Theobroma cacao L.

Sterculiaceae
Chocolate, Cacao, Cocoa

Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.

1. Uses
2. Folk Medicine
3. Chemistry
4. Toxicity
5. Description
6. Germplasm
7. Distribution
8. Ecology
9. Cultivation
10. Harvesting
11. Yields and Economics
12. Energy
13. Biotic Factors
14. Chemical Analysis of Biomass Fuels
15. References

Uses
Cacao seeds are the source of commercial cocoa, chocolate, and cocoa butter.
Fermented seeds are roasted, cracked and ground to give a powdery mass from
which fat is expressed. This is the cocoa from which a popular beverage is
prepared. In the preparation of chocolate, this mass is mixed with sugar,
flavoring, and extra cocoa fat. Milk chocolate incorporates milk as well. Cocoa
butter is used in confections and in manufacture of tobacco, soap, and
cosmetics. Cocoa butter has been described as the world's most expensive fat,
used rather extensively in the emollient "bullets" used for hemorrhoids.

Folk Medicine
Reported to be antiseptic, diuretic, ecbolic, emmenagogue, and parasiticide,
cacao is a folk remedy for alopecia, burns, cough, dry lips, eyes, fever,
listlessness, malaria, nephrosis, parturition, pregnancy, rheumatism, snakebite,
and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981). Cocoa butter is applied to wrinkles in the
hope of correcting them (Leung, 1980).

Chemistry
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 456 calories, 3.6 g H 2O, 12.0 g
protein, 46.3 g fat, 34.7 g total carbohydrate, 8.6 g fiber, 3.4 g ash, 106 mg Ca,
537 mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 30 g -carotene equivalent, 0.17 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg
riboflavin, 1.7 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid. According to the Wealth of
India, the edible pulp of the fruit contains 79.7–88.5% water, 0.5–0.7%
albuminoids, astringents, etc.; 8.3–13.1% glucose, 0.4–0.9% sucrose, a trace of
starch, 0.2–0.4% non-volatile acids (as tartaric), 0.03% Fe 2O3 and 0.4% mineral
salts (K, Na, Ca, Mg). The shell contains 11.0% moisture, 3.0% fat, 13.5%
protein, 16.5% crude fiber, 9.0% tannins, 6.0% pentosans, 6.5% ash, and 0.75
theobromine. Raw seeds contain 0.24 mg/100 g thiamine, 0.41 riboflavin, 0.09
pyridoxine, 2.1 nicotinamide, and 1.35 pantothenic acid. The component fatty
acids of cocoa butter are 26.2% palmitic and lower acids, 34.4 stearic and
higher acids, 37.3% oleic acid, 2.1% linoleic and traces of isoleic. In g/100g the
individual amino acids in the water soluble fractions of unfermented and
fermented beans are lysine 0.08, 0.56; histidine 0.08, 0.04; arginine 0.08, 0.03;
threonine 0.14, 0.84; serine 0.88, 1.99; glutamic acid 1.02, 1.77; proline 0.72,
1.97; glycine 0.09, 0.35; alanine 1.04, 3.61; valine 0.57, 2.60; isoleucine 0.56,
1.68; leucine 0.45, 4.75; tyrosine 0.57, 1.27; and phenylalanine 0.56–3.36
g/100g. Unfermented and fermented beans contain p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and syringic acid, while the
fermented beans also contain protocatechuic, phenylacetic, phloretic acid and
the lactone esculetin and o- and p-hydroxyphenyl acids. Caffeic acid occurs in
the unfermented beans (C.S.I.R., 1948–1976). According to an article in the
Chicago Sun Times, people who suffer extreme depression as victims of
unrequited love have an irregular production of phenylethylamine. Such
individuals often go on chocolate binge during periods of depression.
Chocolate is particularly high in phenylethylamine, perhaps serving as
medication. Theophylline is a potent CNS and cardiovascular stimulant with
diuretic and bronchial smooth muscle relaxant properties. Recently this drug
was proven effective in preventing and treating apnea in premature infancy.
Cocoa contains over 300 volatile compounds, including esters,
hydrocarbonslactones, monocarbonyls, pyrazines, pyrroles, and others. The
important flavor components are said to be aliphatic esters, polyphenols,
unsaturated aromatic carbonyls, pyrazines, diketopiperazines, and theobromine.
Cocoa also contains about 18% proteins (ca 8% digestible); fats (cocoa butter);
amines and alkaloids, including theobromine (0.5 to 2.7%), caffeine (ca 0.25%
in cocoa; 0.7 to 1.70 in fat-free beans, with forasteros containing less than 0.1%
and criollos containing 1.43 to 1.70%), tyramine, dopamine, salsolinol,
trigonelline, nicotinic acid, and free amino acids; tannins; phospholipids; etc.
Cocoa butter contains mainly triglycerides of fatty acids that consist primarily
of oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids. Over 73% of the glycerides are present as
monounsaturated forms (oleopalmitostearin and oleodistearin), the remaining
being mostly diunsaturated glycerides (palmitodiolein and stearodiolein), with
lesser amounts of fully saturated and triunsaturated (triolein glycerides).
Linoleic acid levels have been reported to be up to 4.1%. Also present in cocoa
butter are small amounts of sterols and methylsterols; sterols consist mainly
of -sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, with a small quantity of
cholesterol. In addition to alkaloids (mainly theobromine), tannins, and other
constituents, cocoa husk contains a pigment that is a polyflavone glucoside
with a molecular weight of over 1500, this pigment is claimed to be heat and
light resistant, highly stable at pH 3 to 11, and useful as a food colorant; it was
isolated at a 7.9% yield (Leung, 1980).

Toxicity
Reviewing the work on safrole, Buchanan (J. Food Safety 1:275.1978)
concluded that it is the most thoroughly investigated methylenedioxybenzene
derivative. The major flavoring constituent in sassafras root bark, safrole also
occurs in basil (Perdue and Hartwell, eds., 1976), black pepper, cinnamon leaf
oil, cocoa, mace, nutmeg, parsley, and star anise oil. When safrole was
identified as a "low grade hepatocarcinogen, it was banned in root beer, and the
FDA in 1976 banned interstate marketing of sassafras for sassafras tea. The oral
LD50 for safrole in rats is 1950 mg/kg body weight, with major symptoms
including ataxia, depression, and diarrhea, death occurring in 4–5 days.
Ingestion of relatively large amounts of sassafras oil produced psychoactive
and hallucinogenic effects persisting several days in humans. With rats, dietary
safrole at levels of 0.25%, 0.5% and 1% produced growth retardation, stomach
and testicular atrophy, liver necrosis, and biliary proliferation and primary
hepatomas. Sutton (1981) reports the collapse and death of a 3-year old bitch
that had eaten a 250 g package of cocoa. Postmortem examination revealed
congestion of lungs, liver, kidney, and pancreas, and petechial and ecchymotic
hemorrhage of the thymus, all compatible with acute circulatory failure. The
stomach contained high concentrations of theobromine and/or caffeine. Though
used cosmetically, cocoa butter has been reported to have allergenic and
comedogenic properties in animals. Tyler (1982) produces a chart comparing
various caffeine sources to which I have added rounded figures from Palotti
(1977).

Cup (6 oz.) expresso coffee: 310 mg

Cup (6 oz.) boiled coffee: 100 mg
Cup (6 oz.) instant coffee: 65mg
Cup (6 oz.) tea: 10–50 mg
Cup (6 oz.) cocoa: 13 mg
Can (6 oz.) cola: 25 mg
Can (6 oz.) coca cola: 20 mg
Cup (6 oz.) mate: 25–50 mg
Can (6 oz.) pepsi cola: 10 mg
Tablet Caffeine: 100–200 mg
Tablet (800 mg) Zoom (Paullinia cupana): 60 mg
In humans, caffeine, 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three
primary metabolites: theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the
early part of the 20th century, theophylline has been used in therapeutics for
bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, and for long-term control of
bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg theophylline is fetotoxic to rats, but no
teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been
used as diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100
mg, theobromine is fetotoxic and teratogen (Collins, FDA By-lines No. 2, April
1981). Leung (1980) reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 mg, with 1,000 mg
or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness,
excitement, mild delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles.
Leung also adds "caffeine has been reported to have many other activities
including mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic activities; ... to cause
temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have calming effects on
hyperkinetic children...to cause chronic recurring headache..."

Description
Small tree usually 4–8 m tall, rarely up to 20 m; at 1–1.5 m the terminal bud
breaks into 3–5 meristems to give several lateral upright shoots; primary
branching by successive whorls of normally spreading branches; young
branchlets terete, grayish green or brownish, densely or sparsely pubescent,
with simple or furcate hairs 0.1–0.3 mm long, later glabrate, more or less
striate; stipules subulate, very acute, 5–14 mm long, 0.5–1.5 mm broad at base,
pubescent, deciduous; leaves large, coriaceous or chartaceous, alternate,
distichous on normal branches, green; petiole pubescent or tomentose, with
simple, rather dense, spreading hairs, thickened pulvinate at ends; blades 12–60
cm long, 4–20 cm broad, elliptic to obovate-oblong, entire, glabrous;
inflorescence on trunk and branches, usually borne on small tubercles in short
cymose branchlets, peduncles 1–3 mm long, stellate-pubescent; bracts ovate or
ovate-oblong, pubescent; bracteoles ovate-oblong, acute or subacute, 0.5–1.2
mm long, pubescent, deciduous; pedicels capillary, rigid, pale green, whitish or
reddish, 5–15 mm long, with stellate or furcate hairs and sparce many-celled,
glandular, capitate trichomes; sepals lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, acute,
white, greenish-white, pale violaceous or reddish, faintly 3-veined, united at
base, 5–8 mm long, 1.5–2 mm broad, with hairs and trichomes; petals contorted
in aestivation, thick-membranous, hood 3–4 mm long, 0.5–2 mm wide,
obovate, rounded at apex, white, 3-veined, lamina pale yellowish, 1.5–2.5 mm
long, 1.5–2 mm broad, obovate, attenuate at apex; staminodes 4–6 mm long,
narrowly subulate, red or purplish, minutely papillose-pilose, ciliate, with
slender, simple hairs; stamens diantheriferous, with anthers about 0.4 mm long;
ovary oblong-ovoid, superior, with 5 carpels; fruits usually considered drupes
but referred to as pods, indehiscent, variable in size and shape, 10–32 cm long,
spherical to cylindrical, pointed or blunt, smooth or warty, with or without 5 or
10 furrows; pods white, green or red, ripening to green, yellow, red or purple;
seeds 20–60 per pod, arranged in 5 rows, variable in size, 2–4 cm long, 1.2–2
cm broad, ovoid or elliptic; cotyledons white to deep purple, convoluted, large.
Seeds/kg 625–1125. Roots mostly a mass of surface-feeding roots, with taproot
penetrating to 2 m in friable soil, less deeply where compacted (Reed, 1976).

Germplasm
Reported from the South and Middle American Centers of Diversity, cocoa, or
cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate some diseases, heavy soils, laterite, low pH,
photoperiod, shade, slope, and waterlogging (Duke, 1978). Several subspecies
and forms of cacao have been recognized, from which a great number of cvs
have been developed. Some cvs are named according to the place where they
were found or developed. Others are classified as 'Criollo' types which have
elongated, ridged, pointed fruits and white cotyledons and 'Forastero', with
short, roundish, almost smooth fruits and purplish cotyledons. Hybrids have
been obtained with other species, e.g. Th. grandiflora, mainly to incorporate
disease-resistance. (2n = 20)

Distribution
Native to South America, probably on the equatorial slopes of the Andes; now
cultivated pantropically, especially in West Africa.
Ecology
Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest
Life Zones, cacao is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 dm
(mean of 109 cases = 16.3), annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 108
cases = 25.3), and pH of 4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 43 cases = 6.4) (Duke, 1978).
Grown from 20°N to 20°S with the bulk between 10°N and 10°S, usually
below 300 m, but in sheltered valleys of Colombia at 900 m. Requires
uniformly high temperatures with recommended mean of 26.6°C. Trees are
wind-intolerant and therefore are often planted on hillsides for wind protection
and good drainage. Being drought-intolerant, cacao thrives in climates with
high humidity and rainfall. Plants are shade-tolerant, and thrive in rich, organic,
well-drained, moist, deep soils. Shallow laterite soils are said not to be suitable.
Maximum temperature of 33.5°C and minimum 13°C, with diurnal temperature
variation between 33.5 and 18°C are suggested (Reed, 1976).

Cultivation
Propagation may be by cuttings, buddings or graftings, but seeding is cheaper.
Seeds germinate at maturity, and are viable only a short time. They may be
stored 10–13 weeks if moisture content is kept at 50%. Soon after picking, pulp
is removed from seed which are planted in shaded nursery beds or baskets.
Transplant in few months (when ca 0.6 m tall) into shaded fields at 2.4 m x 2.4
m or 3.6 m x 3.6 m. Spacing is closer if soils are poor and elevations above 300
m. Fields should remain shaded for 3 years. Remove floral buds until trees are
5 years old. Cacao is of ten intercropped with other trees of economic value, as
bananas, rubber, oil palm, or coconut. Weeding is by hand or herbicides.
Irrigation may be practiced, but drain ditches should always be provided to
prevent excess water. Responds to fertilizers, mostly in the absence of shade;
recommended is 5 cwt urea, 2.5 cwt triple superphosphate, 10 cwt potassium
sulfate per hectare. Windbreaks are usually provided.

Harvesting
Although fruits mature throughout the year, usually only two harvests are
made. In West Africa, the main harvest begins in September, extends to
February, with a second smaller harvest in May–June. From fertilization to
harvesting the fruit requires 5–6 months. Harvest season lasts about 5 months.
Pods are cut from trees and allowed to mellow on the ground. Then pods are
cracked and the beans removed, the husks are burned. Beans are fermented in
leaf-lined kegs 2–8 days before drying in sun, at which time they change from
purple to brown. Beans are then bagged and shipped. Further processing
includes roasting, crushing, and separating out the kernel, grinding the nibs and
extraction of about half of the fat.

Yields and Economics

The world low production yield is 29 kg/ha in American Samoa, an
international production yield of 346 kg/ha, and a world high production yield
of 2,000 kg/ha in Haiti. Yields of 3,375 kg/ha of dry beans are possible on good
plantations. The oil content (35–50%) suggests potential oil yields of more than
1750 kg/ha. Average yields range from 0.5–10 kg/tree; 2.25 MT beans/ha. Over
3375 kg/ha of dry cacao beans have been produced on plantations well-
manured, well-shaded, and with excellent control of weeds, pests and diseases.
In 1980, the US is estimated to have consumed more than 75,000 MT of cocoa
butter, in a business amounting to nearly $600 million. Chocolate
manufacturers consumed nearly half. One ton went into suppositories, 10 to
20% of which are made with a cocoa butter base. In 1981, there was a world
surplus of ca 700,000 tons, close to 6 months production, and price down to ca
$1.30/kg. In July 1965, a record cocoa crop in Ghana sent cocoa bean prices to
below $0.20/kg, an all-time low. A dozen years later, the beans spiralled to
more than $5.00/kg. Normally cocoa butter runs 25 times as high as the bean
(Anon., 1981b). Two-thirds of the world's production presently comes from
Ghana, Nigeria, and Ivory Coast in West Africa, and one-third from Brazil and
Dominican Republic. In 1971, the US imported from Africa about 200,908 MT
of cocoa beans, valued at $120 millions, and from Latin America, 107,841 MT
valued at $54 millions. World production of beans in 1971 was 1.59 million
MT. Major consumers are United States, West Germany, Netherlands, and
United Kingdom. New York prices on 'Accra' beans in 1971 was $0.68/kg.
Cocoa is produced in tropical countries, but is processed and consumed in
temperate countries.

Energy
For every kilogram of dry beans, there can be 2 kg of pod meal; indicating a
1:2 seed:pod ratio. To convert production figures into pod waste figures, this
suggests we multiply by two. Pod meal contains ca 12.6% moisture, 7.6% ash,
8.1% protein, 34.8% crude fiber, 3.3% fat, and 33.6% N-free extract. One
hundred kg cacao pod meal has the same feeding value as 96–97 kg chopped
corn (including husks). Prunings could amount to 1–8 MT/ha/yr, depending on
biological and environmental variables. During the third year, main branches
may be reduced to 3 or 4, and thenceforth, excess limbs and diseases tissues
should be removed. For each MT of production, it seems safe to conclude there
will be 2 MT of pods and 2 MT of prunings as residue, perhaps more in
unshaded cacao. Shade trees might best be selected on basis of (1) nitrogen
fixed, (2) fuelwood produced, (3) nonantagonism or amelioration of cacao.
Seedling cacao does best with only 25% full sunlight, saplings with closer to
50%. Species of energy-fixing species of Albizia, Erythrina, Gliricida, Inga,
Leucaena, Musanga, Peltophorum, and Terminaliahave been recommended as
shade trees or "Madre de Cacao". (Purseglove, 1968)

Biotic Factors
Midges are thought to be the pollinators of cacao, but aphids, ants, thrips, wild
bees, or a combination of these are also suspect. Cacao grows in areas with
high humidity; several hundred fungi have been reported as attacking this tree.
However, the most important fungi that cause diseases which must be
controlled include the following: Armillaria mella (Collar
crack), Botryodiplodia theobromae (Pod rot), Botryobasidium
salmonicolor (Pink disease), Calonectria rigidiuscula(Green point cusion-
gall), Cephaleuros virescens (Algal spot), Ceratobasidium stevensii (Thread
blight), Ceratocystis fimbriata (Canker), Corticium incisum(Thread
blight), Fomes lamaensis (Brown rot), F. lignosus (White rot), F.
noxius (Brown crust), Marasmius byssicola (Brown thread), M.
perniciosus (South American witches broom), M. scandens (White thread), M.
trichorrhizus (Brown thread), Monilia roreri (Gray pod rot), Nectria
cacaoicola (Pod rot),Phytophthora palmivora (Black pod), Rosellinia
bunodes (Root rot), R. pepo (Root rot), Septobasidium tanakae (Felty
fungus), Sphaerostilbe repens (Violet root rot), Taphrina bussei (Witches
broom), Thielaviopsis paradoxa (pod rot), Trachysphaera fructigena (Mealy
pod), Ustilina zonata (Collar rot), andVerticillium dahliae (Sudden death).
Bacteria known to cause disease in cacao include: Agrobacterium tumefasciens,
Bacillus megatherium, B. subtilis, B. undulatus, Bacterium accendens, B. aceti,
B. orleanense, B. xylineum, B. xylmoides, and B. xylum. Golden (p.c. 1984) lists
the following nematodes:Aphasmatylenchus nigeriensis, Criconemella goodeyi,
Helcotylenchus cavenessi, H. concavus, H. microcephalus, H. multicinctus,
Hoplolaimus seinhorst, Meloidogyne incognita, M. incognita acrita., M.
javanica, M. sp., Paratylenchus arculatus, Pratylenchus brachyurus, P. coffeae,
P. sp., Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema clathricaudatum,
Tylenchorhynchus annulatus, T. nudus, Xiphinema ebriense, X. elongatum, X.
ifacolum, X. nigeriense, and X. setariae. Viruses isolated from cacao include:
Akaran, Apoplectic disease, Asalu, Ilesha, Konongo, Kpeve cacao, Mottle leaf,
Necrosis, New Juaben (B.C.), New Juaben cacao, Offa Igbo (Nigeria) cacao,
Offa Igbo 1 and 2, Olanla 1 and 2, Red mottle, Swollen-shoot, Trinidad cacao,
Vein clearing, and Viruses 1A, 1B, 1C, and 1M. Cacao trees may be parasitized
by Cuscuta campestris, C. cublinclusa, and Phthirusa theobromae.

Chemical Analysis of Biomass Fuels

Analysing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling (1985)
reported a spread of 19.04 to 17.97 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered
rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a % DM basis, the hulls contained
67.95% volatiles, 8.25% ash, 23.80% fixed carbon, 48.23% C, 5.23% H,
33.19% O, 2.98% N, 0.12% S, and undetermined residue.

References
 Buchanan, R.L. 1979. Toxicity of spices containing
methylenedioxybenzene derivatives: A review. J. Food Safety 1:275.
 C.S.I.R. (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 1948–1976. The
wealth of India. 11 vols. New Delhi.
 Duke, J.A. 1978. The quest for tolerant germplasm. p. 1–61. In: ASA
Special Symposium 32, Crop tolerance to suboptimal land conditions.
Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI.
 Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the world.
Computer index with more than 85,000 entries. 3 vols.
 Jenkins, B.M. and Ebeling, J.M. 1985. Thermochemical properties of
biomass fuels. Calif. Agric. 39(5/6):14–16.
 Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural ingredients used in
food, drugs, and cosmetics. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
 Palotti, G. 1977. The 'time for a Coca Cola' may not be right. Industrie
Alimentairi 16(12):146–148.
 Perdue, R.E., Jr. and Hartwell, J.L. (eds.). 1976. Plants and cancer. Proc.
16th Annual Meeting Soc. Econ. Bot. Cancer Treatment Reports
60(8):973–1215.
 Purseglove, J.W. 1968–1972. Tropical crops. 4 vols. Longman Group
Ltd., London.
 Reed, C.F. 1976. Information summaries on 1000 economic plants.
Typescripts submitted to the USDA.
 Sutton, R.H. 1981. Cocoa poisoning in a dog. Veterinary Record
109(25/26):563–4.
 Tyler, V.E. 1982. The honest herbal. George F. Stickley Co.,
Philadelphia, PA.
Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops