Narendra Varma

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FIRE
Fuel  Oxygen  Heat  Fire
Fire is a chemical reaction initiated by presence of heat energy in which a substance combines with oxygen (from air). The
process involves giving out heat energy (exothermic reaction), light and sometimes sound.
The following are essential for fire:
(i) A combustible substance – fuel
(ii) Oxygen, Nitrogen (e.g. Magnesium burns in Nitrogen)
(iii) Heat source, spark or flame
(iv) Process of chain reaction.
Flash Point: It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel gives off
enough vapours that ignite for a moment when a small flame is brought
near to it.
Fire Point :It is the lowest temperature at which the vapours of the fuel
burn continuously for at least 5 secs. when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Types of Combustion:
a) Rapid: Gas is ignited, producing heat and light
b) Spontaneous: Without the application of external heat.
c) Explosion: Combustion in confined space under pressure. Heat,
FIRE TRIANGLE
light and sound is produced.
Stages of Fire:
i) Incipient stage: Preheating and gasification (slow pyrolysis) is in progress. Invisible pyrolysis produces gas.
ii) Submicron size: Aerosols (tiny particles) are found in the vicinity of fire.
iii) Smouldering stage: Lasting for 4 hours – gas and smoke.
iv) Radiation stage: Convective heat
v) Heat stage: Heat, flame, smoke, toxic gas – for few seconds.
Development of a Fire
A fire develops typically in four stages, and fire detectors are designed to detect some characteristic effect of one or more
of these stages:
* Incipient stage. No visible smoke, no flame and very little heat. A significant amount of invisible (but sometimes
smellable) combustion particles may be created. This stage usually develops slowly.
* Smouldering stage. Smoke, but no flame and little heat.
* Flame stage. Visible flame, more heat, often less or no smoke, particularly with flammable liquids and gas fires.
* Heat stage. Large amounts of heat, flame, smoke and toxic gases are produced. The transition from the previous stage can
be very fast.
Classes of fire : To make it easier to select the appropriate extinguishing media according to the nature of the material
undergoing combustion, fires are arranged in 'Classes'.
Class A Wood, paper, textile, rubbish, grass etc. Water is the best extinguishing medium for Class A.
Some Dry Chemical Powder(DCP) are also used.
Class B Flammable liquids. (Oils, petrol, varnishes, paints, Foam is the best extinguishing medium for Class B fires.
solvents, grease.) Its reactivity should be ensured in case of Chemical fires.
Class C Flammable gases Dry Chemical Powder is widely used for extinguishing
gaseous fires. Its ability to cut the chain reaction in the
combustion process makes it suitable for the purpose.
Class D Burning metal viz. Magnesium, Aluminium, Zinc, Steam, Dry Chemical Powder be used against metal fires.
Class E Fires of electrical origin involving transformers, Dry sand may be used. CO2 type extinguisher to be used.
circuit breakers, switchgears DO NOT USE WATER.
Class F Cooking oil, fats (animal and vegetable) Wet Chemicals to cool and emulsify.

Fire Extinguishers: The following is a quick guide to help

EXTINGUISHING A FIRE
choose the right type of extinguisher.
a) Starving: By removal of the fuel material
Class A extinguishers are for ordinary combustible materials such
b) Smothering: Removing the air (oxygen) supply
as paper, wood, cardboard, and most plastics. The numerical rating
c) Cooling: Turning of the source of heat.
on these types of extinguishers indicates the amount of water it
holds and the amount of fire it can extinguish. Geometric symbol (green triangle)
Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, grease. The numerical rating for class B
extinguishers indicates the approximate number of square feet of fire it can extinguish. Geometric symbol (red square)
Class C for fires of gaseous origin, using dry chemical powder.

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Class D fire extinguishers are commonly found in a chemical laboratory. They are for fires that involve combustible metals,
such as magnesium, titanium, potassium and sodium. These types of extinguishers also have no numerical rating, nor are they
given a multi-purpose rating - they are designed for class D fires only. Geometric symbol (Yellow Decagon)
Class E fires involve electrical equipment, such as appliances, wiring, circuit breakers and outlets. Never use water to
extinguish class E fires - the risk of electrical shock is far too great! Class E extinguishers do not have a numerical rating. The
E classification means the extinguishing agent is non-conductive. Geometric symbol (blue circle)
Class F fire extinguishers are for fires that involve cooking oils, trans-fats, or fats in cooking appliances and are typically
found in restaurant and cafeteria kitchens. Geometric symbol (black hexagon)

Types of Portable Fire extinguishers:

(A) Water Type Fire extinguisher: This type is
used for prevention and control of fire in
ordinary combustible materials such as
wood and paper. Water has better cooling
properties than most other agents and is
suitable for fires that may start up again if
not cooled properly. Water type
extinguishers should never be used with
flammable liquid fires or electrical fires.
Water is a conductor of electricity and
may inflict an electrical shock to the
operator.
(B) Spray Foam (Cream) type extinguishers:
Here a chemical foam is made to form
over the fire so that oxygen supply is cut
off and fire dies down.
(C) Dry Chemical Powder type extinguisher:
Here the fire is controlled by the
inhibiting action of the dry chemical
powder which breaks the chain reaction.

Fire Detection Systems:

Detection systems are based on smoke, heat, flame, gas
leakage, combustion, water flow.
Conduction/Convection Heat detection: Housing of detector
has a fusible element that melts at a specified temperature
causing electrical contact to activate a fire alarm.
Smoke detector: These are used to detect fires in the
incipient stages.
Heat detectors: They respond to high temperatures caused by fire.
Flame detector: Detects light from flames where rapid development of flame occurs.
Electromagnetic detectors: They employ photocells sensitive to infrared and ultraviolet light emitted by the fire.
Water flow detector: It indicates because the other detector types (smoke, flame or heat) is activated and starts the water
sprinkler system.
Tips on Kitchen Fire Safety
Extra care should be taken when working in the kitchen in order to avoid the onset of a fire. Here are some safety tips:
Wear appropriate clothing, not long, flowing sleeves or open, loose-fitting shirts that can come in contact with hot burners.
Wear your long hair up and do not leave any strands hanging.
Never take your eyes off hot oil because it can ignite in an instant. If it catches fire, immediately place a cover on the pan.
Always unplug electrical cords from all ancillary appliances. A plug can ignite even though the equipment is turned off.
Any power surge or unforeseen problem with electricity can cause a fire.
Do not use electrical appliances near water and keep cords away from all heat sources.
Turn pot handles inward on the hot stove so as to avoid bumping into them accidentally and spilling their contents.
Do not place potholders, boxes, towels, cutting boards, or plastic utensils and containers near cooking areas.
Keep the kitchen work area clean, free from grease and burnt food.
Keep a box of baking soda on the kitchen counter while cooking as it can quickly put out a small fire at its onset.
Make sure all appliances are in good working condition. At the first sign of a problem, have it fixed or get rid of it.

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Fire Extinguishers:
Fire extinguishers contain different chemicals, depending on the application. Handheld extinguishers, which are commonly
sold at hardware stores for use in the kitchen or garage, are pressurized with nitrogen or carbon dioxide (CO2) to propel a
stream of fire-squelching agent to the fire. The active material may be a powder such as potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3),
liquid water, an evaporating fluorocarbon or the propelling agent itself. The most effective and common fluorocarbon used
until recently for this application had been bromochlorodifluoromethane (CF2ClBr), referred to as halon 1211. By
international agreement, however, production of all types of halons ceased in 1994 because the bromine and chlorine atoms
in the chemical were found to migrate over time to the stratosphere, where they react to deplete ozone in a very efficient
catalytic cycle.
Many fire extinguishing systems are built into the building or other structure being protected. Water sprinklers are by far
the most common type of fixed system because they are inexpensive, highly reliable and safe for people. But water damage
cannot always be tolerated (say, in a computer room or electrical fire); it is sometimes ineffective (a fuel storage system);
and it is impractical where weight and space are limited (in an airplane). In these situations, fire extinguishers use different
materials--ones that flood a protected compartment with a fire-fighting gas. CO2 works well, but is fatal at the
concentrations necessary to extinguish a fire, and so cannot be used where people will be present. Bromotrifluoromethane
(CF3Br, or halon 1301) is a close cousin to halon 1211, but has a much lower boiling point and toxic level--properties that
have made halon 1301 the firefighting chemical of choice for applications where sprinklers cannot be used. Manufacturers
have introduced new families of chemicals containing no chlorine or bromine, called hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),that have
physical properties similar to the halons and no ozone depletion potential. But lacking Br or Cl atoms, the HFCs cannot
disrupt the combustion reaction to the same degree. HFCs extinguish fires in a manner similar to CO2 or N2--by absorbing
heat and reducing the concentration of oxygen. Even so, several different companies are marketing such HFCs as CHF3,
C2HF5, and C3HF7 for a variety of applications.
Most often, simple fire extinguishers use sodium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid to produce carbon dioxide, that
extinguishes fire. small pouch carries the acid within a matrix of sodium carbonate. The pouch prevents the acid to come in
contact with sodium carbonate outside. When the bottle is shaken, the two chemicals come in contact with each other,
liberating carbon dioxide and water droplets that extinguishers.
Another type of fire extinguisher contains compressed Carbon Tetrachloride in it. When the nozzle is pushed, an aerosol of
carbon tetrachloride is liberated that suppresses and extinguishes fire.
This type has a major advantage that it can extinguish fires of oils, electric circuits, etc.
Other forms of fire extinguishers use forced water to extinguish fire.
Types of extinguishers:
Multi-Purpose Dry Chemical (A, B, C)
A dry chemical agent called mono ammonium phosphate.
The chemical is non-conductive and can be mildly corrosive
if moisture is present. In order to avoid corrosion, it is
necessary to scrub and thoroughly cleanup the contacted
area once the fire is out. A dry chemical fire extinguisher is
usually used in schools, general offices, hospitals, homes.
Regular Dry Chemical (B, C)
A dry chemical agent called sodium bicarbonate. It is non-
toxic, non-conductive and non-corrosive. It is easy to
cleanup, requiring only vacuuming, sweeping or flushing
with water. Extinguishers with sodium bicarbonate are
usually used in residential kitchens, laboratories, garages.
Carbon Dioxide (B, C)
Carbon dioxide removes oxygen to stop a fire but has limited range. It is environmentally friendly and leaves no residue,
so cleanup is unnecessary. Extinguishers with carbon dioxide are usually used in contamination-sensitive places such as
computer rooms, labs, food storage areas, processing plants, etc.
Halotron (A, B, C)
A vaporizing liquid that is ozone friendly and leaves no residue. Because it requires no cleanup, fire extinguishers with
halotron are ideal for computer rooms, telecommunication areas, theaters, etc.
Foam (A, B)
Foam floats on flammable liquids to tame the fire and helps prevent reflashes. To cleanup the affected area, it must be
washed away and left to evaporate. Fire extinguishers with foam are usually used in garages, homes, vehicles, workshops.
Purple K Dry Chemical (B, C)
A dry chemical called potassium bicarbonate. It is non-conductive and non-corrosive. Clean up requires vacuuming,
sweeping or flushing with water. Extinguishers with potassium bicarbonate are usually used in military facilities, oil
companies, vehicles, etc.

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Water (A)
The most common agent is water; however, it cannot be used for class B or C fires because it is conductive. Water-based
fire extinguishers are usually used in stockrooms, schools, offices, etc.
Wet Chemical fire extinguishers (F)
The potassium acetate based agent discharges as a fine mist which forms a soapy foam that suppresses any vapors and
steam or the risk of fire reflash as it extinguishes the fire. Class K fire extinguishers can usually be found in commercial
cooking areas such as restaurants and cafeterias.
Class of
Fuel Source Type of Extinguisher (Extinguishing Agent)
Fire
Ordinary combustibles A
Water; chemical foam; dry chemical
(e.g. trash, wood, paper, cloth)
Flammable liquids
Carbon dioxide (CO2); halon**; dry chemical; aqueous film forming
(e.g. oils, grease, tar, gasoline, B
foam (AFFF)
paints, thinners)
Flammable gases C Dry chemicals powder
Combustible metals
D Dry powder (suitable for the specific combustible metal involved)
(e.g. magnesium, titanium)
Electricity
E CO2; halon; dry chemical
(e.g. live electrical equipment)
Combustible Cooking
(e.g. cooking oils; animal fats, F Wet chemical (Potassium acetate based)
vegetable fats)

Some Examples
Ordinary Combustibles - the most common type of fire caused when organic solids such as wood, paper or cloth ignite.
It's ok to use water extinguishers for this type of fire.
Flammable Gasses or Liquids - this is any fire where liquid or gas fuels ignite. These should be extinguished using dry
chemical or halon extinguishers
Combustible Metals - metals such as titanium, magnesium and uranium are flammable. Dry powder extinguishers should
be used to fight such fires
Electrical Appliances - this covers any appliance that could potentially be electrically energised. Water, foam and other
agents which might conduct electricity should not be used to fight electrical fires.
Cooking Fats and Oils - common in household kitchens, saponification (a process that produces soap from fats) or fire
blankets can be used to extinguish these fires. Water extinguishers should never be used on fat or oil fires.

Using fire extinguishers

You are not required to fight a fire. Ever. If you have the slightest doubt about your control of the situation DO NOT
FIGHT THE FIRE. Please see the Disclaimer below.
The building is being evacuated (fire alarm is pulled)
The fire department is being called
The fire is small, contained and not spreading beyond its starting point.
The exit is clear, there is no imminent peril and you can fight the fire with your back to the exit.
You can stay low and avoid smoke.
The proper extinguisher is immediately at hand.
You have read the instructions and know how to use the extinguisher.
IF ANY OF THESE CONDITIONS HAVE NOT BEEN MET, DON'T FIGHT THE FIRE YOURSELF. CALL FOR
HELP, PULL THE FIRE ALARM AND LEAVE THE AREA.

Flammability limits, also called flammable limits, give the proportion of combustible gases in a mixture, between which
limits this mixture is flammable. Gas mixtures consisting of combustible, oxidizing, and inert gases are only flammable
under certain conditions. The lower flammable limit (LFL) describes the leanest mixture that still sustains a flame, i.e. the
mixture with the smallest fraction of combustible gas, while the upper flammable limit (UFL) gives the richest flammable
mixture.
There is a quantitative difference between flammability limits and explosive limits. In an explosive mixture the fuel
oxidizer mixture is closer to stoichiometric proportion. This difference has no practical application in safety engineering as
the flammable vapor cloud is turbulent and the exact mixture of fuel and oxidizer varies greatly. Therefore, many references
use the term flammability limit(LFL, UFL) and explosive limit (LEL, UEL) interchangeably.

Narendra Varma