
xenon. The last 1 % is too rare to be considered and can be ignored. It is normally
adequate to consider 79 % nitrogen instead.
As already discussed, at sea level air has a density to produce an ambient pressure
of approx. 1 atm (≙ 1,013.25 hPa). This pressure is also called ’atmospheric
pressure’. The pressure will change with the density of air.
Dalton’s law simply says, that 21 % of the total pressure of the air gas mixture will be
exerted by oxygen molecules and 79 % of the total pressure will be exerted by
nitrogen molecules.
Assuming that the total pressure exerted by the gases is 1 bar, then oxygen is
responsible for 0.21 bar, and nitrogen is responsible for 0.79 bar of the total
pressure.
For instance, if the pressure were doubled to 2 bar with no further gas being added,
then, according to Boyle’s law, the volume would be halved. The mixture still contains
21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen.
Considering the total pressure of 2 bar, the individual pressure exerted by the oxygen
is 0.42 bar and that of the nitrogen 1.58 bar. The individual pressure is regarded as
partial pressure (pp).
Therefore, Dalton’s law can be expressed mathematically as follows:
total pressure = partial pressure A + partial pressure B + etc.
or
partial pressure A = total pressure ⋅ % volume A.
Dalton’s law can be expanded to mass ’m’, specific gas constant ’R’ and to further
physical magnitudes.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 15
The following 3 versions, given as symbolic formulas, read:

n
V p M = Σ 1 p = p 1 + p 2 + p 3 +⋅⋅⋅ p n
n
V m M = Σ 1 m = m 1 + m 2 + m 3 +⋅⋅⋅ m n
m 1R1 + m 2R 2 +⋅⋅⋅ Rnm n
R M = m1
n
V Σ1 R ⋅ m = mM .
M
Index M stands for the gas mixture, and each numerical index is assigned to a gas of
different chemical formula.
The latter formula permits to calculate the specific gas constant of dry air, RA, in case
only the specific gas constants of oxygen, RO, and of nitrogen, RN, are available. Air
consists of 21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen, approximately. These data include the
ratios of mO/mM = 0.21 and mN/mM = 0.79. Accordingly, the above formula can be
reduced to
RA = 0.21 ⋅ RO + 0.79 ⋅ RN.
By the application of higher mathematics and thermodynamic formulas, it can be

proved that the specific gas constant is a function of the specific heat capacities of
the respective gas. The relationship is subject to the formula
cp -- cV = R.
The specific gas constants are always positive. Therefore, this formula makes
evident that the specific heat of a gas at a constant pressure is always greater than
the specific heat at constant volume.
Considering that the specific heat capacities had been used to calculate the heat
added and heat removed from a substance, the latter formula also shows that the
specific gas constant determines the energy level of a given gas mass ’m’. This
becomes even more apparent by using a unit equation in conjunction with the perfect
gas formula in the following form:
p ⋅ V = m ⋅ R ⋅ T.
Let ’m’ be a unit mass, let T be a unit K and let R be a unit specific gas constant,
where the latter is given in kJ/(kg K). Then the perfect gas formula, written as unit
equation for the right--hand expression, changes to
p ⋅ V = kg ⋅ kJ ⋅ K = kJ.
kg K
The unit equation, additionally, shows that the products of pressure and volume
result in magnitudes with energy units, and that the perfect gas formula, as used in
the latter form, basically is an energy balance formula, in the same way as the
formula ∆Q = m ⋅ c ⋅ ∆T turned out to be an energy balance formula.
The application of the perfect gas formula to real technical gases is subject to certain
limits. Particularly at higher pressures, the attraction of gas molecules is increasing
and, therefore, a discrepancy between state changes according to the perfect gas
fromula can be detected. Real gases and the perfect gas law are, therefore, given
the attribute ’ideal’ instead of ’perfect’.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 16
For the majority of technical applications of the ideal gas law, the initial and final
process conditions are determined by ambient temperature and pressure, i.e. near
the STP condition that serves as basis for the determination of the gas constant of
technical gases like air, oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2).
Therefore, the perfect gas law can be used to determine state variations with
excellent results, if changes of state do not vary excessively from ambient conditions.
The discrepancy given in pressure and volume variation is approx. 1 % for changes
from below STP conditions to 20 bar. Above this limit, the discrepancy increases with
rising temperature and pressure. To deal with such cases, the design engineer uses
correction factors and special formulas. However, for the practising engineer, the
accuracy resulting from the perfect gas law is normally sufficient for most purposes.
Refer to Figure 9.
Figure 9 gives a summary of common units used in thermodynamics.
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 17
B 7657
Absolute 0 T
Figure 1 Absolute Zero Point Diagram
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 18
Properties Solid Liquid Gaseous
Arrangement
of
particles
Regular, in case Irregular Irregular

of crystalline
structure
Particle motions Particles Irregular Free to move,

associated with oscillate about motions, occasional
temperature a fixed position, many collisions
maximum of collisions
collisions
Particle 10 --7 10 --5 to 10 --6 10 --4

distance, mm at ambient pressure
strongly dependent
on pressure
Kinetic Low Low to medium High

energy of
particles
Cohesive force High Low, Minimal,

between collection of mass practically
particles through surface non--existent
A 8556 A
tension
Figure 2 Nature of Heat, Microscopic View
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 19
V 1= 1
1
dm3 V 2= 1
6
dm3
p 1= 1
1 bar p 2= 6 bar
1
1
6
1
1
B 3224
Figure 3 Relationship between Gas Volume and

Gas Pressure
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 20
a) Volumetric expansion at constant pressure
V1 = 1 dm3 V2 = 2 dm3
0 °C
+273 ° C
b) Pressure increase at constant volume
p1 = 1 bar p2 = 2 bar
0 °C +273 ° C
B 3225 A
Figure 4 Pressure/Volume Dependence of

Heated Gas
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 21
B 3226 A
1 bar
compression
3
7 dm
300 ° C
p’2¶ 14
V’2= 1
Pressure Increase by Compression

heat
with
compression
dm3
bar
0 °C
without
V 2= 1
7
p 2= 7
1
heat
Figure 5
dm3
bar
0 °C
V 1= 1
1
p 1= 1
1
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 22
Air, 0.997 kJ/(kg K)
Alcohol, 2.415 kJ/(kg K)
Aluminium, 0.915 kJ/(kg K)
Brick wall, 0.921 kJ/(kg K)
Carbon, 0.854 kJ/(kg K)
Copper, 0.386 kJ/(kg K)
Wood, 2.386 kJ/(kg K)
Glass, 0.774 kJ/(kg K)
Grey cast iron, 0.540 kJ/(kg K)
Iron pure, 0.465 kJ/(kg K)
Lead, 0.128 kJ/(kg K)
Mercury, 0.137 kJ/(kg K)

B 1076
Platinum, 0.134 kJ/(kg K)
Silver, 0.236 kJ/(kg K)
Water, 4.182 kJ/(kg K)
Figure 6 Specific Heat Capacity of Various

Substances at 20 °C
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 23
a) Change of state of a pure substance in a temperature/heat diagram
hv
J C
°
Jv
hf p = constant
Jf
q J
kg
b) Change of state of water in a pressure/temperature diagram
103
Critical
102 Liquid point CP
10
Ι ΙΙ
p atm
1
10 --1 Solid
Superheated steam
10 --2
Triple point TP
10 --3
10 --4
ΙΙΙ
A 8563 B
10 --5
10 --6
--100 0 100 200 300 400
J °C
Figure 7 Characteristics of Phase Changes
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 24
a) Initial condition
Gas is enclosed by a vessel and a piston.

Friction between vessel and piston is
negligible. The variables of state are
given the indices ’1’.
2
1 3
T1 V1
p1
b) Heating at constant pressure
The gas expands in accordance with

Charles’s law, V/T = constant.
The final volume amounts to
V ⋅ T
V’ = 1 2
T1
T2 V’ 1
2
3
p1
c) Isothermal compression
The gas is compressed in accordance
with Boyle’s law, p . V = constant.
The final volume amounts to
V’⋅ p1 V1⋅ T2 p1
T2 1
2
V2 = = ⋅ , hence
3
p2 T1 p2
A 8565 A
p2 V2⋅ p2 V1⋅ p1 Vn⋅pn

V2 = = = constant
T2 T1 Tn
Figure 8 Steps Involved in the Development of

the Equation of State
Physics
Notes 2.2.3 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.3 (b) 2.3.1 - HO - 25
Designation Unit Meaning
A m2 Area
C W Radiation constant
m 2K 4
c J Specific heat capacity
kg K
H J Enthalpy (latent heat)
h J Specific enthalpy
kg
k W Heat transmission coefficient

m 2k
l m Length
m kg Mass
p N Pressure
m2
Q J Heat quantity
q J Specific heat quantity
kg
R J Specific gas constant

kg K
S J Entropy
K
s J Specific entropy
K
T K Temperature in Kelvin
U J Internal energy
u m3 Specific internal energy
kg
V m3 Volume
W J Specific work
kg
α 1 Linear expansion coefficient

K
α W Heat transfer coefficient
m 2K
γ 1 Volume expansion coefficient
K
η 1 Sphere efficiency
J ˚C Temperature in degrees Celsius
λ W Heat conductivity
mK
B 3198 B
kg
Ã Density
m3
Figure 9 Designations in Thermodynamics
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 1
2.3.2 Caloric States and Laws of Thermodynamics
2.3.2.1 Introduction
Thermodynamics is concerned with the evaluation of energy transfers. The perfect

gas law only allows to define the status of a gas with respect to the 3 variables
pressure, volume and temperature, which are the measurable variables of state.
Mathematically, such state changes can be expressed by the statement f(p, V, T),
where the low--case letter ’f’ stands for ’function’ with the changes of state depending
on the variables enclosed in the brackets.
Practically, a thermodynamic problem is approached by establishing an energy

balance for a given working substance. This requires the exact determination of the
energy status before and after process completion, and involves the definition of the
respective ’caloric states’. The latter can be defined as ’thermal energy (heat energy)
states’.
3 caloric states are known:

V internal energy
V enthalpy
V entropy.
2.3.2.2 Isochoric Process and Internal Energy
Heat quantities, added to a gas in order to achieve a certain temperature difference,

are different for gases, due to individual specific heats at constant pressure and at
constant volume. A heat change applied to a substance under isochoric conditions
results in a change of internal energy. In the case of gas or steam, the specific heat
cv is applicable, and the change of internal energy can be defined as
Q = ∆U = m ⋅ c v ⋅ (T 2 − T 1),
where:
Q = symbol of the heat change applied to the substance
DU = U2 -- U1 = m (u2 -- u1) = change of internal energy
cv = specific heat
U1 and U2 = internal energies before and after process completion
u1 and u2 = respective internal energies per kg mass.
Refer to Figure 1.
If a certain amount of gas is heated under isochoric conditions, it is not free to expand.
The basic state conditional formulas of the isochoric process are V1 = V2 = V = constant,
or DV = 0, respectively. Accordingly, the process performed between the initial condition
shown in Figure 1, detail a) and the final condition, shown in Figure 1, detail b), is an
isochoric process.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 2
To an isochoric process involving heat transfer, the heat formula
Q = ∆U = m ⋅ c v ⋅ (T 2 − T 1)
is applicable. The respective performance curve is shown in Figure 1, detail c). The
added heat is represented by a square of the size
m ⋅ c v ⋅ (T 2 − T 1).
Heat addition results in an increase in gas pressure in the vessel. The pressure rise
is from p1 to p2, as shown in Figure 1, detail d). This is subject to the formula p1/T1 =
p2/T2, in accordance with Charles’s law for constant volume. As stipulated by the
perfect gas law volume multiplied by pressure represents an energy level. Hence,
V ⋅ Dp21 = V(p2 -- p1), is a form of energy that had been added through the heat
applied to the gas.
Detail d) shows the respective pressure/volume diagram (p/V diagram) with the entered
isochoric curve. The energy added through pressure increase is represented as a
square of the size given by the formula V (p2 -- p1). This energy is marked by the symbol
Wp, as, in the p/V diagram, it is represented by the perpendicular projection of the
isochoric curve onto the pressure axis.
According to the details mentioned above, the following formula is applicable to

calculate the energy Wp of the isochoric case:
W p = V ⋅ ∆p 21 = V Minimal (p 2 − p 1).
However, in the given case, this form of energy is not work (as the chosen symbol
might suggest), because the gas is not allowed to expand and to move anything.
Irrespective of that, the squares in Figure 1, details c) and d) should be of equal

magnitude, subject to the condition that no heat or pressure is lost. Accordingly, the
initially given formula can be expanded to
Q = ∆U = m ⋅ c v ⋅ (T 2 − T 1) = W p.
2.3.2.3 Isobaric Process, Enthalpy and the First Law of Thermodynamics
A heat change applied to a substance under isobaric conditions requires the use of
the specific heat capacity cp and this results in a change of enthalpy. The following
formula is applicable:
Q = H 2 − H 1 = m ⋅ c p ⋅ (T 2 − T 1),
where:
Q12 = the heat change applied to the substance
DH21 = H2 -- H1 = m (h2 -- h1) = change of enthalpy
H1 and H2 = enthalpies before and after process completion
h1 and h2 = respective enthalpies per kg mass
cp = heat capacity.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 3
Apart from the enthalpy H and related low--case--letter magnitudes, the above given
formula only includes a new definition of known facts.
Refer to Figure 2.
If a certain amount of gas is heated under isobaric conditions in a cylinder and piston
assembly, it is free to expand. The basic state conditional formulas of the isobaric
process are p1 = p2 = p = constant, or Dp = 0, respectively, and the respective f (p, V,
T) formula for the isobaric process is V1/T1 = V2/T2, in accordance with Charles’s law
for constant pressure conditions. Accordingly, the process performed between the
initial condition shown in Figure 2, detail a) and the final condition, shown in detail b),
is an isobaric process, considering that the atmospheric air pressure does not
change, while the test is performed.
The added heat increases the internal energy of the gas. Simultaneously, the gas
performs work, Wv, in that it lifts the weight, the piston and, additionally, operates against
the barometric pressure.
The latter, together with the weights, maintains constant pressure conditions for the
cylinder contents. Accordingly, the added heat, or absorbed enthalpy difference, Q =
H2 -- H1, must be shared between an energy fraction for increasing the internal
energy, DU21, which appears as a temperature increase, and an energy fraction for
the performed work Wv.
When it is assumed that the test assembly works without friction then the following
energy balance formulas represent the isobaric case mathematically. Simultaneously
it is the mathematical formulation of the first law of thermodynamics which states that
a relationship exists between heat and work:
W=Q,
where:
W = work transfer
Q = heat transfer.
From what has already been discussed it can be seen that
Q = DU + W,
where:
Q = heat transfer
DU = change of internal energy
W = work transfer.
This means that, if a quantity of heat is added to a system, its internal energy
changes and the system performs work. A more universal formulation of the first law
of thermodynamics is, ’the total energy of a system and its surrounding is conserved’.
The first law of thermodynamics is the thermodynamic extension of the law of
conservation of energy.
The basic formula for mechanical work is W = F ⋅ d. For the work of a piston under
constant--pressure conditions, the substitution formulas F = p ⋅ A and A ⋅ Ds = DV21
= V2 -- V1 can be used. Through combination of these formulas, the following is
applicable to mechanical work:
W V = p ⋅ ∆V 21 = p (V 2 − V 1).
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 4
The performed work Wv is shown in Figure 2, detail b). Index ’V’ is given to make
evident that it is a function of the volume difference, and is represented in a p/V
diagram by the perpendicular projection onto the volume axis.
The latter 2 formulas are used to develop a formula that only contains enthalpy,
internal energy, pressure and volume (as adequate for the isobaric case):
∆H 21 = H 2 − H 1 = U 2 − U 1 + p ⋅ V 2 − p ⋅ V 1.
By reasoning and gathering magnitudes with the same indices, it becomes obvious
that H1 = U1 + p × V1 and H2 = U2 + p × V2, hence, that
H = U + p ⋅ V.
This is the mathematical definition of enthalpy. In practice, however, enthalpy
differences are used. The interdependence between heat changes is principally
subject to the formulas
Q 12 = ∆H 21 = H 2 − H 1 = m(h 2 − h 1) .
The latter formula holds true, irrespective of aggregation state changes. This formula
is used to evaluate thermal phase diagrams and tables for thermodynamic tasks.
Such references show enthalpy as a function of pressure, volume and temperature,
or as f (p, V, T).
For instance, heat Q12 is added to a mass of water in a boiler. This changes the
enthalpy of the boiling water from state 1 to state 2, or from the caloric state H1 to H2.
The respective enthalpies can be directly taken from a phase diagram for water, for
instance, which gives the enthalpies required to calculate Q12 by reference to the
applicable pressures, volumes or temperatures, p1, V1, T1, and p2, V2 and T2,
respectively.
In contrast to that, the formula Q12 = ∆H21 = m ⋅ cp ⋅ ∆T21 is used if phase diagrams
with enthalpy are not available and cp values have to be used, instead. Frequently,
this occurs in the case of technical gases. For instance, by means of the recently
developed formula for work WV and other recently discussed f (p, V, T) formulas as
replacements, for the first law of thermodynamics the following is obtained:
Q 12 = ∆H 21 = ∆U 21 + W V
= m ⋅ c p ⋅ ∆T 21 = m ⋅ c v ⋅ ∆T 21 + p ⋅ ∆V 21.
By comparing the constituents of the energy balance formula in the second line, it
becomes obvious that the cp value of a gas is always greater than the respective cv
value, due to the fact that work is performed (or invested) under state change
conditions. Accordingly, the specific gas constant, calculated in accordance with the
formula R = cp -- cv, always must be positive.
2.3.2.4 Isothermal Process and Entropy

The ratio between heat applied to a substance and temperature results in a change
of entropy. The following formula is applicable to isothermal processes:
Q 12
= ∆S 21,
T
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 5
where:
Q12 = the symbol of the heat change applied to the substance
DS21 = changed entropy S2 -- S1
Note: S1 and S2 are the entropies before and after process completion; s1 and s2 are
the respective entropies per kg mass.
By re--arrangement of the latter formula the following is obtained:
Q 12 = ∆S 21 ⋅ T = S 2 − S 1T = m ⋅ Ts 2 − s 1.

This formula makes evident why thermodynamic processes are often plotted on
temperature/entropy diagrams (T/s diagrams). When a T/s diagram in conjunction
with isothermal processes is used, the heat applied in the process, Q12, is repre-
sented by the projection of the T = constant temperature curves onto the entropy
axis, hence, it is represented by a perfect square.
As previously discussed, isobaric melting and evaporation processes take place at
constant temperatures. Therefore, such processes are isobaric and isothermal as
well, and are processes where the above given formula provides a square. However,
outside the processes ruled by latent heat, the T = constant curves in a h/s diagram
continue at varying steepness. For these regions, the heat balance formulas are
applicable, too. However, the inclination of the temperature curves makes evident
that the infinitesimal formula
∆Q
∆S =
T
is applicable to the caloric state. This formula shows that entropy must be under-
stood as the ratio of infinite small amounts of heat to the absolute temperature at
which the heat is gained or lost by a substance.
2.3.2.5 Adiabatic Process and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

In an adiabatic process, no heat is added to the working substance, or removed from
it. Accordingly, the applied heat and the entropy change are zero, subject to the
applied formula Q12/T = 0/T = 0 = ∆S21.
Refer to Figure 3.
In an adiabatic process an enthalpy change ∆h takes place. In an enthalpy/entropy
diagram (h/s diagram) this can be seen by using a vertical line representing the
condition ∆S = 0 or s = constant. For this reason, adiabatic processes often are
referred to as ’isentropic processes’.
Adiabatic processes are performed in turbomachines, like turbines where the working
substance is expanded and turbocompressors where the working substance is
compressed. Performance curves of the true adiabatic processes are shown in
Figure 3 as continuous line curves, where the initial caloric states are marked by the
points ’1’, and the final caloric states by the points ’0’.
A true adiabatic process is not attainable in a machine. Figure 3, details a) and b),
show the real expansion and compression curves as broken lines, where the initial
caloric states are marked by the points ’1’, and the final caloric states by the points 2.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 6
A comparison between the ideal processes and the actual processes shows that the
enthalpy differences wR = Dh10 -- Dh12 (in the expansion case) and wR = Dh12 -- Dh10
(in the compression case) are not available for use. They must be additionally
investigated. In both cases, this has the effect of an entropy increase Ds12. This
shows that the processes are not reversible.
The existence of the energy wR is due to turbulent friction within the working
substance. The second law of thermodynamics states that thermodynamic processes
are not 100 % efficient and technical processes are accompanied by a continual
increase in entropy. There exist many other formulations of the second law of
thermodynamics, many of them of philosophical matter.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 7
a) Initial condition (given by pressure, b) Heating and resultant pressure

temperature and volume, p1, T1 and V1) and temperature rise
p1 p2
T2
T1
V2
V1
c) m . cv/T diagram d) p/V diagram

p
1 2 p2 2
Wp
DQ=DU
A 8489 B
p1 1
T V
T1 T2
Figure 1 Conditions when Heating a Gas at

Constant Volume
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 8
a) Initial condition b) Heating and resultant gas expansion
Ds m
m
p1 p2
T2
T1
V1 V2
c) p/V diagram
1 2
p1 = p2
WV = p ⋅ ∆ V12
2
= p  dV
1
= p(V2 – V1)
V
A 8490 B
DV12
Figure 2 Conditions when Heating a Gas at

Constant Pressure
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.2 - HO - 9
a) Expansion
h
1
Actual
process
Dh12
Ideal
Dh10 process
2
wR
0
s
Ds12
b) Compression
h
2
wR
0
Dh12 Actual
Ideal
Dh10 process
process
1
A 8513 A
s
Ds12
Figure 3 Entropy Change as a Result of

Imperfect Adiabatic Processes
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 1
2.3.3 Heat Transfer
There has always been the demand of people to change their living conditions in
order to survive or to enjoy more comfort.
Ventilation and heating systems are necessary to make the interior spaces safe and
habitable.
Refrigeration systems are installed to succeed in

V the preservation of food
V the cooling/air conditioning of living spaces and of electronic machinery
V the manufacture of ice.
Air--conditioning and refrigeration systems are based on the same technical
principle, the refrigeration cycle. In many cases thermal energy would increase
the air temperature within enclosed areas to unacceptable values. Even new
products and new discoveries are only possible because of air conditioning or
refrigeration. For example:
V Computer centres, which have to collect and process lots of information
around the clock, can only operate because of the controlled air tempera-
ture. Without air conditioning, temperature would increase and the com-
puters quickly cease to operate because of the self--generated heat
V Modern medicines, such as the Salk and Sabin vaccines, are prepared in a
scientifically controlled atmosphere
V The exploration of space and deep water is aided by air conditioning
V Modern technical processes and procedures, such as the production of
pure silicon for computer chips, need controlled air temperature and an air
free of dust
V By deep freezing, the conductivity of electrical lines can be changed to super-
conducting.
Ventilation is the circulation and refreshing of air in a space without necessarily
changing the temperature.
Air conditioning is a process to control temperature and humidity in a space, by

heating/cooling, circulating, filtering and refreshing the air.
Refrigeration is a process, in which the temperature of a space or its contents is

reduced to below that of its surroundings.
Air is normally used as the heat transfer medium. Therefore fans and ducting are
used for ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration. All the three processes are
interlinked and involved in the provision of a suitable climate for men, machinery and
cargo.
2.3.3.1 Body Comfort
The normal temperature of the human body is 36.7 °C in the metric system (or
98 °F). This temperature is sometimes called skin or surface temperature. Knowl-
edge of how the body maintains this temperature, helps us to understand the
process of air conditioning.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 2
All food taken into the body contains heat energy in the form of calories. The calorie
is used for expressing the heat value of food. Physically one calorie is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius
(in the metric system). To raise the temperature of one kilogram of water from 0 °C to
100 °C needs 100 kcal.
As food is taken in by the body, it is converted into energy for immediate use or it can
be stored for future use.
The conversion process as well as all body movements generate heat. For body
comfort, all of the heat produced, which is not necessary to maintain the body tempera-
ture, must be given off by the body. Since the body produces more heat in warm or hot
areas than it needs to ensure the conversion process, heat must be constantly given off
or removed. The constant removal of body heat takes place through three processes
which usually occur at the same time. These processes are
V convection
V radiation
V evaporation.
Convection
Refer to Figure 1.
The convection process of removing heat is based on two facts:
V Heat flows from a hot surface to a cold surface. For example, heat flows from
the body to the air surrounding the body. The temperature of this surrounding
air must be below the body skin temperature
V Heat rises. This action can be seen by watching the smoke rising from a
burning cigarette.
When these two facts are applied to the body process of removing heat, the following
happens:
V The body gives off heat to the cool surrounding air
V The surrounding air becomes warm and moves upwards
V As the warm air moves upwards, cool air takes its place.
The convection air cycle, cooling the surface of the body, is completed.
Radiation
Refer to Figure 2.
Radiation is the process by which heat moves from a heat source, such as the sun, a
fire or a hot object, to another object in the form of heat rays. This principle is based on
the fact, that every hot object sends out heat radiation to emit the heat from its hot
surface to a cold surface.
The radiation of heat has the same nature and behaviour as the radiation of light. It
will be reflected from bright and shiny material. Dark and dull objects absorb the
radiation. The air or any other gas between the surfaces is not affected by heat
radiation and remains cool. Heat radiation takes place independently from convection
and does not require air movement to complete the heat transfer.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 3
The body quickly experiences the effects of sun radiation when one moves from a
shady area to a sunny area. The body surface near to a fire becomes warm, while
the opposite body surface remains cool. Just like the heat radiation of the sun, the
body sends out radiation to a colder surface.
Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which moisture becomes vapour. Therefore heat is

removed, when moisture evaporates from a warm surface. The surface cools down.
This process takes place constantly, as long as there is liquid or moisture on the
surface of the body. Moisture will pass through the pores of the skin, when the nerve
centre of the body senses that the body is producing too much heat and the
temperature of the body may increase. Sweat appears as drops of moisture on the
skin and removes heat from the body, protecting the body from overheating.
The process of evaporation depends on the nature of the body and the evaporating
liquid and on the characteristics of the surroundings. It will be faster,
V the higher the temperature on the surface of the body and the difference in
temperature between body and surroundings
V the bigger the free surface for evaporation
V the faster the vapour is removed from the surface (air movement)
V the lower the boiling point of the evaporating liquid.
2.3.3.2 Influence of Temperature, Humidity and Air Movement on Body Comfort
Refer to Figure 3.
People must be provided with reasonable surrounding conditions to work in, regardless
of the weather under various climatic conditions. The reaction of the human body to
environmental changes in temperature are largely subjective. The sensation, of what is
hot, cold or comfortable, is determined by a combination of the following conditions:
V Temperature
V Humidity
V Air movement/motion.
The body maintains its temperature depending on these conditions. They are the
reason for feeling comfortable, if the air temperature, humidity and air movement are
within favourable limits. Since there are only a few days in the year, during which all
these conditions are ideal, it is necessary for human beings to maintain even a
minimum of comfort by wearing less or more clothing, depending on the environ-
mental conditions.
For the purpose of design and evaluation, the effects of humidity, temperature and air
movement are combined into a single index called the ’effective temperature’ (ET),
which is also the temperature of still saturated air, that would induce an identical
sensation.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 4
Temperature
The temperature of the surrounding air and the surrounding surfaces of material
interacts with the temperature of the body by convection, radiation and evaporation.
The link between them is:
V Cool air increases the rate of convection, warm air slows it down
V Cool air lowers the temperature of surrounding surfaces; therefore, cool air
increases the rate of radiation. Warm air increases the surrounding surface
temperature; therefore, the radiation rate is decreased
V Cool air increases the rate of evaporation and warm air slows it down. This
process depends on the amount of moisture already in the air and the
amount of air movement.
Humidity
Temperature alone is not enough to indicate conditions acceptable to the human

body. Moisture in the air in the form of humidity also affects the feeling. It is
measured in terms of humidity.
Relative humidity is a measure of how near the moisture in the air is to saturation.
Example: 60 % relative humidity means, that the air contains 60 % of the maximum amount of
moisture, the air is capable of holding at this given temperature level.
To simplify the measurement of humidity, the amount of humidity is given as specific

humidity in gram vapour per kg moist air or as a proportion of mixture in gram per kg
dry air. The specific weight of air at an ambient pressure of 1,033 mbar and a
temperature of 0 °C is 1.293 kp/m3. A unit called ’grain of water vapour per
cubic foot’ is used in the British system. There are 7,000 grains in one pound of
water (1 grain = 0.0648 gram).
Relative humidity in conjunction with temperature determines the environment for

human comfort more accurately. A temperature, which feels uncomfortable at high
humidity, seems fairly pleasant at lower humidity. In a similar manner a high relative
humidity above 70 % is felt uncomfortable at normal temperatures, while a low
relative humidity may give sore eyes and throats.
Example: As an example of how humidity is measured consider the following situation:

Assume, that the room as shown in Figure 4, detail a) has a temperature of 20 °C.
Also assume, that the air contains 10 g of water as vapour.
If the room temperature remains at 20 °C, water vapour is added to the air, until no
more water can be absorbed by the air in the room. At this point, the air is saturated
and 1 kg air now holds 20 g of water vapour. A concentration of 20 g/kg of water
vapour per air, at 20 °C, represents a relative humidity of 100 %.
The original room condition of 10 g/kg at 20 °C represents 50 % relative humidity.

The relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour content one kilogram of
air is holding, to the mass of water vapour required to saturate it at the same
temperature. It is obtained by dividing the actual number of grams of moisture in one
kilogram of air, at a given temperature, by the maximum number of grams, that one
kilogram of air is able to hold, when it is saturated.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 5
The original room condition of 10 g/kg at 20 °C represents 50 % relative humidity

(detail b)). The relative humidity of 50 % will change to 100 %, when the temperature
decreases to the dew point at 6 °C. The dew point of air is the temperature to which it
must be cooled down before condensation of its vapour content commences. At the
dew point the air is 100 % saturated. That means, the relative humidity changes as the
air temperature changes.
The original room condition of 10 g/kg at 20 °C changes from 50 % relative humidity

to 40 % humidity, when the temperature is increasing to 25 °C. Then the air is able to
hold 25 g/kg water vapour, when saturated (10 g/kg : 25 g/kg = 0.4 or 40 %).
The original room condition of 10 g/kg at 20 °C will change to a moisture content of

8 g/kg at 20 °C. As the air at this temperature is capable of holding 20 g, the relative
humidity will change from 50 % to 8 g/kg : 20 g/kg = 0.4 or 40 %.
The ways, in which the relative humidity can be changed, are summarized as follows
:
V To increase the relative humidity, either the air temperature is decreased or
the actual moisture content of the air is increased
V To decrease the relative humidity, either the air temperature is increased or
the moisture content of the air is decreased.
A low relative humidity permits heat to be given off from the body by evaporation. As
the air is relatively dry, it easily absorbs moisture. A high relative humidity has the
opposite effect. The evaporation is retarded, because of the high content of moisture
in the air. so the speed of the evaporation and by this, the speed, at which heat
can be removed from the body, is decreased.
In order to provide the required degree of comfort, one of two ambient conditions for
the purposes of air--conditioning design is considered, either the tropical or extreme
tropical one. The first one approximates to conditions in the Singapore and Eastern
Mediterranean areas and the second one to the Arabian Gulf region in summer and
seasonally elsewhere in the world. The aim being to achieve relative humidity
between 60 % and 50 %, respectively, and a temperature range between 22 °C
(72 °F) and 26 °C (79 °F).
Air Movement
Air movement as a factor, affects the ability of the body to give off heat, was
mentioned already, when the convection process was discussed. As air movement
increases,
V the convection process increases, since the layer of warm air surrounding the
body is carried away more rapidly
V the rate of the evaporation process of removing heat speeds up, since the
moisture in the air near the body is carried away at a faster rate
V the radiation process tends to speed up, because the heat on the surround-
ing surfaces is removed faster.
If the air movement decreases, the evaporation, convection and radiation processes
decrease.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 6
2.3.3.3 Outdoor Heat Sources
Outdoor Heat Sources
Indoor air can be too cold, too hot, too wet, too dry and too still. To find the right
solution and a practical method of maintaining a reasonable standard of body
comfort, it is necessary to know, especially in hot areas, the outdoor heat sources,
which may cause uncomfortable indoor conditions. Even when the shape of the
enclosed space may differ, e.g. houses, cars or even ships, the basic principles
will not change. The influences of heat sources differ depending on the construc-
tion, the structure and different appliances.
Refer to Figure 5.
The greatest outdoor heat source is the sun; this heat is known as solar heat. Solar
heat enters a structure directly through openings or glass and by conduction through
the building materials.
2.3.3.4 The Refrigeration Cycle

Refer to Figure 6.
Refrigeration is a process, in which the temperature of a space or its contents is
reduced to below that of its surroundings. The cooling coil of the evaporator of the
refrigeration cycle is the basic part of an air cycle to cool the air of an enclosed space
or room and to remove heat from cargo spaces and provision storerooms. Refriger-
ation serves to keep the temperature at a level, necessary for the proper preserva-
tion of individual products. The main difference between refrigeration and air
conditioning is only a matter of the temperature that is maintained in the specific
spaces. Refrigeration is primarily concerned with the preservation of perishable
products by lowering the ambient temperature to a point, that will prolong the usable
life of the product.
All fresh fruits and vegetables, including flowers, are living things and commonly
referred to as ’live’ products. Even when separated from the tree, vine or soil, they
continue to generate and dissipate heat as the human body does. The amount of
heat respired (called ’heat of respiration’) varies with the product and its temperature.
In the respiration process, live products absorb oxygen as well and give off carbon
dioxide to the surrounding atmosphere.
The refrigeration cycle is concerned with the heat, after it is removed from the air by
the refrigerant in the coil. The transfer of heat takes place in a simple system: firstly
in the evaporator, where the lower temperature of the refrigerant cools the body of
the space being cooled. The heat removed is transferred through the coil walls to the
refrigerant flowing inside the coil at a lower temperature. Secondly, the heat transfer
takes place in the condenser, where the refrigerant is cooled back by air or water.
Most substances can exist as a solid, liquid, vapour or gas. Changes from one state
to another are described as follows:
V A change of state from solid to liquid is known as fusion (melting)
V A liquid changing to vapour is evaporating or boiling
V Vapour, which is further heated becomes a superheated gas.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 7
The evaporation temperature of a substance depends on the pressure. The higher

the pressure, the higher the evaporating temperature -- the lower the pressure, the
lower the evaporating temperature.
It is commonly known, that water boils at 100 °C (212 °F), but it must be remem-
bered, that this is only true at atmospheric pressure of 1.012 bar (14.7 lbf/in2).
If water is subjected to a pressure of, for instance, 1.037 bar (15 lbf/in2), it will not
boil, until the temperature has reached 121 °C (250 °F). Conversely, if the water is
subjected to a pressure near to the vacuum, it will boil much earlier.
Thus the refrigeration cycle is based on the following principles:

V To change a liquid to vapour, it needs large quantities of heat
V The boiling point of a liquid can be raised by increasing the pressure, and it
can be lowered by reducing its pressure.
The pressure of the refrigerant gas is increased in the compressor and thereby it
becomes hot. This hot, high--pressure gas is passed through into a condenser.
Depending on the particular application, the refrigerant gas will be cooled either by air
or water, and because it is still at a high pressure, it will condense.
The liquid refrigerant is then distributed through a pipe network, until it reaches a
throttling valve alongside an evaporator, where cooling is required. This throttling
valve meters the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator. As the liquid passes
through the valve, its pressure is reduced immediately. The pressure decrease
lowers the temperature of the refrigerant even more, and it is now ready to pick up
more heat. Air from the cooled space or air--conditioning system is passed over the
evaporator and boils off the low--pressure liquid refrigerant, at the same time cooling
the air.
The design of the system and of the evaporator should be such, that the liquid
refrigerant is boiled off and the gas slightly superheated, before it returns to the
compressor at a low pressure to be compressed again.
The heat is transferred from the air to be cooled to the refrigeration medium in the
evaporator, is then pumped through the system, until it reaches the condenser, where it
is transferred or rejected to the ambient air or water and finally transferred out of the
space.
The refrigeration diagram, shown in Figure 1 includes only the bare essentials of the
refrigeration cycle, which are described in the following paragraphs.
Refer to Figure 7.
Compressors -- General
The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant, sucking at the

low--pressure side of the system and discharging to the high--pressure side of the
system. As the vapour is compressed, its heat is concentrated bringing its tempera-
ture well above the coolant temperature in the condenser. Therefore heat can flow
from the refrigerant to the coolant and from there out of the room or overboard on
board ships.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 8
Condensers
The purpose of a condenser is to

V change the superheated vapour from the compressor to saturated vapour by
removing the heat
V condense the saturated vapour to a liquid by further cooling
V with a reserve of liquid refrigerant provide those plants, where a liquid re-
ceiver is not fitted.
Refer to Figure 8.
In a condenser heat is transferred from a hot operating medium, flowing along the
surface of a separating wall, to a cold medium flowing in contact with the other
surface of the separating wall. The heat exchange process is accomplished by
having the two liquids or gases pass on either side of a heat conducting surface. The
heat of the hot liquid or gas passes through the conducting surface to the cooling
liquid or gas.
Evaporators
Refer to Figure 9.
The purpose of an evaporator is to remove the heat from the space to be cooled by
changing the liquid refrigerant to superheated vapour.
Basically, an evaporator works the opposite way to a condenser. The evaporator

closes the heat transfer cycle for cooling. To explain the function in a simple
manner, the liquid refrigerant enters at one end of a pipe (coil), evaporates along
the length of it and leaves at the other end as superheated vapour. To change the
state from liquid to vapour requires latent heat, which is extracted from the
surrounding atmosphere thus resulting in a consequential cooling effect.
The general term ’latent heat’ may refer to either the latent heat of vaporization or
the latent heat of fusion. The latent heat of vaporization is the heat required to
change a liquid to a vapour without increasing the temperature of the fluid. For
example, water can be heated to its boiling point. If more heat is added, the
temperature of the water does not increase but the water begins to boil and
vaporize. Thus the latent heat of vapourization in this case is the heat required to
change water at 100 °C to vapour at 100 °C.
The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat that must be removed to change a
liquid to a solid at the same temperature. For example, assume that the water is
cooled to the freezing point at 0 °C. If more heat is removed, the water changes to
ice. Thus the latent heat of fusion actually reflects a cooling process, because heat is
removed from the water.
Air is circulated over the cooling coils of the evaporator by a fan, which is part of the
cooler unit. A drain is fitted to remove the water, which forms, when the cooler is
periodically defrosted. The temperature difference between room and refrigerant
saturation temperature is required to be 8 °C (15 °F).
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 9
Throttling (Expansion) Valve
Refer to Figure 10.
The throttling valve regulates the flow of liquid refrigerant automatically from the
high--pressure side of the system to the low--pressure side. It reduces the pressure of
the liquid and thus causes the evaporating temperature to achieve the cooling effect in
the evaporator. It controls the flow of the liquid refrigerant to be the same as the rate of
evaporation and acts as a metering device between high--pressure side (condenser) and
low--pressure side (evaporator).
Refrigerants
Refrigerants, as heat carrying media, absorb heat at a low temperature level and are
compressed by a compressor to a higher temperature, where they are able to
discharge the absorbed heat.
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 10
FB 1550
Figure 1 Convection
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 11
FB 1551
Figure 2 Radiation
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 12
H
Radiation
FB 1553
Figure 3 Conditions which Affect the Body

Comfort
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 13
a)
Humidity Humidity
10 g/kg air 20 g/kg air
Vapour
Room temperature Room temperature

at 20 °C at 20 °C
Relative humidity is 50 % Relative humidity is 100 %
b)
10 g/kg air 10 g/kg air
Room temperature Room temperature

at 20 °C decreased to
dew point at 6 °C
B 1552 A
Relative humidity is 50 % Relative humidity is 100 %
Figure 4 Relative Humidity
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 14
Solar heat
Conduction
Radiation
Infiltration
FB 1554 A
Figure 5 Outdoor Heat Sources
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 15
Evaporator coil
Throttling valve
Freezing
compartment
Low side High side

Suction line
Liquid line
To
Refrigerant condenser Discharge line
from
evaporator
Compressor
Condenser
Receiver
FB 6649 A
Figure 6 Schematic Diagram of a Refrigeration

Cycle
Notes
Hot refrigerant as gas

Preliminary
Condenser
Cooling Fan
medium Liquid
refrigerant
2.3 (b)

Compressor Warm air
Module 2
Cold air
A 0892 B
Expansion
Evaporator (Throttling)
valve
Provisions storage room
Figure 7 Refrigeration Plant

Thermodynamics
2.3.3 - HO - 16
Physics
Seawater outlet
Freshwater inlet
Notes
Radial flow
circular baffles
Preliminary
Freshwater outlet
Visible joint
Seawater inlet
FA 2262 B
Removable straight tube

2.3 (b)

Module 2
Shell
Safety expansion ring

and double joint
Removable cover,
for cleaning and inspection
Figure 8 Shell-- and Tube--Type Heat Exchanger

Thermodynamics
2.3.3 - HO - 17
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 18
Sheet metal Radiator coil
Liquid refrigerant
Vapour
FB 1156
Superheated vapour
Figure 9 Evaporator
Physics
Notes 2.3 (b) 2.3.3 - HO - 19
compressor
Vapour to
Sensing bulb
A 2540 B
Evaporator
Figure 10 Expansion Valve

Adjusting screw
Tube and space
Spring
Capillary tube
Valve
refrigerant
filled with
Diaphragm
condenser
Liquid
from
Physics
Preliminary Module 2 Optics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 1
2.4 Optics
2.4.1 Optics (Light)
2.4.1.1 The Nature of Light

Early in the day when the sun is low on the horizon and shadows are long, the
sunlight streaming through a group of trees is broken into straight beams or rays of
light.
When sunlight breaks through the clouds after a storm the light rays can be seen
clearly against the dark background of the clouds. The beams of light from the
headlamp of a car can be seen as they shine out through the heavy rain storm or fog.
Many natural effects of light have helped to understand the basic properties of light.
Light determines the life on the earth’s surface. It is possible to see objects only if
light of them enters the eyes of the observer. Some objects give off their own light,
others reflect light from other sources. But wherever light comes from, it normally
travels in straight lines.
Light has a lot of qualities; the most important ones are named below.
V Light transfers energy from one place to another.
Energy is needed to produce light. Materials gain energy when they absorb
light. Mostly, this causes an increase in their terminal energy.
For example, solar cells change some of the energy in sunlight directly into
electrical energy.
V Light is a form of radiation.
Radiation is a general term applied to almost anything that travels outwards
from its source but cannot immediately be identified as solid, liquid or gas like
the more familiar forms of matter.
V Light is a form of wave motion.
Light waves travel through the empty space at a speed of about
300,000 km/s.
V Light is something detected by the human eye.
Objects emit many types of radiation, most of which are not detectable by the
human eye. Light is the name given to radiation which the eye can detect.
2.4.1.2 Light and Shadow

A ray of light is defined as a narrow beam of parallel light which can be drawn as a
single line on a diagram. In diagrams rays are drawn with an arrow on them showing
the direction of travel of light. Rays are produced when light shines through a small
hole, which is called a point source of light. A beam of light containing many rays is
produced by a larger hole or a large lamp, which is called an extended source of
light.
An important fact is to know that light can only travel in straight lines. If any one of the
screens shown in Figure 1 is moved very slightly then the eye cannot see the lamp.
That proves that light can only travel in a straight line. The property of light travelling
in straight lines is called rectilinear propagation (literally, straight--line travel).
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 2
One direct effect of light travelling in straight lines is the casting of shadows by
opaque objects. As light cannot pass through an opaque object and, cannot bend
round the object because travelling only in straight lines, then the space behind an
opaque object must be totally dark.
Figure 2, detail a) shows a shadow formed by a point source of light. The hole in the
screen near the lamp acts as a point source.
The shadow formed by a point source of light has two important properties:
V The shadow is uniformly and totally dark all over. It is called a umbra, (a Latin
word meaning shade).
V The shadow has a sharp edge, supporting the idea that light travels only in
straight lines.
Figure 2, detail b) shows a shadow formed by an extended source of light. This

source of light is large enough for rays to be seen to come from many points. The
large pearl lamp provides a suitable extended source.
The following points about the shadow formed by an extended source of light should
be noted:
V The center of the shadow remains uniformly dark as before but is somewhat
smaller in size. This part of the shadow, the umbra, still receives no light at all
from the source.
V The edge of the shadow is now blurred and graded, getting gradually lighter
further out from the umbra.
V The region between the totally dark umbra and the fully bright screen is
called the penumbra, which means partial shade. In this region light from
some parts of the extended source reaches the screen, but light from other
parts is cut off by the opaque object. Near the umbra very little light reaches
the screen and so the penumbra merges into the umbra.
Note: Because the shadows formed by extended light sources are much softer and
without sharp edges, most people prefer frosted or pearl light bulbs and lamp
shades at home to provide a more pleasant kind of lighting. Fluorescent tubes
are usually surrounded by a frosted diffuser to scatter the light and reduce the
sharpness of shadows.
An interesting example of light and shade is the eclipse of the sun or the moon. An
eclipse is the total or partial disappearance of the sun or moon as seen from the
earth. Figure 3 shows a total eclipse of the sun taken from a height of 9,000 m
above sea level. At this height, in the clean and rarefied air, the sun’s corona can be
seen very clearly.
The sun is eclipsed when the moon passes between the sun and the earth. When it
happens it causes unexpected darkness during the day-time. Solar eclipses are
rather rare for two reasons.
V A solar eclipse can happen only at new moon (when the moon is totally dark).
If the orbit of the moon lay in the same plane as that of the earth there would
be an eclipse every month. The moon is, however, inclined at an angle of
about 5° to the earth’s orbit so that only rarely does the new moon pass ex-
actly through the line joining the earth and the sun, producing a solar eclipse.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 3
V When a solar eclipse does occur the path of the moon’s umbra across the
surface of the earth is very narrow, (never wider than 272 km) so that most
people on the earth see only a partial eclipse.
Figure 4, detail a) shows where the total and partial eclipse occur on earth and detail
c) shows the view from position (B) in a total eclipse. This magnificent sight, which
can never last for more than about 8 minutes, allows to see the sun’s atmosphere
which is normally not visible because of the brightness of the sun’s disc itself.
Detail b) shows an annular or ring eclipse in which a bright ring can be seen around
the moon’s disc. This kind of eclipse occurs if the umbra of the moon is not quite long
enough to reach the earth because the distance between the moon and the earth
varies (the moon’s orbit is elliptical).
When the moon is further from the earth its disc is very slightly smaller than the sun’s
disc; so when a solar eclipse occurs the moon is not large enough to totally cover the
sun. A bright ring of sunlight can be seen round the edge of the dark disc on the
moon.
Detail d) shows the lunar eclipse or also called the eclipse of the moon.
The moon does not emit light itself, but only reflects light from the sun; thus when it
passes into the earth’s shadow its supply of direct sunlight is cut off. A lunar eclipse
occurs when the moon passes through the earth’s umbra, but it only happens
occasionally, i.e. when the moon is full.
Lunar eclipse can last as long as 1 3/4 hours because the moon is much smaller
than the earth and takes some time to pass through the earth’s umbra.
During a total lunar eclipse it is still possible to see the moon because a small
amount of sunlight reaches it by way of the earth’s atmosphere. This sunlight, bent or
refracted by the earth’s atmosphere, reaches the moon turning it into a dim coppery
colour.
2.4.1.3 Reflection of Light Rays
Most things can only be seen when the light from a source, like the sun, bounces off
the surface of the object and reaches the eyes of the observer. This bouncing of light
is called reflection. An object which reflects no light appears a dull black colour and is
difficult to see. An object which reflects all light appears the same colour as the light it
is reflecting, so when white sunlight shines on it, its colour is white.
The reflection of light rays takes place at particular laws. Considering these laws the
nature of the surface of a material determines how light rays are reflected.
For example a white sheet of paper and a highly polished silvery metal surface as on
a mirror both reflect all the light that falls on them, but the kind of reflection is
different.
The surface of a polished sheet of metal or a mirror is very smooth and reflects all
the parallel rays of light from a particular source in one direction only; this is called
regular or specular reflection (Figure 5, detail a)). The irregular scattering of the light
rays in different directions by a rough surface is called diffuse reflection (detail b)).
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 4
The Laws of Reflection
Light Rays Meet Plane Mirrors
Note: The laws of reflection are true for all reflecting surfaces, for curved mirrors as well
as plane mirrors, but it is simplest to investigate the laws using a plane mirror.
A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface which by regular reflection is used to
form images. It is often made by bonding a thin polished metal surface to the back of
a flat sheet of glass; but for special applications the front of a sheet of glass may be
silvered, or there may be no glass at all.
When light rays fall on a plane mirror as shown in Figure 6 and are reflected by it
they are called:
V incident ray (I) and the
V reflected ray (R).
Both rays form an angle to the ’line at 90° to the reflecting surface’ (N). These angles
are called
V angle of incidence
V angle of reflection.
Statements about these angles are given by the laws of reflection:
V The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. That means, a ray
leaves the surface at the same angle as it arrives.
V The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all
lie in the same plane. That means all three could be drawn on the same flat
piece of paper.
Figure 7 shows different angles of incidence.
Real and Virtual Image
When people look at the surface of a calm lake, or at themselves in a mirror, what
they see is commonly called a reflection. In the field of physics it is called an image.
Figure 8 shows how, by reflecting light, a plane mirror forms an image of a point
source of light such as a small light bulb.
Light actually travels from the bulb to the eye via the mirror, so this is called a real ray
of light. The eyes of the observer are easily fooled and cling to the belief that light
travels in straight lines. In this case the eye believes that light has come from the
image marked (X), but there is nothing behind the mirror at all and light cannot pass
through the reflecting surface of the mirror. The imaginary rays behind the mirror are
called virtual rays.
Note: In order to distinguish the virtual rays from real rays, virtual rays are always
drawn as broken lines.
There are also two kinds of images. An image is formed where the real or virtual rays
from an object come together again. The image formed by a plane mirror is called a
virtual image because it is formed where the virtual rays appear to come from when
the real rays are reflected by the mirror.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 5
Just as the virtual rays are not there, the virtual image does not exist either; it is an
illusion. No light ever reaches a virtual image so it cannot be formed on a screen and
it cannot affect a photographic film placed at its apparent position.
A virtual image is defined as follows:
Virtual images are those which rays of light only appear to come from but no real
rays ever reach.
Note: As it is explained later, curved mirrors and lenses can form real images.
Real images are formed when all the rays coming from a point on an object are
brought together again at another single point. Real images can be formed on a
screen and can produce a permanent image on a photographic film.
In reality, objects do not occupy single points. Figure 9 shows how a plane mirror
forms an image of an extended object.
Note: As in any ray diagram, an infinite number of rays could have been drawn, but two
rays from any point on the object are sufficient to establish the position of the
image of that point.
Another feature of the image formation in a plane mirror is explained by Figure 10.
The writing on the front of a police car or ambulance sometimes is written backwards
in a special way and will appear normal when it is seen through the rear--view mirror
of a vehicle in front. The reason for that is that the image formed by a plane mirror
has left and right reversed; this is called lateral inversion. So the writing would be
appear reversed when it is written in a normal way.
Application of a Plane Mirror
Plane mirrors are often used for measurement equipment in order to improve the
accuracy of the device. Figure 11 shows an example at which the plane mirror is
fitted behind the measurement pointer to improve the reading accuracy.
Errors arise when the pointer is viewed at an angle because pointer, being some
distance above the scale, will then indicate the wrong graduation on the scale. The
diagram shows that the correct reading position is when the image of the pointer
cannot be seen because then the eye is vertically above the pointer scale.
Light Rays Meet Curved Mirrors

When a mirror has a curved surface, the rules of reflection are not so simple as
explained for plane mirrors.
Curved mirrors are made in many shapes and sizes and have many varied uses. By
experiment, ray diagram and calculation the properties of these mirrors and their
images can be discovered.
Figure 12, detail a) shows the two basic kinds of curved reflecting surfaces whose
shapes are called concave and convex. A mirror which curves in (caves in) is called
a concave mirror and one which curves outwards is called a convex mirror.
Considering the fact that the surface of curved mirrors are three--dimensional the
image additionally can form part of a sphere or cylinder as shown in detail b). A
mirror which has a parabolic section is used in a lot of applications because it has
special properties.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 6
In contrast to plane mirrors where parallel rays of light remain parallel when they are
reflected, it is a property of curved mirrors that they reflect each ray in a different
direction.
Figure 13, detail a) shows what happens when parallel rays meet on the surface of a
concave mirror. The concave mirror converges (brings together) the parallel rays to a
point called a real focus (F).
Detail b) shows what happens when parallel rays meet on the surface of a convex
mirror. The convex mirror diverges (spread out) parallel rays so that they never meet
but appear to come from a point called virtual focus (F).
Figure 14 shows some particular points and lines needed to explain the laws of
reflection related to curved mirrors.
The pole (P) of a curved mirror is the center of its reflecting surface.
The center of curvature (C) of a spherical mirror is the center of the sphere of which
the mirror is part.
The principal axis of a curved mirror is the line passing through its pole and center of
curvature.
The radius of curvature (R) of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere of which
the mirror is part.
PC = MC = R
The principal focus (F) of a concave mirror is the point through which all rays close to
and parallel to the principal axis pass after reflection by the mirror. This is a real
focus.
The principal focus (F) of a convex mirror is the point from which all rays close to and
parallel to the principal axis appear to come after reflection by the mirror. This is a
virtual focus.
The focal length (f) of a mirror is the distance from its pole to its principal focus.
PF = f
Generally the law of reflection
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
is obeyed by all curved mirrors.
As shown in Figure14, detail a), the radius CM is also the normal to the surface of
the mirror at the point of incidence (M) as it is known from the plane mirror.
An incidence ray presented by LM, parallel to the principal axis is reflected from (M)
to (F). It can be seen that the common law of reflection is also valid for a concave
mirror.
angle (i) = angle (r)
The reflected light ray crosses the principal axis at the principal focus F. So it can be
supposed that there is a relation between the focal length and the radius of a
curvature for a spherical mirror. This relationship is explained by the statement
below:
The focal length is half the radius (r) of the curvature.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 7
The statement given can also be written as formula:
f = R
2
In order to give more transparent what happens if light rays meet on concave or
convex mirrors Figure 15 shows some examples of light rays meeting on a concave
and a convex mirror. Among the vast number of rays which could be drawn there are
three which are particularly helpful in constructing ray diagrams. These special rays
are numbered (1), (2) and (3); two of these rays are needed to find an image.
The statements of Figure 15 can be summarised:
Concave mirrors
V A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, is reflected through (F).
V A ray of light through (F) is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
V A ray of light through (C) is reflected back through (C).
Convex mirrors
V A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected as if it came from (F).
V A ray arriving in line with (F) is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
V A ray arriving in line with (C) strikes the mirror at right angles and returns
along the same path away from (C).
Images Formed by a Concave Mirror
In contrast to plane mirrors at which the size of object and image is always the same
and the distance between object and mirror as well as image and mirror are also
equal, the image of curved mirrors is different from the object in size and the distance
to the mirror.
The type, size and position of the image formed by a concave mirror depends
entirely on how close the object is to the mirror. Figure 16, details a) to f) show ray
diagrams constructed using the three special rays for each of the possible object
positions.
The Figure shows also that the image is found in each case where the two rays meet
again after reflection or where they appear to come from after reflection when the
image is virtual (detail a)).
If the reflected rays are parallel, as shown in detail b), then they will never meet
except at infinity. Thus in this case it is said that the image is at infinity.
In all other cases (details c) to f)) the image is real, formed where rays actually meet,
and can be formed on a screen placed at the image position.
Images Formed by a Convex Mirror
A convex mirror forms virtual images which are always diminished, erect and
between the mirror and its principal focus (F). The eye shown in Figure 17 believes
that rays (1) and (3) have come from the position of the virtual image (I).
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 8
Mirror Calculations
For any calculations at concave as well as convex mirrors or also at lenses all
distances are measured from the pole (P) of the mirror.
V f is the focal length of the mirror, this is the distance from its pole to its princi-
pal focus.
V u is the object distance, this is the distance from the pole of a mirror to the
object.
V v is the image distance, this the distance from the pole of a mirror to the
image.
There is a relationship between the focal length (f), the object distance (u) and the
image distance (v).
This relation is stated by the formula given below also known as the mirror formula.
1 = 1 + 1
f u v
In order to determine whether an object or an image is real or virtual and to carry out
mirror calculations successfully a system of positive and negative values to all
distances is needed.
For that reason it is laid down that the real--is--positive sign convention is used. That
means,
V the distances (from a mirror or lens) to real objects, images and focuses are
positive.
V the distances (from a mirror or lens) to virtual objects, images and focuses
are negative.
The formula given before can be rearranged to get the more simplified form of this
equation.
u ⋅ v
f = u + v m m ⋅ m
= m + m

Magnification
When an image is larger than the object, it is said it is magnified. When an image is
smaller than it is described as diminished. The numerical comparison of the image
size with the object size is always called magnification.
The definition of linear or transverse magnification (m) (meaning magnification of one

dimension: the length or distance across) is given by the relation:
height of the image

magnification m =
height of the object
The table overleaf shows different values of (m) and the image size belonging to.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 9
Magnification (m) Image size
m>1 magnified: larger than the object
m=1 image same size as the object
m<1 diminished: smaller than the object
The magnification can also be expressed using the relation between the image
distance and the object distance.
image distance
magnification =
object distance
This statement may be written as formula.
v
m = u m
m

Note: The formula above shows, that the magnification has no units, as it is a ratio
When using this formula for linear magnification any minus signs for (u) or (v)
may be ignored.
The statement given on the page before can be proved using Figure 18.
OX = height of object
IY = height of image
PO = object distance (u)
PI = image distance (v)
Triangles POX and PIY are similar (angle (i) = angle (r) and both contain a right
angle), therefore it can be said about the ratio of their sides that:
IY = PI
OX PO
The first ratio gives the magnification (m) and the second ratio can be substituted
by the distances of the image (v) and the object (u).
2.4.1.4 Refraction of Light Rays
Refer to Figure 19.
When light enters or leaves a transparent material the light rays may bend causing
many interesting and sometimes beautiful effects.
For example, a stick appears to bend when one end is placed under water or another
liquid or a swimming pool looks less deep than it really is. These effects and many
others are caused by the bending of light rays when light passes from one material
into another.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 10
Figure 20 shows the path of a ray of light as it passes from air into glass. At point (X)
the incident ray (I) is bent as it enters the glass. This bending is called refraction and
ray (R) is called the refracted ray. Thus, refraction can be defined as follow:
Refraction is the bending of light which occurs when it passes from one transparent
material (called a medium) to another.
The angle of refraction (r) is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
The ray is bent or refracted towards the normal, and the angle of refraction of the ray
is less than the angle of incidence. Similar results are obtained for light passing from
air into other media such as water and paraffin.
The fact that light rays are refracted towards the normal happens if the rays enter an
optically denser medium. The glass is optically denser than air, by which it appears
that light travels more slowly in glass than air. In the opposite if the light enters a
material which is less dense than air, the light rays are bent away from the normal.
Light passing into an optically more dense medium is bent towards the normal; light
passing into an optically less dense medium is bent away from the normal.
The ray leaves the medium glass at point (Y). There the ray is bent back to its
original direction. The angle of refraction, now in the air, is larger than the incident
angle (in the glass). If the block of glass has parallel sides, the emergent ray (E) is
parallel to the incident ray (I), but it is laterally displaced.
This means the ray is travelling in the same direction but it has been shifted sideways
when it emerges. This also happens to light whenever it passes through a plane
glass window at an angle to the normal.
The Laws of Refraction
Figure 21 shows three experiments at which the angle of incidence is changed. The
angles of refraction are also changed due to the different angles of incidence. The
ratio formed by the sine of the angle of incidence (i) and the sine of the angle of
refraction (r) remains constant.
This discovery is stated in the two laws of refraction:
The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.
For light rays passing from one transparent medium to another, the sine of the
angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction are in constant ratio.
Note: The second law is called Snell’s law because in 1620, the Dutch scientist Snell
discovered that it was the sines of the angles which where in proportion rather
than the angles themselves.
Another typical effect of refraction can be observed when people look into a clear
pool of water. When the pool is really 4 metres deep for example, it will appear to be
only about 3 metres.
Figure 22 shows how an object O, seen through a transparent medium like water,
appears closer than it really is. This effect is is caused by refraction at the surface of
the water. Rays of light coming from the object O are bent away from the normal as
they leave the water so that they appear to come from a virtual image I which is
above the object O.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 11
Refractive Index
The value of the ratio sin i/sin r indicates how much refraction or bending will occur
when a ray passes from one medium to another, hence its name is refractive index.
Strictly speaking, the ratio (sin i/sin r) for two media gives their relative refractive
index. This is because the extent to which a ray is bent depends on both the medium
the light is leaving and the one it is entering. For convenience all materials are given
a value called their absolute refractive index (symbol n) which indicates the refraction
that would occur if a ray of light passes from a vacuum into the medium.
sin i (in a vacuum)

The absolute refractive index of a medium =
sin r (in the medium)
sin i
n =
sin r
The following table shows the absolute refractive indices of some transparent
materials.
Medium Refractive index (n)

Glass about 1.5
Perspex 1.5
Water 1.33
Ice 1.3
Diamond 2.4
In practice, when a ray of light passes into a medium from air the refraction is very
nearly the same as it would be from a vacuum. So the term absolute refraction is
also used when light enters a medium from the air.
Refractive Index and the Speed of Light
The speed of light in a vacuum is known as 3.0 x 108 m/s. In transparent materials
light travels more slowly than in a vacuum or in air and it is thought that the bending
or refraction of light is due to this change of speed.
The statement below describes the relation between the absolute refractive index (n)
and the speed of light if light passes from a vacuum into a medium
Speed of light in vacuum

Absolute refractive index of a medium =
Speed of light in medium
For light passing from medium 1 to medium 2 follows:
Speed of light in medium 1, c 1

n 1, 2 =
Speed of light in medium 2, c 2
For example, when light is passing from air to glass the speed of light in air is very
near to the speed in vacuum, 3 x 108 m/s, and the refractive index n1,2 = 3/2. This
means that light travels 3/2 times as fast in the air as it does in glass.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 12
Since there is a relation between the speed of light and refraction, two equal ratios
are linked by the refractive index for a pair of media.
sin i c1
n 1, 2 = = c
sin r 2
Total Internal Refraction and the Critical Angle
When light passes from medium to an optically less dense medium, e.g. from glass
to air a weak internally reflected ray is produced as well as the refracted ray
(Figure 23, detail a)).
The angle of refraction (r) is greater than the angle of incidence (i). It follows that if
the angle of incidence is increased, it reaches a critical value where the angle of
refraction is just 90° and the refracted ray grazes along the surface of the glass
(detail b)). This value of the angle of incidence is called the critical angle.
The critical angle (c) between two media is the angle of incidence in the optically
denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90°.
If the angle of incidence (i) is further increased, becoming greater than the critical
angle (i > c), it is impossible for the angle of refraction to exceed 90°. Now no light
emerges and all the light is totally internally reflected. The inside surface of the glass
behaves like a perfect mirror. This is called a total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection occurs when
V a ray of light is inside the optically denser of two media
V the angle of incidence at the surface is greater than the critical angle for the
pair of media.
Using the relation
sin i sin c sin c

n g, a = = =
sin r sin 90 ° 1
the critical angle of a material is calculated using the formula
1
sin c = n
Practical Applications of the Total Internal Reflection of Light
Refer to Figure 24.

The total internal reflection of light is used in a lot of optical devises and also in the
field of engineering.
The prism is one example where the total reflection is used for optical devises. A
prism is a block of glass or transparent material with a triangular section. They are
available in various shapes and sizes with different angles between the three sides.
A prism with one 90° corner and two 45° corners can be used to turn a ray of light
through 90° (Figure 24, detail a)). Such a right--angled prism is used in periscopes in
preference to a plane mirror because there is no exposed silvered surface to become
damaged and there are no multiple reflections.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 13
The ray is totally internally reflected once, because the angle of incidence i = 45° is
greater than the critical angle for glass to air, c = 42°. The ray is deviated by 90°.
The right--angled prism can also turn rays of light through 180° by two total internal
reflections (detail b)). These eliminate lateral inversion because reflection has
occurred twice, but the image is seen inverted. Two pairs of these prisms are used in
prism binoculars to reduce the length of the instrument and produce an erect final
image for the whole instrument.
2.4.1.5 Lenses and Optical Instruments
Lenses produce images similar to those by curved mirrors, but they do so by

refracting light rather than reflecting it.
Convex and Concave Lenses
Refer to Figure 25.
Like curved mirrors, lenses are either convex or concave in form. Convex lenses are
thickest through the middle, concave lenses are thickest around the edge, but
several variations on these basic shapes are possible. Most lenses are made of
glass and have spherical surfaces.
Light rays passing through a convex or converging lens are bent towards the
principal axis, whereas rays passing through a concave or diverging lens are bent
away from the principal axis.
This process is illustrated in Figure 26 which shows the lenses (convex and
concave) as a series of glass blocks. By means of this representation it can be seen
how the bending of light rays takes place in each block.
Light passing through the central block emerges in the same direction as it arrives
because the faces of this block are parallel. P marks the optical center of the lens.
Principal Focus
Figure 27 shows how rays travelling parallel to the principal axis are refracted by a
convex and concave lens. The rays passing through the convex lens converge to a
point F (detail a)); the rays passing through the concave lens diverge as if travelling
outwards from a point F (detail b)). In each case, F is the principal focus of the lens
and the distance from F to P is called the focal length.
Rays of light can pass through a lens in either direction, so every lens has two
principal foci, one on each side of the optical center. However, the distances FP and
F’P are equal independent of the shape of the lens.
The focal length of a lens depends on the curvature of each surface, but the
connection is not as simple as it is in the case of a curved mirror. In general, the
more highly curved the surface, the shorter is the focal length; thus the thick lens
shown in detail c) has a shorter focal length then the thin lens.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 14
Images Formed by Convex Lenses
Note: Convex lenses are very similar to concave mirrors in their image
forming properties.
Refer to Figure 28.
If an object is placed more than 2f away from a convex lens along the principal axis
an image is formed which is:
V smaller than the object
V inverted
V real, that means it can be picked up on a screen.
If this object is brought towards the convex lens, the image moves further away from
the lens and becomes larger.
Similar as it is performed for curved mirrors, the position and the size of the image
can be found by drawing a ray diagram.
For this purposes, any two of the three rays shown in Figure 29, detail a to c) are
sufficient to fix the position and size of the image.
V A ray of light through the optical center P of the lens. This passes through the
lens unbent (detail a)).
V A ray of light parallel to the principal axis. This passes through F when it
leaves the lens (detail b)).
V A ray of light through F’. This leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis (de-
tail c)). It is equivalent to the ray described before.
Detail d) shows a complete ray diagram including all three rays. The object is
situated more than 2f away from the lens and thus the image is real, inverted and
smaller than the object.
Images Formed by Concave Lenses
Concave lenses are very similar to convex mirrors in their image forming properties.
As shown in Figure 30, a concave lens forms an upright, virtual image of any object
placed in front of it. The image is always smaller than the object and closer to the
lens. If the position of the object is changed, the position and the size of the image is
changed as well.
Application of Lenses
Lenses find application in all kinds of optical instruments. Using a lens system an
image is picked up from the outside world on a special screen. The human eye also
contains a lens system and pick up images like a camera.
The Camera
Refer to Figure 31.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 15
In a camera a convex lens is used to form a small, inverted, real image on a piece of
photographic film. The film, which is normally kept in total darkness, contains a
light--sensitive chemical called silver bromide.
When the camera button is pressed down, a shutter in front of the film opens then
shuts again, exposing the film to light for a brief moment only. Different intensities
and colours of light across the image cause varying chemical changes in the film,
which can later be developed, ’fixed’ and used in printing a photograph.
For distant objects, the film must lie at the principal focus of the lens if the image is to
be in sharp focus. For closer objects, the distance between lens and film must be
increased. Accurate focusing of the image is achieved by screwing the lens
backwards or forwards in its holder to suit the particular object distance.
On many cameras, the shutter speed can be varied, with exposure times ranging
from perhaps 1/15 s to 1/1000 s. Shortening the exposure time cuts down the
amount of light reaching the film, and reduces blurring if moving objects are being
photographed.
Prism Binoculars
Refer to Figure 32.
Another optical instrument commonly used are prism binoculars. Two prisms are
placed between the objective and the eyepiece lens. This arrangement has the
advantage to get a relative small instrument by passing the light along the tube three
times and also it produces an erect final image.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 16
A light ray
Pearl lamp
A 8309
Screens with a single small hole
at the same height above the bench
Figure 1 Light Travels in Straight Lines
a) The shadow from a point Light
source of light
Notes
Preliminary
Pearl lamp
White
screen
Screen with Opaque Region of total darkness Total Shadow with
small hole object called the umbra darkness a sharp edge
= point source
2.4
Light Light
b) The shadow from an

extended source of light
Module 2
Light
. . ..... . . . ........ . ... . .
. . ........................................... . . .......................................................................................
. .................... ........................................... . ................... .. .. ......... ... .................. ..
.. . . .. . . .
. ........ .
...
..
............................................................................................................. .
.....
... . ..
.. .
. . . . ...................................... ...........
................................. ......................................
......................................................................
................
....................................... ........... . ..... .......
............................
................... ........... ....... ...........
.............. ..... ..........................................................
.................... Grey ................... .................... ......................... ................... ....... .. ...
............................................ ....
...... ...
.....
........................................................ ...
........
... .................................. ... .........
........................................ ...
...........................
.....
................... .. .. .............................................................................................................................................
.....................................................
........... ...... .
......
.... . ...................... ..
. . .
..
... . .. .. . . . . .. .. .... . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .
.
....................................... . ..
................. Dark .......................................... .......................... ........................... ....
.............................
.... .... ..............
...
. ...
.......................................... ... . .......................................
... . . . . . . . . ..
..............................................
................................................
.. ..
................ ...... ................................................. . . . . . .. .... .
......
...........
...............................
....................... .......................
...................... ........... ........................................... ......................
................................ .............. . . ..
. ................... .
.............
..................................................
. . . . . . . . .
.
...... ......... .... .................. .. .. ...........
............... .
...
............................ ...................... ......................... ....................
.......... ...
....... ..............................................
..
.... .......................................... .............................. ................ .. ....................... .. ............................. ... ........................

.
. ....
. ....
. . . ...... ....................... .
. .. .
...
............
..
.. ............................. ..............................
......
.
...
Large pearl lamp . . .. .... ............... .
=extended source White

screen
Opaque Umbra
A 8310 A
object
The penumbra gets darker Light reaches here from the
towards the centre and lower part of the source
merges with the umbra only the screen is grey here
Figure 2 Shadows

Optics
2.4.1 - HO - 17
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 18
.. ................ .. ............. ................................... . ..

........................... ...........................................................................................
........................... ...... .
.....................
........................... ......................................................................................... ................................................
. . . ..
.. .... .
.. ................... . . . .. . .. .
. . .. . . .. ................ . .............. .......... .
..........................................
. .. . . ..............................................
. .
..................... . . . ..
.......... . . .....................................
................................
............... . .....................................
. . . . . . .............................
...................
................... .....
.. . .......................
............................. . .....................................
..................... . ..............................
. . . .. . . . . ..................................
..................................... ...........................
...................... ................... ..............
. ... .. .
..................................
.
.
.. . . . ............ .......
........................................
............................. . ............................
. . . .. .. ... . . . ...................
...............
....................................... . ...... .........
....................................................... ....................................
. ..............
..........................
... . ............................
............... ...... ...
....................................... ...................................
...............
.. . . . .
...........................
.. . .
.. .. .
. . .
.
. . .
.......................
. . . . ..
..................................
......................................... ....................
............................... ..................................
..................... ..
..........
............................. ..... .............. ............................
.............................. . ..
. . . ..........
....... ................. .
............. ..
.
......... ..... .
......................... ............... ........
.................
.. ............................
..
.
..................................... . ........................................................
. . . . ..
....... .................. . .................. ..............
....... ................. .....................................
.................................................. . .. .......................................
............................................... . . . .
... .. ............................
. .
.............
....... ......................................... . .. .................... .........................
........................................................... . ...............................................
.... ....... . .. ...... . . .. ............................................
. ....................................... .................................................................................................................................
............................................
............... .
........................ . . . . . . . . .
............................................................................ ..
......................................................................................... . .
.. .................... .. .. .
.... ............ ........ ... .
A 8311
Figure 3 Total Eclipse of the Sun
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 19
a) Total and partial eclipse of the sun

Sun
Earth
Moon
. . .. . ..............................
......................................................................P
........................................................................
. ............. ... ....A
..............
. ... ..
.........................U
........................................ ....................
... B
.........................................................................................
............... .
.. . ........ . . ..........P ......... ... ......
.
.. ... C
U = umbra
P = penumbra
b) Annular eclipse of the sun

Sun
Earth
.. . . .....................
. . .. .... . ............... ....
Moon . .. . .... . ... ....... .... ...
... .
. . . ..... .. ..............
............................... ..................................................... ...................................
. ..
.
. .................. ............................ .......... .................. ...... .... ...... ..................
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
.. ................ ..............................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . .....
....... ...... .......
................................................. .............................. ... ....................... ........ .. . .
. .................. ............................................. ........................ .................................................
.
..
.. .
.. . .. . . . ... . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. .
... .. .....
. .............
. . . . . . . . .. .
.. . ................ ....... ............... ........ ... . . . . .
......................... ........... ............. ........
. . .
... ........... .. . . ....... .. . .. . .. . ...........
............................................................... .. . . ................ .......
. ......................................................................
. . . . ...... ......................... .. ...... ........................
. ... ..................... .. .....
.
.......... ....... ...........
. . .......
Separation
greater
c) The view from earth
Sun partially eclipsed Moon

At A At C Sun partially eclipsed
Moon
Moon, too small to hide the sun

Moon, sun totally completely
At B At D
eclipsed
Ring of sunlight shows round
the edge of the moon
d) Eclipse of the moon Moon’s orbit
Eclipsed moon
Sun
A 8312
Earth
Earth’s umbra
Figure 4 Solar and Lunar Eclipse
Notes
a) b)
Parallel rays from

Preliminary
a light source
2.4

Mirror or polished surface Rough surface like paper
Module 2
Regular reflection or specular reflection Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection
All parallel rays are randomly reflected

All parallel rays are reflected in the same direction
in different directions
Mirror--like surfaces from images Matt or rough surfaces scatter or diffuse light
A 8313
Figure 5 Types of Reflection

Optics
2.4.1 - HO - 20
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 21
X M Y
i r
Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection
I N R
Normal = line at 90°

to reflecting surface
A 8314
Figure 6 Angle of Incidence and Reflection
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 22
Line of reflected rays

Plane mirror
A 8315
Normal
Different Angles of Incidence

0°
M
15 °
30 °
45 °
60 °
Lamp
Lens
Slit
75 °
Figure 7
Ray box
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 23
Plane
mirror
Virtual image
Bulb of bulb
A 8316
Figure 8 The Virtual Image
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 24
Virtual
Object image
Plane
mirror
A 8317
Figure 9 Image of an Extended Object
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 25
Figure 10 Laterally Inversion
Diagrams on the left
viewed from here
Notes
Preliminary
Eye Eye
End view End view

of pointer of pointer
2.4

Module 2
B 0090
Plane mirror Scale Plane Image of Pointer

mirror pointer
Image of pointer
Incorrect reading, Correct reading, pointer

image of pointer covers it’s image when
can be seen viewed normally
Figure 11 Technical Application of a Plane Mirror

Optics
2.4.1 - HO - 26
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 27
a) Concave and convex surface
Concave surface Convex surface

(caves in) (bulges out)
b) Some mirror shapes
Concave spherical Concave cylindrical

(part of the inside surface of a sphere) (part of the inside surface of a cylinder)
.......
........ ....
............ ......
.. . ..
.............
...... . .
.
..
.
..
...
.. .
............... .
.............. ....
....... . ....
.. ...
Convex spherical Convex cylindrical

(part of the outside surface of a sphere) (part of the outside of a cylinder)
.... ..
...
.................
....... .. .. .
... ................
.. . . ...
. . ......
..
.
.
. ..
..... ......
........
.. .......... .
.. ... .
...................
...
Concave parabolic reflector

Cone
A parabolic shape
is obtained from a
............
.... ......
.... ......
section through a
...........
...............
cone parallel to one
.....
.
..
................. ..
.. ... . . of its sides
.. .. .
............ . . . .
A 8318 A
.. ..
....................................... .
.................... .. ... ..... .........
..
. ....... ... .. .................
.......
..
.....
.
Figure 12 Curved Mirrors
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 28
a)
Converging rays Concave mirror
Parallel rays
F F = real focus
b)
Convex mirror
Virtual rays
Parallel rays F = virtual focus

A 8319 A
Diverging rays
Figure 13 Converging and Diverging Actions of

Curved Mirrors
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 29
L
M
a)
i
Concave
r mirror
Principal axis C F P
f
R
b)
r
M
L i
Principal axis P F C
Convex mirror
A 8320
Figure 14 Curved Mirror Definitions
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 30
Concave mirrors Convex mirrors

A ray parallel to the principal A ray parallel to the principal
axis is reflected through F axis is reflected as if it came from F
1 1
C F P P F C
A ray arriving through F is reflected A ray arriving in line with F is reflected

parallel to the principal axis, parallel to the principal axis,
2 is 1 reversed 2 is 1 reversed
C F P P F C
A ray arriving through C strikes the A ray arriving in line with C strikes the
mirror at right angles and returns mirror at right angles and returns
along the same path through C along the same path away from C
3
3
C F P P F C
A 8321
Figure 15 Special Rays Used in Ray Diagrams
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 31
a) Object O between F and P Image I is

used as a magnifying i) virtual
or shaving mirror 3 ii) erect
C P iii) magnified
iv) behind the mirror
F O I
1
b) Object O at F
3
used as a reflector to C P
produce parallel beams Image I is at infinity
F
of light as in a 1 O
spotlight
c) Object O between F and C Image I is
C i) real
ii) inverted
3 OF P
iii) magnified
1 iv) beyond C
d) Object O at C O
1 Image I is
used as a reflector 2
C P i) real
behind a projector F ii) inverted
lamp iii) same size as object
I iv) also at C
e) Object O beyond C 1 Image I is

3
C I F P i) real
O ii) inverted
iii) diminished
iv) between C and F
f) Object O at infinity
Image I is
used to form images
of distant objects as C 2 F P i) real
in a reflecting ii) inverted
3
telescope iii) diminished
A 8322
I
iv) at F
Figure 16 Images Formed by a Concave Mirror
Notes
Preliminary
1
The image is formed Convex mirror Image is
where the rays entering i) virtual
the eye appear to 1 ii) erect
come from 3 iii) diminished
3 iv) between F and P,
behind the mirror
O
2.4
P I F C

All object positions
Module 2
A 8323
Figure 17 The Image Formed by a Convex Mirror

Optics
2.4.1 - HO - 32
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 33
I i P
O C r
v
u
A 8324
Figure 18 Magnification
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 34
. . . ...
. .....................................................................................
................................................. . ... ........... ...........................
. . . .................................................... .......... ................. ............
. .. ........................................
..
.... . .. . ... . .. .. . . .. . ...
.............................. ............... .... ................ .... . ............... ...................................
. . .......... . . .... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .... . . .............
. . .
.. . ........ . . . . . . .................
.................... . .. . .. . ..
.......... ... . ... .. . ... ............... .. ......... .. .. .. .....................
.......................... .
.... . .... .. ........ .. .... . .... . . . . .........................
.......................
..
. .. .
. . . . . .... ........ ......... . .
..
. . .
. ..
. ........................................
... ......... ... ......... ....... .. . ....... ..... ........ . . . . . .
. .
................... . .. ... . .
. . . .. . . .... . . ..................
... . . ............. ........ ............ . .
.................. ... . . . . .. ..... . .......... ...... ... . ............
..
. ....
.
. .
.. . . .. .. ............. . . ...........
.
. .......... . . . .. .. . . . ...
.......... . . ................. . . . ........ .. ...... . .
.. .................
......... .. .. .... .... ............... . . ...... ................. . . .... .... .... ......................
.................... ..... ................................................................................................... ......... ... ... .......... .......................
.......................... ........................... . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . ...
............ ... . . .................. ....................... .......... ...................................................... ....... ....................
. . .. . .. . . . . .
............... ...... .. .. ...... ....... .... ............. .... ........ ....... . .. . ... .. .. ...
........... . . .. . ... ............. ...... ..... ........... ..... ...... ........... . . .. . ..
............. .. . .. .... ............ . .. . .... . .... .... . ....... .
................... . . . .................... ................. ......... ......... .......... .................. ................. .
. .. . . .. . . . . .
........................... ...... . .......... . ......... .. ........ .......... . . . . .. .. ..
. .................. ........ .. . . . . .... . . .....
......................... . ...... .. .. ...... . ... ..................................
................ ......... . ..... ..... . .................. ..................
.................................. ......... ...................... ...........
.................................................................
. ..................... ................. .............. .
. .. .. .
A 8325
Figure 19 Bending of Light Rays
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 35
Normal
i
X Parallel--sided
glass block
A 8326
Lateral
displacement
Figure 20 Refraction of Light
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 36
i = 15°
Air sin 15 ° 0.26

=
Glass sin 10 ° 0.17
= 1.5
r = 10°
i = 45 °
Air sin 45 ° 0.71

=
r = 28° = 1.5
i = 60 °
Air sin 60 ° 0.87

=
r = 35°
= 1.5
A 8327
Figure 21 The Refractive Index
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 37
a) Eye
Refraction at the surface

Air
Water
Apparent Real
depth depth
Eye
Normals
b)
r
Air
Water X Y
i
I
i
B 0091
Figure 22 Real and Apparent Depth
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 38
a) Angle of incidence i < critical angle c

Normal
r Refracted ray
Air
Glass
Incident ray Weak reflected ray
i c =i
b) Angle of refraction r = 90° then

Angle of incidence i = critical angle c
r = 90° Refracted ray

grazing along
surface
Air
Glass
i=c =c
c) Angle of incidence i >critical angle c

total internal reflection occurs
No emerging
Air refracted light
Glass
i c =i
Totally internally
reflected ray
A 8328 A
Figure 23 The Total Refraction
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 39
a) A right--angled prism used to deviate a ray by 90°
45°
Normal
i Ray turned through 90°
90°
i = 45°
c = 42 ° for glass
... i c and total internal
reflection occurs
b) A right--angled prism used to turn rays of light through 180°
45°
Image inverted
I
A 8329
Ray turned through 180°
Figure 24 The Prism
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 40
Convex lenses
A 9999
Concave lenses
Figure 25 Convex and Concave Lenses
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 41
a)
b)
P
B 0001
Figure 26 Refraction of Light by Lenses
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 42
a)
Convex (converting) lens
Principal
focus
P F
F’
Focal length f
b)
Concave (diverging) lens
F’
Principal P
focus F
Focal length f
c)
B 0002
Long focal length Short focal length
Figure 27 Parallel Rays and Lenses
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 43
B 0092
Real inverted small image

Convex lens
Figure 28 Image Formed by a Convex Lens

on screen
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 44
a)
F’ F
b)
F’ F
c)
F’ P F
B 0003
d)
2
1
Objekt beyond 2F’ P
F
3
2F’ F’
Image: real inverted,

smaller than object
Figure 29 Rays Used to Construct an Image by

Drawing
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 45
Concave lens
Object
Image: virtual, upright;

smaller than object
B 0004
Figure 30 Image Formed by a Concave Lens
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 46
B 0093
Film
Shutter
Figure 31 Single Lens Camera

Diaphragm
Convex lens
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.1 - HO - 47
Eyepiece lens
B 0094
Objective lens
Figure 32 Prism Binoculars
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 1
2.4 Optics
2.4.2 Fibre Optics
2.4.2.1 Introduction
Light as carrier for any information is used by the military for centuries. A typical
example is the modulation of a light source by using a code (Morse code). This
system called ’flashing light signalling’ is still used today.
The modulation consists of a high--intensity lamp with a parabolic reflector for
focusing and a shutter system that is opened and closed according to the Morse
code. At the receiving side the operator reads the light flashes to decode the
message.
The information rate of a system like this is, however, mechanically and physiologi-
cally limited.
The development of optical fibres in the 1970s spurred the designer to develop
communication links at which optical fibres are used as transmission medium to
guide light from a transmitter to a receiver.
An advantage of such systems is the low power loss of 20 dB per kilometer
compared to more than 1,000 dB/km previously.
Today, optical fibres link the countries on both sides of the Atlantic as well as those of
the pacific oceans.
As shown in Figure 1 a fibre--optic communication link consists of
V a transmitter
V an optical fibre as transmission medium
V a receiver.
A fibre--optic communication system can be a local area network (LAN) with a large
number of terminals (transmitters and receivers) which operates over relatively short
distances or a wideband long--haul communication link.
The latter transports cable television, telephone and high--speed data.
The advantages of optical fibres as a transmission medium are:
V such a fibre is made of a dielectric like glass or plastic, and the signal it
carries is light. There is neither a conductive path nor a metallic connection
between the two ends of the link. Glass and plastic fibres are very light-
weight, flexible and resilient
V the attenuation of optical fibres is not frequency--dependant as it is known
from electrical coaxial cables. Therefore a wide bandwidth over long dis-
tances is possible and high data rates can be transported over long distances
without repeaters or equalisers
V the carrier of the information is optical and the transmission medium is a di-
electric, optical fibre. So transmissions are not affected by conventional elec-
tric interferences like stray RF or other electromagnetic energy, high voltage
or lightning
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 2
V glass is unaffected by most chemicals and solvents. Optical fibres can be

used in chemical plants as well as in oil and gas refineries. A broken fibre will
not cause a spark, which could lead to a explosion
V short circuits can not occur, thus overload problems will not arise.
All these advantages make the fibre--optic medium a good choice for many applica-
tions.
2.4.2.2 Fundamentals of Light

Refer to Figure 2.
Light is one of the nature’s most important information carrier, it is one form of
electromagnetic energy. The human eye can detect electromagnetic energy covering
the frequency range of about
3.9⋅1014 Hz to 7.5⋅1014 Hz
wherein the lower frequency is identified as red and the higher frequency is identified
as violet. This frequency range of electromagnetic energy is called ’visible light’.
Using the formula
λ = c
f
where: c = velocity of light (3 ⋅ 108 meter/second (m/s))
l = (lambda) wavelength (meter (m))
f = frequency (Hertz (Hz))
the frequency range of the visible light corresponds to a wavelength of about 770
nanometer (nm) to 400 nm.
The electromagnetic energy below red is called ’infrared’ and the electromagnetic
energy above the violet is called ’ultra--violet’. Both are not visible.
It is the potential bandwidth and the electromagnetic integrity of this information
carrier that makes optical communication so important.
Example: A 430,000 GHz (4.3⋅1014 Hz) carrier in a 10 % bandwidth system is able to carry
43,000 Gigabit (Gb) of data, which could be used for 3.6 million TV programs or
more than 4 billion analog telephone conservations.
The light wavelengths being used in fibre--optic systems include the ranges of
V 770 nm to 860 nm
V 1,100 nm to 1,600 nm.
The most popular wavelengths used are
V 820 nm
V 1,300 nm
V 1,550 nm.
Note: The wavelength of light may also be expressed in ’angstroms’ (10 --10 meter). The
wavelengths above correspond with 8,200 angstroms, 13,000 angstroms and
15,500 angstroms.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 3
The amount of energy in light is proportional to its frequency:
W = h⋅c
λ
where: h = 6.626⋅10 --34 js (joule--seconds); this is called the
Plank’s constant
c = velocity of light
λ = wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation.
2.4.2.3 Light Propagation in Glass Fibres
It is already known that light in the free space propagates at a speed of about 3⋅108
m/s.
If the dielectric medium is water instead of free space, the velocity of light will be
reduced by about 25 %, and in various types of glass, light is about 33 % to 47 %
slower than in free space.
Note: The different velocities are caused by the different densities of the materials.
Due to the different velocities of light waves travelling in various mediums, the light
beam is refracted when it travels from one dielectric medium into another one. The
amount of refraction due to changes in the dielectric constant of a medium is
expressed by the index of refraction. This is the ratio of free--space velocity to the
medium propagation velocity:
n = cv
where: n = index of refraction

c = propagation velocity in free space
v = propagation velocity in the medium.
The table below shows the index of refraction of light waves for various materials:
V air 1.00
V water 1.33
V glass (approximately) 1.5
V fused quartz 1.46
V diamond 2.4
V silicon 3.4
V gallium arsenide (GaAs) 3.6.
A waveguide for propagating light can be made from a strand (fibre) of glass of the
thickness of a human hair. When light rays enter into the fibre end, it will propagate
like it happens in a radar waveguide. The wave will be reflected back and forth of the
sides of the fibre.
However, this waveguide is not surrounded by a mirror--like conductor, but rather by

a dielectric with a different refractive index from that of the fibre core.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 4
Critical Angle of Incidence and Total Reflection
When a single electromagnetic wave reaches a smooth interface separating the fibre
and the surrounding medium with different refractive index, the wave will either be
totally reflected back into the fibre or partially reflected and partially refracted. In the
latter case the wave will partially escape from the fibre core.
The smallest angle from the vertical axis for which total reflection occurs is called
critical angle of incidence.
The critical angle in Figure 3 occurs when q2 equals 90°. At this angle, the refracted
wave travels parallel to the interface.
The following equation (Snell’s law) is used to determine the critical angle:
n
 
θ 1cr = sin −1 n 2
1
where: q1cr = critical angle of incidence

n1 = index of refraction of medium 1 (i.e. medium
left by the light)
n2 = index of refraction of medium 2 (i.e. medium
entered by the light).
To cause total reflection of the incident light, n2 must be less than n1. This is because
for total reflection
n
sin θ 1 = n 2 < 1.
1
As shown in Figure 3, in case of total reflection the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence. This is because the light is reflected (back) into the same medium
as it was before and thus ’n2’ = n1.
Example: Calculate the critical angle beyond which an ideal underwater light source will not
shine into the air above.
n
 
θ 1cr = sin −1 n 2
1
θ 1cr = sin −1 1.33

1.0  = 48.6 ° .
Note: The optical fibres used in the field of communication are made typically with a
glass core of n = 1.5 (n1) which is coated with a glass or plastic of slightly lower
refractive index of n = 1.485 (n2). This gives the fibre a large value of 81.9° for
the critical angle of incidence which enables longer distances between subse-
quent points of reflection.
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 5
E 2443
Fibre--Optical Communication Link

Receiver
Optical fibre
Figure 1
Transmitter
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 6
Ultra--violet
400 nm
Violet
Visible light
1014 Hz (THz)
SHF
109 Hz (GHz) (3 GHz -- 30 GHz)
Red
770 nm
UHF Infrared
(300 MHz -- 3 GHz)
VHF
(30 MHz -- 300 MHz)
HF
(3 MHz -- 30 MHz)
106 Hz (MHz)
MF
(300 kHz -- 3 MHz)
LF
(30 kHz -- 300 kHz)
VLF
(3 kHz -- 30 kHz)
103 Hz (kHz)
FE 2444
Figure 2 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Energy
Physics
Notes 2.4 2.4.2 - HO - 7
Axis
n1 > n2
Refracted wave
q2
Interface
n2 n2
n1 ’n2’ = n1
q1
Reflected wave
FE 2445
Fibre core
Figure 3 Refraction and Total Reflection
Physics
Preliminary Module 2 Wave Motion and Sound
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 1
2.5.1 Waves
2.5.1.1 Wave Motion
Wave motion can be observed on many occasions. For example, wave motion is
produced when a stone is thrown into a pond of still water (Figure 1, detail a)). The
ripples travel radially outwards but the movement of a floating object, e.g. a piece of
wood, would indicate that the water only moves up and down at any particular
position.
Thus, while the crest of the wave travels from A to B as shown in Figure 1, detail b),
the particles of water at point a move down to a1 while those at point b move up to b1
and so on.
Refer to Figure 2.
Another example of wave motion is produced when the end of a spring is moved
sideways. The end turn pulls the adjacent turn sideways. This again pulls the next
turn a fraction of a second later, and so on. In this way, sideways movements are
passed from turn to turn, and the ’travelling wave’ effect is produced.
In the same way as the waves travelling on the water, the turns themselves do not
move in the direction of travel. Instead they move to and fro (oscillate) about the
position which they would occupy if there were no movement at all.
As the waves pass along the spring, the turns initially at rest are set in motion. For
this, energy is necessary which is transferred from one end of the spring to the other.
Thus, it can be stated that waves transfer energy from one point to another point.
The wave motion described above is made up of vibrations of an object’s individual

parts. Waves produced in such a way are called ’mechanical waves’.
All mechanical waves require a medium or material to travel through and they cause
the individual particles of that medium to vibrate or oscillate. When there is no object
or material which can be brought to vibrate then no wave motion would be present at
all.
Note: In order to distinguish between a single wave motion and a continuous group of
waves, the single wave motion is called a ’pulse’ and the continuous wave group
with features which repeat regularly is called a ’wavetrain’.
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Transverse and longitudinal waves are the two main types of waves.
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves can be recognised by their crests and troughs. A single transverse
pulse is produced by a quick flick of the hand, a left--and--right movement at right
angles to the longitudinal axis of the spring (Figure 3, detail a)).
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 2
A transverse wavetrain is produced by swinging the hand left and right (at right
angles to the longitudinal axis of the spring) at a constant frequency of approx. 4
hertz. If the spring is long enough the waves can be seen travelling continuously in
one direction (Figure 3, detail b)).
Definition:
Transverse waves are ones in which the displacement of the parts is at right
angles to the direction of travel of the wave motion.
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves can be recognised by their compressions and rarefactions. In

areas of compression, the particles are pushed together, and in areas of rarefactions
they are pulled apart.
Figure 4, detail a), shows a single longitudinal pulse. It is produced by a quick jerk of
the hand forwards and backwards along the center--line of the spring.
A longitudinal wavetrain is shown in Figure 4, detail b). It can be seen travelling along
the spring if the hand is oscillated backwards and forwards (in line with the spring)
several times at a constant rate.
Definition:
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the parts is in line
with or parallel to the direction of travel of the waves.
Both, transverse and longitudinal waves are progressive (or: travelling) waves.
Progressive Waves
Definition:
A progressive (or: travelling) wave is the movement of a disturbance which
carries energy away from a source.
In order to complete the statement given by the definition, the following features of
progressive (or: travelling) waves should be mentioned:
V A progressive (or: travelling) wave carries energy.
V Usually, the medium or material through which a wave travels does not travel
with the wave.
V The particles of the medium, which are displaced by the wave motion, vibrate
about their rest position, but do not travel with the wave.
V Each particle in the wave motion vibrates in the same way, but the vibrations
have a time lag in the direction of travel of the wave.
V The shape of the pulse or wavetrain remains the same as it travels through a
medium, but its amplitude becomes smaller as the energy is lost or the wave
is spread out.
V The speed of a wave is not affected by the shape of the waves or their ampli-
tude, but by the nature of the medium.
If it were possible to take a photograph of a transverse wavetrain, the instantaneous
picture would show the displacement of the particles along the wavetrain at a single
moment (Figure 5, detail a)).
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 3
The distance between two successive crests or between two successive troughs is
defined as the wavelength of the transverse wave. Similarly, the wavelength of a
longitudinal wave is the distance between two successive compressions or two
successive rarefactions. The symbol of the wavelength is the Greek letter ’λ’ (spoken:
’lambda’).
Definition:
The wavelength 'λ' is the distance between two successive particles which are at
exactly the same position in their path at the same time and are moving in the
same direction.
The presentation shown in Figure 5, detail b), can be compared to the graph
obtained for a single vibrator. It can be seen that the motion of a particle in a
wavetrain is exactly the same as the motion of a single vibrating object. In particular,
the motion is repeated regularly with a constant period T and has the same char-
acteristic sine wave shape.
It follows that the definitions of values such as period, frequency and amplitude of a
wavetrain are the same as those of a single vibrator except that now the motion of a
particle in the wavetrain is described.
Thus, for a wavetrain it can be stated as well:

V The period ’T’ (in seconds) is the time necessary for a particle in the wave-
train to make one complete oscillation.
V The frequency ’f’ (in hertz) is the number of complete oscillations made in
one second by a particle in a wavetrain.
V The amplitude ’a’ is the maximum displacement of the particles in the wave-
train from their rest positions.
Wave Speed
Another important factor of travelling pulses and wavetrains is the speed at which
they travel. Observations of pulses and wavetrains travelling along a spring suggest
that the shape and amplitude of a wave do not affect its speed.
Another observation proves that the speed of a wavetrain does not depend on the
frequency of a vibration.
Example: When people listen to an orchestra, the waves of high--frequency sounds and
low--frequency sounds arrive at the listener at the same time. This means, the
sounds have travelled at the same speed.
However, there is a link between the speed of a wave, the wavelength and the
frequency of vibration of the particles through which a wavetrain passes. The relation
between these quantities is given by the so--called ’wave equation’:
wave speed = frequency × wavelength.

Using the symbol ’c’ for the wave speed, symbol ’f’ for the frequency of oscillation
and symbol λ for the wavelength, the wave equation can be written as follows:
c = f ⋅ λ, ms = 1
s ⋅ m

Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 4
The formula above is true for all types of wave motion. It describes that each particle
in a wavetrain makes f complete oscillations in one second. Figure 6 shows that the
wavetrain moves forward f wavelengths (i.e. a distance of f × λ) while a particle A
makes f complete oscillations during one second. The distance moved by the
wavetrain in one second is the wave speed c.
Another important factor for the speed of a wavetrain is the nature of the medium or
material through which the wave travels. So, a sound wave for example, travels
through water at a higher speed than through the air.
Examples of Progressive Travelling Waves
Waves appear in different forms depending on the nature of the medium or material
where they occur. In order to produce waves the particles of the particular medium
must be brought to vibration.
Water waves can be considered to be transverse waves, because that is what they
look like. Floating objects like corks move up and down on the surface as a wave
passes.
Sound waves are created by sound as it travels through the air producing compres-
sion and rarefaction of the gas molecules. Thus, sound waves are a common
example of longitudinal waves.
Light also travels in the form of waves. It travels in transverse progressive wave-
trains. Light waves as well as radio waves belong to the electromagnetic spectrum.
They do not belong to the mechanical waves and do not need any medium to travel
through.
Light, like all the other waves in the electromagnetic spectrum, is believed to involve
vibrating electric and magnetic fields which travel along at right angles both to each
other and to the direction of travel of the waves. Magnetic and electric fields can exist
in vacuum and do not require any medium.
Properties of Progressive Waves
Note: The properties of progressive waves are explained by means of water waves,
because these can be seen on a pond, a river or even in the bath.
Although the properties of progressive waves can be seen on a pond, for studying
them in a laboratory a so--called ’ripple tank’ is used (Figure 7, detail a)). The waves
in this tank are produced by a small electric vibrator mounted on a bar. They are
ripples travelling across the surface of the water in the tray. The bar produces plane
(straight) waves. Circular waves are produced by fixing a small metal ball to the bar
as shown in Figure 7, detail b). The bottom of the tray is transparent so that a lamp
can be used to cast an image of the ripples on a white screen placed underneath.
Reflection
Water waves are reflected when an obstacle is placed in their path. Figure 8, detail
a), shows the reflection of water waves by a plane surface. As it is known from light
waves, the original and the reflected wave fronts are straight and have equal
spacing. The original and the reflected waves have the same speed and wavelength.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 5
Figure 8, detail b), shows what happens with a straight wave front when it is reflected
by a concave surface. The reflected waves are brought to a focus and then continue
outwards.
Refraction
Refraction occurs when waves are slowed down. This happens generally when
waves leave one medium (e.g. air) and enter another medium (e.g. water), i.e. at the
boundary between two media.
Water waves, for example, travel more slowly when they enter shallow areas
(Figure 9, detail a)). There is no change in their frequency, as this only depends on
the frequency of the vibrator. Considering the wave equation (c = f ⋅ λ) it means that
f is kept constant. But the reduction in speed causes a reduction in wavelength. And,
as the wave fronts follow each other at closer distances, the direction of travel of the
waves also changes.
’Refraction’, as this phenomenon is called, can clearly be observed, when light waves
enter water: the wave front usually does not enter the water vertically but at a certain
angle. The waves first reaching the water surface slow down first and cause the
wave front to change its direction of travel ((Figure 9, detail b)). The light ray seems
to be bent.
Diffraction
Figure 10, detail a), shows the effect of placing two obstacles with a narrow gap
between them in the path of plane waves in the ripple tank. Waves passing through
the gap spread out in all directions and the wave fronts produce a circular. This effect
is called ’diffraction’.
Diffraction is only significant if the size of the gap is comparable with the wavelength
of the waves.
Figure 10, detail b), shows an example of what happens when plane waves pass
through a much wider opening. In the main, the waves continue in their original
direction and the wave fronts remain straight. Some diffraction does occur at the
edges of the wave beam, but the effect is rather slight.
Interference
If two identical sets of waves travel through the same region of water in a ripple tank
(Figure 11, detail a)), they may, depending on their phase, reinforce each other or
cancel out each other. The effect is known as ’interference’.
Figure 11, detail b), illustrates what is called a ’constructive’ interference. The waves
are in phase, both are moving on the water surface in the same direction, and the
amplitude is doubled.
An example of the other extreme is called a ’destructive’ interference (Figure 11,
detail c)). In this case the waves are exactly out of phase and try to move on the
water surface in opposite directions. The forces of the wave fronts cancel each other
out and so there is no movement at all.
Any situation between ’completely in phase’ and ’completely out of phase’ results in
an amplitude which is the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 6
a)
b)
A B
a
b1
Movement of wave
B 0073 A
a1
b
Figure 1 Wave Motion in Water
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 7
B 0074 A
Fixed
end
Bench
’Slinky’ spring
Wave Motion in a Spring

Direction of wave travel
Figure 2
Side--to--side
movements
a) Transverse pulse
Notes
Wave movement
Preliminary
Fixed end
Single movement (left, then right) by hand
b) Transverse wavetrain
Wave movement
Crest
Left
2.5

Module 2
B 8689
Right Trough To fixed end
Hand movement repeated regularly
Notes: The short arrows show the movement of the turns

The long arrows show the movement of the wave
Figure 3 Transverse Waves

2.5.1 - HO - 8
Wave Motion and Sound
Physics
a) Longitudinal pulse
Notes
Wave movement
Fixed end
Preliminary
Rarefaction Compression
Single movement (push/pull) by hand
b) Longitudinal wavetrain Compression Wave movement

Rarefaction
2.5

Module 2
B 8690
Movement of turns To fixed end

Hand movement repeated regularly
Notes: The short arrows show the movement of the turns

The long arrows show the movement of the wave
Figure 4 Longitudinal Waves

2.5.1 - HO - 9
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 10
a) Displacement--position graph
(at a single moment in time, like a photograph)
Displacement
of turns a
Wavelength l
a
B
Mean or A C a
rest position Position along
wavetrain
b) Displacement--time graph
(of a single turn in the wave)
Displacement
of turns a
Period T
Time
a
Mean or
B 0076 A
a
rest position
Figure 5 Graphs of Wavetrains
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 11
A
Time = 0
A = a particle in the wavetrain which
makes f oscillations in 1 second
Wave speed c
A
Time =
1 second
later
B 0077 A
f wavelengths
f ⋅ λ = distance moved by wavetrain in 1 second
Wave speed c = Distance moved by wavetrain

time taken to move
= f ⋅ λ m 
1 s
Figure 6 Wave Equation
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 12
a)
Lamp
Plane Water
waves
Vibrator
Ripples
Wave image
on screen
b)
Circular waves
FB 0078 A
Figure 7 Typical Ripple Tank
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 13
a) Reflection by a plane surface
Original
waves
Reflected waves
b) Reflection by a concave surface
Original
waves
B 0007 A
Figure 8 Reflection of Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 14
a) Speed reduction causes wavelength reduction
b) Wavelength reduction causes change of direction
Medium 1
Medium 2
B 0079 A
Figure 9 Refraction of Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 15
a) Narrow gap
Narrow gap Diffraction
b) Wide gap
B 0008 A
Wide gap
Figure 10 Diffraction of Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.1 - HO - 16
a) Interference of circular waves
S1
S2
b) Amplitudes are added when waves are in phase
c) Amplitudes eliminate each other when waves are out of phase

B 0080 A
Figure 11 Interference of Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 1
2.5.2 Sound
2.5.2.1 Physical Characteristics of Sound
Everybody nows that sounds from distant sources reach our ears through the air and
also through solids. For example, music can be heard through a solid wall when it is
loud enough. Another example are whales which communicate by sounds over great
distances through the sea and thus it proves that sound waves also travels through
liquids.
The experiment presented in Figure 1 shows a bell located in a glass jar. When the
switch is closed, the bell starts to ring and everybody will hear the sound.
In a second experiment, the glass is sealed so that no air can come inside the jar. By
means of a vacuum pump the air inside the glass jar is removed; thus, there is a
vacuum inside the jar.
When now the switch is closed the bell will also start to ring but nobody will hear it,
although everybody can see that the hammer of the bell vibrates.
This experiment proves, sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum or through
space. Sound waves need a medium to travel.
Summarised it can be stated that sound waves can travel through solids, liquids and
through gases as well. But sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum or through
space.
2.5.2.2 Propagation of Sound Waves
When a vibrating object, for example the membrane of a loudspeaker, disturbs the
surrounding medium the particles of the medium are displaced in the same direction
as the resulting sound wave will travel. The particles of the medium are first pushed
away by the vibration and then bounce back after collision with more particles further
from the source; thus a longitudinal wave motion is established through the medium.
Definition:
Sound is a longitudinal wave motion and, being mechanical, requires a medium

to travel through.
The motion of sound waves can also be seen in Figure 2. It shows how sound waves
from a loudspeaker produce compression and rarefaction of the (invisible) air
molecules. When molecules are pushed forwards (to the right in the figure) they meet
molecules bouncing backwards (to the left), after collisions with other molecules in
front, a region of compression is produced where the air pressure is higher. In
between the compression areas there are rarefactions where the number of
molecules is reduced and the air pressure is lower.
Thus, a progressive sound wave in air can be described as a travelling pressure

wave in which regions of increased air pressure travel along where the air molecules
are compressed together separated by the regions of reduced air pressure at the
rarefactions.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 2
Figure 2, detail b) shows a wave train which corresponds to the pressure variations
produced by the loudspeaker membrane. The distance between two successive
compressions or two pressure maxima is the wavelength 'λ' of the longitudinal sound
wave.
The amplitude ’α’ of the sound wave is presented as the height of the wave. The
loudness of the sound normally depends on the wave amplitude but in fact there are
other things which affect the loudness of a sound.
Note: The reason is, that the human ear itself is not equally sensitive to all frequencies.
So the perceived loudness of a sound (that is, how loud a person thinks a sound
is) depends upon the response of a particular ear at that particular pitch.
Loudness is therefore partly a subjective judgment (depending on a particular
listener) of a particular sound. What one person thinks is too loud, another may
find enjoyable.
The loudness of a sound also depends on how much energy is carried along with the
wave motion. It is produced by the maximum distance the loudspeaker cone moves
backwards or forwards from its rest position.
If the volume control of a radio receiver is turned up so that the sound suddenly
becomes very loud, particles on or near the loudspeaker cone begin to jump. The
energy provided by the receiver is much more than before the volume control was
turned up, and the air layers are disturbed more than before. This energy now
converted into sound energy is called the intensity of the sound.
Note: The mathematical treatment of wave theory is fairly complex and not part of this
course but it shows that the intensity of a sound wave depends, among other
things, on the wave amplitude squared.
Thus if the amplitude of a wave is doubled, it carries four times more energy per
second away from the source.
Definition:
The intensity of a sound wave is directly proportional to the wave amplitude
squared.
2.5.2.3 The Speed of Sound

As already explained, sound requires a medium to travel through and that its
longitudinal waves set up vibrations of the particles in the medium. Any medium
which has particles that can vibrate will transmit sound, but the nature of the medium
will affect the speed at which the vibrations are passed from particle to particle and
hence the speed of sound through the medium.
Generally, the speed of sound waves can be calculated using the formula which is
used to calculate the speed of any waves:
c = f ⋅ λ (wave speed = frequency x wavelength)

Another method to find out the speed of a particular sound in air is a measurement of
the time the sound needs to travel a particular distance to a wall for example and
back to the source. This method is called echo method because the sound wave
travels to the wall where it is reflected and then back to the position of the source.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 3
Note: Hard surfaces such as walls will reflect sound waves. When people hear an echo
then they hear a reflected sound a short time after the original sound.
Figure 3, detail a) shows an example to determine the speed of sound in air by the
echo method.
In this example a person stays 100 m apart from a wall and claps two wooden blocks
together at such a rate that each clap coincides with the echo of the one before. By
counting and timing, say, twenty claps it will be timed twenty echos, so the time taken
for one echo can be calculated using the relation:
distance traveled by sound
speed of sound =
time taken
Note: For calculations it should be noted that the sound travels the distance to the wall
two times; one time from the source to the wall and second time from the wall
back to the source. Thus, the distance source/wall used for calculations must be
doubled.
Figure 3, detail b) shows an example at which the sound pulses are reflected from
the sea bed. The time taken for the way the sound has travelled is used to estimate
the depth of the water under a boat for example. This method is used by echo--
sounding equipment which is fitted to some boats to find out water depth under the
boat.
If the distance between the source of the sound and the reflecting object (wall or sea
bed) is exactly the same, for example 100 m, the time the sound needs to travel the
distance is not the same. The time the sound needed to travel the distance through
the water is considerably shorter than the time the sound needed to travel the
distance through the air.
In general, it can be stated that the speed of sound varies considerable depending
on the material through which the waves are travelling. Sound waves travel more
rapidly through liquids than through gases, and fastest of all through solids.
The strong binding between atoms in solids is the reason for the higher speed of
sound waves travelling through solid material than through liquids or gases.
A good example to demonstrate the higher speed of sound waves travelling through
a solid material than to the air is given by the comparison of the railway sounds which
can be heard as the ear is laid on the rail long time before the sound is heard via the
air. This proves, the sound which travels through the rail (medium steel) arrives well
before the sound which comes through the air.
The speed of sound through liquids is also faster than through gases, but the
relatively weaker binding between atoms in a liquid results in a lower speed of sound
in liquids than in solids.
Figure 4 shows the speed of sounds travelling through a solid, liquid and gas. The
values given are only approximate because there are several other factors besides
the fact whether the medium is a solid, liquid or gas which affect the speed of sound
waves through.
Particularly the temperature is one factor affecting the speed of the sound. So is the
speed of sound in air at 0° C, for example 331 m/s at a temperature of 20° C the
speed is 340 m/s. So it can be seen, that the speed of sound travelling through a
medium increases with temperature.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 4
Another factor affecting the speed of sound waves through gases is the humidity of
that medium. Because moist air is slightly less dense than dry air and sound travels
more quickly in gases of lower density, the speed of sound is also slightly greater in
moist air than in dry air.
2.5.2.4 Reflection and Refraction of Sound Waves
Reflection
That sound waves are reflected has been mentioned already. In this way sound
waves obey the same laws of reflection as water waves and light rays as well. The
fact that sound waves are reflected by other materials is applied in various fields of
engineering.
Figure 5, detail a) shows an example how sound waves can be used to obtain the
depth of water below a ship. This echo method is used by ships in an instrument
which is called fathometer.
This device measures the time interval between the sending out of a pulse of
ultrasound and its echo arriving back from the sea bed. Then the time interval is used
to calculate the depth of water below the ship. For example, if the time interval is 0.8
s and the speed of ultrasound in water is 1,500 m/s, the depth of water is calculated
as follow;
distance = 1,500 m/s x 0.8 s = 1,200 m
The result shows the total distance the sound travelled including the way from the
ship to the sea bed and from the sea bed back to the ship. Thus, the sound travelled
the way two times. For that reason the total distance calculated must be divided by 2.
Thus, the depth of the water below the ship is
depth of the water = 1,200 : 2 = 600 m
The result shows, the depth of water below the ship is 600 m.
Another example for the application of the reflection of sound waves is the so called
’speaking tube (Figure 5, detail b)). Speaking tubes are often used for passing
messages on ships.
A speaking tube is a metal tube with a funnel at each end which will pass sound
waves in either direction through the air inside. Sound will travel through the bent
tube, being totally internally reflected at the inside surfaces of the metal tube.
Refraction of Sound Waves
Refer to Figure 6.
Refraction occurs when the speed of the wave changes. The speed of sound waves
in air is affected by the air temperature, so if sound waves pass through layers of air
at different temperatures they will be refracted or turned in a different direction.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 5
Figure 6 shows how, on a summer’s evening when the air near the ground becomes
cool, refraction makes it easier to hear distant sounds across the countryside. The
sound waves are bent or refracted down towards the ground.
On a day when the ground is very hot and the lower layers of air are the hottest, the
sound waves are bent upwards away from the ground making it more difficult to hear
over any distance.
2.5.2.5 The Frequency Spectrum of Sound Waves
Figure 7 shows the frequency range of sound waves. At the low--frequency end of
the hearing range it is difficult to say when sound becomes a sensation of vibration.
Below 20 hertz the vibrations are felt rather than heard. This range is called subsonic
(below sound).
At the high--frequency end of the audible range the limit becomes less sensitive as
the frequency rises above about 10 kHz. When people get older, the range of
high--frequency sounds which can be heard is gradually reduced.
Very few people can hear a frequency of 20 kHz; this value forms the upper limit
which can be heard. Thus the full human hearing range is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Above 20 kHz the waves are known as ultrasound (beyond sound). Some animals
can hear ultrasonic frequencies and bats use ultrasound as the same way as radar to
find their way. Many uses have been found for ultrasound where it has several
advantages over audible sound.
Pitch
Pitch is something perceived by the human ear, as opposed to frequency, the

physical measurement of vibration. The note A above middle C played on any
instrument is perceived to be of the same pitch as a pure tone of 440Hz, but does not
necessarily contain that frequency or only that frequency.
Furthermore, a slight change in frequency need not lead to a perceived change in

pitch, but a change in pitch implies a change in frequency. In fact, the just noticeable
difference (the threshold at which a change in pitch is perceived) is about five cents
(1 cent is a 100th of a semitone), but varies over the range of hearing and is more
precise when the two pitches are played simultaneously.
2.5.2.6 Sound Intensity/Amplitude
Sound does not only differ in frequency and pitch but also in intensity. A strong tone
is generated by a powerful sound source and is characterised by strong oscillations.
The waves have larger positive and negative swings and therefore have a higher
oscillation amplitude than weaker waves. Amplitude is a measure of sound intensity.
The intensity is given in terms of decibel (dB).
The intensity or loudness of sonar transmissions is called source level (SL), which
represents the intensity of the sound source (transducer).
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 6
The source level is related to the amplitude of the sound wave. The higher the
source level, the greater the amplitude.
As a general rule, the higher the sonar range, the higher the source level must be.
However, there are limitations on the SL setting. If the transmission power fed to the
transducer were too high, the transducer could be damaged.
The maximum source level is therefore limited according to the capacities of the
individual sonar equipment. Therefore the source level always has to be co--ordi-
nated with range setting.
Acoustic Pulses
A sound signal is generated by a sound source which is any type of transducer.
The signal itself may be emitted either as a continuous tone (high tone, low tone) or
as a sequence of pulses.
In sonar systems the continuous wave is cut into segments. The wave is said to be
’pulsed’. A pulse is, therefore, a ’package’ of sound waves.
A sonar signal consists of

V a sound wave with a distinct frequency and
V a pulse which determines the beginning and the end of the sound wave (fre-
quency).
The pulse acts as a gate for the wave, i.e. the transmission of frequency begins as
soon as the pulse ’opens the gate’. The duration of transmission is determined by the
length of the pulse, which is called pulse width (PW) or pulse duration (PD).
At the end of the pulse the emission of the frequency is cut off.
In practical sonar uses, the SL cannot be adjusted by the sonar operator. It is either a
fixed value or is automatically adjusted in accordance with range setting.
2.5.2.7 The Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect, named after Christian Andreas Doppler, is the apparent change
in frequency or wavelength of a wave that is perceived by an observer moving
relative to the source of the waves. For waves, such as sound waves, that propagate
in a wave medium, the velocity of the observer and the source are reckoned relative
to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may
therefore result from either motion of the source or motion of the observer.
It is important to realise that the frequency of the sounds that the source emits does
not actually change. For example, someone throws one ball every second in your
direction. Assume that the balls travel with constant velocity. If the thrower is
stationary, you will receive one ball every second. However, if he is moving towards
you, you will receive balls more frequently than that because there will be less
spacing between the balls. The converse is true if the person is moving away from
you. So it is actually the wavelength which is affected; as a consequence, the
perceived frequency is also affected.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 7
If the moving source is emitting waves with an actual frequency f0, then an observer
stationary relative to the medium detects waves with a frequency f given by:
v
f = f 0 ⋅ v–v
s,r
where v is the speed of the waves in the medium and vs, r is the speed of the source
with respect to the medium (positive if moving towards the observer, negative if
moving away) radial to the observer.
A similar analysis for a moving observer and a stationary source yields the observed
frequency (the observer’s velocity being represented as vo):
v0
f = f 0 ⋅ (1 + v )
Refer to Figure 8.
Example: The siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary
pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it
recedes from the observer.
Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect:
’The reason the siren slides is because it does not hit you.’
In other words, if the siren approached you directly, the pitch would remain constant
(as vs, r is only the radial component) until the vehicle hit you, and then immediately
jump to a new lower pitch. The difference between the higher pitch and rest pitch
would be the same as the lower pitch and rest pitch. Because the vehicle passes by
you, the radial velocity does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of
the angle between your line of sight and the siren’s velocity:
vs, r = vs ¡ cos θ
where vs is the velocity of the object (source of waves) with respect to the medium,
and θ is the angle between the object’s forward velocity and the line of sight from the
object to the observer.
Application in Radar Technologies
The Doppler effect is also used in some forms of radar to measure the velocity of
detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target -- a car, for example, as
radar is often used by police to detect speeding motorists -- as it recedes from the
radar source.
Each successive wave has to travel further to reach the car, before being reflected
and re--detected near the source. As each wave has to move further, the gap
between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the
radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each success-
ive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength.
In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car’s
velocity.
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 8
Battery
Switch
Rubber bung
Thick glass
bell jar
Fine flexible
wires
Rubber cord
Vibrating
hammer
Bell
B 0082
To vacuum pump
Figure 1 Ringing Bell in a Vacuum
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 9
Invisible air
a) Motion of sound waves molecules
R
Loudspeaker diaphragm C
vibrations R
C
R
C
Loudspeaker
Longitudinal
displacement
of air molecules
Direction of sound waves
b) Pressure variations
λ
Pressure
change Max. pressure
Undisturbed α
air pressure
Distance
Min. pressure
C R C R C R
Legend:
C = Compression
R = Rarefaction
α = Pressure amplitude of the sound waves, which
is the maximum change in the air pressure caused
B 0083 A
by the passing sound waves

λ = Wavelength
Figure 2 Longitudinal Sound Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 10
a) Echo returning
Sound pulse
leaving
d
(about 100 m)
b)
B 0086
Figure 3 Echo Method
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 11
Speed of sound in air 330 m/s

(dry air, at 0° C)
Speed of sound in water 1,400 m/s

(at 0° C)
1,500 m/s
(at 20° C)
Speed of sound in steel 5,000 m/s

A 9912
Figure 4 Approximate Speeds of Sound Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 12
a)
Transmitter Receiver
Pulse of ultrasound
waves sent out Pulse of ultrasound waves
reflected back from sea bed
b) Total internal reflection
i
B 0084
Air
Metal wall of tube
Sound
waves
enter tube
Figure 5 Reflection of Sound Waves
Notes
Preliminary
Warmer air Wavefronts further apart

higher speed of sound in warmer air
N 8894 B
Cooler air
lower speed of sound
2.5

Ground cooler than the air on a summer’s evening
Module 2
Source of sound Observer
Figure 6 Refraction of Sound Waves in Air

2.5.2 - HO - 13
Physics
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 14
107
Ultrasonic frequencies
used in medical diagnosis,
Frequency in hertz
1 MHz to 10 MHz
on a log scale
106
Ultrasound
105
50 kHz: typical ultrasonic
frequency used by a fathometer
20 kHz high pitch

104
103 Range of sound frequencies

heard by human ears
102
20 Hz low pitch
10
Subsonic frequencies:
felt as vibrations or shock
waves, e.g. earthquakes
1
B 0085
Figure 7 Frequency Spectrum of Sound Waves
Physics
Notes 2.5 2.5.2 - HO - 15
A 0742
Figure 8 Example of the Doppler Effect

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Physics

Preliminary Module 2 Matter

2.1.1 Nature of Matter

2.1.1.1 Atomic Structure

Bohr’s model of the atom thus consists of an

circle in the orbit.

Figure 1 shows a highly simplified two--dimensional representation of the atomic

The atomic nucleus consists of

1st shell = K shell with a maximum of 2 electrons

Accordingly, the atomic nucleus is equivalent to a ball with a diameter of some 5

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called

2.1.1.3 Chemical Bonds

Figure 8 shows a diagrammatic representation of the atomic bond of an oxygen

The atomic bond is of great significance in the manufacture of semiconductor

2.1.1.4 States of Matter and Change of State

Matter is composed of several molecules. The molecule is the smallest unit of a

Matter may exist in one of three physical states:

As heat energy is continually added to a material, the molecular movement increases

Figure 1 Bohr’s Model of the Atom

Figure 2 Structure of a (Atomic) Nucleus

Figure 3 Simplified Atomic Models

3: K 2 22.990 2 24.312 2 26.982 2 28.086 2 30.974 2 32.064 2 35.453 2 39.948

K 2 39.102 2 40.08 2 44.956 2 47.90 2 50.942 2 51.996 2 54.938

K 2 63.54 2 65.37 2 69.72 2 72.59 2 74.922 2 78.96 2 79.909 2 83.80

K 2 85.47 2 87.62 2 88.905 2 91.22 2 92.906 2 95.94 2

K 2 107.87 2 112.40 2 114.82 2 118.69 2 121.75 2 127.60 2 126.90 2 131.30

Figure 4 Extract from the Periodic Table

2 28.086 Atomic weight

Number of electrons in shell

Figure 5 Data given in the Periodic Table

b) Positive ion (one electron lost)

c) Negative ion (one electron collected)

Figure 6 Ionisation of Atoms

Positive sodium ion: 11 protons

Negative fluorine ion: 9 protons

Figure 7 Ionic Bond

Oxygen molecule (O2)

Figure 8 Atomic Bond

Metal lattice (ion lattice)

Figure 9 Metal Lattice

2.2.1.1 Properties Associated with Bodies and Matter

The body in detail c) is said to be in equilibrium of forces when it rests on a support,

Refer to Figure 2 again.

A = area, in this case, size of the contacting area.

2.2.1.2 Combining and Resolving Forces

Accordingly, the moment of a force is defined as the product of a force’s magnitude

m ⋅ d = the total mass moment of the body.

A ⋅ d = the total area moment of the area.

2.2.1.4 Static Equilibrium and Stability of Position

Considering the moments in detail b), the formula

The turning moment of a force couple is determined by the formula:

Friction is responsible for reduced efficiency of machinery. The energy invested to

Refer to Figure 11.

m = angle that relates to the forces involved in the tangent formula

A technician should remember the following details:

2.2.1.6 Stress and Strain

Mechanical properties describe the behaviour of a material subjected to mechanical

Selecting a material for a structural application is a difficult process; it typically

Deformation and Fracture of Engineering Materials

All materials undergo a change in dimensions in response to mechanical force. This

’Fracture’ occurs when a structural component or specimen separates into two or

Refer to Figure 12.

Detail a) shows a cylindrical specimen with an original cross--sectional area A 0 and

Engineering stress σ and engineering strain Á are defined as follows: