The

Phenomenon
of ReJi,,.,.,.· on
THE PHENOMENON
OF RELIGION
RU.,\TEI> TEXTS l'l'BLl~IIEU llY ONEW0RJ..tl

A'tlatar und /111.:anmcion, Geoffrey Porrinder, ISBN J-85166-1 3()-..?

Beli~i7lll - , \11 Hiscorical Perspectiw, \\'ilfred Cantwell Smlll1,
ISBN 1-85168-166-J
Colendars of the \\'orld, Mar~o Westrhelm, ISB1' 1-SSl()g.-051-9
Concepts of God, Keith \\'rm.I, ISBN 1-8516R--06,1-0
J\ Concise Encyclopedia of Christianity, GIWffrcy Parrln<ler,
ISBN l-85168-174-l
;\ Co,1cise Encyclopedia qf lfindui:;m, Klaus K. Klostem1aier.
ISBN 1-85168-175--2
A Concise Encyclopedia of Judaism. Dan Cohn-Sherbok,
ISBN l-85168-17(H)
Faich and Belief: The Differem..'e. Between Them, Wilfred Cantwell Smith,
ISBN 1-85168--165--5
God and die Uni-verse of Faichs, John Hick, ISBN l-1>5168--071-J
God, Chance and Necessity, Keith \Yard, ISBN 1-8516R-1 l 6-7
God. Faich and che Nt..'W Millennium , Keith Wurd , ISBN 1-1>5168-155-8
In Defence of the Soul, Keith Ward, 1S81': 1-85168--040-3
Life After Death, Farnaz Mo'i.umiftn, ISBN l-85168-074-8
Muslims and Christitms Face to Pace, Kate Zebiri, lSBN 1-85168-133-7
Paccems of Faiih A,·ound die World, Wilfred Conrwell Smith,
ISBN l-8S168-164-7
Religious Truth/or our Tfme, William Montgomery Wort,
ISBN 1-85168-102-7
The Sense of God, John Bowker, ISBN 1-85168-09.3-l
Se:rual Morality in the World's Religions, Geoffrey Parrinder,
ISB~ 1-85168--108-6
Ulcimate Visions, edited by Martin Forward, ISBN 1-85168--10()-Q
A Wider Vision, Marcus Braybrooke, ISBN l-8516S- l 19-1
THE PHENOMENON
OF RELIGION
A Thematic Approach

M OOJAN M OM.EN

01< £ WORLD
0 Xf 0 11Q

,
,..

Tm: PHENOMENON OF RELIC~ION

One" urld PubllcuLlon,,

l&lcs and EdJtoriol)
185 B.,nbury Rond
Oxford OX2 7AR
England

Oucworld Publications
( U.S. Market1t1g 0/Rce)
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MA 02114

C Moojan Momen 1999

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For Wendi
 CONTENTS

Lise of ,\laps and Timelines xii

Notes amt Acknowledgemmcs .-ciii

L-.:TRODUCTION 1

The Study of Religion 2

Three Aspeccs of Religion 4
The Religions of the World 7
Concept and Category 16

PART l UNDERSTANDING RELIGION 19

CIIAPTER l TUE CO~CEPT OF RELIGION 21

What Is Rellgion? 21
Definitions of Religion 26
The Religious Person or Society 28

CHAPTER 2 RELIGION EAST AND WEST - A GE~ER.AL SURVEY 31

The Nature of Ultimate Reality 31

Concepts of Suffering and Evil 34
The Path to Salvation J4
The Goal of Salvation JS
Ritual and Religious Practices 36
Time and Creation 36
Theism and Monism 36
The UruversaUcy of Modes of Religious Thought JS
Mutual Attitudes of Theism and Monism 41
Relativism 41
Chinese and Japanese Religion 43
Primal Religions 46
The Modem World 50
viii THF. PllENOMt.NOI\ OF Rt,1.1<:ION

CHAPTER J TIIEORlt.S Ot Rt: L IGI0:-1 52

Sociological and Anthropolo~ical Thcone~ 52

Psychological Theories (>I
Philosophical ,ind I ltstorlc:11 Theoric~ <.,5
Tl1eolo~Jcal and Normative Theories (,9
Typologic!> oi Rcli~on 73
Appro:ichcs LO the Study of Religion 77
The Oonl of the Study of Reli~ion 82

PART II THE R ELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE AND ITS

EXPRESSION 85

CIIAPTER 4 THE REI. IGIOUS EXPERIENCE l:!i

Ocscribing the Central Experience of Religion 67

Types of Rdi~ous Experience 92
The Religious Crisis 98
A Psychological Model of tbe Stagci. of Religious Expcrhmce 99
Mediators of Religious Experience 100
The Social Influence on Religious Experience 114

CHAPTER 5 PATHW,WS TO RELIGIOUS EXPI--RIEl'\CE 117

Ritualism 117
Legalism 120
Evangelism 123
Social Reformism 126
Asceticism 129
Monasticism 130
Gnosticism 1,12
Mysticism 135
The Evolution of the Pathways 137
,\ Classificatlon of Religious Groups 138

CHAPTER 6 F,, l'fll, Bt:1.1£1' ANU CON\'F.RSION 1-11

The Nature of raith anc.l Belief 1-l I

Acquisition of Religious Belief and Behaviour HS
The Lantuage of Fallh 148
Conversion, Refonn and Renewal 151
The Socinl Psychology of Conversion and Rcllgious Commiuucnl 1S.l
Motifs of Relii,ous Conversion 15k
The Conversion of Whole Societies 161
The Religious Li.fo U,J
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 7 TOWARDS A SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING OF

RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE 166

Piai!et and the Perceptual Development of Children 167

State-Dependent Learning nnd State-Bound Knowledge 170
Fischer and a Map of ~lental Scates 173
The Ncurophysiological Basis of Religious Experience 176
Sperry and Split-Brain Experiments 178
Types of Religious Experience J 79
Cautionary Notes 180

P.\RT rn CONCEPTUAL ASPECTS OF R ELIGION 183

CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE O~' REALITY 185

The Narure of Ultimate Reality 186

Tmnscendcnt Worlds and Beings 19'9
Revd:uion and Enlightenment 20J
Human Nature 204
The Physical World 206
Time, the Origins and the End of the \Vorld 207
Epistemology 211

CHAPTER 9 Sl'IIFERlNG, SACRIFICE AND SALVATION 213

Evil, Sin and Suffering 213
Sacrifice and Detachment 225
~larryrdom 230
Concepts of Liberation and Salvation Before and After Death 2Jl

CHAPTER 10 TUE PRO~IISE OF A FUTUllE SAVIOUR 242

Descriptions of the Coming of the World Sa\•iour 242

,\ Typology of Future Saviours and MJJlennialist Mo\•ements 254
Esch:ttologr and lhe ~ew Religious Movements 262
Oisconflrmcd Prophecy 262
Causes of Millennialist Movements 264

CHAPTER 1 1 ARCIIETYPE, MYTll .\ND THE S.\CRED 268

Some Religious Archetypes and ~' ~'ths 269

Sacred Place and Sacred Time 277
Religious Symbols 278
Ritual 2i9
Rites of Passage 261
r " TIit: PlllrnOMENON OF I\El.lGION

The Function of Myth and 8ymhol 21'1.J

M yt.h and Rchitious Ills wry 2:86
Myth and Modernity 295

PART IV RELIGION IN SOCIETY 299

CIIAl'l'l-.:R 12 COMPARATIVE RU,IGIOLJS lltSTORY JOl

The Founders of the Religions JO I
The Developmem or a Religion J 1 7
Schism and llcrcsy 322
From Personal Piety co Organized Religion .323
The Nature or the llistorlcal Record 332

CHAPTER 13 RELIGION ANO ETHICS JJS

Moral Developmenc J41

The Foundations of Religious Ethics 3-12
The Boundaries of Ethical Action 346
Ethics and Social Laws 352
Social and Environmental Ethics 352

CHAPTER 14 FUNOAMEKTi\LlSM ANO LlBER.\LISM J63

Characteristics of Fundamemalism and Liberalism 364
Towards a Social DefiJlition of Fundamentalism and Uberalibm 375
The Social and InteUeccual Basis 376
The Psychological Basis 378
Fundamentalism and Modernity 380
A Historical Perspective 382

CHAPTER 15 OFFICIAL RELIGION AND POl'ULAR Rt,,LIGION J66

The Relationship between Official and Popular Religion 386

The Evolution of Popular Religion 391
Three Examples of Popular Religion 39-l

CHAPTER 16 RELIGION, POWER AND GOVERNMENT 404

Religion and Legitimation 405

RelJtion and the State 412
Religion and Politics -U9
Civil Religion 425
Power anJ the Religious Professional 426
CIIAPTER 17 RELIGION AND GENDER 432
The llil>lory und ChurncteristJcs of P:itrlaroby 432
The Suppression of Women by ReUgion 4.35
The Eternal Female Archetype 442
Religion and Sexualil)' 444
The Modem Debate 447
The Femlnist Study of Religion 449

CllAPTER 18 RELIGION ANO THE ARTS 455

An and Popular Religion 455
An and lhe Symbolic Universe 459
The Historical Development of Religious Arc 462

CHAPTER 19 RELIGION II'[ THE .MODERN \VORLD 4 75

Social Challenges to Religion 476
The Intellectual Challenge to Religion 481
Religious Adaptations to the Modem World 485
The Response of Religion in 1'radltional Societies 490
Ecumenism and lnterreligious Dialogue 492
:\ Survey of Religions Today 493
New Religious Movements 508
Religious Freedom 516
Religion and the Media 5.19
Religion as Meaning 524

CONCLUSION 528
From Individual Experience co Social Expression 5.30
The History of a Religion 532
Analysis and Categorization 5.34
The Definition of Religion 535

GLOSSARY 538
~OTES 546
818LIOGRAPHY 5 70

lND&X 586

xi
r

LI ST OF M APS AND TIMELINES

p. 10 Map showing tJ1c Sprencl of Buddhism

11 Buddhism cimeline
13 Christianity timeline
J2 Map showi11g we Distribution of World Religions
302 Chronolo~ of Reli~ious Evencs in the Middle East and India
314 Map showing the Major lloly Places and Migrations of the Prophet-
Founders of we World Religions
318 Map showing the Spread of Islam
J29 Baha'i FaiLh llmellne
422 Hinduism timeline
423 Islam timelinc
-195 Judai~m tlmellne
500 Map showing the Spread of the Baha'i Paith up 10 1950

Ui
 NOTES AND ACKNO\VL EDGEMENTS

N rm:. SOOK. aU dates are given as either BCE (Before the Common Era) or
Cf (Common Era) in place of SC and AO respectively. This usage has been
adopted by many in the lleld of rdigious studies because it avoid:, the
theological implications of the latter (AO: Anno Domini - in the year of our
Lord). which belie\'Cl'S in non-Christian religions may not find :1cccptable.
For similar reasons, the terms ·primal religion' or ' tribal religion' have been
used instead of 'primitive religion' with its pejorative implications. The
titles of nll sacred texts are itnlicizcd. On the question of the transliteration
of the numerous religious terms and names used, chis book takes the easy
path by not using any diacriticals. l have t.'lken the view that those who are
expercs In the field will know what diacriticals there should be and they
would not mean anything co others anyway.
The author would like to thank the following for their help with thh
book: Dr Frank Whaley, Professor Un,ula King. Dr Peter Smith, Dr Robert
Stock,nan, Dr Peter Brooke, Stephen J,ambden, Or Saba .\)'lTIOn-Nolley.
Roben Parry, Gita Gandhi Kingdon. Dr \\'illlam Collins, Sonja van K1c:rkhoIT,
Dr Todd Lawson, Dr llooman ~lomen, Dr Rhen Oicssncr, Dr Paula Drewek.
Dr Julie Badiee, Dr Wendi ~!omen, Dr Sedrhat ~lomcn, Carmel Momen,
Ilelen Coward and Judith Willson. The kindness and cooperation oi the
staff at C:imbridge University Library should all'o be :icknowledged.
The author would like to thank the following i1Jstitutio11s :ind individu:ib
for assistance and permission to reproduce the following pictures:
lt:ilian Cultural Institute and Maria D'An~clo (pp. 33, 188a. 292,319, 365,
-107, 436, -167 bottom, -172 bottom right): Brazilian Embassy, London,
~elson Lafrala :ind Graca Fbh (pp. 5, 9.J, 1-14, 175, 179, J92c. -100, 402):
Turkish Tourist Office and Margaret Hopkins (pp. 26a, .39, 97, 167, 272 top
left. JO-l b. 418. -16lb, 467 middle, and picture of Selimiyyt: ~losque. Edime.
on p. 299); British Israel Public Affairs Cemre and The Zionist Federation
of Great Britain and Ireland (pp. 1.2, 136, 282c, 367,372,373, -133 bottom.
445, -194, 532. 536, and picture of orthodox Jew :it the \\'ruling Wnl].
Jerusalem, on p. 85): Press Office, Cyprus IIlg_h C-0mmission. London. and
M:iria Phanti (pp. 14, J0J, 427a); West Marylnnd College Slide Collection
and Dr Julie Badiee (pp. 2.35, 2-lla); ~andnn Gautam (p. 241b): Tourl~rn

xiii
r
•fr THE PHF.NOMF.NON OF RF.1,JC;JON

Aulhority of Thailand, London Office {pp. 40h, 130, J45a, 395. J97, 427b,
537); Bitha'i World Centre, 11:iifo (pp, 15, 42, 2J::?, 272 hottom left, .'\55, 421.
501, 517); Anj:mi an<l Milhlcsh Slnghnl (pp. 22, -1-0a, I 0-I top, 477),
Information Division. Taipei Representative Office in the llnitecl Km~<lom
(pp. 2J, J6, •M, 45 top, 218); Israel Ministry of Tourism, London Office (pp.
J 72 and picture of Russian OrthocloA Church of Mary ~la.~dalene on the
Mount of Olives, Jerusalem, on p. 19); Ra.min llahihi (pp 107a, .190),
Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. London (pp. 377, 413, 420),
Salvation Army, Loodoo (pp. 75 cop, 41:!6b); Saudi Information Ofr1ce,
London (pp. 279, JlSc); Bhaktlvcdcmt:t Book Trust (pp. 2J4, 469);
International Society for Krishna Consciousness, 13haktive<lant.'.l Manor,
Watford, England, and ~Ir Blmal Krishna dns (p. 502); Shema Deamer (pp
157a, 278b); Mr Shahrokh Vnfndari (p. 272 bottom right); United Statci.
Baha'i National Office and Yael Wumtfeld (p. 349); Alliance of Religions and
Conservation and Felice Kuin (p. 358); Baha'i Internacional Community,
New York (p. 358); Unification Church of Great Britain and ~Jr Geofte
Robertson (p. 512); Mongolian Nationa.l Tourist Org;.mization (Zhuulchta -
pp. 104 bottom, 458); Arya Samaj, London and Prof. S. N. Bharaclwaj
(p. 383); Mr Holm Triesch (p. 2l5); Mr Vidya Raja (p. 515); Japanese
Embassy, London (p. 45 bottom); Gafoor Jaffer (p. 261); Library o( the
Religious Society of Friends, London (p. 76); Ahmad ,\dab (p. 230); The
High Commission of India, London (p. 8); Korean Embassy (p. JQ2b); Klaus
K. Klostcrmaicr (p. 225); Robert Harding Library (man meditating on the
banks of the Ganges at Varanasi-Benares, front cover). The picture on
p. 183 is of II srntue of the 13uddhn in the Samath Museum, India. Also M
ManJ for picture on p. 321 and P. Si.roussi for picture on p. J 71.
The author would also Like to thank the following for their kJnd pem1ission
to reproduce the materials indicated:
Alliance of Religions and Conservation for text on pp 359-61, mainly from
Edwards and Palmer, Holy Ground; Dr John Lor1and, Dr ~ormao Skonovd.
and the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion for the cahle on p. 159;
Dr Janet Goodwin, for quotation on pp. 2J2-3; Dr Peter Brooke for
permisslon to use his unpublished t.ranslation of writinJ\s of Alben Gleizes
quoted in the caption to the picture on p. 465.
 I NTRODUCTION

HE PHENOME.'10N OP RELIGION has pervaded the history of humanjcy from

its earliest known beginnings to the present day. Few other aspects of
human social activity have been so consistently and promfaendy present
in every society in all pans or the world down che ages. Many of the earliest
traces or human activity that archaeologists hove unearthed relate to some
form of religious activity. And in our time, just when many people were
about to write it off as a fast-fading remnant of the past, about to be pushed
into oblivion by the advances of science and technology, religion has staged
somethint of a recovery. It is once more a prominent factor on the world
stage.
The influence of relition has been very varied In world history. This has
been both constructjve and destructive. On the one hand some of the
greatest civilizations of the world have been founded on the basis of a
religious faUh,' the Islamic Abbasid Empire or the Buddhist empire of
Ashoka in India for example; on the other hand, some of the most
prolonged and bloody conflicts in human history have stemmed from
religious dilierences, the Crusades in the Middle East or the conflict
between Hindus and Muslims in Indian history, for example. One of the
features that is most striking when surveying the world of religion is the
profusion of its differing and conflicting forms. A practice allowed and
encouraged in one religion is forbidden in another; somethlng that is
considered impure and defiling by one reUgious system is pure according to
an01hcr, a concept held to be true by one group is regarded as delusory or
.!ven the very source of error by another group. The concept in the Westen1
religions that each human being has an eternal essence (a soul), for
example, is considered a misguJdcd delu:slon in Buddhism.
We must, therefore, ask ourselves: what ls this phenomenon called
religion? What is the source of the powerful grip it has on human beings?
llow can a religion be a source of inspimtion and progress in one age and
the onwn of conflict and destruction in another? How are we to account for
its many different and conflicting forms? Can we find any common themes
and patterns in the history of religion? Indeed, are we dealing with just one
thinii or with a number of different phenomena that ha"e aU mistakenly
been lumped cogether under the title of religion?

• I
 TIIE PlffiN0MEN0N (J~ RELl<aON

In :1ddition, we may addres.-. ourselves to the prohlems dwt foc..-c rclt,itjon

In che modem world. These Include lhe challen~ or seculari1at1on and the
seemin.') decline in the relevaoce of religion to e,•crydoy lifo Arc we ~cein~
a terminal decline in rcU!llon or i~ it mcrcl)' the downswin~ in a cyclical
pattern·~ What Is the cause of chis decline'> Is 1hc recent rc:,ur~ence of
religious revlvolism and fumlnrnenwllsm in man}' counlrics the (Jr:,t sign of
an upturn in the fortune~ of rell!Uon, or merely part of its death throe~. ru.
some have asserted-;,
Religion is a phenomenon that has proved diffh::ult to define The
mfaimal definition of a religious phenomenon would refer to a relauonsh1p
bet\\'ecn human hcing:i and a tmnsccndem reality (~cc p. 27). Thi"
relationship ls the central experience of religion and is descrlhed 10 weawr
detail in chapter 4. But if religion remained at just chis level, there could be
no study of it (outside the realm of psycholoizy, In any case). for it would be
a purely personal experience. The study of religion becomes possible when
a further factor is introduced: when this central expcrilmce f'mds wmc form
of expression. The minimal level of this expression is language - when a
mystic describes his or her experience, for example. Other expressions of
religion include doctrinal formulations, stories and myths, rituals, religious
hierarchies and administrative strucrures, popular religious forms, an.
music, architecture and so on.
To achieve a fuller understanding of reli~on, however. we must also
examine one more factor: the relationship between the observer and what
is being observed. This last is a difficult and t:lusive task, which ls, however,
necessary. While one may have doubts as to whether one needs to take into
consJderatlon the interaction between lhe observer and the observed in an
experiment with plants or animals in biology, che area of religion is a ,·ery
different matter. Religion makes far-reaching claims about the ultim:ite
concerns of humanity. It challenges the indJvidual to make a leap of faith,
to enter the religion's paradigm, and to see the world through chis.' It i,;
doubtful whether any observer wh o makes a deep study of a religion can
be completely unaffected by such claims and truly neutral in his or
her judgements. Tndeed, the more an observer protests his or her
lmpartiallry, the more one suspccttS that some partialicy is present bene:ith
the surface.

T HE STUDY OF RELIGION

It has been cuslOmary to describe and explain religions with rcfen!nCc to

a Limited number of religious manifestations: the wriucn or spoken
scripture, the ritual, the sacred pl ace or object and so on But to descrihe
these, no matter how precisely or perceptively, docs not provide us "Ith 11
comprehensive view o( religion. This book has been born out oi the
conviction that religion, being o multi-foceLed phenomenon, needs to he
surveyed from a large number of viewpoints if lij\ht b to be ~hcd on It.
 INTRODUCTIOK :l

The difierem methods for exomlninA religion can be divided Into cwo
main groups. First, religion can be examined \\ithin its own terms: theology
and metaphysleb. These melhods :iccept the religiou~ viewpoint and seek
co build up a systematic understonding of aspcctS o( reli~ion from within
this framework. The phenomenology of religion seeks to perform much the
same cask but from a more objecth'e viewpoint. Alternati\•ely, religion may
be examined analytically: sociology helps to explain the different social
manifestations of religion, psychology can help to explain why people act in
the way that they do in a religious context; anthrorology also has imrorront
insights to contribute. These methods seek to expl:iin the comple1<ities of
religion in terms o( less complex interpretative frameworks. Thus they may
be termed reductive. I shall return to o discussion of these two approaches
111 c.-hapter 3 (pp. 77-82).
Other fields may also assist our understanding of rel~ion. Philosophy
can help co identify and clarify some of the issues to be studied. The
philologist can shed lighc on what the texts of a religion meant co those who
originally produced them. Hii;torians of religion can describe the manner in
which lhe religion's institutional form and even its self-perception has
changed over the years. The prohlems arising in the field or the philosophy
of science have many parallels with the questions facing the study of
religion. There are also important contribulions from such newly emerging
fields as human ethology, cybernetics, semiotics and others.
Looking at religion from these various aspects docs, of course, have its
problems. Each discipline has itS own set oi theories, !rs own categories and
frameworks, from which co view religion. This leads to a rather fragmented
view; we are sc.-elng religion from many different Cacers and thh makes it
difficult to gain an overall picture. The only alternative course would be to
present religion from within a single theoretical framework. This would
have the advantage that the result would be more coherent and cobesl\•e.
Several such possible overall theories are briefly described in chapter J .
Unfortunately, however, in the field of religious studies, we arc still a Jong
way from having a single theoretical perspective that illuminates all aspects
of religion well. To have presented religion from just one theoretical
viewpoint would, in m)• opinion, have given this book greater clarity at the
expense of a much reduced level of understanding. Each of these theories
tends co be particularly useful for considering one aspect of religion, but
then has nothing to sar (or nothing illuminating co say) about other
aspects.
Those who have written about religion fall into several groups. The first
division that can be recognized is between those who are broadly
sympathetic to the subject of their study and those who are not. There have
been many who har e studied religion and religioru. whose writ~ betray a
clear contempt for and lack of sympathy with their subject. Indeed, the
whole area of the study of non-Christian religions in the West began as a
basi,, for rolemics and missionary education. I would categorize myself as
being in the first group, those who are broadly sympathetic to reli/lion.
4 THE l'IIENOM£NON Of REl.l(.IC>N

l would hope, however, that thl~ docs not prnvcnt me from de~crihmJl ~omc
of the less savoury acrlvlcics that go on In Lhc name o( rcll~ion.
Another division LO he found hccween writcl"8 on rcliitioa i~ hctwccn
those who feel thm there are broad similaritici, buwcen the different
religions (and who therefore seek for points of conver~cnce hcrwecn them)
and those who regard the various religions us being so utterly different that
any search for similarities is Illusory. It wUl bccomc clear to Liu.: rc-.ider of
this book that I am among the first. group. Indeed the very structure o( thls
book, which looks Ill i;pectfic topics across religions ( rut her than thc more
traditional layout of textbooks on religion, which considers each religion
separately), predisposes to the search for broad <.-ommon patterns. There
are, of course, many stark dlffer-ences between the religions of the world
and it is hoped that this book docs not seek to hide them; hut there arc also
many similarities and parallels llllld these are even more lntcrc,,Lln~ because
of what they begin to tell us about the nature of religion ilself (although, or
course, the differences help to define what religion is not)
While reading this book, L11e reader should maintain an awarene~ of
the fact that he or she is receiving che information ic imparts at se\•eral
removes from the phenomena lhcmsclves. In the first place, rcli~ous
phenomena arc experienced by believers, who interprec and describe these
in terms of the conceptual categories available co them. This material is
then analysed and interpreted by specialist scholars who read the rele\'anL
languages. These scholars, who are often from the \Vest or some culture
alien to the particular religion, may impose their own conceptual categories
on the information. Pinally. the reader is recei\,ing this material as
processed through and therefore interpreted by L11c mind of yet another
intermediary - the present writer! The reader cannot also, of course,
escape the filtering effect of the preconceptions in her or his own mind

THREE ASPECTS OF RELIGION

\Vhile many books on religion examine each of the major religions in turn.
this book is structured around an examination of certain aspects of reliitjon,
looking at religious phenomena across the different religions. In this book,
we shall explore in greater detaJI various aspects of the way rn "hlch
religion is experienced (Part II), conceptualized (Part Ill) and the effects
that It has on society (Part TV).

The Central Experience of Reli~ion

Most religious people will repon some religious experience chat 1s at the
core of their faith. The interudty of the experience may \'ary grealiy from
one individual to another. At one extreme there are the visions reponed by
saints o( the appearance of heavenly figures or a deep trance .state hrought
about by meditation. At the other extreme is the experience of comfort or
 INTRODIJCTIOS 5

joy thnt may come from singing :i hymn or

participatlng in a ritual. Most people will find It
difficult to describe lhis experience, since it does
not relnte to the ordlnnry world of everyday
experiences. They mny use such words .as 'joy' ,
'bliss' or 'ecstasy' in u,;ng to describe it. The more
creative person may resort to art or poetry to try to
communicate chis experience. Human heings have
linked the strong feeling of certainty that comes
from religious experience to the concept of
salvation or libennion, :ind because of the PEOPLE IN A.\ Al'TITL'DE OF PRA\'1:lc
importance lhat they auach to it, they have tried to An open-au- service. Brazil
syscem,1tize the patl1ways to this experience, calling
them tlie pathways to safration or libcr:ition (see chapter 5).
Beyond the central experience described in general terms above,
religion will take on different features :iccording to the specific milieu in
,,hich it occurs. Each person experiencing, the 'sacred' will !hen describe
this experience to ochers in terms of the religious categories within their
common culture. Those Crom :i Western background will gain from the
central ex-perience of religion a consciousness of the 'presence' of a
personal God. Those with an Eastern orientation will feel an intensific:ition
of their intuJtive knowledge of Reality. These feelings form the basis of faltb
(see chapter 6). Religious experience is descrihed and analysed in the
chapters of Part IT.

The Conceptual 1\specc of Religion

\\'hen people try to communicate with others the religious experience that
they have had. they must, of necessity, firsl create some mental concept of
what has occurred and then try tO convey this to others. usually in the form
of words. This takes us on to the second central concern of religion, the
formulation of a conceptual framework for talking about the central
eXperience of religion. Theology and religious philosophy are attempts to
formulate these feelings and to give them a propositional contenl, the
beliefs and doctrines of a religion.
At the centre of this conceptual aspect of religion is the idea that there
ii. some transcendent or immanent Ultimate RealJty and that the most
important activity for human heings is to establish and clarify their
relationship with this reality. This Ultimate- Reality ltSelf is cooceptuali2ed
In many different ways:

• In mnny primal or tribal religions there are considered to be many

spiritual realities, spirits and gods, associated with particular holy places
or with important aspcctS of social life such as the barvest or fertility.
Usually such spirits and gods 11re transeendem to the world and are
worshipped and appeased in communal or tribal ceremonies Howe,·er,
r
THE l'IIENO~IE!\ON Of RFI.H,I<)"'

ccnaln h1dl\·ldual,, (shumans or Witch duuton,) arc

beliC\•cd co he ohle, chrou~h spccinl knuwkd,ctc and
mn~ical means. to make the sp,rils or do.:luc,
lmmnm:nc \llthan thcmi.chc:, In lhb way, they
hccomc manifc,mnion~ of the dcaty llowcver monv
Lrlbal ruliglon~ oJw have tJ1c idea tlut hchind the
muJcipliciry or i,pirits and ~ods. t11crc is o un,cy, an
undcrlyin~ Reality. This Reality may be ic.h.:nlificd
1\IU1 Nat ure ll1>elf, or wlt11 a power (11lll11a) or 111t11
a supranaturnl entity (see pp. -l(>-7).
• The ,vestem world developed tow:irds the idea
A Melanesian sea-1\oJ that there is only one deity. The Cod of Judah,m
Christianity and lslnm ls conceptualized 1,li~nly
differently in ench of these reli~ious trndicion,
but il is nevertheless recognizably the same God
• ln the East, the evolution of religious thought came to the idea that wh111
ex.isi.s is an impersonal, noncontingent Reality (13rohmnn. Dharma.
Nirvana, Shunyata, Tao).

Thesc different ways of thinking of God or Ullimme Reality :ire further

analysed in ch.1pcer 6. From this comes various other questions such as che
n11rurc of humanity's relationship with this physical world :ind with UltimaU!
Reality, questions about the nature of sufferiog aod sal\'ation or liberation
These are described briefly in chapter 2 and in greater detail in Port Ill

The Socit,I Effect of Reli~ion

The third of the major aspects of religion Is the dril'e to try to rccrenu, tJic
religious experience within institutional forms and to support it throu~
institutional structurcb. But since ilie conccpcualizactons of the experience
vary from one individual to another and from one society to another. the
social mechanisms evolved ulso vary. Much of that to which we apply the
word 'religion' is human be~b trying to :.yswmatizc m M>Caety the re·
crcaiion of this ccntrAI religious C,'1:pcrience.
Once the concept;, and social Mructurcs of a reli~on arc c1>tabl1£bcd in
a traditional society. thcy become part of che caken-for-~r:mted reality of
the individuals in that society All the individuab in that i.ocict)' arc
socialized into that religious wo rid. The rcll~ous world and the M>Ctal world
become indistinguishahle. le mny rhen he rhac the central experience of
religion arises more from nn expericncu of group sohdnrlty aml ~ocial
cohesiveness than from an Individual experience. Of course, once a rclJ~on
has become established in society and an important clcmcnc within ,c.
some may cake part ln rell~lous activiucs from ocher motives :,uch u:. po" er.
economic gain or social enl1ancemeat (see chapter 16).
Mose important In :issc1.slng the role of reli~iQJ1 in a sooi'-'lY ii. the fact
thaL onc.-e a religion has lx..>come cstahlli,hcd at lhe t.'Orc of a sociccy, ll
 INTRODUCTION 7

becomes 1he basis for the etbos of the society uad its social and moral
values. This is the impor111nt role that religion hai, played in o.lmos1 every
society. Indeed, much of whal Is dis1inct1ve about societies such as those ot'
Thailand, Kuwait or Greece is due to the mark made upon them by the
,·n1ucs predorni1111nt in tJ1c Thernvadn Buddhism, Sunni L~lam and Greek
Orthodox Chrlsti:mlcy respeccively (see chapter 13).
There is some dehoce arnon,g those who study religion, however, about
tJle relative importance and priority of these three aspects of religion tbat
I ha\'e identified. If tl1ere is any underlying and unifying core to the
concept of religion, which of Ul<!sc aspects iS prior to and generates ilie
ochers:' Is the religious experience the primary motivating force that
then generates social expressions of treligion? Is the social role of
religion ILS most Important aspect, which then generates religious
experiences (see the discussion of Durkheim's theories, pp. 53-5)? Do the
conceptual aspects of religion, by creatiDg certain expectations, detem1ine
the form and character of religious experience (see pp. 11-!-5)':I ( See also
pp. 179--80.)
The interplay of these three aspects of religion forms a recurrent theme
throughout the study of religion. The next three parts of this book are based
upon these three aspects. Several of the chapters of the book. however,
co,·er material tbat applies to more than one part. Chapcer 5, for instance,
on the pathways to salvation, also contains material relating to the social
fflilllllCSUltions of religion that should more properly appear in Part IV; the
second half of chapter 10, on the promise of a future sa"iour, contains
much sociological material that would also he appropriate to Part IV, and
chapcer 14, on fundamentalism and liberalism, contains much material
that relates to religious e-A.l)erience and so could be put in Pan JJ.

TnE RELIGIONS OF TIIE \ VORLD

The world contains a vast array of religions. Numerically the largest are
Chdstian1ty, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. There are also a number of
other well-established independent religions: Judaism, Zoroastrianism,
Sikhism, Jainism and the Baha'i Faith. In addition, there are Chinese and
Japanese religious systems, tribal or traditional religions and anciem or
archaic reliwons, as well as many new religious movements. A map showing
the distribution of world religions appeari, on p. 32. Ln the course of writing
this book It soon became apparent that, co keep it to a reasonable size,
examples for e,·ery statement could not be given from all the many religions
of the world. Therefore a selection was made of six key religions. From tJlc
rel~ons of the Abrahamic or monothei.stic \Vestem tradition, Judaism.
Christianity and Jslnm were selected; from the Eastern, Indian line of
religions, Hinduism and Buddhism; and as a representati,re of the new
reli~ous movements, the Baha'i Faith ' These will be the main religions
referred to in the rest of this hook. Occasional rcforcoces will be made to
 8 THE PHENOMENON Ot RELlc:IC)N

the olher religions, where relevant, when exmuplcs are he11)J\ ~ivcn of nny
particular phenomenon. Of eoul'8e, the Bnha'i f'o1lh does nol ha\e 1hc ,:1mc
historical deplh as the other relitions chosen ond so while 1L\ conecp1uol
aspects will be referred to frcqucnLly In Part 111, there will be lc!>s w o;ay
about iL~ social de,•elopmem in Part IV.
This selection or six religions will, I hope, be lhc most LL~cful for rno
reasons. First, ii will _IUvc sufficient variely and scope lo he represcnu1uve
of much of the religious world. Second, it is five of these relitions Ihm ore
the most active In the f'ield of propagandt1 and conven,ion (lhe exet!puon
beinl! Judaism). This may mean that it is the~e religions that wiU trow (or
at leaSl maintain their numbers) ns the years pass and the othe r religion!>
that will suffer 11 relative decline in numbers. Tbus, 10 lookin>t at this
selection, we ore c.x:imining the religions th:it will probobl)' he of grcotcst
Importance in the future.•
Since there is no other point in this book ot which eoch of these
religions is described in any systematic way, a brief description or them b
given at this point for those who may be unfamiliar wlch one or more of
them. In the accounts below, I describe mainly the official or orthodox
religion , ignoring the facL tha L there arc, in each rcU#on, popular
expressions of reliAion thnt are often contradictory to the official religion (a
theme explored in chapter 15).

Hindu temples at Mndurul, Tamil
Nadu, lndlo, named for Minaksbl and
Sundareshvara, local names for the
Hindu god Sb,va and bis conson
Hinduism
Hinduism is one o( the oldest extant, textuallr
based religions in the world Its rooL~ go back
to a collection of scriptures called the Vedas,
which are considered to ha\'e been divinely
revealed to certain sages. Tbese books, \\h1ch
are usually dated as being from about 130<>
BCE, originated among the Aryan population of
lndia. From these begi~s a complex and
diverse relitious trodition has evolved Beyond
originating in India and holdio.g the Vedas LO
be sacred, there is little else rhaL holds the
wide diversity of groups that call themi.clvcs
Hindu cogether. There is certainly no
particular creed, doctrine or prnccice that is
common to all Hindus. One strand in
Hinduism is the rltualisuc ond legollstic
religion which is officiated over by the
Brahmins, the prie!,d)' cm,lt!. Anolher ;strand
is the mystical and philosophical aspects of
the \'edanw , b9Sed on the Upa11i:sltads and
the philosophies of such writers as Shankara
(788-820), Ram:muja (d. 11."\7), and Modhva
 INTRO 0 UCTION 9

(d c l276), There is also the bhakci religion based on love and devotion co
deities such nil Shiw1 and \11,,hnu, a11d the: latter's avat.ars (incarnations),
Krishna and Rama. Pervadln~ l:lindu socit!ty Is jali, I.he hereditary caste
~ystcm. Most Hindus pnrticipnte in worship both RI home before a
household altnr and in the temple. For more <let.ail on the political and
reli~ious history of Hinduism, see the timeline on p. 422.

Buddhism
The founder of Buddhism is variously called by his personal name,
iddhartha, or his family name, Gautama, or his clan name, Sbakyamuni.
llis title, the Buddhn (Enlightened One), refers to the fact that after a
prolonged period of searching the Indian religious tradltlons, he achieved a
stnce of enlightenment while sitting under a tree. During his lifetime
(traditionally c.56.'.H:.483 BCE, but more probably c.-180-<:.400 BCE), he
"·andered about north-east India with a band of disciple-monks. The
Buddha a,·oided dogma and metaphysical speculation in his teaching and
concentrated on I.he essentials for spiritual development. lle thus set out
the ~liddle Way, :i pathw:iy to enlightenment and Nirvana (extinction)
avoiding the extremes of asceticism and seU-indulgence. After the death of
the Buddha, his religion spread throughout India and to neighbouring
countries, although it had died out in most of India itself by the twelfth
century. At present, one major branch or Buddhism Is the Theravada
Buddhists, who predominate in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, l, aos and
Cnmbodia. These hold to the books of the Pali Canon. The maiu pathw:iy
for spiricual development is for men to become monks and then study,
meditate and practise the path taught by the Buddha. The other main
division of Buddhism, the Mahayana (which emerged between about the
first century BCE and the first century CE:), is very diverse. Many of the
Mahayana sects have their own scriptures, some attributed to G:iutama
Buddh:i and some to olher 11,gures, such as the heavenly buddhas. In place
of the Theravada ideal fi_l\ure of the arhru, who achieves N"irvana, is the
figure of the bodhisaCC't.'<l , who puts oft' reaching Nirvana in order to help
others on the spiritual path. One srrand of the Mahayana is Tibetan
Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism or Yajrayona. This is an esoteric tradition
wh!eh emphasizes symbolism (e.g. mandalas - symbolic cosmological
maps) :ind sacraments such as initiation ceremonies, the chancinA of
mantras, and certain ritual gestures. Another strand of the Mahayana is the
Ch'an (Medltacion) school of China, better known under its Japanese name
of Zen. This school believes that enlightenment comes suddenly, by direct
and immedi:ice insight for which one can prepare oneseU by cultivating a
mind that has no grasping feelings or tboughcs. Quite different from tbis are
the Amid:i or Pure Land seccs that also originated in China and spread to
Japan. These 1>ects believe that through devotion to and faith in Amitabha
or Amida Buddha, one can be born into his Western Sukhavati P:iradise
after death. Other important sects include the Hua-Yen, which is prominent
 The Spread of Buddhis
~BURYATl;rA
·
\A
.... 3
~....:::>
,.
1J"' " ""-
,. . _ *1
..• J• · - .-~
- .:. _,J•-,T . _,.,,__
.,
"
MONGOLIA
«-" ,.J
~ ....
\0 CE-NT Rf'.b -;. ___...,,
,-l( · .___ AS I ~;.-~ r
<to11,'J'
-',_
1 /"\ .~.
\ . ~ -: ~
• ~ >
~
--3:-- GA~OHA~A " ' , CHINA JAPAN
z , ~ - ' . l > .TIBET
~ C ....._ , J.- (101"~

C . . . ~ C" '
:; ~ -~.. N ·J,,. I I Il~ a"'
::s ·, MA.URYA ··1.,2so1cr e
:.. ·, EMPIRE ~ ~ ~
a:
:..
C
~
~

z
_,..,...;/ Asob 260- 2J98{E

INOIA
l .
~""_?'
BURMAJ'
-~ ,.,, '; <..,
r )./~,,
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.-.,,,.--,,. . \ J-.
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"'.-.. Aroblon
ANDHRA
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f ,.,.
~
0,{<-
'~--~
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"'""" fvo~
0
;,: h1- 3r4 \ ....... ~,;
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=
c..
Curn,nt spread of Buddhism
=
Therovado
"'i:: M>hayana

\
M~n• (Tibe111n) 'y V I\ SRI \ ~-. i,,. THAILAND
0 '

___.
 INTRODl'CTION 11

-500- c.41MGO lift or cht 8lllidlu Buddhis

un ht luddhltl '-11. ~ a
cJOI lnd ~ (Md.~, - l1Sffl of d!sopl,nt of cht lach> d!iclmtd
400 ~ c.lM
cJ6f
luUM1 C..oal hi,a - int 1i111 ti 1 1plit
~ tlM!XtS 8Ndhall\
be-•!ht lfflttJIII& Thttmda and N:wya,,a

300 ~ c.lSI "'4d11Gt CAIID<il hlN - ""'" r,p,!111& ct1 lDII Mlfllai b,j1fll clisCll!lH
--,& Asholc, i,ads 11W10111 111 ..,t1,-t.,1 and solllll l,id"- In lanb and Burm,
200 '- d.c.lJf 1.!11ob
dll K......, (NJllldai ~u-G11tk kill lltco,ni,. kddlnt
:t- c.118 luddbmn i,ttads to Ctotnl Asia
100 - \ dlf.ll ~ t ti laddhi11 an 11 ~ lonamau aid Wl'I'
<.1*1-1000 l111t'l"'(t II N.i..r,,. Sod...,_
II hli aooo wnlUII don it, In t..,l<a
0 t0-Jt0 lwbft f"'P'rt (l,,ddllist) .,,abl,sh,d Ill oont,...,.51 [ndla; G.mfh,ra, lll'l"rWlt C!lltrt for 8uddhnt lrl
<.SO luddl,.., ,pnaih to 0.., h11 Conb11 As,a
l00 <.I 18 luddhnm tiabllliltd III Canl,od,a
,...- <.150-ltO Namun, •p,rmt ctnirt lot lilddhi>t an
200 cJOG Nap)'lla. !o4llldtt ti Nadl!pN.1 sdlool
c.118 '"4dhltffl lpllad> 10 fttWIII
<.Jot-400 kcldhtsm ,prtad> 10 lndont1i1 and Nall)' hli11111la: Pa)Oif1llln1Q l<liool lfflt'l!I III Dina
300 <.l00-600 1""'11"" ol r..m, 8uddmm
,.,,a;
use ""1dham sprtads lo As.nth>, ra.ndtt .11.,,an sdioal
Jt9 fJ-lwfl. lint 0...,, ..atr- II ]odiJ
<.400 Wlh,posa. lllDOf cir fuuddllm,ua
d.411 H••""' ra.• ., of'"" land soool (Alllidl!mJ
500- <.lot>&GO a.ddltGm lpllad> " llllllaod ... Japa• II S)I, Cl
d.W raHOWI •'l""ffl Pun I.Md luddlM ldlool a,,,,
""'-. d.54l loddhtdh111111, r.,, ,.wru ol o·,. (In) luddlmm. thm,
600 SM luddlmm bt"""" Wit ,dg100 ol j,p,a
"' d.Stl o..., 1o...i., o1 r......·., idiool. ci-
700 t.630 lllddhMI JC)RJm 10 lilltt
--..._ d.lll fJ-!lalll, pnllOflal fii,lrt of H.,.Tto ICbool, Ot,e
800 - m luildhdffl iltetffltS 1111t tda• 11 fobtt
MS ltf"l""" ol luddllam in Ch.,
900

·1000 - 1044-ll Ptak ol 8ud~111 lo a..m. older lag MUllldlt

-104! Thtn'lld1 Suddllsm of Nm,..,. ffll0lll!'1 p,ocb111td 11 11111 rlligioo of In wb
1100 • d.lffl Na,pa. Rlami!r of robtw, luddhom
tllGO D>"flptarlll<t of luddf.,m m IIDf1II Ind"- ~lluma, 8,ngi,,its~ Jlld Ct1tnl Asia
1200 ~ d.llll ...... praop,I '""' ol hln laad Mdhnm. l>f,a,
__.,, c.1110 ftbtw a.ddi!M 1p11ad> 1t non,oli,
Aidor11, fouJldtr of Kldtrr!ll sdlotl. J'l)II
1300 -~ d.ll*2
1117 Noogol ,...,... ol a.,.. - s,lbadc It kddho.m
c.lJOO Thtmad, MdlM of di, Nat,a,dl1r> ..,.,.,..-, p,odl111td u o5cial ,mg,.. ol a.rm,
1400

1500 !501 ''""''""' p• conl!ol of modi ti In lanb

r
U TIIF. PH F.NO\lt:NON 0~ Rt;t, l(:tON

in Koma and believes in the co1111plctc and hormoniow, lntc~nctmtion or

everything In the universe, and the T'icn-t'ai (Tcntfai in ,Jnp:m) s1.-c1 I\ h1ch
is primarily intellecwal, cou!g,orizing the Buddhn's mcssa~c Into five
periods and eight 1c:wh111,lls. The important Japanesi: %'ct of Nichircn
emerged from the Tendai. Further dernil on the history or Buddhism Is
gh·eo in the tlmellne on p. J l. The map on p. 10 ~how~ the ~prcad or
Buddhism.

Judaism
Judaism Is the r,eliglo n of thc Jewbb peo ple aud b anotl1C!r
i1ncienc, textual ly hosed relhUous tradition that is still
extrutt. For Jews , chc Torah is the reveafod word of Cod- Of
great importance also are the uaditions, co<lificallons and
commentnries conwined in che Talmud Rahhinic Judaism
is built upon cbe laws and rituals elaborated in the Thlmud
Apart from legalism and ritualism, che othe r main ~trand in
Judaism is mysticism. Jewish philosophy and mysticism
tlo urisbcd in the Mjddlc Ages In Spam, Provence and the
countries of the Islamic world, where the mrstical tradition
known as the Kobbaln (or Cabbala) emerged. In central
J1'1JA1.~1:A Yemeni scribe Europe, che mystical strand led to the Hasidic mo,·ement.
tu work restoriqg B Tnruh The principal mode rn division, however, is bctw1:c11
scroll (Scphcr Tornh). Orthodox Jud<'lism, which holds lO che traditional legali~tic,
The Torah Is written In a
nt113ll)' prescribed
ritualistic, mhbinic religion , and Reform Judaism, which
manner, each word belnl! seeks to modei-nize the religion. Conservative JudaiMn
sa,d out loud ix,fore it is holds an intermediate position between these cwo. For
wrtncn, each letter more detail on Jewish history, see the timellne on p. 495.
.eparat<.'<I &om the next
by a ~-pace, and \\1tbout
puncruatlon or accents. Chrislianic),
No miswkes [ITC
permissible Jesus Chrisc was born to a JEmisb family in about 4 IICE. Ile
caught a rellgion of love and fellowship. As a result of hh
teaching and his life, Cb.ristlanlty arose and became the predominant
religion of the Roman Empire after the Emperor Constantine's conversion
in 312 CE. ChrisUanicy has gone on to become lhe largei,t and most
widespread religjoo in the world. There are numerou~ Mmnd.., to
Christianity The Eastern Orthodox Church and the other orienuil
churches (Armenian. Ethlopialll, and so on) are centred on litur~\',
myscieism and monasticism. Conscaminople (Byzantium, now Istanbul},
the prime pt1lriarchatc of the Orthodox Church, was the most lmport.ru1t
centre or Chriscianlt:y tltrou,llhout the Middle Ages. The Church in Rome
had increasing disagreements with the Byzantine patriarchate, which
culminated in the mutual exchange oi anathemti:, (denunciations and
excommunications) in 1054 and the sack of Constantinople by Western
Crusaders In 1204. The Roman Catholic Church i~ also ccntr<!d on liturgy
 INTRO Dl lCTI ON l.l

0
~4
)I
45 '1
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(MIClfu>oA tf O,n11
"- l'""'I" of It ha II dot Wtll 11 Nm to (mt '"' It """'"
iiMM
10 no W (Qq:""fCllral lp,ltlt! ti !t i'lol
71 0 . - of 1erm1nn.-"'°"' 11>,...... .. - ., ... Owt,• ...id
d!,<.15' Wnllff1l ,f 1lot A,t,toloo: hdom (Jfuf d51 dot Oiurdo hdofn)

- <JOI 11o, b<lloofl ti ~ """ ,,-,. ..., tthu Wops. Ind•& 11 lif l"f'O'Y
c.l!t l'nl: " Aooo• ,.,,... _ " O.mt1•cy
- <111 11 ..,.,nr bt(o..., , btmoit ""'"'""' 11 °""°"' .,.,,._
~
-

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m
~ ti Amt.. - " ' tt Cln11s••ilr
c - ., 1..,... c.n-...
Coud ti N1t1t, t1al>ll!ilt<f dw do<tnll< • .. Tnnocr, oltfuc ti ._..,
C-•• _,. a,.al to C111b0tiooplt
d.4)0 !t Ill"•• ,..,,11of 111, laDft ~ htan, ,114 ,,....._ . ...,.,.
--..,_ 451 Coaci of 0,,k. .11, dtfu t ti .....,.;... ""' q,itti11 • ti dot C.,11<. hniao. s.,,,..
w Ed1;.,;oa Cliold
500-- <.!GI St llt...kt ...... fnt r,in of , a,,..;,. mooillilK -*'; lqi•iop ti tit r,-n,n.,f.,.;,. of (,np,
>fiHtif,.pc.nqotlU

-< m
'11
Clln,UMII)' 1M IO Xi'M. gp,IJI ti 0.... by
UfClll' o1 J.,.,.. fly Nlllfln ""'I
f'IMI """'°"'l AJo9"

-
m
IGO
(-'"" i_..,., ..•
l)tll!1llt 1..,.,., I.to II ~ u ,,. of ,m.,,. btpu pm o f " - 11 di, (""" Oordo
1,43)
,....... " ... Holy ..... £-,ir,, Curltffiap cn,wntd • lint (..,.,.,
m 5..,, of ffllll'liruioo of laodi,.,;,
NI S1,n of "'"1'lim1• of tht hlbol (l<,fpno}
!05 ri,. .11,.., m• o,,....,, """"'" of • •
_/ tl4 111'1 If l'l"l'iimill DI Aimil
_,, 975
1000- ffl
_., 1054
" illtt,oimtmm--·,.. , -· n ,-1.. ., .,. -· (-.
ln:,11,. I "'"""' lint O-. k111 ti M,,,pry
hroft dot,,., 1000 . , . - .
a- ..d C...t>oOOlfl, mi1ur ....... ,._,.....,,
"'4 Wtl1tno 0.indl
font c,.,_ ,pin'1 llu,lj,. O<llp,m of jm,gj,IO
lffi
II It l...diti ti do int 111i1iwJ ""*" ....,, lllipo r...,,,
1104 1oun1i Cnudt """ c......d..,~
IUI ........ t!Dbmll,d br ,.,. ""'" IX
um 11 n,,.., ...,, "'""' o1 tht ulloobt .,.,,m;,
p111o,.,i,.n
IJOf-1417 Pt,,od •"'l wt,,a do f'opt ltd II A"""° 111d cbtt. ,_ lllt, tifr, - ma! damoG 1iO .. ,a,a<y

1•si ou.- 1u1o ..,.., mlWlll. cruilJ wu1:-i OrlWoi Oo..-,y

1~71 (mbkh.,.., al s,...i. ...,..,.._ it '"' ~ OJll•Jm •d Nomin. bm ~-, l'll<ttanu
14tl hi ., ,.,.. ra, """" •....., ,. s,,.,:..,... o1 rs ...., s,.i.
II 11 IIM1III lmlr pu1it1on Ill! ,S .,_,, dot MCJllllllll • 1111 ,.,..,.._ ltfo,.,...,.
tm IOllldlot ti )lwm bJ' U)Ob; e..,, ill brub will ' - · 1«,- lo ol Oiunlt ol up,,,1
IS41 c.i,,...-to6-.to1tt1p,r,.ltlm!t""""m,,,
IS41-4J C...d ol Tr111 Q("' • ,...,_ tit C.,diok Otri in ltdu 11 -It< tit l t f -
flfMI llwty lcan' W.r • Gtrmnr w -... 1S1i"1 a nipn .,.., ",_ Camdict "'' Protua11u
1m ftaooo& ., tt,, IO<r,d (qnplioa fir Propai:aooo al 1111 hi'- d,ol ..,_ ,I llom» udloli( 11mioo,,y ,Hon
llll !rut iOd .......... ., 6,lilot ., ,. loquoi•
'"' r-"' •"" 5tcit<y for ,,_1111 Oortl8ll ~ • l riaiJI ,,.,,,.., .,.._,., orp,i.....
dlSO ~ ol w laiit,11...., ,_. of htllo-.cntical ~ ol dw tiblc
_ / tilt ~ , of OnlOI ol jts,s Omi latttr.Oiy Ian (N- )
......_ fl-0-44 Hop al....,...., _....,'°"• ._,a _,
Ntnll b""
11st ,....,... o1 Our1ts o.,,..·, t1tt 0r,pi o1 s,.-· - ~ we ., °"""' .,.,
b,Wial _ , o1 en,...

,
ltlt.I! '"'""'" ti 'Tio, hrlldomm.., • dot 1M lou..t,.., .....,..u
ol die l•na---
lt6J.4S i.-1'*» C...ci,""" a • - , 1pt1 ..... IIWm ttlwr mil""' bJ' tilt CIIW< 0.rdl
-•nt
2908 1"5 C»c...... ti tt,, _..., .,_;,,.,,,. (.........., ol tt,, ..... Clllloli< ...t Orthod• Qerdltt
r
14 • TIIE PHENOMENON OF REI IC,ION

t~."8Tllt~ OKTII0OOX CUl/llCII: Icon of lhe \'l~I n Mary hold,ng lhc child Jei,u,-. In Pun.-,y(a
,ou Arak.a (Our Lady of Araka}, a cwelftl:t-ecotury Byzandne monastery ln I.be Troodos
Mounwins of Cypnis

and monasdcism, but it is much more centralized and hierarchical in It.\

organization. With the rise of Islam in the Middle Ea.-it and che eYentuaJ full
of Constantinople in 1453, Rome gradW1lly became more important than
Constantinople as the centre of Christendom. The various Protestant
churches that broke away from the Roman Catholic Church in the
sixteenth century rejected, in Lh.e main, the traditions and hierarchy of that
Church and procl11jmed a Bible-based religion of faith 11nd personal piety
The history of Christianity is represented in a timclinc on p. lJ.

Islam
Islam is the reU~on that arose as a result of the ceachin,t!s of Muhammad
(c.570-632 CE). Uc opposed the idolatry of the Arab tribes and also some of
the doctrinal developments io Christianity. He tau.i!ht a i;lmple dirt!CI
relationship with God through de,•otional acts and a way of Life,
emphasizing piety and justice. Within a few decade~ of the death of
Muhammad, Islam had spread through the Middle East and North Africa
The Shi'a (Shi'is, Shi'iles) split away from the majority, who became known
as Sunnis, over che question of the person and n:iture of the leaden.hip of
the community. The Shi'a belie\•ed that ?.1uhammad hnd intended 'Ali co be
the leader of Islam after him as tlte first of a i.cries of heredltar)' lmums. nnJ
had intended a spiritual and political leadership. The Sunnis looked to a
I.inc of caliphs, who were mainly political leader!>. The orthodox strand in
 INTROl>UCT!ON 15

Islam ha1- always been legalistic and most ~1uslims would identify bein~ a
Muslim with following the lloly Law, the Shnri'a. This is based on the
Qur'an, which Muslims believe is the word of God, and 1he Traditions
(fladichs). whicb record the sa)ings and actions of Muhammad. The other
main strand in lslan1 Is mysticism, Sufism. individual mystics exJstcd from
the earliest days of Islam. but it was in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
CE that the great Sufi orders began to emerge. There has been a certain
amount of tension between these two strands in Islam over the course of
lslamic history. ClassicaJ Sunni politicaJ and social theory saw the Muslims
as one community (umma) under the leadership of the caliph. The
caliphate was, however, abolished in 1924 after the fall of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire. Further details of the religious and political history of
lslam is given in the dmeline on p. 423 and in the map on p. 318.

The Baha' i Pa.ich

During the ninc1eenth and twentieth centuries, a large number of new
religious movemenlS have arisen. Among these, the Baha'i Faith is one of
the most interesting because of the way in which it has cut its links to its
parent religion, Islam, and is increasingly being seen as un independent
religious tradition. By srudying the Baha' i Faith, therefore, we are able to
e,,carnine more closely a process that other religions such as Christianity
and Buddhism have undergone in their early history. Baha'is date the origin

Baha'i World Centre bulldinJ!s on Mount Carmel, Haifa. The building with pillars and a
small dome In the top-left Is the Sc,tt or the l lniversnl llousc or Justice, the hii\hest
authority in the Bnha'i Faith; hclow ii :ind to r..he right Ls o building with pi1111,,. the
lnu,motional .\rchh-LS building: the domt.>d building in the foreground is the ~hrlnc o r
the Bub. Sluoo thl• photograph W:L< taken In 1981, two other bwldlng.s h3\•e been
wn~trucu,d, on" on dth<!r .,d., of the S.,ot of I.ht: l!olversal llou;., of Jusuce, In o
•imilar cla.sslcal stJ lc, as wcU as a series or terraces above and below the shrine.
r
16 THE PIIENOME:-ION OF REI.IGI ON

of their religion to 1&1-1 ct: when o figure called lhc Boh ( lH l 9-50 J began a
relil!iou.~ movemenl in I ran . The follower& or the Bnh were sc\·crclv
persecuted rutd the mo,·cme11t wns almost cxti11jl11bhcd. From 11111011g the
remnants of the Babi communJly in exile in Baghdad, (hha'u'llah
( 1817-92) cnme into prominence. lie is t.h e fouudcr o f the Baha'i Fmth lo
a series of private and public declarmlons in 186~, he put forwnnl tlu:
claim to be not only the messianic figure fore to ld by ch c Hab hue al~o che
Promised One of all religions. llis principol social tcachlngs were of world
peace and the unity of humankind. The whole corpus o f Boha'u'llah'1,
writings, which include laws, d<>ctrlnal works, mys tic is m . nnd e thical 1111d
social u:achlngs, are considered scripture by Baha"is. The rcll~on was
brought co the West under the leade rship of Baha'u'llah's son, 'Abdu'l-Baha
(18-14- 1921) and to the resc of the world under the leadcr~bip of Sho4hi
Effendi (Hi97-1957), the grandson and successor of 'Alxlu'l-Baha. The mnp
on p. 500 s hows the spread of the Baha'i Failh to 1950, the llmeline on
p. 329 highlights che major historical eventS.

CONCEPT AND CATEGORY

In writing this book, I have at all times been conscious of two contlictin)t
pressures: the desire to describe the phenomena i11 detail and the m:cessily
for clarity and conciseness. Religion, being a multi-faceted and complex
human phenomenon, is constantly in a scate of change, adapting itself to
new social realities. ln trylng co reduce this complexity to the pages of a
readable book, it has been necessary to simplify and organize the material
in order to produce conceptual clruity. ln particular, the task of comparing
different religious phenomena and construcllng typologies can le11d co the
danger of oversimplification. Rcliwous phenomena do not exist in a small
number of ideal types, bul rather in n large variety oJ types, many of which
overlap and interpenetrate. There is thus the danger of forci~ the faces
about a particular phenomenon to fit preconceived ideal types
Some will consider the reduction of religious phenomena to two main
types in chapter 2, for example, to be too schem:1tic or a itross
oven,implification. They may well regard it as highly problematic, in time
there is considerable overlapping and interpenelrallon and there 1~. In fact.
no such thing as a pure example of either ideal type. It is my hope that th(.;
reader will understand that t.he reduction of this and much other materlnl
in the book to simple dichocomies is intended only to Increase clarlry. For
the purposes of a survey such ns this, it is useful co describe phenomena in
terms of the two extremes of the range. The reader \\ill, I hope, bear in
mind that in li£e, as distinct from lextbooks, phenomena do not usuolly
occur as discrete typical oontrnsting opposites but rnll1er aJong, a spectrum
from one extreme lO the ocher.
One of the founding fathers of this area of i.tudy, Max \Yeber, \\'Tote, in
particular, about the fact that we must al all limes be ready to discard our
 INTllODl:C TION 17

rrpologies rather than allow them to dicmce to us our understanding of the

iact~. a point recently rc~taceJ by J:tn Nauicr:

,\n Ideal type (or typological Clltci,,'ory) Is nm the phenomenon iLsclf, but is
rather n eoncepcual yardstick o.ga1nsL wbJoh o vartery of phenomena C'Jll be
measured. If we allow our typ0logy to remain trnns(Xlrent - thnt is, if we
allo" the pbcnomena themselves to remain the primary focus. using tbe
I)~ merel)' to act as a framework to illuminate their relative positions
- then IL c:in serve 10 omplify our ,1ston of the people nnd ide:is we wish to
understand If we do not, such cateJ.l<>rization c.-an actually detract from our
undcrst1111di11g by k·:iding ton premature p~nholing of the su~jt.'Ct matter.•

\\'ichouc some degree of generalization and cacegorization. however, a book

"ith tl1e breadth of scope of chis one could not be written. Readers will
judge for themselves whether I have fallen Into the crap described above by
Nattier.
Some will also question my fre4ucnt statements about 'Christianity' or
'Hinduism' (or one of the other world religions). They will argue that each
of these traditions is a vast network of smaller groups, some of which hold
,iews that are directly contradictory to others. How men can general
statements be made about 'Christianity' :irad 'Hinduism'? It should be clear
to the r1;1ader that in using such designations, I am referring to the
mainstream orthodox tradition in each religion. No doubt, each time that I
make such a statement about one of tile major rellgioru;, a counler-example
could be found by searching me whole range of that religious tradition.
Finally, it is necessary to direct a few ,,.·ords to those who may feel, as a
result of reading this book, that 1 have ignored the most imporuuit aspect of
rellgion. These may think iliat I have failedl to deal wiili the core of religion.
the experience of the holy, me ltfe of the spirit, and that this book deals only
\\'Ith the peripheral aspects. These may say that l have devalued and
secularized religion and am guilty of positivism and reductionism. To such
an accusation, my reply would be that notb.Jng of what 1 have written should
be interpreted as casting any doubt on the validity or reality of the central
experience of religion. Nor does it displl'o,•e any putative transoendcnt
source for religion. To be a participant in a religious movement is to
rt!<'Dgnize that it points to Something or Someone beyond itself. But while
the participant is looking towards thi.s transcendent (or immanent) Reality,
we, as observers of religion, look only at tile movement: what it says about
tile transcendent Reality as well as more mundane matters such as its
organization. If we were to try co say something directly about the
transcendent Reality, we would no longer be obsenrers but participants. We
would hm·c strayed from the study of religion into theology or mysticism.
The central experience of Teligion is a purely personal and private
experience of individuals. As such, it is difficult to m,tke it a :mbject for
objective analysis;' It can only be observed In the attempts mat individuals
make to interpret tlleir religious experience (for instance, thoology,
r

18 THE l'lll::NOME!l/01' (W RELICIO:S

mysticism or psychology; !>CC clmpLcrs .J nnd i) ond in thc dfccu. thol It ha~
on J11divitluals and societies (see Pan I\'). Most reli,itiou., persons would
accept that, in whote,,er wny they may ascribe pcrfecrion and infallihll1tv
to the source of their religion, the acmal formulation and puuln~ Into dfoct
of relillion has been II human casl-. over many centuriCl. A, ,uch, ii "
aJ'fecLed by alt Lhe usual factors thaL influence human behaviour :tnd thus
introduce the elemenL of fallibility.• Any suitement!> tl1at mi1th1 be madt
regarding this purely human secondary activity can in no woy cast doubt
on the central religious experience or its ;,ouree at the primary levd. )ly
concern in this book has therefore been not so much with the question of
wlwl religion is, in any existential or essential sense. but rat.her with \\ hat
can be observed of rel!Jtion as a phenomenon of the human world. Of
course, such observations may raise more fundamental questions regarding
Lhe c~sencc of religion, but tl1at ii. a mauer for Lhe bclie,•er. the theolo)tian
and the philosopher. Thus we can. as students of religion, observe the
effects that the experience of religion bas upon the individual and upon the
world, but we cannot analyse what it Is that ha~ been experienced.
There remains a need for one fin(II word of caution. As will be discussed
lo chapter 1, we all have a cendeucy to view religion from the pcrspccuve
of che culture in which we were born and raised. And each culture 'sees'
religion in a somewhat different way, as playing a diffcrenL role in Its social
life. Each religion has, as it were, its own map by which it reat.b the cosmos.
l would hope that one of the results of reading this book will be co sensitize
the reader co such dJfferences. The result should be th.at be or she will be
prepared to puc down his or her own map and to examine the map of other
religions and cultures. But the reader should, of course, not assume that
Jusc by reading this book or other books like It. he or she has
comprehended a religion. 'A map is noc the territory.'• All thm a map can
do is to give one a reprcscnLation of what the territory is like. ft enables one
to find one's way around, to know what sights to look for and wh,u
questions to ask. One cannot say that one knows what Papua N'e"' Guinea
is like just because one has read guidebooks about it and looked at maps
So also one cannot soy that, just because one has read about it, one
comprehends what it is like to be a member of a religious community and
to experience Ultimate Rea!Jry through that religion.

FURTIIER READING

The following are introductory works on the main religions dealt with in
rhlb book: Hinduism: Flood, lrurod1,ccion co Hindwism. Buddhism Har,cy.
lntrcxlucdon co Buddhism. Judaism; Cohn-Sherhok, Shon Introduction to
Judaism. Christianity: Gunton, Cambridge Compa11io11 co Christian
Doctrine. lslam: Waines, lllcrcxluction co Islam. The BaJia'i Faith: Momeo,
Shon Inrrcxluction UJ che Baha'i Faith.
UNDE RSTANDING R EL IG ION
 1

T HE CONCEPT OF R ELI GI ON

R is founded on the basis of what is

:LICION, AS A Ill/MAN PIIE.'IO~IF.NO:.,
described as being lhc experience of lhc 'holy' or lhe 'sacred'. lt can be seen
to be very important to human beings in that lhe structure buill upon ics
basis, the phenomenon of religion, has proved to be one of lhc most
enduring and most important aspects of human life. l:111manklnd has evolved
a long woy, socially and intellectually, over many thousands of years. Many
social institutions and intellectwtl systems that were once central co human
activity have now passed into obscurity. And yet religion, although it too has
changed and evoh,ed, still plays a central role in the world of humanity..\s
a result, some have gone as far as to consider this a key feature In describing
human beings. They have even suggested that Hcmw sapiens be termed
Homo rnli/liosus.' This chnpter examines the concept of religion and ulso
some misconceptions about Ir. le looks at the question of the definition o(
religion and the characteristici, of a religious person.

\VIIA.T IS RELIGION?

The phenomenon of religion has had many n1ricd expressions. One way in
whlch this ,·nriation has manifested itself is In the cencral concern of
different religions. Mose people think thnt d1ey know what they me:in by
lite temt 'religion'. Jn face., however, in-built cultural bill!,e, predispose us to
view reli~ion in particular ways. Therefore, if we are to be successful in
crying to understand religion, we must also achie,·c i:.ome degree of
undcrstandin~ of olllbdvtos. !-lost people in the \\'est. for toxample, wW have
a Chri~tian back~round This docs not, of course, mean that they ,,;11
occess:Jrily be Chri1:,tians. But it doe1:, mca11 lhac d1ey will have been
brou~tn up in a culture chat has certain preconceptions of whar a religion
should be, and these preconceptions are hased on Christianity. A
hypothetical example may perhaps clarify the extenc to which we muse
come to an understanding of our own preconceptions and prejudices.
Jane, a young English woman, meets Gita, an Indian of the same age.
Jane does not think of herself as a religious person - she never goes to
church, for example. And yet, alont wilh many other people of her a~e. she
has a certain curiosity about religion in gene ml. She sees that Gi ta'i,
• 21 •
, 22 • l ' 'Wf RST.\SIIISC; IH.1.11,lO~

rcli~on, ll111Ju1Mt1 ckarl\' pli1,:. :1 , en central rok 111 her hie. Siu:
1hen:rorc JceuJc, m find out mon.- ahout th" One <l:iy \\ hen ,he ha, "lllll'
thm.: to ,pare \\Ith t:11:1 ,he ,l.',k, her '\\11.u do llinJw, heh1:,e?' Thh may
,1pp.tar n vcl') ,ample :111J 1t1n0\.·uuu, queMio11 am! yet <:ua 111:1y f111d 11 ,1
,·er) Jlt'ikuh quc,11on to :111"\C'r rh" ts lx·cauw the quc,11011 11,df h:i,
opcncJ up ,1 Jeep ,u1d fuuJamcnwl Ji\ cr,l!<.,nn h.:t,,ccn the thinkllll! uf
J:nw :mJ l ;1111 uhout rd1Q1on .
For ,lam,, ,, 11h lier hack~ruu nJ oi a \\\"tern c<lucatitm ha:-t.:-d upon the
prcm,,c, nf ('rotcMIUH <,hristrnnat,. reh~1on 1s a ,-y,tcm of hdid, Thc,c nre
c111hodkd in a ercl"tl rn ,, hich a pcr..or, may ,,ub~crih.: and 1h11, h.:comc n
mcmher of thal rcl11\lo11 June nsi,umc!, thut Gill!, as n I linJu. !iub:,enhci, LO
a ,et 11f lhnJu h.!licfs. a lhnciu circl.>tl .lnne \\bhc~ 10 kncm ,, hat thc,.e :uv -
p<.rl111ps, ,-he c.tunb, i( she flnd-" lhese belief, accepl8hle, 5hc will h1..-<;'0me a
lhnJu too
In fact. howc,·cr, .lnnc\ thin'kmfl, is h:1sed upon a series of (1s._,-umptmn,
that ,trc not l>harcJ by Gila. June's t.hinkin~ L~ bm,eJ oo o Chru.Uan ,·,cw u(
whm a reli,r!ion is Enm thoul!h Chrbtianity pl:1ys no prominent ri,le in
.lane's life, il has nc,·erthelcss shap<.-<l her thinking throufl,h ic.,, iormuti\'c
utilucncc uo ht:r culture. For present-Jay Chri~tian:,, a rc!woo I.<. a !,Cl ut
beliefs Chnsrions arc nskcd t0 snhscribc Lo one of the ,·Mious crecds thm
ha\'c been produl.!cd in the cour~e of Ch urch hhwry. If o Chrbtian b lll,ke<l
what 1l means to be a Christian, he ur she wiU. most likelv, start hy talkinfl.
about his or her hclicfs Those who wl,h to
bt:comi: Chrhtian priel>LS spt:nJ three or four
years at a theological college Thi~ i~ an
eJucational in:,tilution ot ,~hich the muin
i>ubjcct iS theolo~·. the scudy of beliefs about
God ond ollwr Christian doctrines They will
also study Church hi.sLory and the Bible, but
these nre as subsidi:iries to the m:iin study of
Christian theology.
Gir.a, however. doel> not thlnk of re!J)tion 1n
these terms :n all Even the idea that there 1s o
Uindu n:U~ou is M>me\\ h:u aruficial, beln~ a
eremion of forei~ner~ who came to India • The
people o( India certainly never oni,nall)• had an
idea of belon~nJl to a rdJ~on calh..-J llm<luhm.
/'r,., {WOR.o;JIIP) · for Ilimlu,, PIVR Whac the West called Hinduism and iJcnuficd as
cn.n be done ot homo or at the being ' religious acti,·lty' (pm~·er.,, :.acrlflcc~ and
H:mpll' It usually ,,on,pn,,cs the so on) was, for most Indians a natural pan of
offering of Oo"• ~- Ctllldlcs. Incense
am! a b/U.Jan (hymn) or mantra
rhelT tlaily acti\'ities, no more to he wt apart
(rccnatlon) 10 a deity H~re the than any other ru.pt:et of life, such a,, caun,t or
s"in1!ini: of candle, in fTom of the washin~ These ·reli~ious activities were not
Jciry, umri (11m, ,.am), h hl:1ng linked in the minds of Indian~ to any panicular
performed ut front uf a home ,h, inc
creed or sec o{ beliefs. Apart from a ,cry lim1cc<l
In a kuchen In Bn1111n
group of philc1\ophers, most Hindus do not think
 I: TII~~ CONCKPT OF RELIGION + 23

of their 'religious 11c1ivicies' in terms of an,y belief system. These customary

and craditionol acti\'ities orc an integral and natural purt of family life,
handed d0\\11 through che gener:ulons of che family They may be
completely different from chose of a neighbouring family. \\'hen Indians
decide to devote chemsel\"CS to religion, they do not go to a Hindu
rheological college co study. Oepending on the aspect of the religion upon
\\.hich they arc focusilig, they may se<!k out a guru (spiritual guide) who will
teach chem how co meditate and will disclose to chem the reality wilhin
rheir own seh·es; the other main focus of religious education in India
cc:,m,ls~ of the learning of scriptures, rituals and ceremonies.
A similar case can be made out for other religions. If Jane had met
Fatima, a Muslim, and nsked her: 'What do you belie,·e?', 11 simil:ir sicu:ition
would have resulted. Islam is noc a religion lo which much attenclon is paid
co heliefs. Its beliefs can be simply stated in a t'ew sentences and are not the
subject of much debate among Muslims. Islam is a religion that is centred
around a Holy Law thac lays down in great detail how one's life should be
lwcd .\ll aspccLS of one's personal and social life are covered. This is the
focus of the rellgion: this is what occupies the attention of the bellevers;
this is the C<!ntre of deb;ite. Lf one wants ao become a reU_gious professional
in Islam. one docs ooc go to a theologioa[ college and study theology. One
~ to a madrasa, a reli~ous college, where the main subject of study is
the Holy Law, itS foundations and the ways of applying it to everyday
i.Jtuatioos. This ls what occupies the attentions of the studencs of the
madrasa for as much as ten or fifteen years. Islamic theology is an optional
subject dealt with in a short course of lectures
With Chinese religion, matters
become even more confusing for those
wboi,e concepts of religion are formed
by the Christian West. There are
sevcrul different religious traditions in
China, the main one!> being
Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and
Chinese folk religion. But if Jane were
to ask Mei-Ling, a Chinese friend,
about her reli~ion , she would not find
that ~lei-Ling sub:.eribcs co any one of
ch~se cradtcions as someone from the
Wesc would. Mei-Ling uses elements of
CHLXE5£ fESTl\'AL .\ drniton l~ds 1.hc fesdvtlli!S
all four traditions in a mix thal i!, for the Chinese New Year Pkrure t:\k'-'li in
probably unique to her Family or 'l"':tipei, Tniwan
,·illa~c. Chinese religion revolves
around public and fan:uly riruals amJ
celebrations Mos1 of its prnctitioncrs h:l\'c little concern for theology or the
other aspects of religion that so concern thol,e from the \\'est.
Tberei(lre, when Jane asks Gita, Fatima or Mei-Lin)\: 'Wbac <lo ,•ou
belic\'c·t. this presems the respondent with something of a dilemma It is
r 24 • t''-IH RST.\'1/111\li IU'.UGI01'

nol tlmt (:Im_, fatln111 ,111<l :.lci-L111~ h:1,c no bclidi,, le 1, more :J c:c.<. that
Lhcsc :Jrc tl{}I the ccmre vi' their n:lil).ious ll\t1,. and ,n the ttueslmn put,
them nl n Ji,ad,antn~c. The)• try 10 ctns\\cr it, of cour,l hut 1n <lmn~ ,o,
the, have not In foct lmp,trtcd \\ hat their rcll~lon 111c,111, t<t Llt1.:m Tiu, fact
\\;ts put to u,c hy Chri,riim m1,,ionnnc, in the la,t cemurv When
ch:11lc11~cJ w present their bdicfs thow of uthcr reliJtiom, did not :1pr,t.11r
to producc nnv1h111~ that was as wcll 1hough1 out and :.y,tcnrnul! ti'
Christl:111 theology 1h11, ·proving' 1hc ,uperinrily nf Cllri,tiani1y
In chc m,mticth ccutur~·. the other rell~om, hove, under tb1: 1nnuc111.:e
oi Christi:111, :m<l the challen~c of Chri~tiun mi~sionarics. ~ouAht 10
sv,wmotu:c their hdicf:. so Llwt they can pr<!,cnt thcm.-.c:lvci, on a par with
<:hrhtlanlty Thi, docs not. howe,·e~. alter the fact tha1 thb, pn:stenr.at!on i,
a dcporture from the trnditional ~elf-undorst:1ndin~ of these 01her reli~iom,
Such prcbentotions arc not ;1 natural 1>roduct ol these reli~ons tbcmscl\'ei,
hm rm her i.omethinA imposed from the \\'est in modem times le is p:ird}'
" ri,spom,c to and pttrdy u defence against whot hos been termed '\\'c;,tcm
cultural imperialism·. It represen u, an imellt.-ctualization that may wdl he
sufiicient for those who want to write tidy texthooks but must remain
um,atl:,foctory to those who want to undcr:.tan<l n:ligion. Just to !ll~tratc
the complexities of che study of religion, however, it must be admiueJ chat
some aspecL, of these adaptation:, to tbe \\'e:,t are UO\\ part of the
development of mese religions and hm·e become, so-to-speak. 'naturalized
other aspects are, on the ocher hand, deeply resented and from time to time
mere L, a movement from within the religion to expt:I thelll.
A further example of the manner in which our preconception<: may
predetermine and colour our views of religion can be drawn from the same
hypometical siwacion oudined above. Jane thinks 10 herself that if she
likes what she hears of Hinduism she may hecome :i Hindu herself. This
may again appear to be a scraigbtfonvard and unremarkable statement.
After aU, one of me major religious feomres of me present oencury is the
manner in which all the major religious traditions have begun to compete
with each other for converts. Even a religion such as lllnduism. which lo
former times was non-missionary (and many Hindus helieved mal you
could not be a Hindu uruess you were born lnto the system), Is now actively
competing in the world's religious marketplace. But chis phenomenon
represents yet another way in which the \\'est has imposed its own idea~
upon the rest of me world, and pt:rhaps created a permanent chan#! in the
relif/,ious world
The idea that religion is a matter of individual choict! is one mal has Ill,
ori_l\ins in lslam but came co the fore io Protesrnnt Christianity in che lase
few centuries. It is a comparative!)• new phenomenon eve n in the \\'c<,t Si}.
hundred years ago, the idea chat individuals could ehonl!e their rt:li.l\Ion
indepcndendy of che society around chem \\'llS as foreign to Europ.: as 11
now ls to much of the rest of 1l1c world For moM of the rest of the world
today, reU~on is not just a matter of personal choice. It iS something that
is decided by society ns a whole. An individual is bom into a religious
 I Tit£ CONCEPT 0~' RELIGION • 25

communicy :ind stays in thnt community. The concept of a choice open to

him or her docs uoc even exist. Communities do occasionally change their
rcli~ion; otherwise reli~ions such as Islam :md Buddhism could not have
spread into new areas This usually occurs, however, ns n result of whole
communities changi~ their religion, often ac the insclgadon of a king or
other ruling figure. Individual conversion has been a rarity in the past,
e.•ccept lo a fo" other situations (tJ1c last ccmurics of the Roman Empire,
for example) It is the indl vidualism bred by Protestant Christianity that
,isstunes that the lndivldual is free to choose a religion to follow.
\\'e must also be carefuJ in our use of the word 'reliwon' for this is itself
a culturnlly bound concept. WiJfrcd Cantwell Smith, one of the pioneers of
the task of understanding religion, has pointed out that the very concept of
·a religion' is a result of a process of reification (the conversion of an
nbstrncc concept i11to a falsely concrete 'thing') carried out by the West.'
Before this reification occurred, people were not conscious of belonging to
a pnrdcular religion. nor that any part of their lives was the religious part.
The process of reification has gone, co a large extent, hand in band wlch
che seculnrization of sociery in the Wesc. This has produced a state of affairs
in "llich religion is viewed as a compartment in people's lives. The lue of
an indh·idual may be likened LO a room. As one surveys the room of one's
Life, one sees that part of the room is devoted to one's work; part to one's
family. pare co one's £ricnds; pan to one's hobby; and, ln che West, one sees
that a part is de\'oted co religion. But in most other cultures, and even in
the West before reiflcation and secularization, religion ls more like the
~asses with which the h1di~iduul looks at the room of his or her life. It
affects every aspect of everything in such a way that it is very difficult to
separate tJ1e effects of reli~on from the part o( the room thac ls being
surveyed. ror a person from the \Vesc, it is not easy to conccptu:1lize how
things were before the compartmentaJizing effect of reification set in.
On the social level. we should also recolUJize that the tendency of the
\\'est to conceptualize religion as an aspect of humanity's social life, separate
from 11.ovemmcnt and culture, is a~1n somcthlog that is alien to much of
what would be called religion in other parts of the world. Most of the people
of the world see their religion, culture :md usually tJ1cir political order ru,
being one undivided whole. In one society, religion may pro\'ide the
justification for the social order (for e;rnmple the caste system in India); in
aaolher It may provide the legitimation of the policical structure (for
example the caliphate in Islam until the beginning of the twemieth ~ncury):
and in most societies, cultur.: and religion are aJmost indistinguishable.
The wr!tin~ of Wilfred Cantwell Smith h:1ve alerted us to one further
issue that compliootcs any altcmpt to underscand religion. This i1> the fact
that what may superficially appe.a r to be equivalent phenomena in different
religions may not, in face, play equivalent roles functionally or spiritually.
For example, Christ is the Word of God incarnate for Chrisrians. For
)luslims, lhE' equivalent is not Muhammad but rather the Qur'C1n, which is
the \Yord of God brou~ht to earth (that is, incarnated). It is th e person of
21> • ll~llf.RST.\'illl'IG Rfl ,1(:10'11

ti h
Tm. \\'oRO or Goo: a} ThJs Icon of Christ Is called Chm,t Pantocrator cme:uune ·l'nJ\'ersal
So,ere$'), from the Chora, or Kanyc. Museum, pre,~ously St S.1\1our's Church Th,,
buildinj\, orij\inally located out.side the walls of lstanl>ul, is rich in fourtC\lnth-ccntury
mosaics and frescc>es b) With the Islamic prohibition on dra\\ing 1m",l!cl oi humans nnd
animal, (as o safc~uard n~alnst idolatry), tlu.' (lrt of co]lil\J'ttphy nnd oi the lllundnatlon
or cmbcllisluncut of calligtnpby, was greatly dcvclop<.-d Thi,. wos taken to It> hli,tc,t
form In tho callJUaphy of the Qurirn , the \\'ord of Cod. Thi$ page ,how, th" ,.t,olc of the
Sura of \\~al-L:1yl (By the Nij\ht. Sura 92) and the conclusion of the previous ,urn a., well
as the title of me next . The callij\raph )' hy Yaqui al-MIL~ta'simi, Rmjhdad 1262, ls In the
Rayhani ~tyle of cnllijjmphy nnd the sum titlcs in Thuluth

Chrbl and the book, the Qur"an, that are fw1ctionnlly and spiritually
equivalent in lhe two religious cradirions. They are each chc loclll, for the
appearance of the he.ivenly pre-existent Absolute' in 30 eanhly form•
Callillrophy of lhe Qur'm1, the mosl lmpona.nt of the lslamk am,. b the
renderin~ of the image of the \\'ord of God. It is therefore equivalent to the
iconography of Eastern Christianity. which ls olso the rendcrinl! of the
Image of 'the Word made flesh' .'

DEFINITIONS OF R ELI GIO-:S:

Religion is thus n phenomenon mat is difficult tn define Most of us would

agree that we recognize it when we com.i across 11 but It is present rn :.o
 l. Ttn: co:sc:t;rT 01' Rf,LIGION • 27

many tliiforent fomu, time I! is h:ird 10 pin down a definition. In thii,,

religion i~ no Jift'crem 10 many other human activities, for example art.
(:ivcn that there arc ~rc,it vari:ttion~ among lhc difforcnt rcligioui, systems,
can we fmd :i core that 1s common to aJ I of u1cm? One approach would he
m suy that religion consiMs of three intcnJcpcndcm aspects (each of" hich
forms the subject of the following three parts of utls book):

• The ilrsL, at the individual lcvd, is religious experience. IL is what was

described at the beginuin~ of lhi_s chapter, as beia~ the experience of
the 'holy' or the 'sacred". Ir is the personal. experiential aspect of
religion.
• The second, at lhe conceptual level, is the universal idea chac there is
:.omc Ultimate Reality. and thm the most impOrtant actiVity for human
bein4,~ is co escablish and clarify their relationship wilh this Reali~·.
TWs is the t.-onceptual and doctrioaJ .i&pcct of religion.
• The third, at the social h::,·el. is tho fncr thnt all religions are to a greater
or lesser ex teal involved in creating social cohesion and the lncegrntion
of lhe indiViduru into socie~·. AIJ of them have created some form of
social and h1stltutional order. From this, the ethical and social aspect
of religion is derinid.

The vruious approaches to the definition of religion can be regarded as

being associated with these three aspects of religion.

Subswnci~c or Metaphysical Definitions

These are definitions of religion that attempt co use the concepts and words
that religion itself uses about Itself. They are attempts to describe religion
in terms of the religious experience. Unfortunately, with the ,·ery wide
raoite of metaphysical assumptions I.Ji religions, It Is difficult to find a set of
words upon which IoUo,\'ers of all religions would agree, without lapsing
into \'Cry \'llguc and loose language. The best such definitions usually end
up with words such as,

Religion is that hunllln ocllvity tbOL ocknowleuges the existent.-<: of :lllotber

reality rranscendem lO or lmmanem \\1ll1ln this physical world and lhat
se,•k, t0 dc~crihc and pm human beings into n correct relationship \\ith
that reality. In wuy~ thm may involve oorrcct knowledge, beliefs and
,·alues, correct personal and social activit)', correct ethics, correct law, or
panicipotlon in correct social institutions.

Or. more simply·

Religion Is humanity's response to what it experiences as holr.

, 2h • l'SDERSTAN011'C: RF! tmON

SymholiM DcfinititJns
,\ s-.mbolisl <leDnition of rcli~ion focu~cs 011 chc role of rcllj\1011 In crcncinit
a symbolic univcnic which huma n hcing~ perceive and rc~pond Lo /ll,
realily. Huch <lcfinllions look Ill reliAion in LCnns of its conceptunJ Ul,pccts
,\ typical dcflnirion \\'Ould he:

,\ rdil!t(m is a syi,L.:rn of ,>·mbols tlutc crc:ucs a unlvcrsol order lhat h \O

cohcsWc, coherent nnd compcllin,I\ thnt it becomes 'rcahtr' for the ~oc,nl
~rour th.tl nduplb lhttt rehgion.

Funccional /)e.finicions
Funcrional definitions concentrate o n whal reliAion docs. mLhcr than ""hat
tl Is. They conccptuul1ze religion In ten:ru; of its i.oci.al role and It!> re!>polll,C
co human needs. Typical of such definidooi. would be:

RelliiJon Is that ,vhich provides humanity w1llt a world,·le" whlclt UUJfic,,

society, which provides n morn I code, and within which human hei~ can
orient Lhclr lives.

The problem with these functional definitions is that they raise the
questlon of whether some ideologies, such as Marxism. which fulfil the
criteri:1 of the definition should therefore be reK,irded as reli~ions, even
Lhough they are nol usunlly thought of as religions.
Suffice it to sa)' chat che concepl of reliition used In this book b the
more lim ited one that relates I.I 10 o concepl of the supernatural or
supra-human (or perhaps even !.upra-scicntil'ic). rat.bcr than t.he wider
functionnJ definition 1ha1 would include such sccul:!r ideologies as Marxism
and notionollsm.• For a discui,sion oi the wa~ in wllich thei,c lauer
'pseudo-reli~lous' ideologies have replaced reli,Uoo in the mo<li'rn world.
see chapter l 9 (rr 480- 1 ).
RcliAlon also needs 10 be di!,tiJlAmshed from ma~c. Proh:1b ly the best
distinction is ro Lhink oi majl.ic :as providinA immediate specific rew:irtls
(wealth. health. injury to enemies and so on)\\ hile religion Jcali, \\'Ith more
Aeneral, ultimate quesclons (\\'ho am I? \\'hy om I here-.. llow should I
rclote to others? \\'hat is going to happen when I die-:.) In so faro~ it does
offer rcwar<li. , these are long rcnn an<l more general. such a.<. a happy llfo or
heaven • In practice, the two commonly coalesce and imerp1metrate (St:e
chapLer 15.)

THE R ELI GI OUS PERSON OR SOCIETY

An allernative way of trying to find a con1moo core lo religion 1s to c.xamino:,

what difference relii,on makes in the life of an indh'idual or a societr,
 I TIIE CONCl-:l'T OF Rf.1.1(:ION + :?9

Those who .ire m>l reUgJom; ofwn Llunk of a rcligiou1. pcn,on m, bcin~
bt~orcd nnd mflexihle. Many reli~ious people would say that this is the very
oppo~iw of a truly religious person The indh•idual is by nature sclf.-cemred,
everythini! is centred around advancm,l his or her O\\ n wealth. power,
se\f-cskem nm.I cnse. Reli~ious people would s:iy chat one major effe()t of
1he central experience uf rclil!ion, and lhc faith tJrnt arbci. from it, is to
cause people co become less self-centred; to fn...-e the individual from the
1yronny of self, to c:ml>e him or her to be more selfless, more Other·l.'Cntred
or Go<l-cencrecL AlLliou~h few \\ill arta1J1 It, Lile rdiwous Ideal is Lile
mdi,idual who is freed from the need for the praise and approval of others
tam! can therefore think and judge mauers independently), deems
ro~ses,,ion and power co he ephemeral and ,,alueless (and is therefore not
:,wayed by base moth·es), and is more concerned with the common good
U1J1J1 wi_th self-advaocemcm (see Table 1.1).

Table 1 .1 \\'orldl)• VaJues Versus Reli~ious VaJues

Througlww lusco,y. mosr rcl~w,is hm,c mainuiincd rhai they lwld ro ccrwin -calues
vhich 1hsri11>4uil<h rite rdt11w11.• per~m.from the non-reli,iious person Tlte non-re/~ous
per<011 ma)• be said robe self-cemred. in thaLall q/hLs orherroncen1s are cencred upon
the self. The rel(gi-011~ ,x?TWn may. on rile other hunt/, be soul to be selflcs.~. in that his
or h,..,.
roric.....-n is mmcd """ay from the self (indcccl, tllc self ma.>' be C01L'riclercd 10 be
ddUSO')\ WI In BwJd]lism),

WOIU.llLl' \'.u,tm, RELIGIOL'S VALl'ES

Hold self-presen·ation as of supreme Hold that self-preservation is of

importance: loss of life is the
ultimate los,
D.:.<ire po"er over oth«rs; the
ind!\'idual mny need to use others
for his or her own enw..
Rc,el in self-glory
Arc concerned about other people's
opinion.! o( them. cra,·e admiration
a.id popularity.
Arc rigid lllld self-opinlona1ed
secondary lmponru1ce to splrilual
nd,·nnce.numt: you may need LO lose your
llfo lo order to Ii nd IL
Are C<>noemed for the e<1mmon good;
relationships with others are dctcrmlncd
by wbut "ill benefit them, especially
spiritually
lfove 1ruc hwniliry.
Try 10 be increasinl!ly free of the
ne~s.sity for the appro\'al or prruse oi
othc,...,
Are flexible in thinking

As \\ith the individual. those who want 10 dcnigraw religion find no

difficulcy in listing societies In which religion has been a cause of hacred,
conflict and des1ruction. A religious person would counter this by saying
that a uuJy religious society ls the foundation of a civUizacion in which
there is religious tolerance, where new ideas can emerge and develop, and
v. here there is an efflorescence of the arts and sciences. Exam pies of such
wcietles include the Abbasid Empire centred on Baghdad. the Fadmids in
, JO • ll\ll~.RSTANllJ'l(l RF:flClJ0:-.1

E!tYPt. nm.I ~luslim Spai11, for Islam, the 13yllmlinc l:.mpirc

in the curly Christion cunturics, lhc Buddhist umpire built
h)· .\i.hulu1 in lndin nnd the llln<.lu Guptn empire In lndl:1.

l~URTIIER RE.ALJING

On the i>ubjcct oi "hat the word 'rcll~ion' rne:ULi hi varluu~

culture!, nn<.1 ho." mc:mt ove r hbtory, sec \\' C. Smith The
Mcuninft and End <!( Rclig11111. For ll further con!>iderotioll
of the thre1i llhf)CCIS of rcli/tion dc~cribed, i.ce Ou1>. Tlte
Iden of the lloly; Elinde, The Sacred and the l'rofcmc,
Durkl1cim, Elcmcntar)' Fonns of the Rc/fgww, l\fi.:,
especially chapter l; Wach, UomparaCl'VC Scucly <tf
l...ltl\ t '. \l'lf.\l. UI- f:.MJII KOft Religions. chapc,c r 2.
AMIUK.\ Thi> lion Image
on the top of n
W,t,,
column at Sarnath
( l~ip:nana ), built by lhe
F.mp,;•ror A.shoka nt the
pluc:c th.11 the Buddh;i
trndltlonully first
pre:,cbt--d. Tbll. lmaJ!c
no" appears on the
lmlinn fl!lJ!.
 .,
R ELIG ION EAST AND W EST
J\ GENERAL SURVEY

THE R.\SIS FOR RELlrnos IS che human com•iction chac chere Is a

mmscendent or nhsolute Reality that eirther lie.~ beyond or underlies chis
physical world. As stated in the pro,•ious chapter. ono definition of the
phenomenon of religion is that ii consists of rhe attempc by human hein~s
both to describe chis Ultimale Reality and co encer into a proper
relation.snip with it. ln mis chapter, this process wlU be brietly sun·eycd,
compaTin~ rhe Western religions with chose of the East. A fuller
consideration oJ many of the topics In this chapter will be found ln later
chapters of this book. This chapter also briefly !.urveys Chinese and
Japanese religion, as well as primal religions.
There is of course a very wide: diver~cm:e of viev.-s within the fic:lus of
philosophy, metaphysics and theology. Even within a pnrricular religion,
there ar1: greatly differing vlew!., i,ome of them even contradlccory. To bring
some order out of this kaleidoscope of views and theories, it is necessary co
look £or some common patterns. With regard to the major world religions
that thii. book focuses on. It is u~cful to consider chem as divided into cwo
main groups. Initially, it will be helpful to call these the Western and
Eastern groups of rcllj\ions (althougb, us will become evident, these ore DOL
good names for these two groups). In this book I use the term 'Western
religion· to re Fer to che mainstream orthodoxies of the Judneo-
Cliriscian41usllm group of religions. 'Eastern religion ' refers to Buddhism,
Taoism and Hinduism. especially of the .-\dvaita \'ed:mrn school. This
dl\'ision is useful in that these two groups of religions hold ,•ery differing
and even contradictory views on the aacure oi the Ultimate Realltr and of
humanity's relationship to it.

T HE N.\TURE OF' ULTIMATE REALI TY

One of the chief differences bet ween Eastern and Western religions il, their
differing conceptualizations of Ultimate Realitr Both types of relljlion
conceive of a reality that Is greater than this physical universe but they
differ radically in their de~crlptlons of It. Thi~ initial differnnce then goes

• JJ •
-"
:,-.
~~s-...
~, ~ - '·,.._.,
l ~ !!I'
C
,--
"'
~
Or<hodox O.ruuanll)'
:.1,:;) and other Eastern Islam (m""' ol 111.lm lor
""""·· " .... ~ r.'lj
'
C
:,;
-
7.
~
I-
(/;.
a:
"'C
1/,
O,u~hu
Protesant O,maa.n,cy
l\oman Catholic
¼ O.n,uanity
?Z M,J<td Protestant and
-" Ca<hohc Chnru>nu:y
-

-
Hinduism
8uddhtsm (~• .,., ol
S..ddh,.....
lbluy>u wt
'it:~ •
ad>)
Chinese r e r ~ f :
S..ddhlin,, 1-,,, C.
r ·",,lff
/>
.,,. loll< rt!IJi•I
r Sj,anely pop••i.d areas

• I
............
1,n...i ,,.. tt , . . . cl
- )oj>.,noe refqi""1
..ddbi.. ...i !Iii"")
'"*""'
N
,-:
 2 llELH1JON E,\ST AND WERT + :u

011 to c~1usc d1s~imlwrllics In Ill -- --,.p:;~-:r-.

their accounts or che relationship
of the individual to thi~ highest
rt:ahty from th<::,;,: clisunction~
come other difference:-. O\'er such
qut:stiom a,, c,iJ, sufitiring, saln1-
tion. llberacion and even macters
!'Uch tlS ti me and i.pacc.
In the \\·ti~tern religion!> thti
rranscendem reali!)' is given the
name or God and is L11oughc of
Goo ,1s CRF.ATOR: Thi, i~ 1he famous f()()f of the
as a perso nal , omnipotent, Sistine Chapel In the \'ntican pnintc<l by
omnisciem Being, God as the Mlc-hclnnJ:clu btltwccn 1508 nnd 1512. Thi,, picture
Creator is u.suall)• conceiYecl of rept.,M!olS God creating i\dnm. frt1m Lhc blblic,11
as beinit wholly ocher than His story of Genesis.
creation. Ile is described In
many way:.. some of which are contrasting: wrathful and a,·enging, yet kind
and benericem. 1 God hos a will and a purpose for human beings, which they
must accept or face unpleasant consequences. But God is also benevolent
and loving cowards humanity, and in return lie is che object of the worship
and adoration of humanity. The world or the cosmos becomes, then , the
arena for lhe interaction between God and humanity. Regarding the
difference with the Eastern religions, the mosc important point is that in
the \\'eswm religions those characteristics mentioned above. such as a11ger
and kindness, all make God appear to hav,e a personality. ro act as a person.
An impersonal entity would not have such characteristics.
In contrast, the £astern rcl.igions, .Buddhism, Taoism and Illnduism of the
Adva.iw school. have no concept of God as .a person; rather thei r concep1 is of
Ultimate Reality as a process, a truth, or a St.'lte of being. This is usually stated
as a concept of an Absolute Reality. The phrase 'Absolute Reality' implies that
there is a single Reality in the cosmos; everything else that may appear real
has only a relative or oontlngent reality or is illusory or non-existenL The
Absolute is therefore hor.h transcendent and Immanent. It cannot be described
in tem,s of the concepts of this phenomenal ,vorld. lt is devoid of all empirical
determinations. It is not an all-knowing Creator, for example.
The Absolute Reality is called Bral1man in Rlnduism. ln Taoism, it is
named the Tao. In Buddhism, Ll1e name of the Ultimate Reality varies
depending on the context. In }Jahayana Buddhism, the simple name
Paramartha can be given to the Ultimate Reality; but the concept that all
things are empty of substance or essence has led to the concept of
Shunyaca, che Vold, as the underlyiot reality of the world. As such It Is che
Absolute Reality since nothing escapes it or is beyond it, even Nin•ana , the
ultimate goal for humans. The human inability co describe thiS reality iS
indicated by oilier names such as Tathata, Suchness or Thau1ess. The
identity of the Buddha with this universal Ultimate Reality is indicated in
the word Dharmakaya, the Dharma body of lhe Buddha.
r M • l l\1)1,ltSTASOINt; IU,l, t(,l<ll,

In Thcnwnda Buddhism, 1hc Ultimutc Reali{)· i, :-lirvana or l)harma

(Nibh:tnn or Dh::unma in the Pall tex~ of Theravada 13uddhi~m) The fonner
is described as 'unhccome. unhorn, unoritinotcd, uncreated, unformed ''
Nlr\'uno b both tJ1c UlLl.molC Reality :U1d al~o de~crihcs thu human bein1f~
si:ttc when 1demi0cd with rhot Reality I lt11du1i.m :1bo lL~es the tcnn
Nlrvan:1 hut morl! t.'Ommonly the cxprc~sion S(lt-d1iH111t1tufo (cxii.tcnel!·
consciousnc:.s-bllss) is usl!d co Jescrlhc the cxpcricmUal Jspcct of the.:
mvarcness of this state of iden1ity (Sec furihcr dcrnils on the narurc of rhc
Ultimate Reality in charter 8.)
The contrast hc1ween the concepts of Reality/Cod in the reh~ons of
Ea:,t and \\'c:,t gives us another name by which we can dcscrihc thc:-.c rwu
sy~tems. \\'!! can coll tbe view held b)• many Eastem relittlons tha1 there b
only one fundomcnrn l rcnlity in the world, ·moni~m· And hy conrrnsc, we
can call the W~tem 1•iew that God and humanity form two disti.J1c1 and
separate realities, 'dualism' ' Ahemative name:- for Lhe two systems would
be 'absolutism' and 'theism' rcspl!ctivcly. In the rest of this charier, I shall
lL~e the de!.ltnatlon 'theism' to rf:!for to the Western religions and, to refor
to the Eastern religions. I shall use the tem1 'monism' or sometime.\ 'non-
tltcism' (to ack.nowll!c.lgc the face tl1at some Buddhists malnuun that thclr
concept of Ultimate Realicy is not that of an Absolute Reality, hence leadinl!
to monism').

CONCEPTS OF SUFFERING AND E\' IL

1n tl1e theistic religions, suffering is tlte result of sin. Sin is the breaking of
the Holy Law, disobedience to God. God has clearly laid down His laws and
injunctions In Iiis Holy Book (whether this be the Bible or the Quran).
\\'boever acts in a contrary manner to these has sinned. Evil is thui. tlw
result of the rebellious will of human beings.
In the Eastern non-tl1eis1ic religions, suffering i1> view cu qui1e
differently. It Is due to human ignorance (amd;ya) or delusion The pressinl!
immediacy of the physical world creates the illu_,ion (mayo) of it., realit~·
and lmpormnce. And so human helnl!s become arrached to che tlunl!S of
1his world. Thi~ attachment co and desire for 1he things of tlm; world arc
the source of suffering. (For iurther consideration of 1his subJCCl. 1>Cc
chapter 9.)

1'IIE PATH TO S.\l,\'.\TIO~

Ralvadon is rhe relea~c from sin nnd suffering Of couri-e. since 1hc thci~lic
und non.cheiscic systems disa~rl!c on the cause or sin and 1,uricrin~. they
al-.o disagree on the p:ith wward~ sah·ation
in the theistic i;ysrcms. rhc ~ourl;c-e oi sin ii. failure to ol>cy the \\'ill or
Lm1 of God a., laid do,111 in the Uoly Book. Therefore, the path to11:irJ:,
 Z. RELIGION £.\ST ,\NO WEST • JS

1,t1l\'t1tion must involve tuminA towards God nnd following the laws and
t!thlcs lald tlown in tho Holy Book. The orlgimtl sin was lwnumkind's
rebellious wUI, and so salvation is the bending or human will to the Will of
God The \'arious groups within the theistic systems differ over what ls
the mnin clcmem In the process of sal\'ation. Some emphasize a person's
own eiforts co reform so as co li,•e aceordi ng to the !,.aw. Others l:ly stress
on the indhidual's faith and the g,raee of God. Most thebtic systems
combine elements of both faith in the grace of God and the individual's own
works 5
In the non-theistic syi,tems, the source of suffering and evil is hun1an
i~norance and the fallure to perceh·e the real state of affairs. Therefore. the
poch to salvation in,·olves the acquisition of knowledge or wisdom. This
knowledge is not only the knowledge that one obtains from reading books.
but intuitive and experiential knowledge arising from meditation, breathing
exercises, contemplation and discipline of bod}' and mind. II involves the
realizarion that the immediacy and seeming reality of the physical world
arc illusions; the true reality is the monist truth thm 'Thou art That' (in the
Hindu L'pa11ishads) or the Mahayana Buddhist concept that ·Samsara is
\"in·ana'.• The wisdom achjeved by seeing through the illusion (maya) is
ca!Jedj11ana ln lliuduism and praj,la iu Buddhism.'

TH E GOAi, Of SALVATION
Both the theistic and non-theistic re~ions describe a heaven or paradise
that is attainable after death. l lcrc there is no sin or sufferin,it. There is also
a hell that is a place of suffcrlng (sec p. 2J-4). But these ~tatcs arc treated in
a markedly different manner in the two relwous systems. In the Western
religions, they are the final goal, the place where the indh'idual remains for
eternity The state of bein~ saved. the state of ~ace, i, ah;o achievable in
this life although only exeeptiom1J people such as saints are in prnecicc
thought to achieve iL
In the l;ascem reli~ions. heaven and bell arc temporary stoppin~ pomcs
before there occurs a return to this world through reincarnation or rebirth
The ultimate objective i:. a ltes:. clearly defined goal. In Ilindubm. Lite t'inal
~o,J is liberation (moksha or m1tkri ) This stace may he achieved in life, 111
whjch case it is calh:d jit1<11mmkLi. Such a person is described as having
acWc,·ed a state of exiscence-cousciousness-bliss (llllt-chic-wwnda ). For
BuddhiMs, the final goal is the state of NirYana (which mean:- 'blown out')
Thi, state is characterized by the extinction of all craving am! desires, u
complete dctachmem from the world. le is not, however, a state chat can be
dL-scribed in any objective mnnner. i\11 description of this swte is void. (For
a further consideration of 1,alvacion, :,cc chapu.:r 9.)
r M, • l''Wl'RST,\Sl)(Sll Kfl.1(,1(11\i

RITl',\I, ANI) H.tLIC:IOl1S PR.\CTICF,s

Thi! differences hctwecn th<.: theisL!I! and nun-Lhersl1c :,y,tems e:l.lerrJ even
m the m:uwr of chc most imponnni ruurtl clement'- for thci--ts. thl m11,1
important ritual clement:. nrc tho:.e thut lay btreN> on the ~1.paru1lon
hc1wecn human h\.'in4', 11ml God, the 111hcmess of nod. Iii, rcmmcnc,, and
complete trrin:.eenJence relative to human hcin~~ These ntual, lncludt.:
pra\'cr to the Deily, sncr:rrncnt~ 1hnt :rpp.:n..w or turn !lltenuon 10 the Dcrty.
and such octivitic:. n, the :,,inll,inj! of h)•mn, thrtt stlorify and tiv1; pr.1hc
to the Deity. In all. the effect is to crnphu:.izc the sc.;parawnc~s of Oo<l
Imm human heint~. Even whern thl! ritual invol\'eS a dr:rnin~ closer tri
Coc.l (os in lloly r.ommunion), it is still the drawing t0tcther of two unequal
nnd separate re,1htics.
In non-theistic religions, the emphasis is on riwal
clements that produce an ollcrcd :.tmc of conseiousuc:,:,
such as a tnmce. These can be produced by actions such
:.t$ the repetitive chanting of mamrn..~ or by dc ...p

meditation. The altered !>lat'-'!> of consciousm:1,1, t.h:Jt

resulr from such practices tend to mnke the indh·idual
(eel t.lrnt he or she ls m... rged with the Ab.;olute; thus thl!y
reinforce the monisdc truth.' (For further discu~sion of
altered i.tatcs of consciousness and the implieotions of
this for n:Ugion, see chapter 7.)

TIME AND CREATION

Even such concepts as time have different connotations

Ctll!<t:St; 1.1.,1>SCAPE
Taoism h<UI bee11
l'All<TC:.o:
one of the major mfluences
on Chinese an. Taoism
teaches that human bein,¢s
should seek 10 achieve
hnrmony \\ith the Tno (the
Way). Chlne;sc land.,cape
pl11ntln,a 5eek,, 10 reOcct not
the outer fonn of the scene
but the inner harmon>' 1ha1
unites landscnpe, human
hcing., nnd the Tno In one.
in the theistic and non-theistic systems In thei.~tic
systems, time ii, 'historical'. All events are placed in an
orderly continuous flow of time There is a creation
event, which is the beginning of lhe world, and a final
event, the end of the world. In between, time flows in a
linear manner, intem1pted on occasions by the irruption
of the sacred world into thls world, as occuri. with th1;
advent of a prophel The non-theistic sy~tems consider
time ns being. cyclical The world has no beginning. but
rather has always cX.istcd in a scrie:. of great cosmic
cycles of prosperity and disaster (For a funher
consideralioo of this subject, sec chapter&.)
T UE18~1 AND 110Nl8M
The t.11cistlc ,•iew Is, as we have i.cen. thnL God ii, wboUy
other than His creation. There is. nevenheless, in mo,t
 2 R.ELJOION EAST AND WEST • :17

lhcistlc systems some concept of tl1e immanence of God within creation. In

Christianity, this concept is enshrined bolh in the idea of the incarnation
oi God in a human iorm and the idea that the lloly Spirit is active in the
world. But these ideas should not be confused with the moulstic concept of
the non-theistic relifations. Despite bei~ present and acth·e in the world,
God is neverthcless n separate nnd distiJllcl reality that has chosen lO
d~scend Imo the physical world. lu Christianity, God conceals His
separateness from the human world by appearing and acting in the physical
world.. Ln Lhe Eastern monistic religions, the physical world also has a
concealing role, but this time it is gh;ng the iJlusion of separateness that
t.-onccals the identity of tl1e human being an.cl Absolute Reality. ln brief, the
contrast may he said to be that in Christianity the physical world conceals
the otherness of God from the human being; while in the Eastern monisdc
rdig1ons the physical world conceals the identity of the human being with
Absolute Reality.

1lable 2. l Differences Between Eastern and Western Religious Thought

\\'t.:H ll\.\T/TIIEl5TIC

A Creator God who act.~ ns a person. I\ concept of the L1timntc Reality as

undifferentiated and Impersonal.

A bwnan bt!ing ls fundnmeauilly Either the human reallt~· ls Identical

difforem to and S~'Paratc from God. to the l\hsolurc Rcaliry: Atman is Brahman
(monism); or el,;c, ns in Buddhism, no
suncmem can be made nbout the person
who has achlC\ cd J\lrvana.

t,•il and sufferi~ are due 10 slnnint! !:.vii and sufferlnt! are due to human
~aiast che Law of Clod. ignomnce and self-delusion
The path 1c, s11h·arion depend~ either on The path to salvation is through the
~ works :rnd ndhcrcnoe to rhc acquisition of knowlcdgt! or wisdom,
iloly La" or Is sl mply a matter of faith that ls the abillcy 10 sec things as ther
and the ~nae of God. really are
The purpo,e of '-Alvation i~ 10 ese11pe The purpo~e oi ,wlv:ation is 10 escape
from the thrc:tt of hell 10 reach thi, from the suficring of this world and 10
goal oi heaven or pMndbc. achieve the suite of blissfuln"'"'• Nirvana
or mok..slia.
Most import.1nc ritual elemems revolve Mos1 imp<>rtam ri1ual elements re,'Oh·e
around worship and sac.mmcnts around medi1ation and aohle\'emem of
altert!d states of coa,ctousacss.
Pro~rei.liive 'historical' time with a C)•clical tlmt: with no bl!ginrung
bcl!inrunj\ and an end or end.
,
.,~ • l ~111-.ltiiT,\1-UIM: IU.. Ll(,101\

TU E LTNl\'El{8.\I.ITY OF i r o1n:s CH REL.lG I OL'S TIIOl,(illT

The palms of dificn:ncc hctwccn dwbm and non-thdbm art. M1mman1cJ

an T:ihlc 2 . 1 (p .17) I bcA,Jn this ch:iptcr by callinQ the theistic ,,·,tcms
'\\'cstcrn rclill.ion' :incl the non-theistic ,yslcm, 'Easwrn rch~lnn' In l:ict,
hu\\c\ er, hoth types of rdl~lon Ot.-cur In hoth En.,1 ,tn<l West The
mai11~1rea111 onho<lo"ie~ of !skim. Chns1ia111ty 11nd Jud:11~m arc dc.1rly
theistic 111 nature They c111phasi1c prnycr to :ind worship ni Cod The ll<llr
lifo h coni.ldcrcJ to rc\'Ol\'c mound oh,,dicnce to the lluly ),;11\ and
cxpccl:ltion of the Amee of C:0<1 Ncvcnhelcss, we find mom,m in the
myi-ticnl c lement., of each of these rcllgio1L,. In Judabm, llwrc nrc i.uch
works as the S<:fcr Ycs1ru ( chird-sixth century Ct.) and the Zo/tar (~ram,
thirteenth century r:t,)" Taking many of their itlcn!l irom l\'coplntonism, thc
tiud1ori. ol these two books wrltt:: of d1e soul as an emanation from God that
seeks to reunite itself with iL~ .source. In Christianity, particularly In thc
Middl0;: .\gcx, ~uch figures m, Meixter Eckhart ( 1260-1327), llcnl') Suso (c·.
1295-IJ<,S), John of Ruysbroeck (1293-lJ.'il) and St .John of the Cro~s
( 1542-91 )'" ,vrite of the perfect union of the soul with Cod 3$ bcin~ the
ultimate goal of the mystical paLh.
In Islam, many 8ufi mystics are moniscic in their concertualiz:ition of
th<! mystic p:ith. Tn particular, there arc those Sufis who follow the school
ol'Jhn al-'Arnbl (l 164-1 240). The concept or walular etf-wu1utl (omme_ss of
being) evolved by this school is clearly a monistlc approach '' Similar
concepts can be fount! among the Sufi poets. Jalal al-Din Rumi ~pe.aks of the

TUE .lCJJlAR
F'Qr a ll 1hit1J!,. are m him nnd he is m sll 1hin,!.S· he 1s bolh
mom.fest nnd conc,:,alcd Man,fest in order 10 uphold the
whole, ,ind conccak-d for he is found nowhere. {QuolL'<I 111
Pnrrirulcr..11ys1icism in the ll'orlds Rd!Jlions, r 117)
TIIE 80l'L'S MEISTER Er~1 lART
If I am to kno\\ (',<>d directly I must become complctch• lie
UmoN w1111 Goo and lie I 50 1h01 thls !lo: nod tlus I h..'C<>1n<: AOJ arc one I
(Quote'(] ll1 Underhill, Jlysucism, p -l20)
Jonx o, Rt'YSBROllCK
Bui he \\ho Is unltL'tl with Gvd, aJl(J IS enhglm,uw lo tl1i,
truth, be L'> able to undcrsu111d lhc truth by hsclf. For It>
<-'<>mprehend nnd to 1md1:rsumd God atio,·e all ~lmtliwdc,,
such as He is In Himself, i~ to he God v.i1h God without
intcnnedinry. ond \\11hnuc ony othcme<S that can become a
hindrnn~"> nr on ln1cnn~'tliary (T/i~ 1\dnmtri.~11 qf S1nnru.J
.lfllmagc, 111 I 4uo1c-<l In llappolJ, \fyi.ttcism r .?59)
JALU. hl.-Ois Rt"\fl
Thou did'-1 cnntnv" 1hls •r
and 'we In order thnt Thou
mighLSL play the !\ailJC o( v.orshlp v.ith Thy...,lf (Tiu: Muth•
1Ul1){ of J,;Liuli1i1 um Rumi, u--.111!> :0:1cho!Mln, \'OI. :?, p 'I"')
 ;? REI.IOION !-:AST ANO WEST • 39

illusion of otherness and of

individunlity arising from the
imerplay of tbe two aspecll> from
which the Real may be viewed.
And i.o, although mainstream
relijlion In the West has been
theistic, these \\'estern religions
have .:acb cvoln)d within them-
st:lves o strenm of monistic
thought. The three strnnds of
mysticism in the West (from
lslom, Christianitv and Judaism)
undoubwdly 1n.tlucnccd each other
to a larl!e extent, particularly in
places like Spain where they
coex:bted 1n che Middle Ages. It Is MO~IS\1 IN EAST&ll'I R&1.1cu):-:S: This pic1nre shows
very unlikely, howe,·er, that these the 1omb 01 Jalal al-Din Rumi, Konya. Turke)'.
monistlc thlnkers were influenced Rumi wos lhe grcau?Sl or I.he Islamic m)'Slic.1.i
poc[,o, who frequently alluded w the monls1
primarily by the Eastern religions.
t.'<>m:cpl In hb pocuy He Is oflcn rcfom:<l lo :is
~lost of the mystical writers that I M.aulana (In Turkish, Mevlana) ,n.,a,,Ing ·our Jo ri.I'.
ha,·e referred to obove lived and The use of calligraphy as ornamentation in
"Tote in the Middle Ages or eorlier Islam is f)llrticufarly notable here.
and, cenainly, these Jewish :md
Christian mystics had little or no
oonrnct \\ith the Eastern rcli~ions. However. if we want to trace o source of
monlsllo inspiration for these mystical movements in the \\'est, then IL
would seem chat Hellenic thou~hl, and in particular Neoplat0nism, was a
much greater influence." Thus, these monistio pauems of thought appear
to have been genuinely native ellprc:,sion:. of religiosity rather than Corei~n
imports. There have also been monistic philosophers in the West such as
Parmcnides and Spinoza.
Similarly, in the East there gradually evolved both rheistlc and monistic
elements in the religion of India. The l.,'panishad1< are clearly moniscic in
character. The ultimate degree of wisdom that human heingi, can alt:i.tn is
the realization that the soul of the individual (Atman) is one with Ultim:ue
Re:ility (Brahman). This wisdom is summed up in the srntement: 'Thou art
That' (cat. cu:am a.si)'·'. Basetl on such ideas, Shankara (c. eighth century
cf) e,·olved his philosophical system called the ,\dvaito (non-dualism).
Taoism is also monistic In Lhnt the Tao is the all-pervading re:ility. Ultimllte
Rcality for cbl! Buddltist can he conceh•l!J in various ways accordi~ co
different schools of thought in Buddhism ( Dharma, Dhormakava,
Parrunartha. ~ir\'ana, Shunyaw). but thesi: :m: all non-theistic con<:eplions.
The relii.iion of India has, on the other hand, also given rise co theisclc
modes of thought The bliakri sects chat worship ,·nrious gods. in pnrtioulnr
Shi\'a and \ 1shnu. are clearly Lhebclc in their conceprualizadon. The
followers of these sect.s pray to and worship these deities as well as offerin~
r

-to • l' />Of;RSTA:-ll>l'G Rf: l,IUl())l

a b
T11rn,)I u, EASTIR.'I RF,LIGIONS. n) Bhokn, the lo,,, of God in Min<lui,m, i• UJ)l"Cl'.'W in
viorious nee..• of devotion to pimleulnr deities Thb plctun: ls of 11 shrine ,ct up ,n a home
In Brlutln for thu purpose of devotion to IUU1t1L h) While the offlc,nl reli,llion in Thcra,11Ja
BudJhbm I~ 11011-thelstle, many of the prnctk-e~ ro:semble r.hosc uf theism with the Bwldba
being effecth•ely substituted for God This picture Is of monk, sltLilll\ In worship befor" an
Image of the Buddha in the Wot Benchamabopirr (Marble Temple). Ban~ok The ima~ of
the Buddha is in the pose of Bhumisparsha mudm, calllf\ll the eanh 10 \\1tnCS.S

gifts and sacrifices co appease and propitiate them. Hindu thought thus
acknowledges both the monistic path,j1i«nayo4a (the path of knowlet.l~e),
and the theistic path, bhakti yoga (the path of worship and !ldorntion)
Sikhism is also theistic in that it ii. babed on wors_hlp of God 3b the Sat Guru
(True Preceptor). Ln India itself, the theism of the bltako sectb
predominates numerically, but further ease in Asia, it is the non-the.ism of
Buddhism and Taoism that ls the predominant re!Wous expression. Yet
even within the non-theistic world of Buddhism, we find clemencs of
theism. Some of the Mahayana sects lean towards theh,m. ,vlth the cooocpl
of the Buddha as a source of grace who may be won.hipped and praytd to
as a saviour. This occurs, for e.xomplc, in the /\mida sects of Japanese
Buddhism, althouth the Amida (Amitabha) Buddha ii; not a Creator God
after the char:icterlstic Western pattern. In Theravada Ruddh,sm. th«:!
orthodox religion of the monks is non-theistic. But even here, much of the
popular religion Is theistic in itS praying to 11nd worshipping of Buddha and
ocher deities (see chapter 11 ).
In summary then, theistic and monit,Uc clcmcncs occur in botb E:tbt
and \Vest. Although theism may predominate In the \\'est and monu.m In
 2: FU:L.IGION EAST ANU WEST • 41

the East, neither is exclusive in any area. It would appear that individual
pt."Ople In alJ parts of the world tend towards either thei1,m or monism. The
great reUgions of the world have been able io accommodate this by
incorporating within themselves both elementS in one way or another.
Taking tJliS further, we Jrnve the basis for a definition cllfferentiatirig a
reli~on from a sect. A religion must have the capability of satisfying the
religious needs of a wide variety of types o{ mind, while a sect onJy appcnls
10 a narrow range of religious outlooks. This ldea is developed further in
chapter 5 (pp. 138-9).

~lUTUAL ATTITUDES OF TII EIS.M AND M ON ISM

.\nother way of undersuanding and characterizing tJ1e theistic and monistic

re~ons is to study the attitude of each cowards manifestations of the
other. Theists have always tended tO look upon monism with profound
dlsfa,·our. In the West, where theism predominates and has been the statc-
1mpp0rted orthodoxy, theistic religious leaders have interpreted monism as
the individual claiming to be God (thls is in relation to the monlstic
concept that ali reality is one and thus the human beint and God have one
re:iliry). They have therefore considered monism to be blasphemy and
heresy. They have persecuted :ind e,·en killed those with moni.stic leanings.
Meister Eckhart was condemned by the Pope for heresy, and ocher mystics
such as Madame Guyon, Miguel de Molinos and Fenelon suffered at the
hands of the Inquisition. some even meetJnA <learn. Similarly, Islam has
persecuted Sufis down the 3ges. One of lhe early monistic martyrs in Islam
was ol-llalioj (d. 922) whose famous dictum: ' I am the Tn,tb/God («na'l-
H«qq)' is reputed to have b<..-cn the cause of his execution;" while as
recently as the nineteenth century, one of the leading rcli~ious figures in
Iran prided himself on his title of Su/i-kush (Sufi-killer).''
The monistic reli~ions, on the other hand, h:1ve a much more subtle
attitude towards theists. For the most part rney do not condemn theism :is
~rror. RatJ1er they look upon tJ1eJsm as a ' lower' form of the truth, a stage
throu~ which the seeker after cnrth must pass before reaching the 'higher'
monlscic truth . Indeed, many non-theistic:! systems look upon theism as u
:system that Is suitable for assurin~ morality among the masses, while only
the monistic mode of religion leads to liberation.

RELATIVISM

.\pare from theism :ind monism, there is one further position that could be
considered to stand between them. This approach can he called relativism.
Brie.fly, it takes the position mat the Ultimate Reality is unknowable,
beyond human ability to conceptualize it. Knowledge (whetJ1er of the
physical or met.aphyslcal wocld) is always knowlcd~e from a pardcuJar
 pc rspccllvc anti I!. thcrdorc rclaun, tu that
viewpoint '\o ,tatenwnt~ of an ah,oh11c
tn11h l.'!111 he mndc. ,\II co11ccpts nrc merely
pcr!>pccuvcs 011 the truth, cm:h hcin~ correct
from its 0\1'11 vie,, po1111 Th" rcprc~cms n
1.-o~nitivc rcl:ltivism
fhb mode of thml,1111!, arose III the
~ln<lhynmlkn schc)(>I 1h;11 was founded hy
1':i~:irjuna in lmlin In ;1hout the l>C1.'<>1U.I
century 1·, .\lthoul!,h 11 is not 111,,,. a major
sect of Uu<ldbbm, ll is c,f l\rc.Ll 1mp<1n.anc1.
he ell use much of Man(lyano Uuddhlsm ha, its
philosophi(.!lll hm,i;. in 1hc ccnchin~s oi this
school. Tlus mode of thou!Un also Ol.'Curs in
the B:1ho'i Foith as one way of explainin~ che
unily undcrlym~ the dh·ers1ty of n.:h~ion 111
Lhe world (for a lenj\lhier expo~idon of both
Mndhyomika nnd Bnhn'i tbou~ht, see
pp. 195-9).
Jusr as we have seen thot elements of
bolh theistic nnd non-theistic 1houeh1 01.'<'ur
universally, so too can elemenu. of
relativistic thought be found omen~ ~omc
,,rltCrl> in olhcr ceUgioru,. ,\port from the
l)etall from the ext~rnal ornarnent:itlon thoul!ht of Nagarjun:1 in Buddhism dcsctihcd
of the l!ahn'i House of Worship in above, Lhc concept of the ·God created ln Lh1:
Wilmccu,, near Chicfl!lc>, HS.\
(completed 195:J), sho,m14 the faiiths' of lbn al-'Arabi, the }luslim mv:,tic,
lncorpomlion Into the d~slgn of the has 1111 impllcntion of rclati\'ism in it. Ion 111-
symbols o( various rell)\lons. Amon~ 'Arnbl propo::.cd that each pcr::.on hm, a
those that c-.m be se<:n are a swasukn certain aptitude and capacity for '<;ceinl!'
(Hinduism ). a Star of Da,id (Judaism). a God and t.hal God therefore appears to him
cross CChrisiianity}, rt stor nJ1d crescent
(Islam) This is a ,i.suol rcprcsentntion or her in accocdan1.-e wilh that capaciry. On
or the: Druw·1 tca.chlng of the underlying a ,~ider scole, he snw the hbcoricol reli~nns
w1lcy of religion os the limited nnd particular w(lyi, of
worshippinA the ,\hsolute.1• There are also
similari1ics between Baha"i relath·ism nnd
the posilion put forward by the Chrl~tian scholar, John lhck. lie :i:,scrt~
that the differences in the descriptions of the ,\hsolute/God in Lhe various
religions arc clue lO dlffcring cultural Influences and different modes of
ooAnition (:.ee also pp. 72-3) "
The relativistic perspective, of course, accepts hoch monlsm nnd
t.beb1n. 1t abo contains wit.hill It an explanation for the fact lhat. as
descrihed ohovc, every world religion h:1s horh theistic and momscic
expression. Relativism holds thm the c:-.prc:.sion~ of theism .ind mum~m
are due to the varyinl! types of mind perl.'tli\'il)S\ reality in d1ffcrem way!..
Therefore, clearly, if a reli~on is 10 ha\'e uni\·ersal appeal and thu~ become
 :? Kf;Llt:ION !;AST M~O WEST • 43

o world religion, ii must satisfy th~c varying types of mind by including

both lhci Lie and monis1ic clements.
\\'ith re~ard 10 the concepts discussed in the previous sections of this
chapter. the rclat1visUc Boho 'I posilion accl.!pts, as may he expected,
nspccts of hoch the thcis1ic and non-1heistic ,·iews of sufferinA, evil, and
,-:ilv::uion. The salvation or liberntion brought by tho founders of the world
rnli~iuns 1!> seen, from the Baba' i viewpoint, tt~ baving a 1wofold effect. It
both liberates human bcinl}s from a sta1e of ignorance at the personal level
and lc:ub, humanity to a social saJvalio11 (peace and unity) The lotter
f:tcilita1es the strivin~ of human beil1gs for 1he former and vice ,·ersa."
Sah·mion or liberation is regarded more as a process than a defined Stotc in
which one either Is or Is not. The comlltion that occurs after death Is not
capable of bein,I\ described. It can only he partially appreciated by the use
of analogic:., such as that of the world of the embryo in relation to our world
(an anaJogy of our state of preparing ourseh·es for. but being ignoram o(.
what occun. after death: seep. 23i).
In contrast to theis1ic an<l monistic religions, the Baha'i Falili has
very few fixed riru:tls. This allows a greac deal of tlexibiliry to adopt
relit(olL'- practices that are in accordance 1\~tb the preferences of the individuaJ
believer. Both prayer and meditation are daily personal obligations.
As regards concepcs of time and space, the relativistic viewpoim is that
both are matters which 'vary by reason of the divergences in meo's
thoughtS and opinions.'" In the Baha'i view, cycles of progress and decline
affect all 11.'-pects of human activity and religion is no exception. Overall.
though. there is a general progrc:;s and dc,·clopmcnt of human social life.
\\'hen, therefore, a religion has gone into decline and its te:ichinl!S no
longer suit 1he presem stage in human sooiaJ de,·elopmcOL, n new reHgion
arises. The Baha'i concept thus presentS elementS of both llnc:1r
progression and cyclicalicy; one may therefore describe i1 as a spiral

CHINESE AND J APANESE R ELI GION

Some b-pccial words mus1 be said about Chinese and Japanese religion os
thes.: rellgious systems present some aspeccs thai are not found elsewhere
and require separate ottention. In poTticalar, we must note the syncretic
nature of both b)'btccru.. They have the abW ty to bring together elements from
\\idel~· differing religious traditions and to synthesize these into an am~am.
This amolgam is itself not a single entity but differs in \'arious parts of ench
councry and even among diffcrcnl families living in the same region.
ln Cbina, there is a foundacion of folk religion, which consists of several
elements: various deities and legendary heroes who are venerated or
worshipped. veneration and wor~hip of :r1nccston., fortunc-ceUlng, magic
and sorcery. Ufe-cycle rites (ma rking birt h, puberty, ma rriage and death)
ns weU ns calendrical festivals play an important pnrl In Chinese life. On
this foundation, several 'higher', more philosophical elements are pJaced
11 • l'NDERST,\:-IDINO flEl,IGION

Taoism is said 10 ho\'e been rounded by Lao-Tzu, a fi~ure ahou1 whom

vcrv lilllC iN certain historicalh•. lie mav have lived in aboul lh~ 1hird
I
ce,;lllr) net.. Too1sm stalC;, I.hat i.he individual ~hould live accord111~ lO the
underlyinl! order of 1he universe (the Tao). Taoist 1cnchinl!s direct 1hc
individual 10 rind hi.;, or her esscntinl nawre and comply with its impul,ci.
In this way lhe individual Ii: OI one with 1he Tao and acquires a my,1ic:1l
power (re) In interaction with the folk religion, Taoism developed ai. ri \\JY
of 1ry111g to achieve immortality or paranonnal powers 1hrou4b alchemy,
magical inc:mtations or e,cercises Tnolsm :ilso incorporated a number of
other syMems of chough1, such as the Yin-Yang, F'h·e-Elcmem school.
Confucius (c.551--1-79 BCE) cauithL a practical, ethical sys1em lie
claimed no religious source for his tcachin4, but merely s:iid chat he was
restoring au ancient moral system that had fallen lmo decay. llis tcachin4s
were centred on the virtues of kindness, faitJ1fulness, upriAhrness,
d;;<.'Orum , wisdom and altruism. Reverence for one's parents and duty and
obedience to the state fom1ed a major pan of his teachill,I!. Confucius :ilso
had much co say about the virtues of :i good ruler and che way duH sociccy
should be ordered.
Buddhism came ~radu:illy to China from about che first century Cf.
onwards, although IL wus not until al least the fiflh century that rcli:iblc
translations and scholarly study were beil~ carried out in China. Buddhism
complemented existing Chlnese though1 by addi~ a religious dimension
related to th!;! explanation of suffering and Lhe path to liberaclon. Buddhis1
thought also added to Chinese metaphysics This, together wich the

CmM-'~ RU,l(ll<ltl A fo.mlly praying nud o{fonng gift> to thcfr nm...,,tors Jt o hom"
&brine, Taiwnn
 J RELll,lON t,;,\ST 1\NO WEST • 45

Boy, pardcipuUog In a ceremony to honour Confucius nt u Cblnese Temple 1n Taiwan

inevitable interaction with folk religion and Taoism, eventually led to a

number of Chinese Buddhist developments. These include seveml schools
which crossed to Japan and became prominent there also, including the
Ch'an school, which in Japan became Zen and emphasized sudden
enlightenment, and the Ching-t'u or Pure Land schools that
"enerate Amitabha (or Amida) Buddha.
Chinese religion consists of an amalgam of these
different strands. Some may emphasize the philosophical
elements, some che religious and some the magical The
same person may follow Confucian principles at home,
celebrate Taoist festivals, and be buried according to
Buddhist rites. An individual may discuss Buddhist
philosophy but Interact with others according to Confucian
norms.
Japanese religion ls similarly an amalgam of Japanese
traditional relig.ion (Shinto) and Buddhism, together with
important additions from Christianity and Confucianism.
Shinto is a highly complex phenomenon. It operates as a
national religion for Japan, with the Em!l)eror as the chief A S111~-ro :;tlRlNE; Tltls
Shinto priest, as a community religion centred on Shinto Ls 3 typicnl entrance
shrines, and as a famil>• or clan religion for Japanese families. co a Japanese Shmt0
To this picture, Confucian thought nbout individual and shrine The pattern
bus become rhe
social morality was added from about the fifth century CE and symbol of Shinto.
the various Buddhist schools were introduced into Japan in
r lb • l'MIHtST.\Sllll\'.l, I\EI.IC.tO:S

,rn~c,, hcj!innin~ in 5JS or 552 Chrbuanity nrnvcd in I s.1i,, nlchouA)1 I!

\\,I:, lntcn,cl~ pcn.ccutctl durin~ the i.ixu:cnth nm.I 'l:Vcnt<.-cnth ccnturlv,
A f) p1cal furruh· rnnr use Shinto ntunls to 1.-elehrate a birth anc.l Ht1t.ldl11"
rilUnl, for n dcnth Many Japnm:i.c couples rnnrry 111 a Chn,rian church hut
Jo not com,IJcr themsehe:. ChrlsLlarn,
\\'ith rcAanl w the Jifierenc.'C lX!tween moni,m and th1:1,m Chlnc,1:
.me.I Jupancse rcli~lon exhibit both t)rpe,. Philosophicnl Taohm ,md m,my
lludJhiM sC..'CL, arc non-theii>tlo In nmurc :inc.I rno,t ha,c :.omc concept of
:rn impersonal ,\bsolute Realitr, the Too or Dhamtn ~loch or Ch1new :tntl
Japanei,e folk religion :111d such Budtlhbt sect, tll> the Pure Land ,chools
urc, howc,·cr, rcli/l)oni, of love :ind wor,hlp, und :ire thu, more :ikin tn
thclslic religio11 In Chinese temples, stnlUcs of ,·urious hc:wenly deities arc
wor;.h,pp;:d and, s1milorly, kwm (c.11\·inttiei, or splrill>) ar1: \\orsh1p1'1CJ m
Jnponcsc shrines. In Pure !,and Ruddhism, Amicahhn (Amidn) Buddha as
robed LO the srntu:. of n god and veneratl!d
One useful way of dividi~ Chinese anc.l Jap3ncse reh~ion ,s co use th1:
Japanese discineliOfl between jiriki (self-power) nnd m,iki (mhcr power).
Jiriki refers to thos<! rel11\iomi t.hat encour3Ac self-relianw. Th.: mJiv1dual
must save himself or herself. The S3);ng of the Buddhn, ·work out your own
salvation' b much cmplrnsized in these groups. Thoi.e wbo wish for
salvation must, In the Buddhist rradltion, leave their home liie, become
monks and practise the pnth oi meditation and self-discipline in order to
reach their goal. Tarikt refers to the reliance on the grace of a p0\\t'r that
is outside oneself in order to achieve snlvation. The dependence on the
grace of God among Japanese Christians or Lhe dependence on the grncc of
Amitabha Buddha in tbe Pure Land sects of Buddhism are example~ of thb

PRIMAL RELIGTOXS

Finally, in surl'eyinj\ the religions of the world, it is nccc-sary co look hrieily

al tbe central conccptl> ln prlma1 rclil\loru,. The w.:alth of l'aTiety of rclil\iou:,
manifestations nmonl\ primal people~ makes anrthin.l\ more than a fo"
genernliz:itions nhout this suhject difficult, howc,cr
In their conceptions oi the supernatural, the prlmnl rdu!,ion., can nlso
he chought of as follinA, in a more limited way. imo the dil'i,1on of 1hl·ism
and monism <le8cribl!c.l above. Primal rclil!,ions can be con,-lt.11:rcd to hun,
cwo concepts of the supernatural that 11rc lik1: two pol1:s nf :1 cc11u11,uum
.\t one pole, which is an:iloitous to the d1dscic n:lil!,1011s dcscnhcd
earUcr, there arc the personal conCt.:pt:, of :.upernaturul pm,cr. Thci.c
mvoh·c the concepts of deities such as are found 111 African relil!,inn,. tor
example. These lrnvc the "am" charocteristic~ rl, human lk:in~, (they can
be plca:,ed or :111,!r)'; they can will some e,·enc to ot.~ur, etc.) fhcr.: 11> al,11
often a concept of :1 ~upremc deity ri-~e al~o pp 2(,9- 70) The charactcri,tie
rcUgioUi> ,tetlvlt.)- here b tl1,1t of prop,tiauon of the 1,>odi> hy !1i,fL., und
sacrifices.
 :l. REW<HON 1:.AST AND WEST • -17

,\t the other poll!, whioh is nnnlogous to the monistic rcli~lons, :ire the
unpersonul conccpcs ot' supernnturnl power. Examples of this Include the
concept of mmm in Polynesian and ~licronesian reli~ion, Ju11m in Jap:111,
and similar concepts nmong Nntivc i\mcricuns. These involve the belief in
the existence of power that can be obtained, or a state Lhat ca.u be acWeved.
hy n human beim!. which then enables that human being to h:we power
over others or over nature. Th.is type of power C!lll be runa...scd and
(.'{)111rOllt!d by humans. h may even he bou~ht and sold, lost, stolen or given
u> others. This impersonal concept ot supemarurnl power often exist.~ in
rclaAlous ~y:,tems chat also have concepts of :,uperu:1turaJ bein~. The
d1it'erence, however, lies in the fact that the power is not an inherent
,1ttrihute of the supcm:itur:d beings. Their :.uperiority to humans comes
through their more ahundanc possession of, or their superior knowledge of
ho" m me, chis im1,erso11al power. The characteristic religious activity in
the:,e religions 1s ncquisition o{ the knowledge of how to obtain and use this
power In some soc1eries, where the power is considered dangerous for
ordinary human beings and ca11 only be withstood by kings or priests. there
il> alt:o an extensive system of taboos. lntcrestingly, LWs type of religious
phenomenon, anolo~us to the monistic religions, rem::iined unrecognized
by \\\:stern anthropologislS and observers for a long time, because of their
theistic preconceptions of what a religion should be."
Almost every concei\'able object ha:s m one time been considered
sacred or tn,·c:,ted wltb supernacural qualitlcs by somi.! group In tbi.! world,
but the tendency is t0 select objects that are
unusual in appeara.ncc. Holy words or
symbols drawn on a piece of paper and worn
around the neck or arm as an amulet, cert:1in
word:, said or chanted repeatedly a:. pan of a
rirual. or a particular fom1 of art, song, or
dnnce are also often considered sacred.
Closely associated with the sense of some
ohjecrs being sacred or supernatural is che
sense that such objects are taboo. Events
that are mysterious and transforming are
also often associnted with taboos: exa mples
include death, childbirth, and menstruation.
Reliltious practices in primal rel iAions
include magic, divination, prayer and various a b
rituals for propitiating deities or spirit:, and SACRJi.D 01!.ll!CT~: Repr"5filltallon of
expiating evil deeds. Propitiation is practised anc..-.,su-al effigies used in ance.ior
particularly where there is n wish to control worship . al From the 13ulrundu tribe
in Africa h) From lrian Joya The
nacural phllnomena such as the rain or wind. wooden hend is SCO()ped om ond rhe
Practices such a.,; offering the deitie.~ the first skuU o( the unwstor is dug up tmd
products of a ,,ea.,onal crop, n hunt, or the in,;crtcd lu this co,•1ty - 11 grnphl<'
firsc-born of domesticated animals are repre~ent.atlon o( th" Idea oi o spirit
d" dUD,11 within the cffiru .
common Historically, human M1crifice was
r " • L:NIJF.R:STAMllSC 111':LICIC)S

the uhim:uc pi-opnintion and Wll.S o widespread phenomenon Rites of

p,1s~1~c one.I ritei. o( purification form :1 lnrAe pan or the rdi~iolL, n:pcrtoirc
of many ti-ihnl nnd crnditlonal peoples.
In prlmnl religions, the rcliAious ,peci:ilist i1o 1110:-1 common!~· of the
type known variow.1)1 rL, witch tloctor, shamnn or 1111.>tllcine nwn Thc1,c
individ11t1ls nrc often picked our in childhood b.i<:ausc or some unu,ual uah
thnt thcy po~scs:-. They tend 10 he pmctitioner1o of 111.1j!ic and hcalc", und
thev orrnn 11cb1evc alwrcd ;,taws of consclolL~ne,:,, In the performance of
their rt•liitious funccions. Many ha ,·e ,•isions and foll imo rrnncc sratc<o The
other type of relil,11olL, specialist may be called o priest. Thc;.e officlutc O\'Cr
chc rituols of n society or trihe. They tend co he the custodian~ of tribal lore
anJ cnsmology. Such individuals are usunlly given extensive trninin~ to
ru,ni their role.
Followinl\ the colonization of large parts of the world hy the European
po,,·ers mninly in the nineteenth century, religious movements began Lo
arise :unon~ native peoples as expressions of their fnis1rauon and
tlcmornlization. ,\ classic example of this type of movement is the
phenomenon of oarto cult:, in Me lanesia. Nunwrous :.uch rno,cmcnu. ha~c
arisen from abour che middle of rhe nineceemh cenrury onwards. They all
sh:Jrc the common feature of a leader proclaiming tbc ruiraculow.
imminent arnv:1J by air or sea of 'cargo', a shipment of 1he goocl, p<iss,:s:-.ed
by white people, which will be freely available co the followers of the
movement. T hey usually also have a strong anti-colonial, x_1:nophobic

Rt:1.101o~s sP&:LAl,lSTh, R~-pl"C!K:nrnlion or 3 trih:11 "itch ductnr (;,homttn or m~Ju.:ln~ man)

from the l.o"'Ct Congo J)l'rforruln~ a rllual .\ polsonous dnnk (lwsk,;: or kc~'""'· mnJe
from the bark or a tr(.-.,) iS i,vcn to the mllfl acctL<cd of" 11chcrof1 Ube ,·omJL, 11, be I•
iunoccnt
 ~ HEI.IGIUJ\ t:.\~T ,\ND WEST + 4'J

element to their teach in~ (On I he C'Ontinuing influence of primal reli~ions,

b<.'C pp. J99-40J. 506-S).

l>l\'L\ ITK>S .\.\IOS1, TIIL CIUP~b\\'.\ 01 I fib Mlll•\\'1.M

Of n11. U\ITUl Sr.,n:i,
,\ medicme mnn mn)' 1w called on , duy or ni,!ht. to disco,er
the cau.sc <tnd the cure of some intcmnl disease. The sick man
1.s pJ.iccd on n mnt outaidc the ,mnll wii,IWom In "hich thi,
m"diclne man I> tlxerclslng hib flO\\ "I'll·
/\11 during th"
EX-\.\ll'LtS OF ccrcmoo} somcon1: on the out~ide beats the drum. It ls
absolutely ne(.-e,,sary that the \\~warn sway baeb and forth.
PR.\CTICE:S Lill (or, \\ithout lt, the procedure Is ineffective. ,\s SOOll as the upt
(wi,ttwamJ shnk~ - which indicates that the spirits nre in the
PRl\l\l, RELIC.ION~ wi,ttwnm - the medicine man asks ,he persons on the outside
who nro mtcrCMcd In the sic:k mnn what they wish to kno"
The spirits on th" lnsldt! (U1SWt!r. One can bear th"m tal.lung
but only the man 111 the wiawam usually w1dcrstands the
lanAuaJle, for only occasionally do the spiritS speak Chippewa
The ,·oices sound like those of a large crowd. Lr's lhcse spirits
that mnke the \\i!lwam swny Long ng<, the swaying was so
violent that the wig\\,tm 1ouc!tcd the ground from ~Ide to side.
If mnny oplrlts come Imo tbc "1gwa111. t.h!! m,'<lkinc lllJlll
comes out tln.-d :uid we.ak. ln the e:irly Jnys the medicine m:tn
performed ceremonies similar to the ones above to disco"er
whether it was safe m hreak camp. ( l..ac C-.ourte Orielle
interpreter, quoted in Eiilger, Chippewa Child l,ife, pp 77-/1)
ll-1TL\TIOS RITUAL A.IIONO TUE I IOPI Of
TH& &Mml-Wti;T UNITlill STATi;.<;
The two Ho Katchinas take a position on the cast and
west side of a lnrg,., sond mosaic, the Otthui-i m Its
sou1!tenM comer, the latter boldmg o supply of wltips.
The chlldren tremble nnd some b.!gin to cry and to
scream. The lio Ka1chlnas keep up their gruntln~,
howling, rattling. c.ramplio,¢ and brandishing or their
yucca whips. All at once someone places a candidate
on the sand mosaic ... and one of the Katchinas whips
tho little! victim quit e severely . . When one child nn.,
been flogged another one Is nt once brought
forward ... Some of tbe children go tlirough the
process \\1th set teeth :uid without Oinclllnj!, others
Squirm, tr)' to jump away and scream . .
In the counie of the ceremony the cbl.ldren are odmonlshcJ to
cell no one what they have scco and heard under threat of
punishment . . The children do not as yet know that the
kachinas arc men This revelation is reserved for the last nW,t
of the Bean Dance. when the inicintcs see the knchina d.1nccrs
perform without their masks. The lnltl111.loo b then complct~.
The inltlatlon change,, the stntus of the boy ln s,wcrol
respecis. Ills ne" ly gained knowlooge about du, kachlnas,
together with the fact that he has passed through tho! ordeal
which cbildrcn dread, act 10 make him feel much less like a
child and more like 3 man. Prior to lnlllalton, he cannot enter
 the- ki\'ns (t-.:remoniol h111h1111t:,•I 11, men dn .\(tcr mttt.,tklll,
ht: can 4.'\"CO \\Otk uuJ ,h..-cr In the kiV(l Tiu· 4,rr" ,ld(U'l illl..''\ " "
tu lk! chnrtJ.,~d h.:M tlM11 l~ tbl" bo) ~ At 110 uruct l'\c.:n au. •
"on1.rn, Lio the prlvilcj\,.,, o( lite kl\ ,1 bdon!l IO her. l L>cnm,, f/1,
l/11p1 C:lu/1/, !"IP· 72--l the 1,,..,. r,ira~ph i, quotcJ ,~,,m
II R
Vmhl
Tm l'~I 01 \ht.t<' m Co~rw,t 1111 u.,.st,Ut., rn 1'., n ~· .~,11,,,,
llll L\l'it.tl '* C:t~TR,\I .\!RI('.\
Th" l.anj\<> n( C:c111ral Mnca nl\\,1)"1 ;.~,n,ult 1hc nmcn, Ix-fore
llntn,!nn njourncy Shm,IJ 1hc,c rm..Jk1 Jan~r from u ltnn, h"
muulJi. three dny fi,iun.,s One rc1,rc,cm1, ,, m•n lym• dcaJ un.J
to tlll"oi he ~l\·cs th\! n.amc ol a p.1:rsonn.J enemy, I.ht.- ..c.-.t..-onJ
represcms his ""'""Y'• "''" with l,.,r bt:ac.1 ,han,J for
mourn1nj\; 1hc 1h1rd ,s a l,on which 1\ in the oct of Jc,ounnj\
the man I le can now J!O on his Journey hoppy m the thoull!it
thac he h:ts o,·cncd donj\cr irom himself (I.cwt•. ,\nlnropolm;.l'
Ma,/c fu")', p . 1(,(1)

T HE ~[ ODER.'l WORLD

The modern world has produced much cross-fertilization of ideas and C\'Cn
uf pmctlces. Mjwacloru; from the >lusllm counlrlc:,. India. and Eru.c ,\sfa co
Europe and ~forth Arneric:i h:ini resu lted in the emc~ence there of larl!e
communilics of pcuplc of religions other thnn Christianity. ,\t the same
time, Christianity hai. spread to every corner of I.he world throu/!h a well-
orgnnized and well-financed missionary effort. Primal religions, in p:irticular.
nave come under increasing pressure as a re.-.ulc of elm mb.sionary acU\'ity,
\\ith many of their numher being, com·erted. Dialogue and inter-fa ith i,oups
increase the extent to which crosi.-fcrtilizntion occurs.
Other. more subcle, cross-fertilizauons have also occurred. Buddhism
in South and South-East .\si::i was revi\'ed h)• Europ~ms who cook an
lnlt!reM ln that religion from the late nineteenth cemury onward!,. The
comin~ of rhe relij\ion~ of the East, \\ich their cechnic1ues of medication, en
Europe and North America hos both sparked a re,·h·al of inten~M in the
Christian mystical tradition and ~iven ~tren~ch to the fundamentalbt
backlash. Religions thoc migrace take on new fom1s in their new
d~ctnations. ChrL~clanit~·. although 11 wcnc co India as a lllhslonary
reli~on. ha~ there taken on many of che f.:otures of IHmlui,m Buddhism in
Europe hns become detached from 111:iny of the trnditional culrurnl
prac.:Lic.:c:. of iu. homeland and il'> no" very much more oi an lntellcctu,11,
philosophical mm·cment.
Typical of th1; ethos oi mo<ll!rnicy. however. b the lar~1; num~r of
syncrcciMic culh and nc" relil!iou, 1110\'ement~ that have arisen Cult, in
Jnpnn, for example, will frequently combine ckmenl,- nf Buddhism. Shinto,
Chrisliuniiy. Confucianism and c.:\:CU I111ldubrn.
 2 REL!OION E.\ST .\NO Wt:ST • 51

F URTIIER R~;.\OING

This chapter takes further the approaclh :idvocmed b)' Zaehner in The
Conc:-is.: Erwydopa.cdia of Li'()irt,!J Fait/as. pp. xiv- xvii. For d1e differences
between \\"eslem and Eastern religion, see also \V. L. King, Introduction to
Rcligr<m. rp 1 7-218 :md Coplesion, On tlae Hisco,y of Philosophy, pp.
66-79. Most of rhe concepts touched on briefly in this chapter are dealt
with in more detail in rhe rest of the book, and suMested further readjng
for these topics can he found at rhe end of the relevant chapters. On
Chine.-..e religion, see Thompson, Chinese Religion . On Japanese religion,
see Kitagawa, On ['n.dersta11di11,g Japanese Re/i,gion. On primal religion,
S<!C 1'.orbcck, Religion in Primitive Sociel)J.
Au,o.•rr 1:.Vl:.R\' Ult£AT PIIILOSOPIIE.R A.'lll SO<, LAL S(.Jl,..'ITIST has hod i,omclhing
co say about reli~ion - about its orij!ins, its social function or itl> Slructurel>
It is clearly impossible therefore to describe oil of these theories In this
ch11pter, I shall concentrate on a small number of tho:.e whm,e wrilinA~
focus on religion ond whose ideas are inOuential today in the formation of
ideas about religion. I shall not hnve :;p:1ce to deal with those who treat
religion as a side issue to their main line of argument, as Marx does for
exnmple. Some of what follow are theories about religion itself while others
are theoretical approaches to the study of re!Won. However, a theoretical
approach to the study of religion " ~II usually presuppose or imply a theory
of the nature of religion. Thereforo, the two a.re not clear!)• distinct and will
be dealt with cogether in lhis chapter. Various cypologies of reli~ous woups
that have been suggested nre also exnmined in this chapter. Finally, we shall
look at one aspect of the debate regarding the proper approach co rclitiou:,
studies.
As mentioned in the Introduction, it is useful co view religion from a
multi-disciplinary approach. The different theories of religion that we shall
be exploring in this chapter arise from these different disciplines. They
therefore reOect, to an cxLent, the problem of the current fragmented
approach to the study of religion . Not aJJ of these theories are, however,
rivals: some are looking at different aspects of religion from others, while
some are looking at different types of religion from others. Thus, for
example, anthropological theories of religion cend co relate to local trihal
religions. They are often concerned with explaining phenomena :,uch a~
totemism, since these are the typeS of manifestations of religion \\ith which
an nmhropologist comes into con tact. Such theories may or may not hrt\'C
any relevance co the major world religions. Simllarly, there is no inherenL
reason why a sociological and a philosophical theory of religion should be
mutually exclusive.

SOCIOl,OGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL TIIEORIES

Rell!tjous srudles ls a relatively n ew academic fleld. Prevlou:,ly, ond to a

large extent still, much of the academic study of relition was undertaken

• 52 •
 :I Tll~:ORtES Of' REt,tCHON • SJ

under ,everal diffcn:nt academic di~ciplines. 'l\vo disciplines that have

been much concerned wirh observing and analysing religion from the
mncwent.h 1.'llntury onwards ure sociology and ant.hropology. Several
theories ha,·e emc~ed from these studies.

Fu11ccio11a/is111
Functionalism ii- a theory that b bound up wit.h the view that all
phenomena in a system are interrelated. A change in one elemem of the
syscem will. 1hercfore, have consequences for all ocher elements in che
syMl.lm. Thu;;, acconling to t.his viewpoi Ill, religion may be w1derstood
adequotely by creacioA it in terms of irs social function - its objective
..-ons1.'(jue11cc for the social system of which it Is part. Functionalism is thus
hru.ed on an organic an:tlogy - that every pan of society plays ~ome role in
the social life of the community, in the some w:'ly that an organ plays :'I part
u1 the life of an organism. The role of the scholar il, to determine and
describe the function thac each part performs to enable the smooch and
efficient opemtion of the whole.
The cheory of functionalism was developed by Emile
Durkheim (1858-1917) in explicit oppos1t1011 to
psychological theories that sought to explain religion in
terms of factors relacing to the Individual. For Durkheim.
religion was a social phenomenon and the explanation of it
had co be sought ac tbe social level. lie considered that the
critical social function of reli~ion was to act as both :1 glue
and a lubricant to the social process. It is a glue iJl the sense
that it binds the individual firmly to the society. It is a
lubricant in chat, by providing legitimation and outhority for
the social strucLUre and the moral order, it facilitate~ the
smooch functioning of society.
In his principal book, The Eleme11tary Forms of the
ReliJlums Life (1912), Durkheim wrote tbat the crucial factor
in the social functioning of religion was ics division of the Emile l)urkhcim
world into the sacred and the profc,ne. Religion deals with (1858-l'H7),
sacred things - 'ching.~ sec apart and forbidden' (p. 47). fuuctlonnllsm
Therefore, Durkheim considered ritual lit least as importnnt
ru, beliefs iJl lhe social functioning of religion. Ritual emphasizes and
reinforces the dependence of the individual on society. By thus creating a
separate aren of life with special properties and powers, religion establishes
the authority with which co reinforce the moral dictates of society. ln
effect, religion acts as the mechanism for 1.he imposition of the society's
authority.
This leads us on co the most radicaa aspect of Durkheim's theories.
Many anthropologists thought th.it humanity's sense of awe at the forces of
nature w~ the oriitm of the concept of goth.. Durkheim, however, asserted
that the sense of something transcendenr or supernatural arose out of our
 ~ • L'NllF.ltST.\\;lllM, 11F.L1Cll01'

- The U'ltLnt h l>cfon: .ill ll •,·mhol, a nintcri.,I CAI''"'"''"" 01

somclhln)! d,c 1'1111 uf ,d,nt'r IL I• c\lJcnl tluc 11
cJCprc"-'L" anu ~rmbolL,.:, I\\O dlilcn:nt "'"' ul thtni:., tu the
llr,,1 pl.OL'C. It J,; the uum,ord und ,is1blc form ui \\hat"• ha,c
called lhc cutcmlc prlnc1plc nr )!ud 11111 It 1, nl,;o the wmht,1
of 1he clc-umnlncd ,~1cty 11r1lll•d the clnn h ",ro 1lmt; IC 1, the
DURKJ ILIM sij\n hy which cnch clan dl\t1n~11lshc, ii-df 1mm thc other-,
the , lsihle mark of lls Jl'!r,onnlity n mnrl. borne b~
c,crythhll\ \\hloh ~' n pnrt uf the cbu under 1m\ utl,
whu1"t,uvcr. mcu bcust:, or th.Im\., S(, lJ It 11, al once the
srmlx>I of the P;(,<l uml OI the wdety, 1, 1h:11 no t lx.-.:ausc thc
i!od and the society urc only om,·· tlow couhl the emhkm i,f
the ,aroup h,wc been nhlc 10 lx'<!Omc 1hc O~ur.: 01 lhl, 'I""''·
divinity. if the Aroup nnd the dh·lnil\' wcr,., two diMlnc1
reahlics·· The Atxl of the elm,, tho totcnuc pr111c1plc <:nn
therefore be nod1Jn~ el><: than the clan it.sdr. perwniliw and
rcpr~nted 10 the im~mnlion under the l'isible form ot the
animal o r ,.el(ernhle whic h sel'\'e< ~• 101em (l>11rkhe1111 Tlw
Elcm~inry FfJrms q( the Rcl~im,.• Ltfc, p. 20<,)

experience of sociery - the fact that a social group has II hvin~ reality
independent of the individuab that compose it. Thti reallty rruty b..
.:xperienced mo:,t intensively when the social itroup gathers to perform a
ritual. Thus the idea of God or a god arose as a secondary phenomenon and
I is in effect the embodiment of the social entity. In other word:., by
worshipping God or a god, human beings are really worshipping (and hence
reoffim1ing their commitment to) society (pp. 206, 226).
Although himself an atheist, Durkheim denied that he was u,ing to
invalidate religion. Indeed, he considered th3t all religions 'ore true in their
own fashion; all answer, though in different ways, to the given conditions oi
human exlsrence' (p. J).
Later functionalists included che nnthropolowst, Bronisla\\ Malinowski
( 1884-1942). In b.is principal book, Mu,iiic, Science cmd Reli~w11 u11d Other
Essays (1948), he wrote that social phenomcnn such as rcli~lon fuliil a
function in relation to human psychological needs. 1n lhc cru.e of religion,
this Function is to provide psycholo,itical safo~uards a~ainst the fear of death
and thus give human beings the feeling of mastery over their fate.
Another anthropolo~ist, A. R. Radcllffe-Bro,111 ( 1861-1955)
concemrated on a social stn1ctural approach (noc to be confused with
strucwralisrn. see the following M!t:lion). ln hh book Stru.crur.c cmd
Function in Primitive Soc1ety (1952), he analysed chc scnictural panern oi
societies with regard to their O\'ernll cohcsi\'cncss and functioning With
particular reference to religion, he was interested in the contribution that
it made to the formation and mai nten:ince of social order.
Talcott Parsons {1902-78) rejected, in part, Durkheim's analysis of
social structures. Jn works such as Essays in SocwloJ,?icul Thoory ( I9-1-1 )
Parsons described the main funolion of religion oi. bcinj\ the creation of
 J TIIEORIES OF Rl,;LIGION • 55

culrurnl values, beliefs and symbols. lie considered that patterns of culture
operate in varying degrees of independence from social structure and
cannot be reduced co the latter, as Durkheim tends LO. This approach
developed into a major trend in anthropology, often called symbolist,
associated with ~lary Douglas and Victor Turner. ,\ccording to this view,
rtrual action and religious belief are to be understood as forms of symbolic
stncement about the social order. The)' 11rc exprcssi\"e behaviour (rather
th1111 explanatory or intellectual activities).

CRITICISMS o~· TIIE FuNCTIOJ\.ALIST P O SITION. Functionallsm has been

criticized on se,·eral points. It has, for example, been pointed out that
functionalists have difficulty coping with the phenomenon of
secularization. Lf religion has a vital function In society, then why has
society moved cow:1rds greater seculari.zntion? Some functionalists nrgue
th111 the functions of religion survive the proce!oS of ~ecularization. They
merely cransfer to such ideologies as nationalism and communism. This,
however, brings us on to another weakness of functionalist theory in
relation co religion. It bas been argued that functionalism has confused two
separate issues. Certainly the integrative aspects of religion are vital to
society; but the question is whether what is indispensable is religion itself,
or merely the fw1ction of religion (i.e. social cohesion).
Funhem1ore, functionalists tend to view society as homogeneous.
There seems little recognition of the fact that almost all societies have
divisions based on sex, class or ethnicity and that one section of sociecy
may use religion as a tool for the domination of other sections.
FunctionalistS have also been criticized for being altistorlcal (belie,1n~ that
the funccionin~ of a society can be understood just by examining it.~
present, without anr need to refer to its past). Inherent in tl1e approach of
most functionalists ls, moreover. a bcllci that conclusions reached from the
srudy of primal societies can be rransposed to de\•eloped societies. In other
words, they assume that religion performs the same function in every
society hue that chis function is more u·ansparent in primal societies, and
thu.~ more accessible to investigation. This is, at the very least, a
questionable assumption.
A number of further criticisms attach to Durkheim's work in particular
llis division of the world into sacred 11nd profane is breaclwd in rruu1y social
siruatlons, such as illness, which often invoh·es responses that have
clements of both the sacred and profone. Durkheim also stressed the
function of religion ln general 11nd ritual 1n particular as a means of
imeiµ-atin~ the individual in society. In some tribal groups such as
.\ustralian aborigines, however, clans meet together for ritual purposes but
may li\"e in separat<: communities with other ciao~. \\'hat then would be the
point ot reaffirming, chrou,ih ritual, the group solidarity of a group that does
not in fact lh·e together as a social unit?
51> + V!'iOf,RSTA"IUISG Kt,,Ltato:-.

Scr-ucrurolism
In puhlJClltions such os Srnwwnrl A111hropolo,t.• (:? \'Olumci., IIJ6..1, lt)7.'\)
w1d lllt1lXluctio11 co « Sck"11ce ,!f J.1ytlwlo/!.\' l 4 volumes, 1?69-81 ). Claude
L6i-Strnus~ ( 1901>- ) dtlfined the oullinei. of Mruocurolii,m The
strncturalisl approach to religion lnvohcs trying to e,rnblish che mcnnln~
of rdl~ious phenomena. 'Meanl11g' in this contcM. however. docl, not ~html\
such i.implc cxpl:tn:ttory sentences :.is: 'Bread and wine in the Christian
Ma..,s signify the body and blood of Christ · Rather. the cntcrpriM! of Lh1.:
srructuralist in\'olves lryin~ to locate a deeper meanin~ hchlnd Lhc
t.'Onscious rhoughL~ in the mind of the participant Structurnlism. then,
denies that our immedJate experience of Lhe world ii. a ,·abd M.artin,Et pomt
for investigations (that is, it rejects empiricism) Behind or oerond the
visible interrelations of humanity Uc structures that determine Lhe form of
what we observe. It is these structures that the stniccuralist is attemptinA
to uncover. They are the structures of thought itself - in particular. the \\ay
In which language prefigures our processes or thinking. All l;OCial
phenomena, includin4 religion, are therefore considered to he
manjfcstations o( the innate structures o{ the human mind.

The unconscious acclv1ty of the mind consists in impost~

forms upon content, and if these fom1s arc fundamcmall)• the
same for all minds - ancient and modem, primitwe and
civilized - It is necess3ry and sufl\ciont to ~msp the
unt.-onsolous l>lnlCturc underlying each institution Md each
cu.~tom, In order to obuin a prtnclpl~ or lntcrprcUltlon
CF.VJ-STRAUSS valid for other instlmtlons. (Uvl-Strauss, Srructurol
Ant.hro-pulolb' , quoted in Moms. Antlaropalol!ical Studies of
Reli,llio11, p. 268)

The structuralist is in opposition to the empiricist leanings of most

functionalists. The latt.c r consider It.bat the starting point of all enquiries 1$
the facts and that these can be apprehended in a relatively pure form They
are thus reliable and true representations of 'reality'. The structuralist castl>
doubt on these basic empirical assumptions. There are no such thing.~ as
facts that can be rnken as given. Th e mere apprehension of 'facts' invol\'es
the proce& of ordering and organizing them in accordant.-e with the pre-set
structures of the human mind. Th us, what is apprehended 1s not pure facts
but interpretations.
To the structuralist, all rituals. religio\15 laws and myLh~ can be
analysed in a way that reveals the workings of the mind or minds chat have
produced or are enacting them. For example, most traditional
anthropological and sociological approaches to a religious symbol would
involve an analysis of its cultural context or subjective meaning. The
structuralist, however, will Lr)' to determine Lhe meaning of :.i S)'mbol from
its position within a pactem of relationships. The patterns that
 3. Tllt:ORIES ot· RELl(,101' • 57

Table J. l Strucrural Analysis hy Levl-Str:iuss or Three Myths

Regarding the Origin~ of Tohac:co
IA"t.'i•StrcwRS here undcr-cakcs Lhe nnal_vsis (I/ Lhrcc myths from d({fcr,,,,t South
,\1m:ri,·w1 tribe., rclminA ro the oriflin of tlw wbttC(.'1 pl1111t fie t,mc,lyscs 1/iesc mycli.,
1111tl de111vnstrutM t./1<! ,;rrw.:wml similarities as.fol/mt,s (clcriwtlfrot11 The Rit" and
the Cooked. P/>. CJ<J-10-I)
TOR.\·PIL\L.\ )l\'TII \.'ID Bo ROHO Ml'TII
TU\F.\ll M\'TII

,\ hushand (:iffinal rclauon,;hipl A moth<:r (blood relationship)

has a wife (ja~uar). has a son (snake).
She ,s dcsm,ctivc throu,tlb the mouth Sl1c is protective through the ,•agina
of her husb:md who hos cllmhcd o tree of her son who ha~ cllmbed a tree
looking for animals (bird~) looking for vegetrtble food (fruir}
that the wife ou~t not to cat (but doe:.) . that the mother oul\ht to eat (but does
not).
Disjunction throuj!h the ~ency of Disjunction tlrrough the ll#ncy of the
1he hushand mother
\\'oman kllletl by affint!S (= children, &>11 killetl h)' relatlve& (= maternal
m the ca..<e of patrilineal descent). U111cles, in rhe ca...e of maailineal descent).
" Burning of the Victim; /
oriJ!,in of tob::icco.

rruccuraliscs find are usually based on paired opp0sitions of a fairly simple

kind. Thus a phenomenon may be, animate/ina.11imute, malc/fomalc,
human/inhuman, symmetricaVasymmetdcal, and so on. Any cultuTal
phenomenon can be placed m some point on such a matrix. The
SLrUcturalist is thus looking at relationships among relationships.
These paired oppositions are partly the creation of our
langu~e. We think, for example, of day and night as a sharp
discontinult~·. precisely because our lan~ge encourages us
to think thus ln fact, however, our experience tells us that
there is continuity between the two; there is a period at dusk
and dawn that is neither quite day nor quite night. The
structuralist argues that because we think in terms of these
bipolar discontinuities, this is ret1ecced in the social world
and culture that we build up as a result of our thought
processes.
Some structuralists have indeed focused on this question
of discontinuity as the key to under,tanding religion. They
ar.l!ue that religious phenomena often act ru; a thrc~hold
hetween two non-sacred, discontinuous srntes. By acting as Claude L.M-Sunu.ss
the interface between these rwo suite;., religion helps to ( 1908- ), s=urnhsm
preserve the percei\'ed discontinuity. Religious rices of
r
51> • l'.'-llLllSf.\Sllll\C IU.LIGlol\

pas,:1.~c nre nn olwiow, e~amplc o( thb phenomenon Tlw" net ro prc,crn·

perecivi.!d ch~contmuiLIC!- hi.!tWCl!II childhood and ,1duhhuuJ th1.c ,in~1: ,111d
marrkd ,rnte, the mnrried ,talc and widm1 hood, and ,o on Rcl11!1ou,
fo,tl\'ul, may mark out the c:1lcncl:ir into Ji:.<.·1mtinunu, unit,

CR1T11:1s11i; 01 RTRt'C'Tl' ll.\t lS\I 81ruc111r:ihsc., h:1n: hcen cru1ci11.-d for 1h,·
1111rrow11c,.s of their approach 13~· conucntratin~ on 1hc structure of the
individual mind, the Mructur:ilist, lt1 effect. denlc., 1hc import.ince ol
society nnd of hiMory.
Tltcrc b some \'agueness in the worb uf Uh i-Su-au:-, u., lU the exact
nature of the unconscious ~,mcrurcs that he is attcmplin~ to uncover. ,\re
thl.!y culturally specific c:lnsslflcntions or socio-economic rdation,hip,
maskcJ hy myth and symholL~m'? This leadi, on to II number of o ther
questions. Can it really be th:11 human culture ii, nnly a projcctlnn or
u:111sfor11mtion oi lnnnte Mructures in the human mind? Levi-Strau..,:,
himself creates wide-rangin~ cro~s-euhuml analyses which are based on
:ouch an assumption. However, mnny h:we rnbcd doubts about ~uch an
ex1;:rcise: surdy ~eograpliical, climatic, economic and other £actors must
hnvc some bearing on the stnacturcs nnd models in the human mind, and
hence 011 culture.
It is difficult to see how such questions can ever be answered
satisfactorily, and so tl1e question is raised of the validity of the approach
.\ ~tructuralist analysis can never be shown to be true in any objecd,·e
sense It remains a rather subjective viewpoint and structuralist
lntcrprecatlons are often criticized for being arbitrary. Some find thac much
of what is presented as a result of 3 srructuralist :rnalysis is no more than
one would hnve thought intuitively anyway. However, others 3r"gUt; chat
even chis is wortlnvhlle as it provides a rallonal framework for intuiuon and
common sense. Moreover, structuralist an3Jyses occ:isiooally throw up
unexpected relationships that would nol have been !>Cen by other methocb
of analysis.

/Jiswrical/Int crprccati'VC Sociology

Boch functionalism and structurallsm are criticized for beinl! ahbtoncal in
their approach. !\lax \\'eber ( 1864-1920) lniti3ted n different tlirecuon m
the sociology of religion hy concentrating on the historicnl procc!>, oi the
development of religion. Ile considered chat religion had e,·oln:d chroul!h
three stages
The first stage, noturulistic religion, Is concerned primarily With mo~ic
The magician or &haman tries to conrrol the powers of nature (~uch :L<; min,
heolth ond fertility) through magic. fie is considered to be endowed with
special po" ers tl111t enable h1m to do this. The name that \\'cbcr gave u, chi.,
state was 'charisma'.
In the second stage, ruumlstlc rcllgion , H.lcas of gods and spirits de,dop.
Rel~ious actlviry ib transformed from mal!ic, which b a din.'Ct aul.!mpt b>
 J Tllt:ORIES OF llEl,IGION • 5'J

munipulncc the forces of nt1tu rc, into ritu:11, which is a

symbolic acti\'ity. 1\vo t)'PCs of religious professional;, arise
dunn~ this phase: priests, who represent the rationalization
11nd organization of religion, and prophets, who continue the
chnrismnrlc mode by claimint the autl1ority of personal
re\'elation. The fonner hold office within a particular social
order and ore L'Ommitrcd to maintaining the su1bility of that;
tbc Inner Mc agencs of social disconrinulcy and change. In
this second srnge, rwo main groups emerge within religious
<.'Ommunltlcs. ThC!>C differ in the way thut they think of
salnmon: the first is a myscic-concemplative group that seeks
to nee from the world and stresses a cessation of thoughc
lead~ to a wtlon with Absolute Reality; the second is a
world-denying. ascetic group th:11 rejects the world and ~r:i.., Weber
therefore ;,eek!. co sLruggle with it and control it. ( l&64-1920),
It is from the latter group that the next stage arises in the sociolojt)', history nf
dc,·elopment of religion. \Veber nsserted that it was the religion
t.'Oncept of a transcendent sintle God that was important in
undem1ining the mystic-concemplative group in the West.
This was because any thought of union with such u God becnmc
blasphemous. This ascetic outlook came co the fore in tl1e Protestantism
that arose as a consequence of the Reformation. Previously, asceticism had
been expressed throuth the monastic tradition. Now, the Protestant sects
began to demand a world-denyin4 ethic of everyone. In addition, the belief
in predestination nmong Protcscnnt sects was the final scage in the
elimiruuion of magic from religion. If God has a.lready decided the fate of
every human being, there is no point in trying to avert one's fate by magic.
The elements of mtigic, sentiment and tradition in religion ore supplanted
bv explicit, rational rtdes and systematic procedures. This takes the
process of the rationalization of religion to a new and higher level. It
establishes religion on the basis of what Weber called 'legal-rational
authority'.
The most famous of Weber's works, The Protestant Ethic a11d die Spirit
of Capiwlism (1930), shows bow the world-denying ethlc induced by
Protesrnntism led to the accumulation of capital among the wealthy (since
money wu;, not spent in indulging oneself). At. the same time, the Protcstrult
concept of a 'callint (a task set for the individual by God} led to a
workforce which did work for its own sake. Tl1e combinacion of these :md
other factors predisposed Prote~tanl Europe LO become the cradle of
modem capitalism.
Thus, Weber saw the evolution of religion as a process of grndunl
rationaHzation. lo animistic relij!.ion~. life i~ fill.:d with encount.:rs wi1.h
~l)irlts or gods th:n inhahic every tree or rock or other naturol -phenomenon.
Typically, the whole of life is immersed in rituals related to those spirits and
gods. co such an extent thac people do not consider that there is a separate
religious clemen t in their lives. Orgiastic or emotive rites have n powerful
Ml • l'SIJl:.RST,\:-IH:-10 IU:.LIGIOS

hut lcmporury effect on 111dividu:1ls, hut there h l,nlc c:ffe<1t cm tlw

imlividunl's cthieol hchav1our. ltutlonoll1,atlo11 lc.,d:. tu the pro)trc:.:.I\ e
eliminutim, of m:1~icol, ritual and eharbnunic clements :tt the ccntn: of
rdi~o11 t1nd th,dr rcplnccmcnt hy u situntion 111 \\ h1ch the \\ l111lc of 11n
individunl's hfc is Un.id within an Cl hical nnd r:Hlun:11 iramc,,ork
detcrmirwcl hy rcliJ:jon The multitude of ,pints t1nd AOlh h rc<luccd It> n
.-inl!,lc God or ti few ~o<ls or s1,ir1tual realities that suutd apart lrom or ahovt
1he llttlc rhin~i, in life with ,1 hich the ;,pirit:. or tr:iditionnl rclig,on are
concerned .\cconlinA to \\'chcr'1> ur~umcm, animistic.: rcli~iun 11n,wcr~ the
Are:tt 4uc1>tions o l' life (\\'hm is the nieunlnA of life":' \\'hv 1s there suf1enr11f')
in w:ws thnt nrc spccitlc co an individual case: mv child h ill hccnu~c
someone eal>l :i had :,pell upon lu.!r. Rntionnllzc<l rcli~ion tenth, to ,mswcr
these questions in g,meml terms: e,•il :ind sufiennA occur bcealL~c of the
cxi.stcnec of the Devil or the yin side of the Tau. The reli!\iou~ part of life ln
rnuonal.ize<l reh,itlon 1s restricted lo fewer spccific occa:.1ons rlllher than
imhuing the whole of life, Rationalizotion results in n demystification of lire
and a 'disenchantment' of the world. Thcrn b all.a II tcudeucy m thu,
process towards the adoption of a purely utilitarian, instrumental approach
towards the nnturnl worl<l 11nd townrds od1er people
!Jurkheim, as noted above. tended to see society as a homogencou.~
emicy Weber, on the other hand , laid a itreot deal of stress on what he
considered to be the characteri~tic religious attitudes of Jiifereot groupiatts
within society The peasantry, he maintained, for example. always inclined
cowards mn!\ic, while the lower-middle-classes preferred rational, ethical
religion of the congregational trpc. Weber linked social deprivation with an
mere:ised susceptibility to the emergenc.-e of :1 world-chanl,\ing prophet. lie
also considered that the \'::trlous world religions were much influenced by
those who were its main propa!\ntors. These 'primary carrierl>', as he called
them, often set the ethos for much of the rest of the religion For Isl nm, the
'primary carrier' was the world-conquering warrior; for Buddhism it wrus t.he
mendicanc wandering monk; for Christianity, it was the itinerant
jouroeymnn.
Weber commented on many other matters in his wide-ran~ng studies
on religion (see, for example, the p art of his uncompleted work Wirri.'Chqfc
wul Oesel/schqfc that has been translated under the dtl<! The Sociolo~y of
Reli~ion ). He noted a tendency for a popular religion to arise amon~ the
masses vis-a-\'iS the official religion. The popular religion usually focu"c~ on
magic and animism; tl1e official religion emphru,Jze:. rallonal-le~al norms.
lie was also much concerned with the question of thcodicy, the w:iy that
religions explain tl1e cxistenc.-c of suiierlng and evil in t.hc world.

SoclOLOGY. It is difficult to find C\"idence for

CRJTICl:;Ms OF HISl'ORl{'~\L
Weber's division of the evolution of reli_gion into 'ideal type" Ma~cs. There i~
no society in the world today ia Weber's theoretical first st:lge of pre-
animistic magic, nor is there any evidence that it has ever existed in any
:.oelcty. Even tbe moi.t primitive tribal groups have developed nodons
 .l , TIIEORll,;13 OF Rt'.LIGION • 61

Only asccl,.., Prolcsluall:,m wmplct-,ly cUminat<-..1 magic and

the •upernntuml qm,st for salvation, or whlc.h the lllgbe,t
form was lotellectuallst, comcmplatl,·c Wumlnation. fl alone
created the rehj!iou:s motivation for seekrnj\ salvnuon
primarily throu!th immersion in one's worldlr vocation
(&•nif) . This Prorns.tnnl strcs., upon the methodically
\\'EBER
rnUonnlized (uJflJJmc,11 or one's vocntionol responsibility w<1s
<llrunctrlcally opposite to Jllndulsm·s strongly trodltlorutlistlc
coni.-cpt of vocations. For the various popular relwons or
Asia. In concra.<t to ascetic Procesmntism, me world remained
a great enchanted garden, in which the practical way to
orient onesetr, o r find security In lhis world or the next, was
to revere or c,x,rcc the spirllS nnd SL'Ck salvntion through
rltuallsUc, idolatrous, or sacramental pr«."t.-durcs. No path led
from the magical rellgtoslty or the non-Intellectual ela.,se.< of
Asia to a rational, melhodical control or life. ~or did any path
lead co that me1hodical conrrol from 1he world-
accommodation of Confucianism , from the world-rejection o(
Buddhism, from lhc world-conquest of Islam, o r from the
messianic expectatlo11S and economi(' pariah law or .Judaism.
(Weber, TIU! Soowlozy ef Religion, pp. 269-;Q)

ahou1 spirits and deities. Furthermore, most religions that are in Weber's
theoretJcnJ second stage of religious evolution incorporate large elements of
magic in their ritual and myths.
\\'eber's analysis of 1he rise of capitalism in Protestant societies h:ts
been much commented upon and criticized. Perhaps the most cogem
crirlcism seems from the face that we have witnessed the very successful
adoption of capitalism by societies in East and South-East Asia. Yet these
sooiecies are also still very much auached to ma!lical, traditional and
mystical-<:ontempl:itive forms of religion.
Weber was also somewhat arbitrary in his classification of religious
phenomena. Since he was anxious to Unk the rise of capitalism to the
Procestant \Vest, he saw the order in a monastic society as being rational.
But the high degree of order brought about by Confucian et.hies or in
Islamic society, he classified as rradicional. Conversely. a 1:irge element of
magic and traditionalism exists in Protestant ritual and religious history, if
one cares to look for IL

P SYCHOLOGICAL Tt1 EOR t ~:S

The field of theoretical psychology that emerged at the end of the

nineteenth century with the writings of Freud has historically always mnde
the analysis and explanation of religion a ,central concern of it:. theories.
 <,.? • l NUERSTANUl!IIG R~:LltnOS

,\11(1/:)'ticnl Fn·11rlit111 Psyclwlo~y

Sigmund Freud ( 1856 I 9J9) produced n very pcs\l111l,1ie
view of rdl~lon In ~uch works as 7i1ccm mid Tu//t)(, ( 19 t.l)
:111CI Tire Frm,re of nn 11/u,icm (192'l) lie 11~cd hi~ fnmou,
fonnulntlon of the OedJpLL, comple>. tO trncc the oriitlns 01
religion. lie posrulatcd thnt, in the purnrive prhmtlve ,<><:1ety,
the fother, jealou~ of his growi11g son~, dro\'C 1:ach o( them
nway from the family us they re:1ched a ~rtain a~e Then the
sons h:inded together, returned , kilh,d and nee the fnth1:r
(Taccmand Taboo, pp. 141-5). They were filled with remorse
(for they loved and admired their father also, rememherin~
Sl4mund hi,ud their need for his protection in their childhood) :111d guilt
(1115(>...19J9}, (because of their sexual desire for the mother). So tllC son~
nn~lrticitl psycholoID' nttcmpted to neutralize these emotions hy suhstitutinA
certain rites nnd moral edicts Rite:, such a~ sacrtfice and
totcmism commemorated the crime by ritually re-enactinA
it. Freud considered the Christi.an Eucharist, for example, to be such B
commemoration. The lostilutiou o! certain taboos a,l\ainst incest and
endogamy that are found in almost every religion expresses the ~uilt felt at
the patricide and the sexual desire for the mother. Th.e guilt coward1> tl11:
slain father was further appeased by mak.in,i the latrer inlO a god, who is
both loved and feared. The whole structure is then cloaked in the
subconscious so as to hide its origins. It Is given pennanence through bern~
endowed with an nir of inviolabile sanctity. This Oedipal complex, acting
within the life-history of the individual, is responsible for the production of
neuroses. Thus F'reud drew a par allel between the processes that produce
neuroses in the individual and the processes that produce religion in the
social life of humanity.
The repressed wishes that lie in our unconscious find their way 10 the
surface of consciousness cvcnLUally, according to Freud. But they emerge
camouflaged as reli~ous rituals and doctrines as well as reliAious \\1she!>
and actions. Because they arc the products of repressed desires, their true
source remains unappn::hended by the reli/UOUb pcrS<Jo. The power and
energy of religion, however, stems from the sheer pressure of repressed
dc6lre~ in the w1conscio~. Indeed, repressed dCJ.irCl, bt.-comc the m:i.ln
source of transcendent mearung in Freud's wntin~ - almost a ne"
metaphysics.
rrcud abo saw rcliAiou as a WB)' of compensatinA for the :.uffcrin!ll, anJ
disappointmencs of life. However, Freud con~idered that there were mher,
more t<lttl~factory, methods of oompcm,atiou, such ru, ort lie condemned
reli~ion as a compensatory mc<.'hanism. hccal.ll,c it re,cncts choice and
adaptation . Its technique i!, to dcpre~~ the value of life ond distort the
picture of the real world, thw, cn:utin~ a ddu!<ional situacion. Within d1t~
delusion, an individual may he spared a neurotic breakdown bu t :it Areut
cost co his or her mentnl and emotional de,•elopmcnt (sec Citiili.wtion mid
 .l, Tl lbORIES OF RELJCJON • bJ

hs lrcllgion'sl tcchnlqw., t.'Qnslst;, In dcpr~slng the vnluc or

llfo mtd dbtortlng the picture or the real world m u dclu;,,on,J
mann,;r - which pre,uppost:s an in1ln11dntion or thtc
1ntelll~ncc .\t this price . . reliitJon succeeds lo sparing
mony pt.'Qplc on individual neurosis. But b:1rdly r,nyrh,ng
else (Freud in Gi1>1/isarlon and ics Discomcm.~. quoted in
fREl.'D Morris. A111/1ro-,,olocrcal Studies of Rd{J/ion . p . !bl)

iLs Disconc,mts ). Thu:.. Freud saw reliAion as a ' universal obsessional

neuro$is" (The Fuwre of Clll Illusion , p. 39). Religion, Freud considered, is
bau for humanity. Jt is a dan~er co society because it hdps to perpetuate
bad social institutions; it restricts critical thinking; and, by linkin~ ethical
norms to religiotLS doctrines, it creates the dangerous likelihood that, when
che doctrines are discredited, the ethical norms will he abandoned.
It hardly need he said that there is no evidence whatsoever for Freud's
postulated course of Oedipal e,·eots io humanity's distant post. Indeed,
anthropological evidence has been assembled co refuce mosc of Freud's
assertions :-l'cvcrtJ1cless, this does noL mean that we can ignore Freud.
Freud's imponance for the study of religion lies not so much with his theory
of rl!Hgion as with his uncovering of the realm of the unconscious and its
mechanJsms. E,·er since the ideas of Freud became well known. studencs of
humanity in general and of reli~on in particular have heen left with the
uneasy feeling that they arc studying an illusion; that what we ohsen-e of
human words and actions and what ls recorded io the texts that we study
nre but shadows, distoned images, of the real causes of these phenomena
lying in the unconscious. Ko longer can we be ;,urc that such data as
personal accounts of religious encounters, opinion polls, or religious art are
exactly what they appear to be. All human acrivity now appears to he tWO·
layered: an apparent, man1fest, empirical content and a hiddeJ1, lateJ1t,
psychological one.

Jungrnn Psychology
For a psychological theory that has a more positive approach to religion. we
muse rurn to Carl Jun~ (1875-1961). To Freud's concepts of the conscious
itnd unconscious mind, Jung, in works such tts Psychology and Reli~ion
(1938) and 'Archetypes ol' the Collective Unconscious' (1934/195-l) addt::d
a third concept: the collective unconscious It is chis lase aspect of che mind
that is, according to Jung, of particular importance for religion. Perhaps the
best way of concepcualizJng the collective unconscious is to draw a parallel
with our human on\ans: for example, the arms. legs and kidneys. Just as
any indlvidu:tl posscs!>Cl> these organs io a particular fom1 that is the
common inheritance of humanicy as a whole, so lhere are psychological
sm1ctures in the mind that are also part of this collective inheritance of
hurnanlty. Thi!. psychological inherltance aces as a primordial substrotum
 (,4 • Ullil>£RST,\.'l:ll1J'1<; Rf.1.l<HON

mental li\'es h mnnifoscs itself in c,cry in,tnnc-. 111

to our
lns11nctu:1I LbouAIH :ind bch:wiour ,ind In th.: form~ and
cnu:gories rhnt control the.se
Within the collccth·c uncon,cious , there c:1.i,t a number oi
primordial archetypes or myths These :trchctvpcs rdkct the
fundnmcntal lt'\·cb of hum11t1 e:1:pcricncc exnmple~ mdude
the wise ol<l man, the earth mother, the 111nnd,1lt1 (rn::u\1e
circle), the hero, the d,vane child. and ,o on Vrom the, ~·
archetypes in the collective unconscious there emcl'J\c all of
the most powerful ima~c:s and symholb thot have motl\atcll
hunwnity, 11nd in pan,cular rclil!,Jous ones This emertencc
mny occur in dreams, myths, vibiou,, rcligiuu,, ,ymhollsm 11111.I
Cati Jwtj\ :1rt. rreud saw these !Phenomena negatively, as the r~ult oi
( J.'HS-1961),
pathological, repressed. inf:intilc <>exunl urge:,. Jung. ho,,e,·er,
analrtical
psy~holncy re~arded the uncon;..clous motl\·aclo11 produced by thci.c
phenomena ns a positive, healthy aspect or human life
(although they olso appear in puthologienl Mates such tL\
neuroses) . For Jun,il, this inner world of image~ and archetypes was Just a,
real as the outer physic:il world. Indeed, in a sense it was more re:il ~incc
It casts its intcrpreto.tlons on the outer world. The outer world b only s-.-..!n
through che eyes of che inner world
For Jung, religion could piny a posith•e role in hwuan life: ·Man
Positively n~eds general idt!as and c.'Onvictions that \\ill give meaning to hh
life and enable him co find a place for himself in the universe.'' Religion
thus acu. as a form of therapy, explaining and reconciling human bein~ to
the pains and suffering of the world

CRITICISMS OF Jm;nui, THEORY. Some writers ha,·e seated that the whole of
.Jung's structu re of arehet)'PeS in the coll ective unconscious is an
unneces!>llry elaboration. After all, every human being goes through similar

The collccri"c 11nconsclous conmios 1hc whole •,rnrirual

1 other hand, is the source of the ln~unotu:,I forces o( the
JtTNG S CONCEPT OF
Till:. COLLEGTIVi,
UNCONSCIOUS
hl!riwgc of mankind'• .,,·olu1ion, born 1tnc" in the hnun
strucwre of c,•ery individual IIL, con,-clous nnnJ s, nn
cpbcmeral phenomenon thaL nccomplJ~hcs all provt~lcmal
adaptations and orientations The un<.'Onsotolb, on tbe
psyche and of the forms or cnu:~rics that re!!ulaLe chem ,
namely the archct}'!)ei. All the most po\\·crful idCJis in hisiory
go book to nrchetypes. Thi• " partluulurly true of n,hcfou.
ld<.'aS, hut the <.-;,utrnl con<.-eptlon., of wlenoe. J'hilo...ophy and
elblcs are no exception w this rule . for It b we fun.,uon
of consciou;.nes.s not only 10 reool\llizc anJ assimilate the
external world thmufth the ~uewa, of 1he <en.,es, b111 to
tmnslnte into ,isihlc n:alhy Lite work! "ithin u~ ('Tltc
Structure c,f the Psyche', In The Sm,cnm: mu/ l~m,mi,•., qf
tlle Psycl1J.>, JY..lnl J42, p I SIS)
 3 · TIIEORIES ot· R£LIGION • 65

c:..pcrienccs: being horn, hnving n molhcr, ,·iewing the natural cycle, living
nnd dyin,!\ u11dcr the sun and moon. It is noc necessary 10 postulate a d1eory
of archetypes in the collective unconscious 10 exl)lain the univers:i l
e.'<.istcnoc of d1cse unngcs :md symbols.

PIIILOSOPlll CA I, AND H ISTORICAL T HEORIES

Philosophical approaches co the study of religion have ranged from chose

that attempt to pursue nn objective study of the history of religion co dlose
that are more empathic (that is. those that try to analyse religion in terms
of its own categories :ind assumptions).

Jlisiory of Religion
The exact methodology and Umics of the academic discipline known as the
'history of religion' remain a matte r of considerable discussion and
disagreement. Ac its most fundamencal level, it is dle non-theological, non-
normacive commicment co che empirical cask of uncovering the factS of
religious history from the original sources. The basic historical
methodology can be considered to consist of lhe following s~es:

• examining the available data to establish the facts;

• induction from the facts to an explanatory or interpretative hypodlesis;
• analysis of this h)'J}Othesis to explore its implicacions;
• checking the valid1cy of these Implications through assemb~ and
examining further data.

In its wider meaning, che history of religion merges imperceptibly \\;th dle
phenomenology of religion. Such writers as Mircca Ell:idc consider
themselves as scholars in the field of the history of religion, despite their
basicnlly ahistorical method. Eliade's Pattenis in Comparruive Religion
was, for example. originally published as Trail ~ d'hiswire de.s religions (.A
Treacise on cite Hiscory of Religions).

CRJTICIS}J OF THE METHODOLOOY OF H ISTORY OF RELIGIOK. This methodology is

so wide-ranging dlat it is difficult to find a ny criticism dlac would hold true
of any more than a few of those ~ngaged 1n the field. lt Is often criticized.
ac least in the way that some practise it, for being reductionist in its result.~
and implications. Its empiricism is often linked to a methoclological
positivism (the concept that our study of religion should onJy concern itseU'
with what is empirically observable) dloc has been much amended and
criticized. One quescion that bas been raised Is whether we can regard che
gathering of data as an uncontroversial, rprlmary activity, following which
hypotheses and theories can be built up. 1n fact., the collection of data is
r

6(, • nmlRSTt\'il)IXU ltf;Ll() lOS

it~clf a thcory-biru,cd uctivily In <>thcr word,., each ~mite outlined nl>ovc b

lar)!ely prcdcccr111lnc.'<1 by tlicorclical cons,dcnuions.
One onempt to hypass this rrohlcm hos hccn lO odju~t the rrlnt:1ple oi
ycrlfi11bilil)' (rlu11 1,., that to be mc11nm1tful, all su1tcmcn1s rnu.,t he
t!mpiric11lly Ycnfied - or, ac h:ast, he carahle of hein,I! verified) which 1, the
usw1I criterion in rositwism. A:-i nn nlcernmive. Karl Pop[lCr I I'JO:? .Q 11
suMestcd the princiJllc of fabifl:1billt)' (t.h:tt swum1enu, .ire me11mn!V'ul only
,f they ore cap:1hlc of hcing provc-d fnl~e).
13-0t.h verifiability and Popper's altt:rnatlvc. falsifiability, arc, howe1cr, oi
limited usefulness in C.'Onsidcrinlt many reliiiious phcnom,ma ,\ :.t11cemcm
such ns 'My sins nrc forgi,•cn and I om saved', c11nnot he ciihcr ,rcrlficd or
falsified. Thcreforc, accordJng to 'scientific' mcchodolo~y. 1t h:J,- no
cognitive menninj\ Yet few would doubt its intense me:tninj\fulness to the
peri,011 who makes iL By ruling such s111temcnLS out of the arcn.l of
consideration, this approach leaves out large areas of the scudy of reli,ition
An advocate of this method would respond that it is russible m swdy the
impacc of this st3temenc historically and socially by this method.
The evaluation and interpretation of data is also not without problems
Religion deals with the human world and, as such, the dnta can often only
be expressed in terms of probability rather than certainty The e\'aluatlon
of historicol data lnYolves imerpre111tion and the construction of historical
meaning. Tb.ls. in turn. 1nvolves the use of evaluative criteria t.hnt are not
deducible from the facts themselves. The nanire of interpretation is such
that seldom do two scholars agree to interpret the same facts in lhe same
way. It is as thou,!h two scientists were crying to decide the lentth of a wall
using differently calibrated rulers.

Phenomenology of Religion
The 'phenomenology of religlon' is not so much a theory of rell~ion as an
approach to tl1e swdy of religion. It is, however, based on the assumption
that humanity's religious Life is an entity in itS own right and docs not need
to he reduced ro sociological or psychological explamuions It is hcst
w1dcrstood as o ' neutral' description and an empathic attempt to gee Inside
the experience itSelf. Unfortunately, the rnther subjective nature of the
method has led to the term being appropriated by many di\•en.e approaches
and, as a result., the term has loM much of lLS dcfinltlon and meaning. Thi~
description will attempt to stay :t!> close a~ po:,.~ihle co the ori~n:il conl"CpC!>
of the philosophic::il phenomenology initi11tcd hy Edmund llusscrl
(1859-1938).
The phenomenological approach is in direct opposition co
rnductloni;,m. It considers that the reduction of rcligio~ pl11,nomcna to
social. p!,ychological or otl1er explanations is a ialse O\'er-simplificauon It
i~ also formulated in opposition to those who wnnt 10 dcscrihc i.mnc form
of CYolutionary scb.cme 10 rell1t10us hbstory, for any such i.chcme mm,1
necessarily involve making value judgements. The hest way oi
 J TU£0Rl£S OF RELIGION • (,7

undersuinding such a comple,~ phenomenon as religion is 10 try to get

Inside Liu, rdigious experience Itself in order to underswnd the
intcnrionality of phenomena. By 'intentionality' is meant the concept that
nll consciousness is a consciousness of something. The phenomcnologist
tries to underslllml how che religious consciousness bullds up the structure
of religious phenomena.
One of the key methodological tools of tho phenomcnologist is
'bmcketinlf or the phenomenological epoch~. The external world must be
'bracketed' or held in suspension. We must suspend our beliefs and
judgements :is to the truth, value or existence of particular religious
phenomena. lnste:id, we should switch our attention to the eiq,erience
itself as impartial obsen-ers. The second key aspect of the methoc.l is
eirifuhluna. the obtaining of an empathic understanding of the religious
position of others.
By using 1.bese two methodological tools, the investigawr can gain
insight inco essential structures of the aspect of religion under study or of
religion itscU. These essemial structures can be identified through what
ll1.13serl termed 'eidetic vision'. This means the inwitive apprehension of
the eidos of a phenomenon. Eidos is a Greek term that Husserl took from
Plato. It si_~cs the 'inner essence' or 'wbatness' of things. '\Vhatncss' is
that wh.ich answers the question 'what is X?' Ln other words, it signifies that
which ore 1.he necessary and invariant fc:aturcs of a phenomenon. Husserl
considered that the eidos of a phenomenon could be grasped through
intuition and insight, not by experience or rational thought.
One particufar met.bod used by pbenomenologists is co assemble a body
of information about a particular phenomenon and then to search for its
essential in\'ariam core of meaning. The method involves discarding that
which can be shown to be variable and thus not essential. Evemually. one
is left with a core that cannot be removed or changed without changing the
essence, ·,\•hotness· or intentionality of the phenomenon. llusserl's original
method involved a mental exercise, vary~ the factol'l! in the mlnd. Most
phenomenologists now use hiscoricol and compar3tivc variation as the
ba,,is of their method.
To clarif)• th.is methodology, we can look at some example:.
of phenomenological interpretation. Perhaps one of the most
important examples of chis Is the book The Idea of the Holy by
RudoU Otto (1869-1937). In this work, Otto tried to identify
the essence of the religious experience, which he called the
'numinous'. He insisr.eJ on lcs irreducible narure, even ~oing as
far as co s.-iy to bl~ readers that they could not conceptualize it
through mere description; the~· needed to have experienced it
themselves, co some exrem. (See chapter -1.)
.\nother example of one who is usually considered co Rud!>lf Orto
have followed this approach to the slUdy of religion Is Mircea (lRo<>-J<l.J7),
phcnomcnulc>gy or
Eliade ( 1907-86). His work will also be considered in chapter
reli~un
11. \\'ith Eliade, phc11omcnology steps acro:.s the Unc from
r

("', + l'Nllt.RSTASl)ll'/(1 REl.lt:IOS

hclng jui-l a melhodologlcnl 1001; i1 becomes 1he hm,I, for u 1heory c,f
rcll~ion Ellatl.: Sa\\ the essence CJ( the rehgiou.~ ciq}Crienoc ,~ boin~ not so
much in the encoumcr with the 'numinous' as Otlo did, hu1 rnthcr in
rcli~ious symbols as the mediators between human heinit', nnd the i.aercd:
they nrc 1he universa l forms of rcli)tion Throu~h this mediator, humanity
cnn 1rnnsccnd the finite world and chronological thnc, nnd oxpcrlcncc the
ultlrnate, meunin~ful, world of the sa<:rcd The :;ymbol Ii- the rc\'culcr of a
cosmic stn1cture not discernible at the lc,·cl of everyday c,rpcricncc
Elladc':. books 1101 only describe these symboli, but lwlp to &how the way
thm lhey inte)!rnte d1spurale phenomena Into a coherent l>ysu:m
The <.'OnccpL', of phenomenology h:wc evolved nnd altered at the hand,
of various ~cholars. Nlnit111 Smart has developed the concept of epoche Into
what he terms 'methodological agnosticism' By rhL~ he means chm chc
invcMigator of religion should conduct his or her c11quiri~ in ~'Ucha \\O)'
thal they presuppose neilher acceptance nor denial of the truth of an
ultimate tnmsccndcnt realiiy, Cod. Wilfred Cancwell Smith, on rhe Olher
hand, has stressed the other main direction of phenomenology: the need to
achieve empathy and understanding of what it is like to belon,ll cc, a
particular religious Lradition; what it means to sec thii univen,e through
those eyes.

CRITICISMS OF PneNOMENOLOO\'. Probably the most frequent criticism of

phenomenologisL~ is drnt they are crying lO introduce theologic11I and
other faith-based material under the guise of :111 academic scud>• of religion
le is certainly true that many of the most prominent phenomenologisu,,
such as Cerardus van der Lccuw (1890-1950), were nlso theologians
h ls also lrue chat this approach, based as it is on empathy and the
viewpoint of the believer, is much more likely to find favour with those
already committed to a religion. indeed, some have gone as far as to :.ay
that commitment should be part of the phenomenolo,llical method. They
assen chat one needs to have some degree of religious commitment oneself
to be capable of empathy toward~ the religious experiences of ochen,.
However, the majoTity would say that lhe phenomenological epoclie
requires the suspension of judgement: as to whether the religious
experience ls valid; as to whether the experience is of somelhlng real or
illusory; and as co the status of the metaphysical assump1ions entailed in
the description.
Very few now accept the traditional pheaomenologicnl ,-tew that we can
achieve complete freedom from presuppositions Mosl modern
phenomcnologists cry to reach a goal of identifyin~, claTifying aod allowing
for their own presuppositions. There is, in fact, an inherent conLTadiction
between the two maln melhodologioal lOOih of phenomenology The
objectivity Implied in the process of'brackc:tln~'. epoche, contrasts with the
subjectivity of eirifi.ih/atri.g and 'eidetic vision'. Critics of phenomenology
feel that thls inherent contradiction me-J.ns that lhe method b arbitrary, lu.
findings cannot be subjected to either verification or falsification.
 3 : TIIEORIF.S OF RELIGION • t,9

Most phenomenologists state that they pay due rc~ard to history.

llo,\C\ er, their critic:, feel that thll method b inLrim,ically abistorieal, in
1har ii looki; for uni\'ersal stmetures that are independent of history.
Phenomenology is also inrrinsicnlly ogoinsc sociologieol or p~·ychologicol
c:1.planntlon~ for rcli~loull phenomena.

T HEOLOGICAL ,\ND NORMATl\' E T HEORIES

.\lthou.~h they are not strictly part of the academic study of reli~on, I shaU
hrict1y list the main types of such theories here, if only becnuM:1 these
approaches are intluenclal within reli~ions themsel\'es.

Jusr(ficatory or Polemical Theories

Thc origins of the study of religions can be trnced hack co theological or
normnth·e exercises to prove the superiority of one religion over others.
There is, of course, an extensh·e history or polemical literature among the
three \\'estcm religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, directed at each
other. :LS weU as between Hinduism and Buddhism. There exi:,t books by
Hindus de~cribing ocher religions as defective or only partial expressions of
ll1e truth!, contained 1n Hinduism; similarly, Buddhist book.,, exist which
describe the CTUths in other reliwoas as 'lower' forms of the CTUtb of
Buddhism But these do not purport to be academic descriptions of the
other religion. The UM! of purportedly academic studies as a cool for
polemics is a modern phenomenon. In parricular, Christian scholars and
missionaries d,::scribcd other religions in book after book, comparing them
unfavourably with Christianity. Other relig;ions have ooea slow to foUow in
modem times hut there arc now some signs of this nppc:1ring.

E,:oltuionary Theories
foUowing the iJueUcctual success of Dan,in's theory of evolution, It became
natural to look upon religious history as an evolutionary process. In chis
pcrspecth"c, the primal tribal religions of the world were seen as survi,·ing
,pecimens, 'living fossils' or 'sun·ivals' of the early stages of reli$ous
development. Out of chis early phase the 'hi_gher' religions evol\'ed. A similar
SI.lit~ was accorded to the folklore and m~•tbology of Europe. Such write[!,
as Edward B. ~·lor (1832-1917) cook evolution:try ideas for granted as the
basis for their ,•iews on humnnitr's religious development. Several Christian
Writers also found it useful co use an evolutionary schema as a polemical
instrument to prove that Chri.scianicy was the most highly evolved religion,
although LO the case of Christian th~logisns :.uoh ideas pre-elated Dan,•lo,
for they are foreshadowed in the writings of liege! and Schlciermacher.
In the academic study of re ligion, howe\'er, e\'olucionisc ideas died out
in the years following World \Var!. They gradually became dJscretllted as It
 iO • USllf.R~TA..'WISv Rl:.L IUIOS

wa, re:ili1,cd thnt they were. in foet, hased on prc,umptlon, of the c11ltur11I
and rcli,l!iou.s :.upcriorlty of the Chn:,ll,111 \\'l.::.l rind 11cr1: tl11.:reforc nor•
111:11 Int in nmurc t,volut lonar\' 1hcories wcre nl:<o d"crcd111,d h\' wnrk.,
~ud1 m, tho,e h) ,\ru.Jrcw Lu111f und Wilhelm Schmidt ' Thc,c ('<l111tcd out
1h:u tlrn evidence nt:l)' ct1ually su/!gest that the earhe,L 1wtlon amonj\
primitive peoplei. ,10s that of :1 s111Alc lliAh Cod and that thi, Inter
'<legl'ncratct1' into polythei_sm, thus dcstroyin~ the idea that primal rclhtion~
were nece:.sarily 'survi\'ah'
There is, however, one cvol utionary theory th at ,cc, out to Ix• 11011 .
nomlllti\'e In nature. This Lhcory I:, put forward hy Robert Bellah (&:w1m/
Belief, pp. 20-45) lie stntcs thot his theory is <>ne of rcli~ion l>ccomrn!l
more c.."Omplex tb It evolvci,. Ile is 4uite cate~orical In tlS!,erting, ho,1c,cr
chat 'Xei ther reli.tiious man nor the strucrure of man·s ulcimatc rcli~ou.,
situation evolve:<, then, but rather religion ns symhol ,ystem· (p .21 ). £le
conbider) that prhmtive humanity ts as fully rcli~ou;. a;. hum,mity at any
scru\e of hum:in existence on this pl:inet. \\'hnt h:is evolved and
difforcutiuu:d is religious symboli2ation and its rclation:,Jtlp to human
existence and society. The capacity for symbolization ~ives human bein~,
the abi lity to transcend and dominate their environment. Religious
symbolization, at each srn~e of human development, images both
humanity's \•iew of the ultimate conditions of its existence and its ,·iew of
its,elf. As humanity has evolved an
increasingly complex social scrucrnrl!,
religious symbolization has also developed in
interaction with this. Bellah describe!> fi, c
stages of evoludon

l. PRIMITIVE R£Ll<,IUS, Thi:, reh/!iom. iorm

Au,trolirut Aborlgluol p:tintin~ oi the
'l)re.imint u,u,illy bho" human or
animal ancestral figures (totems).
has only one c lear cxnmple, ,\u~tralum
Abori.!tinal reli#on, aJtholl,l!h demeo~ of
it occur :imon~ other huncer~atherer
societies. Au;.tralian ,\boriginal religion
Involves :i mythical world caUed 'the
Drcamin.ti'. This is inhabited hy human
and animal ancestral fl~un:s \\ ho hm·c
great powers hur are not ~ s - thev <lo
not control the world, nor on, they
worshipped The mythlc:11 world i,, dm,ely
related LO this world. such that 1,very
person and thing in chis world has iti,
counterpart in th.at mythical world Th1;
two worlds incerpcnetrate In such nn
intlmate way tl10t tht:y ma~· be c..-on;,ldcrcd
as one. Relii\ious acuon 1s nm conccm1,d
with l\'()J'!,hJp. ll j<; eoncllmcd \\ it h
maiatainin~ the ~oetal an<l co;,mic
 J TIIEORIBS OF R£1,IGIO~ + 71

harmony or that cosmo:-. ,md ohtttining specific benefits - rain, harvest,

children, beukh. The whole religious world is a 'gJven', f"LXed, with almost
no element of choice or will. There i~, moreover, no sense of salvation in
this religious s~-i,tcm. Any notion of a Life contl nuing after death is vague
and unstnictured. There is also no re li~ious organization at this level.
Religious roles arc fused wid1 other roles and ceremonies are handed
do,,11 wi1.hin clans. The social implications of primitive religion are very
limited There is limited possibility for ::iny change emerging from the
religious world.
2. ARCIIAJC RELll.llON. In BeUah's scheme, this refers to the religious systems
of .\.frica and the Pacific as well as the ancient religions of Egypt, the
Mlddlc EaM, India and China. This type of religion eme rged once human
being:; began to develop agriculture and to trade. The mythical beings in
the religious symbol system hti,·e evolved here to become more
objectified. They are now delinitely recognizable as gods who control
aspects of the world and who must be worshipped and appeased. There
is still essentially one cosmos, with different gods dominating different
parts of it. Religious action here takes the form of religious veneration
:md worship, typified by sacrifice. Religious organization is, at this level,
still merged wicJ1 ocher social functions and relatively non-differentiated.
Socially, there may be a division into a religiously superior class, which
may have priestly functions, and an inferior class. Political power is
usually merged with religious power. The social implications at this level
ore much the same as for primitive religion. The craditional social
stnaccure is considered tQ be grounded in tl1e dlvine order of the cosmos.
and so chere is little or no impetus co change.
3. HISTORIC R£LIOIOX. The next stage in Bcllah's scheme is the emergence of
historic religions from about the year 800 BCE - wha1. has been called by
the philosopher Karl Jaspers the 'axial a~·. This stage evolved once
people began to live in cities and great empires emerged. It includes
Buddhism, Taoism, \'edantic Hinduh,m and, lacer, Christianity and Islam.
At the level of reli~ous symbolization , che most important factor is the
emergence of a religious cosmos that is superior in value to, Rad dillercn1
from , this world. This leads to a decline in the value given to chis
empirical world tind the emergence of world-rejecting doctrines of
salvaclon. Religious action Is now directed cowards the achievemen1. of
salvation. This in rum creates a definite sense of che self of the individual,
a !>eU that iJ. deeper than tl1e empirical self, a self tl1at is capable of
understanding and partlcipating in the deeper strucrure of the universe
reYealed by che rcligiou& symbol of a trans<:endenc world. Religious
organization in the historic reli~ons reOects both the social complexity
of lhe societies thac had emerged m cl1is rime and the complcx.iry of che
religious symbolization. Society now has a four-class ;,tructurc. wilh one
class holding political and military power, a religious ellce, an urban
lower-st;.ttus ~roup of merchants and skilled artis:ms, and tl1c peasantry.
72 • l!Nlll:.RST.\1'01:-.'0 Rf,l,H,1011:

Bellah identifies thil, ~W/!C of the cvoluuon nr

E.\RI.Y Mllllf;R:-1 RFUr.tO'I .
rd(Aion w11h the cmcrl,\cncc of Prutci,rnnt Chnstlalllt) The rch~ous
~ymbolinulon removed much nf the mythohl/!ical baMaAe 11Ssoci:11cd
with the previous stagci. ond conccnlmted on o dlrt:ct n.:lntion~hlp with
the deity. The main difference with the hisLOric rcliAions is the foct that
S:1lvmion is now ovnilablc in this world ond in :1 direct form that ii. not
nwdi:ued through the rcU,(\lous clru.scs. Special dc,•otlonal and ritunl
practices no lon)!er hove n pfocc. Rcli)!ioui, action now hwoh·c.~ the
whole o( one's daily life in a daily struggle to perfect oneself The
empirical world thus regains its lmporlllllce as the theatre in which the
human struggle wkcs place nnd (',od's plan is realized The implicotion1-
for religious or)!onlz:11ion are to remove the need for o religious class
Human bcinl}S are still dh•ided into those who are saved and those who
are not, but the former arc no longer a qualirnti,·c 1:lite. Some
implications of this development were spelled out by Weber 111 his
theory :ibout chc rise of capitaJism.
5. The modem religious world, at least as far as the West
MooER.'1 REI.IGION.
is concerned, has seen the complete collapse of the traditional religious
symbol system. Belief in a sing,'le coherent vision of a spiritual world has
all but disappeared. Philosophers such as Kane ru,scrtcd the futllity of
basing human action on metaphysical fow1dations. An infinitely
complex religious world has emerged, with almost ever)' individual
creating his or her own system of spiritual symbolization. There 1s a
widespread acceptance among all religious people of the need for a
personal interpretation of religion, a personal search for meaning and
standards. Tl1e inevitable resuh of this is a loss of author!()· among
religious organizations and the loss or the strong sense of voluntary
submission co orthodoxy and religious groups that was a feature of early
modem religion.

Relatiuistie Theories
With cJ1e emergence of relativistic thoutlJt in many other spheres of
imellecn1al life. chere have emer,lted several relatlvistic models of the
relationship between religions. One of those who advocated such a ,ic,\
was Ernst Troeltsch. He came LO the conclusion that all religions (and he
eventually included Christianity among them) were relach·e manifes1nrions
of the universal Absolute.• Another relativist was Arnold Toynbee. Ile
considered that each reli.iiion was true for (chat is, suited to) a particular
type of personality.'
One contemporary model is that of John llick. lie draws upon the
Kanti:rn distinction between noumenon, the thing in itself, and
phenomenon, the thing ns it is experienced and known. God, or Absolute
Reality, as noumenon, is beyond description and even beyond kno\\ lc<lge
in :tny comprehen~h·e sense. Therefore, a~ far us rcli,(\lous experience is
 3 TIIEORlt;i, Of RELIOION + 73

<-'tlllccmcd, wc ore clealin~ \\;th phenomenon Ho,vc,·cr, plicnome11011, our

C-"f>Cricncc of the Absolute, ii. inescapably coloured by our diffcrem
individual experiences and cultural comexls. This is the reason for the
widc-nmging, differing descriptions in the world's religions.•
,,1t.,
Ii also noted, in chnpwr 2, lhat ll1c Baha'i position on metaphysics,
.iml therefore on the question of the differing religions, is also bai.ed on
rcluti\•ism. The Baha'i concept is \'Cry similar to Hick's view, with the
c:i.ceprion that the Baha'i concept also contains Ult! idC¾I that religion il,
e,·oh·ing This evolutionai:• idea is not, however, simil;tr to those described
ubo,c. ill that the evolutionary process is not considered to be at work at ilie
level of mernphysics or rheology, or in d1e fundamentals of ethics. So the
Baho'i Foith does not make judgements ahout ll1e rel:ith·e worth of different
relimous traditions at lliese levels; its evolutionary concepts are at the social
level. ,\t this level, the Baho'i Raith considers 1hr1t the social teachings of
reU~lons have evolved in nccordancc witb humanity's 1,ooial evolution. As
humanity bas evolved and become more complex socially, so successive
rclis,ons have brought social laws and tc;:1chings that soh·c the problems
creoted by this increasing complexity. In this analysis, each reUgion conveys
an eternal Spirinml truth, which i.s right for all ti.me, and social teachings
iliat arc appropriate for the time in which the religion appeared.
Another model that has been much advocated in recent years is whac
is generally called the perennial philosophy or pltilosophia perennis. This
approach to religion, whose leadlng ad,·ocates in recem years have
included Frithjof Schuon and A. K. Coomaraswamy, considers that it is the
extension of a traditional school th:1t hos been nssocioted with most
rel~~ons from primordial time:,. It clifferentlates between the exocerlc or
outward forms of a religion and the esoteric truths that these outward forms
m:uliiest. While d1e exoteric aspec~ of the re ligions of die world mny be
\\idely diYerse and even contradictory, the esoteric point to o single
.\bsolute. The cosmos consists of a series of hierarchical levels through
which the One (die Absolute) becomes the maJJy (phenomena) and also
chrou~h which the individual can ascend co the truth. The path co the
.\bsolute does not involve neglecting the cxoteric. To reach this Absolute,
one nee<li. to immerse oneself fully in born the exoteric and esoteric aspects
of one of the religious traditions.'

TYPOLOGIES OF RELIGION

,\ typology of religious groups tries to divide them into different categories.

Typological dieorles are not in tbemseh-es theories of religion but d1ey
necei-sarily presuppose a theoretical structure. They make assumptions
about what aspects of rell~on ore fundamental and arc thus the basis on
which categorization occurs.
One of the best-known typologies is that delineated by Ernst Troeltsch
(1865-1923) In his book The Social Tooching of che Clirisria11 Church
7-l • L'Nl>tH$T,\NDll'-G RhLIGl01'

( 1912, lrnn~. J 9:11) lie expnndcd n di.,linctlon 1h:11 hnd heen lmphL'tl In 1hc
\\ork of \\'cbcr, hclwcc11 u 'church' rmd a 'scc1'.
TrOt!IL~ch saw the hi~tory of Christianity as a stnill,ele tiet,11«,n two
1..-ontliullr~ 1cndcncic:.: compromi"c wilh :111d acccptoncc of 1h" Wtlrld, ,inJ
rcjectiou of the world .\ church, \\ h1ch mnnlfcb~ the fom1cr tcnJcnc,
nims m include in its memhersh1r 1hc whole of n ~ocict)' "hich oftl'n
corrcbpomls to ethnic or ,l!coi,,rnphic:tl lx>rdcrb. ClulJrcn arc rccol!.nizcd a~
nwmhcrs hy virtue of hinh within thal society. ,\ church <..'Onsidcn, that II
b the sole mean~ of wacc rmd thnt snlvmion cnn onl)' bi? attained
throu~h it~ doj\mas a11J Its lucrurchy of prlcMhoud. It b 11 <..-oni.cr\'atl\'c
orl)nm1.acion, srronj\ly supportive of the eswblished social order and usually
of lhc suite.
,\ sect, on the other hand. emphasizes ,·oluntary memher-.h1p <>f the
group 1hrough oon\'ersion. Membership frequently involves convincm~ 1hc
~roup tlJat the appllcrun ha~ a specific qualification such as knowle~ of
the sect's doctrines or a particu lar experience. Children. therefore, arc
frequently required to become members of their llWn avcord ,,hen they
reach a particular a~e. The empliasis in sects is not on rituab and do.itmas.
There is U8Lmlly no sense in which grace is the exclu~i\·c property of the
sect, to be mediated through the priestly hierarchy. Instead the emphasL~
is on ethics :md mornlity. Sects are often exclusive both in attitude and
social structure, rejecting the rest of the w1Jrld Because of thl!l!e fcaturel>.
sects usually de\'elop in one of cwo ways. They ellh~r become
revolutionary, seeking to change the existing order radically. or they
withdraw lnto small communities where they can !Jvc according co their
ideals and from where they can criticize the rest of the world.
Il. Richard Niebuhr (189-1- 1962), in his book The Social Sourc.-cs of
De11ominarionalism (1929), tried to make Trocltsch's picwrc more
d~·namic by examining the way in which a sect moves cowards bccomin~ a
church. lie suMested that the ~ect graJually mo<liile~ it,- ori_~in:1]
rejcctionist ideals so as to adapt to social realities This idea was developed
:llld the notion grew of an intermedi:icc category of the 'denomination' m, a
partially routinized and accommodated sect. However. the distinction
hctwcen church and denomination h:1s ne\'er heen clear and there Is a
marked teoJenoy to ust: these two tem1s interchan~eably. J . ~liltoll \~m~cr.
on the other hand, ln his book Religion, Society and the lndi'!.:i<ltu.u ( 1957)
described those sects that refused to uC<..'Ommodute themselves to tht'
,, orld, and indeed reinforced th~ir opposition to 1t. Tbc~e he call1.:<l the
'estahlished sects' (for example the Amish, Hutterite;,, and the Jehornh's
\Yitnesses). \1nAer abo suggc~ted subcHvidinA sects tnlO three categoric~.
world-accepting, world-transforming, and world-rejecunt Thi!-
cntegorization is not very differenc from that of Brynn Wilson (see ',\n
Analysis of Sect De\'elopmem'. 1959):

1. CoNV~R.Sm:-.1:;r SECTS. These urc mainly concerned with crno~clism.

thereby bopin~ to chan~e the world £:xamples include most
 J TIIEORltS Ot' Rl,,L.IGION • 75

Cn~'\'1':R$IO'll~T sr.cn.: 1'his picture shows 1he S.1lvmlon Army, an evnn!!elicnl Christian
o~mluition, playing in n ahopping centre in Britain

fundamentalist jtroups such as the

Salvacion Am1y and the Elim Foursquare
Gospel.
These
.., .\o\'El,TIST OR IU.\'OLUTIONJST SJ::CTS.
focus on prophesyin~ the imminent
overturn of the ex.istlng social order; they
emphasize that we are liviflA in the 'times
of the end' Jehovah's Witnesses arc an
example of a sect of this type.
J . INTR0\1::RSJO);IST OR PllTIST Sf.CTS. These
rum away from the world and focus in on
tl1e community of believers; this is the
only place where the hl~ Ideals of the
~roup coo be realized. Examples include
Old Order Amish nnd the liuttcrites.
-I GNOSTIC (~LU.11'ULATIOKIBT) SECTS. These
bcheni that they possess a special
teaching through which worldly goals
such as succcs:. or health can be
achieved. Christian Science is an example
of such ll sect
INT1t0\'LRSIO'IIST OR 1,EnST SEL'TS: The
Memtonites or Aru1bap1JstS ore u group
of rat!lcal Protcsumt Chrisf.UlO!l who form
close-lmi1 lsolaced communities based on
New Tesrnmem models. Suh-J(roups
(~'Uch a.~ the .\mil'h and I luuerite,,) have
migntted 10 Russin, the US.\ and Canad1 to
,J:s<,apc pcrsL>eutl.on. Thi, picture b of a
member of o commuruty that co1i.gracc..-<l
from Can:.ida and Rus;,ia to Paraguay from
1926 onwards. It shows some typical
feamres of [he Mennonite rejection of the
modem world· a rum! :ig,iculmrnl
community, wcnri~
tmditio1wl clolhes and u$ing 1.n1tUtionaJ
i,1m1ing ,ncd!Ods.
76 • L' Nl>f.RST,\~lllN<, llELl<:tO~

RHURMISt fiF<:Ts: Some reli)\io1L, groups become cont>emed ,rnh social oction anti
reform. The picturu shows Ellznbctb Fry (1780-11145) o( t.he Socwty c,( Frkntb
(Quukcrs) ,•biting w1, meo prisoners ill Ncwgatc prison. l.ondon , In UiJ3, nml ruadln~
to them from tbc Btble. Sbc bro~ht about major reforms IJ1 the way that \\Om~n
prisoners were t~ated nad the iat1uem..-e or her reforms was felt worldwid.i

1'o these four, Wilson later added anocher three cate~rie~ (see 'A Typoloty
of Sects', 196.3):
5. 1'11,WMATURGIC.\L SECTS. These arc groups chat insist that it is possihle for
human bcingi. to cx~ric:ncc thc direct cffoc1.:, of tl1c supernatural. for
example spiritualist churches. 1'hcy often use this conuicc with the
supernatural to achieve worldly goals such as curing illness They nre
I.bus similar in many ways to the sects in category 4 aoo,·e (which
Wilson rcnnmed in this clai.sification 'manipulntionht'} except that they
are less universalist and more personal.
6. REFORMIST bECTS. Revolutionary sects (see category 2 alx:l\'e) often adapt
to the world in the course of their development by l>ecommg concerned
wiLh reforming the world lllrough good deeds and i;ocial action
Examples of such a sect include the Society of friendi, (Quakeri,)
7. UTOPIAN SECTS. These try co reconstn1cr their world on a communitarian
basis. They withdraw from the world nnd set up communitic~ in which
tlley can practise their ideals. They are, howe,·er, different from 1he
introversionist sects, in chat they do not see lhe creulion of
communlLics as II defence ngainsL the 0Uls 1dc world Rntl1cr, they :...ee the
creation of their comm unities as a positive seep, as the way chat the
world should be organized. Examplel> include the Oneid:i Community
 3: Tlll::ORIES UI' RELIGION • 77

Trocltsch, ns well as describing his division between church and secl, also
Jescribed a third lype oi religious rc!1>ponse which he called mysclcil,m. This
consisted of a purely person:il religion wilh minimal $Ocial form. This group
is now more t.'Ommoaly subsumed under the name 'cults'. These nre usw1lly
characterized as groups 1hat h:ive a positive auirudc t0wards the secular
world They often offer their teachings as a woy of achie,·ing success, health
or happiness in the world. These goals may be gained through a special
knowled~e or through particular techniques of interpersonal relationships.
They hsve little social structure (olthough they may be focused on a
charismatic leader) and poorly defined membershlp criteria. They are
basically the same as Wilson's category 4 above. Such groups are
exemplified by Scientology and Christian Science. Roy Wallis has suggested
that one key difference between sects and cults is the fact chat the sect is
epistemologically authoritarian (its members must subscribe to an
authoritative set of beliefs); while cults are epistemologically individualist
(the members can choose what they like ,o f the teaching.s of the cult).• A
different lypolOI\Y is that proposed by Robert BeUah as an evolutionary
scheme (see pp. 70-72).
The major criticbm of all these typologies has been and continues to
be that they were primarily evolved with Christian churches and sects in
mind. They are therefore of limited usefuJness when applied to religions
that organize themselves differently and have ocher priorities. The
definitions of sect, denomination and religion given in chapter 5 are an
attempt to break out of this limited perspe<:tive.
The general description of other religions and the creation of cypologies
was taken to an advanced level by Muslim scholars sucl1 as Shahristani and
al-Biruni In the Middle Ages. Thls development in the Islamic world has
been little noted by historians of the development of religious studies.

APPROACHES TO TIIE STUDY OF RELIGION

There have been many issues in the methodology of the study of religion
and it is not possible to consider all of them in a book such as this. I shall,
however, consider one major issue that h.as been the subject, directly or
intlirectly. of much debate.
We can broadly divide the theories of religion discussed in the first part
of this chapter lnlO two main groups. This division is somtiwhal confused
by the fact chat these groups have been given several different names. On
the one hand, there are the reductive, empiricist, analytical, detcrminisl or
positivist approaches and, on the other, the synthetic, integrative,
relativistic or holistic approaches. Some scholars have preferred to use the
terms 'cc!c' ('outside', referring to interpretative categories that a scholar
might impose on a religion) and 'emic' ('inside', meaning the
understandin~ and categories of a religious tradition that the adherents
themselves recognize).
Tlw Rcd11criQc/F,mpiricis1 Pnrndi~m (,\lwly11,·alll)c:11:r111 11111<1/
f't).~11 IQISl/f:Lil')

The Auidin)\ prlnci1>lte of thi~ tlJlproach LO the Mudy of rclJ,!ion h to try to

:11uity~e the phenomenon or reli~ion .•\nnlyi<is involves tryin~ IO hnmk do" n
a phcnomcnou Into iti. component pur11- With rct(ln.l LO rchAwLL,
phenomena, the toal is to analyse these 111 tem1s of factor~ denvcd from
,uch discipline, a:, :,ociology, .:eonomic:., p:,ychololl.Y and anthrnpoloA} .
This approach re)\ards religious phenomena m, ~inA norh111J4 but parucular
instances of the workings of the ohjeccs of inc1uiry of these other di~ciplim:i.
- '11otl11ng hut' bcin)\ tho key words. This approach com,1dcrs that an
analysis reducing relil!,ious phenomena to sociological (or psychol~ical or
anthropological) mechanisms of lower levels of complexity give, a 1..-omplct1:
explanation with no loss of comprehensJveness. In other wore.ls, that
religion is 1101/iin~ but the working out of these lower-level mechanism~. It
can be completely w1derst0od thus, with no residue o( data lhat m:1..-<l
funher, h~her-level explanarion (such as new laws chat emer,!e <inly at th1,;
level of religious phenomena).
The background of lhis approach comes from clal,l,lcal ~cientiiic
method, which seeks to analyse complex phenomena by looking for
explanations at a lower, more basic level. The conceptual model b of
phenomena as being like a giant mechanism. So the best way of findinl! out
how the mechanism works is to take It to pieetis and find ho\\ each part
functions. Ideally, then, all human phenomena would be explained hr
analysis or reduction to biological phenomena (for example, war can be
explained by animal territoriality and Darwiruan sur\'ival of the f'lue~t); all
biolowcal phenomena would be analysed down to chemical phenomena
(for example, genetics can be expfoined by the molecular hiology of D:-1.\;
animal behaviour by the action of hormones nod chemical transmlueN.),
then all chemical phenomena would be analysed down to physics (for
example, chemical reactions can he explained in term~ of the stability of
electron orhi ts around atoms). Ry a parallel process. the complex
phenomenon of religion can be analysed down to the more fundamental
level of sociology or psychology.
We can view the same approach from the opposite direction as
maintaining that the lower-level phenomena detem1inc lhc highcr-le\'cl,
hence the name 'determinism'. The implication of determinbm, 1f earned to
it.s logical conclui:ion, is thac since everything at the hi~hcr le,·cl i'I
determined by what occurs al th1:. lower. all human action I,, dctennln1..-<l.
Indeed, if we had sufficient dat:11, it could he predicred. Because rhe Ctl$mic
machine is in motion, c,·erything in tltc future is alrcndy dciennincd and ha,.
been from the beginning of time. a 1\·orlun_t! ou1 of proce=s 1Ji:1t have already
bc.-cn set in motion. One of the philosophical consequences of a strict
application of this approach is ro a.•,scrt thm human free \\'JU is n delw,1011
Closely linked to the analytical approach to phenomena is 1he other
asp1..'Ct of the 'scientific approach', empiricism or logical po:,iti\ism 'fhii. is
 ,l TllhORlt:S Ot' REl,IOION • 79

hased on the 1de:1 that the correct manner in which to proceed is co obtain
and assess the facrs first; then 10 evoh·e by induction from these a
hypothesis that C.'Ul be put to the test.

Tile Sy11clle1ic/Rclario1scic Paradi!,!m (flo/1sciclEmic)

The ahernari,·e ,·icwpoint oonsiders that complex phenomena cannot
nece:,sur!I~· be analysed down to simpler phenomena, al least not
comple1ely Complex phenomena haYe propertie:, 1hat arise at that Je,·el of
complexity and c:lnnot be predicted from lower levels of complexity. In
ocher words, the very fact tha1 se,eral phenomena from a lower level of
complexity have combined co produce a more complex phenomenon leads
co the emergence of new propcrtJcs that are 1101 properties of, or even
pn:dictable from, rhe lower-level fearures. A simple example is che fact chat
cbc combination of hydrogen and oxygen yield.~ a substance, water, the
properties of wb.ich arc not jn any way derived from or predictable from the
properties of hydrogen and oxygen indhidually. Thus, no matter how far we
may progress in understanding the behaviour of atoms and subatomic
particles, th.is will not lead to any greater underi;tanding in the field of, for
example, animal behU\'iOur, let alone hum.un behaviour These higher levels
ol' complexity require their own levels of explanation. \\'hile analysis to
lower le,·els of causative explanation may often be useful and even
illuminating, these lower levels nc1·cr in practice fully explain all the
features of che higher level of complexity.
A key aspect of this line of thinking is the idea th::it the higher-level
phenomena ace so as to constmln the lower-level phenomena towarcl~
certain pathways of action. Ln other words, the direction of causation is
downw::rrds, from the higher level co the lower. l'his doe.~ not mean that the
higher le,·el phenomena cause the lower-level phenomena to break the laws
that operate at that lower-level. The activities of a cat, for example, can never
cau;.e the atoms of which it is composed to break the laws of physic.-s. It only
means that where the lower-level phenomena have different pos.~ihilities of
action, the higher le,·el (that is the system as a whole) constrains this choice
in onc panlcular direction. This Is sometimes called the holistic view, as it
envisages the system-as-a-whole as being I.be key operant. This viewpoint is
in direct contrast co the detem1inis1 viewpoint, which sa:s the direction of
causation as being from tbe lower levels LO the hiJlber ones, so that what
happens at the lower levels determines whac h:1ppcns at the hi!lhcr ones.
For scholars who adopt this approach, the kcr to r.he study of religion
lie!> in underslaild.in~ the phenomenon or religion In iLSelf. at its own level,
and not b)· reduction to lower le"els. The goal must he to understand 1he
religion or the r1:ligious phenomenon In its owa terms ( at its own le\'el of
complex.irr). co understand ho,, human beiMs come to believe as they do
and why they act as they do.
Closely linked to this i~ relativism. This viewpoint oppo:;es the
empiriciM vision that conceprualizes religious data as 'given', facts that arc
"U • l''/lll,.RST.\Nl>ING IU.LIG!Ul\

seen 11ml :t~l·ed upon hy 11II Rcl:uh·l~m ~trcssc~ thnt the dut:1 can unly he
SL'Cn rclativ-, ton parllculur oh:,crver and tlwt the oh:.cr11ar hu, 111, or her
own vicwpo1111. So d111re :ire no independent or nhsnlutc d11111. onl> pcr,plc
holdi11~ p:irtlcul;1r new, and ,ecin~ the world in II pllrt1culur way
.\bo opposL'<I to reducuoni~m urc ~uch ~choluri; 11~ Clifford Cecrtt ,,1,.,
chnmpion un inu:rprcth·e nppronch lO cuhurnl :inthropolo~y for '-Heh
,.cholar:., ~mud theoric" of rcll#on arc not helpful ,\JI knuwled~c of human
cuHure 1s 'local knowlc<lge' Each culture should he ex:1mined tn dcpth with
re~ar<l lO it:. particular worldvicw 1111d ethos (rcli~ion b-,in~ a fusion o( the
worlch·iew and ctho:, In -,ach culture) The study uf culture can only Ix:
done in relation to specific cultures, or at most in a comparison bctwe1:n
two cultur~, not lu i.earch of general laws but a;. on imcrpn:tlvc cxerche
in search oi mctuun~. &>me h:we seen this as che abandonment of u
scientific :1pproach, in that one ls no longer ~cckin)t 10 <liscnver gcm:ral la",
that ha\'t: predictive ability. Geeru maintains. howcver. t.l1al his approach
i~ scientific in that it involves a hody of knowlcdl!e systcmt1tic111ly acquired
through the critical weighing of observalioru. and involving lhe propo:.uut of
theories regarding the meaning o:f events and their testing \\ith evidence
from further ohser1•otions.

The Debate
The debate between these cwo approaches has been intense 8ntl multi-
faceted. On the one hand. those fa"ouring the analytical npproach claim for
themsch•cs the title 'scientific'. They maintain that the empirical approach
that they advocate is the scientific approach to religion and therefore the
011.ly truly academic study of religion. Their position was forcefully put
for1vard. for example, by R. J. Zwi Werblowsky at the 1960 Marbu~
Conference of the International Association for the History of Religions and
in papers that he published at about this lime.• \\'erblowsky \\'ru,
particularly concerned to separate the academic study of religion from
theology and all normath·e positions. True academic ~cholan. should
eliminate their personal religious beliefs from all aspects of their ~cholarlv
work. The academic study of religion should adhere co the standnrds of
scientific and historical research. It should be rigorou;,ly defended from the
attentions of 'dilertances, theologians and idealists'.'
The contrary viewpoint is exemplified by the writing.~ of WilfrL-<l
Cantwell Smith who considers that there is no such chin~ ru, a neutral
academic swtement thm can be ex:imined in isolation from the scholar
who makes it. Every si::uement is a personnl srntcment, it as made from u
panicular paint of view (and rhus potentially re,·euls as much about the
author as ubout the subject of the statement),' Smith also objects to the
concept of 'religion', which he claims i:. only a relOcation, impased upon
the data hy empiricists. He prefers to think in terms of the reli~ious foith of
individuals (that is t.be religiou:. e.xperienL't: rdatlvc to the indh•idual) nml
the on~oinA re l.ij\ious tradition. u
 J Tlll>Ollles ()~ RELIGION • /jl

'Those who support 1he holisric vie\v point out that the
:malytlcal/empiric.ist vie" of scicntinc method is itself outd:ited. IL belongs
to the cla.~sical Newtonian pnrad~n, which is no longer fully accepted by
the scientific community. The Newtonian paradiAm is only strictly
applicnble co regular hodies of intem1cditl te size in closed systems, acting
in a smooth, regular manner. The way that Newtonian methods are applied
to most rcnl situ:itions (which in pmotice rarely meet these criteria) is to
approxlmate tJ1ci.c co regular syMems. This works in optics or engineering,
but the more complex a system becomes, the less accurate these
approxlmnlions become. By the tlmc wc arc dealing with biological and
human phenomena, Newtonian methods have become almost useless.u
New scientific approaches to complexity and irregularity are being
pioneered but these are as yet only 1n the early siages of development. The
important point is that the reductionist, analytical model is no longer seen
as appropriate in these studies." Similarly, the empiricist view can be
criticized. as it assumes that pu.re facts can be obtained. Relativity theory,
howe\·er, leads co the conclusion that there are no such things as pure facts.
All data are dependent on the methods used to obtain them. lo the field of
religious studies this would mean that the data that we coUect and study are
determined by our theoretical framework. In other words, our data, far
from being the seed from which to derive our theories, as the empiricist
tradition would dictate, arc themselves theory-dependcnL
The empiricists would argue againsl the holisllc view by saying that ll
leads to meaninglessness. Once one allows for the introduction of high-level
phenomena and for high-level laws to be operating, one can no longer
examine phenomena in a..ny systematic, 'scientlflc' way. This is because the
whole of scientific thought is based upon the idea that a hypothesis is an
explanation of a phenomenon that occurs; it explains at a lower, simpler
level the occurrence of a phenomenon. Such a hypothesis should lead to a
prediction of further phenomena. Therefore, it should be possible to verify
the hypothesis by seeing whether the prediction Is accurate or not. All of
this depends, however, on the principle of determinism - that tJ1e lower-
level phenomena determine the observations one m:1kes of the higher-level
phenomena. Once one alJows that, at the higher level, new laws may begin
to operate, then the principle of determinism can no longer apply. Any
discrepancies from the predictions of the hypothesis could be due to the
operation of new laws. The scientific principle of verifiability breaks down.
Since, according to logical empiricism, verifiability is the main criterion for
cognitive meaning (that is, only statements that are vcrifiablt!. or at least
potentially falsifiable, are meaningful), the holistic approach results in
cognitive meaninglessness.
The debate will no doubt continue, resurfac111g in various guises. for
many years to come. In practice, both approaches yield useful and
illuminating results. The present writer's inclination i~ to view both
approaches as complementary. In other words, religion is a complex
phenomenon for which new laws emerge at the phenomenon's own level of
oomplt:x!ty Thc1-e ne11 low\ constnun evcnti. Ill the lo11er lc1·cl, lhe
phenomenon of relil!lon cannot, therefore, he fully e:>.r,lalncd by lo\\cr-lc1·d
hypotheses from other fields such as sociology, pl>ycholo~y. or economic,
These hh\her-levcl laws, howe1•er, only constr111n the lo"cr-le1cl la11s, thcy
do n01 hre:1k them An untlcr,rnndtng of the lowcr-le\'CI 1:m, 1, nlso of 1 ,,luc,
tlu.reforc. The 1rn11l0,t.v would he that hioloey 1s n complex field w11h it~ own
lnws rh:11 C()llStrah1 the occurrence of lo11cr-lcnil phcnomcna ,uch a,
biochemical reactions, Por cxnmplc, of the hundreds of wayi. th'lt :i lonl!
prolein molcoulc could fold, it ls t.'Oustraincd LO fold 111 the only Wll) thal
would make it have the de:;ircJ bioloiticol ocdl"lty llowe\'er, the laws of
biology do not contravene chemical law~ It is, therefore, l~itlmau: and
u:.dul for our overall understandinA of biol~lcal procel>M!i. to 111\'c:.llll/lte
the manner in which rhe lower-level laws of chemistry arfect the biolo)lical
world.

THE GOAL OF THE STUDY OP R ELl(llON

Finally, ii ii. necessary to say a brief word about an bsue that 11, In 1,ome
ways a reflection of the ahove debate. A tension exists within religiou.,
studies between two points of view. The first, the academic goal, consider..
rhat the study of reli)!ion should aim solely at achie1•ing greater knowlcdAe
and understanding, comparable, for cKample, to the study of gcolog) or
chemistry. The second looks to some forther benefit from this study. wh1ch
may he in terms either of drawing the peoples of dificrent religions together
in dialogue (the dialogical ,'loal) or of achievin~ greater unden.ta11dlnit of
humanity's position in the universe and thus helping to solve humanlty·s
current problems ( the soteriological goal).
On the sucface, there is no dispute. Those e n ~ in research in
academic deparoncnts of religious studies would usually assen that they
are pursuing the academic goal. Bur in analysing the writings of some of the
most respected and influential figures in the field. one frequently finds
stntemcnts chat indicate a dialo,gicol or soteriological goul underlyinit the
work.. Only a few examples of d1is tendency can be cited here: Mircea
Eli:ide snw his theories of the sacralization of time and space a.~ a way ior
human being;, to t:SC:lpe tltt: terror am! alienation of lhc modern world,
Wilfred C:mtwell Smith sees his work on reli~ion as contributlnl! to 'our
understanding of mun' and so helping us ro ·think clearly and to lil'l'
faithfuUy, in tbe new world in wWcb we land ourselves':" Petcr Ber~er ,nott:
his book The Hereri<.Yzl lmperati'l'<' in order to ,ho11 a wa1· out oi 'the
impasse ot' contemporary Cbrbllan tl10u.1iht'. 11
Reli~ion ts a 1·ery challetWnit area of studv. which makes claims
relating to all aspecL~ of life One con sp<!cufarc that il is re:illy not pos,ihlc
to study such a phcnom,mon completelv d1spasMonatcly. Either
consciously or suhconsciously, 1111 hCholnr~ mu~t hrin~ theiT own
pret.-onccptions nnJ biases to thb study One can pcrhopi, make dw same
 J TIIEORIES OP R8LIOION • 8J

statemcm about scholars 111 reHgious smdies as I~. Ii. Carr made in his
Trc,clyan lectures regarding historians: 'Snady the historian before you
study (his( Cacti. ... When you read a work of history, always listen out for
the buzzing [of bees in the bonnet(. If yo u detect none, either you are tone
deaf ur your hiswriun is a dull dog.' "

FURTIIER R EADING

For o historical overview of the development of the study of reUgion, see

Sh:irpe, Comparacivc Religion. For a detailed description and assessment
of different approaches to the stud)• of reUgion, see Waardenburg, Classical
,\pproaches co the Study of Religion and \Vhaling, Contemporary
..\pproaches to che Study of Religion and The Worlds Religious Traditions.
Another useful book is Morris, Anthropological Srudies of Religion.
 TIIE R ELIGIO US E XPERIENCE
i-\ ND ITS E XPRESS ION

,
f
 --1

THE R EL I GIOUS EXPERlENCE

No TWO PE!lso,;s' EXPERIENCE 1s EXACTLY TlrE SAME and so it is difticult to

find words with which all would agree. Any description of religious
experience or attempt to analyse it is. therefore, bound to be
unsatisfactory, at least in some respect, for all who read iL At the heart of
this problem is the question oJ whether religious experience is in a class of
its own (s1ti generis) or whether it is merely a particular interpretation of
sensations that all people experience at some time. The former approach to
religious experience would maintain that since it is sui ,4eneris, it can only
be described in its own tem1s. The latter would try to analyse religious
experience in temis of psychology, social psychology, neurophysiology and
so on. In this chapter I shall start by talking the first :ipproach, attempting
lo give :i description of relitious experience as a phenomenon in Its own
terms. I shall then proceed to the second approach, looking at the social
psychology perspective on religious ex:perience and religious conversion
and answering the question: what are the soci.al lnt1uences on religious
e..'tperience? The material regarding the first approach is complemented by
the description of faith, belief and conversion in chapter 6 (especially the
section on conversion); the material abom the second approach is
complemented by the experiment:il psychology and neurophysiology work
relating co religious experience described in chapter 7.

DESCRIBING THE CENTRAL EXPERfENCE

OF RELIOION

The central experience of religion, the experience of the sacred, is

intensely private and personal. It is noc e:isy to communicate the content
o( this experience to others, although the circumstances in which it occurs
may be described. For some it occurs in the midst of prayer, or lo lhc
process of contemplation or medication; for some it may be achieved
through the performance of ritu:ils, or through the chanting of verses and
mantras or the singing of hrmns, or even in a moment of complete silence:
for others it is the rending of a passage of scripture or experiencin,I\ :i work
of religious art or drama that creates the necessary conditions. For many,

+ ll7 •
1,S • TIit Rt I.IC,l(ll S t,Xl't.RtD:1: t AN11 ITS tXl'Rtl:iSIOI'>

it i~ ~·xpcrlcnccd with111 11 rcll~i ous community or In a particular placc, or

there may nut he onc i-pccific -.ct of circumbtance~ that LriMcr. thh
experience, rather. 1t occurs ,11 nariou~ times in the rclil!ilJLL'- llfc ol the
lmlh u.lual
Thn.-e fcacurcs iipply to the phe nome non oi rclil!iou~ experience:

UMH.1t:-.\ltr\.Numerow, ~uney:,, h:1,·c con~istenlly ,how n that even ,n

the high ly i;cculnrizcd ~ocicties of Korth ,\rn eric:i and Europe, :i lorl!"
propon.iou of the population huve had what the) dci,crilX! ru. rl:H~ou.,
experiences The proportion npproaehes o ne hundred per cent m
traditional socieclc~
2. OtVt.Rl:il n·. Religious experience ls unique for each Individual Rcli,aion,
may atte mpt to impose a uniformity of doctrine or of acuon upon their
followers, but each person's rcligiou, expericnel.!s, when titkcn :1s a
wh ole, will bc dU'fcrcDL to those of another person.
J. UIPORTA.'ICE. Reli,itious experience is almost invariably very important co
the individual to whom it occu~. in II w11y th!ll other expcrienel.!s
usually arc noL A religious experience can re.suit In changc In the way
that individuals think about themsel\'es, a complete alteracion of
Lifestyle, or a reorganization of Lhe individual's conceptual world.

One author who has made a very penetrating nnd influential srndy of chc
sacred or holy and the individual's respons1:: to thls is Rudoll Ouo. To
describe the human experience of the holy, he uses the Latin phrase·
mysrerium trcmenclum etfaseinans. Myst<.'lium indicates chat the holy il,
some~ ultimately mysterious and unknowable; it emphasiz-,s i~
'otherness'. Tremenclum indicates its overpowering nal\lre and the sense o{
awe that it induc1::s. Fasc:i11a11s indicates that it draws one to it in spite of
oneself and in spite of the awe or dread that it invokes.'
Otto distinguishes this deeper, less rational meaning of 'holy' from whac
he considers to be a later overlay of meaning thac makes the word 'holy'
merely equi\·alent to 'good'. In order to emphasize this difference. Otto
proposes the use of t11e word 'numen' and the adjective 'numlnous' to specify
Lhis more profound sense of the word 'holy'. Regard!~ this meani~ o r
'holy',' Otto says that 'there is no religion in which it does not live as the n .-al
innermost core, and wlthom it, no religion would be worthy of the name'·'
Otto's work has been criticized as being too influenced by and onented
towards Christianity. There is certainly some truth in this. However, Otto's
basic description can be adjusted 'to make it more univen,ally apphcnhle.
No one can, however, give n description of the experience of the hol)• then
will be satisfactory lo all who ha\'e 1::xpedenced it. Among ILS foatures chm
are gcnemll>• agreed upo n nre the foJlowin)t:

1. It Is a very intense, ener#Zin,i\ expenence. It feels in1portanl and

demands respect and attention.
 ,1 TIIE RELIGIOUS P.XPERIENCE • 6<J

? It is a libernt111g experience, in that it seems to free one from che

cfomnnds of the physical world (hut, In some, it may Induce a sense of
dependence on an 'other reality').
,, It brii¢; peac<.!. joy, cxuhaclon. even exhilaration, nkhough this can, on
occ:isions, be min~lcd with awe and even dread. Some may even report
the feeling of oolng posscs,,cd by a ;.plri tual power.
-1 . Lt seem~ to give one a feeling of having achieved Insight or knowledge,
althou~ ii is often difficult to specify the contenr of this knowledge (it
b 1t1ct'foble. incapable of being adequately expressed in words). It is
oiten d1.?scnbed as ·coniiTmlnif, in the sense of ~lviog one the assurance
rh:11 one's foich is true.
5. Time may appear to stop and space may seem to become diiitorted. It
may seem that the experience occurs 'outSide' time and space.
o. Many would say that for an experience to be truly religious, it should
im·oh·e the whole person, lead lo some element of personal
tmnsformatlon and result 111 some outward manifestation of the change
in terms of action. Some may report a feeling of ha\ing been summoned
to a mission through thi$ experience.

A.I/ l~"TE..1/Sl, El-r.l!Cllil~<I Ei«>ERJE.1/CE.

My body oocume lmmovobl)' rooteJ, breath was dro\\ n 0111 of
my IUJl#S as ,f by some h~ ma#lct. Soul and mind lnstandy
lost their physical bondage and streamed out of m)' lungs like
a flu.id picre,n,t li,l\hc from my every pore. The ilcsh was as
though 4le:id, ret in my int~nse nwnrcne.,, I km,w thM n~ver
fl...ATCRE.s o• lx.>iorc had I b<,..,,, fully 11IIYe. My sen.<e of Identity w,~,
no
RELIGIOL'S longer nnrru"IY 1.-onfin1.-d to • lx,4ly, but cmbrucc-d the
clrcumamblcnt atoms ..
E>.1'ERIENCE An oceanic JO)' broke up0n calm endle;;;, shores of my
soul. The Spirit of God. I realised, is exbausclcss bliss; His
oody is countless cissul!ll of lil\ht A owellinl! glory within me
hef1.,n to envelop towns, continencs, the earth, solar and
scellar syfiotems, tenuous nc.bul:ie. and flo:uint unln!rses. The
cnure cosmo,,. gent!)' lwnlnous, like a city seen afar at night,
gllmmered ,\'lthln the lnClnltude of my being. (Yogi
Paramhnnsa foii,,nan.da, A1tt0bilJl!ruphy of <1 lo,1!1. quoted m
Cohen and Phipps. The Common £.,:periencc, pp. 103- U
A LUJERATl?<G K.'O'ERl£.'-CE
0 Son of Worldliness! Pleasant Is die realm o{ be1n1l, wen
thou to am11n thereto; ,lllorious is the domain of etemicy.
shouldst thou pass bc.yond the world of morwlity; sweet is the
holy ecst.'l!l)' if thou drinkest of the myscic chalice from the
bands tl( the cdesual Youth Shouldst thou nttaln this stntion,
thou would,1 be freed from destruction and death, from toil
and sin. (Bttha'u·llah, f/!dden Words. Per!<lan 70)
90 + TII~: Rhl,1t;1rn •:s ~Xl'l:.Rlt:i-er. ANII ITI, CXl•i(ESSIOS

I'LA,~! ,JOI , l:.XI I. J.\llu,

The ,oul 01 man 1, hL, frtcnJ "hen I,~ th" Sp,rn he ha,
wnqucr<'d hi~ ~oul \\'hen h" -.oul 1, In p.::Jcc he ._ ,n
peace and then hL~ wul 1, to ( ,oJ In ~-old or ,n hell!, In
plcnsur«! nr m pnm , m 4)ory or m dt~~ra,-«.·, he i!\ l.'Vtr m
Ihm
The Yo~I who, lord of his 01111<1. c, er prar, 111 llm
ham,011,· o( soul. n1t11ins the p.,.u.'C of Nmuno , che Jll.'"""
~uprcme thni is In me ...
Thu, joy <uprcme come, tn the Y0jt1 who-1: h~n ",ull
whose p:15.<ion, nrc f'COl'I:, who I< rn•rc from ,1n, wb<J (>, nnt
wlll1 Brahman '"'b God (Bltagut.'0(/ Gitu 66-i 15,271
8111 when rhc soul i• nnuiilucd nnd trnn<fnrml-d rhcn ol
hen.elf she ndthcr works nor <peaks nor" Ills. nnr fl-.:1, ""'
hc11nc nor urn.lcn-tond, And 1n all thtni, h I, God \\'hu
ruks and guides her. without th" mt:Jiulon of am·
creature:;. And the St3te ni thl~ soul 1, th~n a kchn,t of ,uch
utuu peace- and trooqutlhcy that It seem.< 10 htr thut her
heart, and her hodih· hcin\l, :ind nfl h()rh within and "ithout
is Immersed in nn CX.'<!311 of utmost pc3ce; from "hen ~he
shllll nc,·cr ~'<lmc forth for w1ythlng thut cau befall her ,n
this life .\nJ she otays unmo,ahlc, lmpcrturbubk,
Impassible So mucb so, that it seems 10 her ,n ber human
and her spl ritual aature, both w11hin and wttbout. ~he <tin
foci no ocher thin!\ than sweetest peace .\nd she is so full of
pence thnt though she pres.• her Resh . her n<:rH», be r
hones, no o ther thinj\ comes fon.b from them than pea~...,
Thus she says all day for JO)' ,uch rh)'tlltS as th"5<! .•
(St Catherine of Genoa. quoted in L'nderhtll. J/y~ll<.'L'trlt,
p +ll)
L~S11;11T UR K~Ol\'L£lx1E, Ct»IBl~Ell \\'tTil l"-fitABILITY
One tfay, being in orison , IL was granted me to perceh" in
one insuinr how all thint, are seen and coniaincd In (lad I
did not p,ercei,-e tht·m in their proper form , and
ne\'crthcfess the ,,;.," I hod of them wn• oi • "l\1!rcil!n
clcante"-', and hru, re1nolt!t-d vl\'ldl> lmprc,.,scJ upuu m)
soul. IL f)) one of the m0$t ~111nal of nil the l\tall<.-S \\bll!h the
Lurd bas .iiranled me . Th" ,•icw ,-ru, ~ suhclk und
delicate that the undersrnndint! ca.oncn llrasp It (i;L Thcr,:sa
of ,\vila, quo1ed in .lame,. The \an<·llt-• ,if Rd1J1i<>us
Experience, p 411)
\\'e recelw this m)'Mlcal knowfcdj!e llf God clothed ln none
of the kinds of imuge~ in none of 1hc ,<'n'1Mc
rcprcscorot io,i•, which <>Ur mind make< "-"' .,f m other
clrcunu;tancc, A1.-..-ordingly ,n thb knowlc~c. •lnw the
><:use, and u1mgmauon ore 001 em_pfo)cd, "" ~'Cl o"llh<r
Corm nor Impression. nor can we ii,,e an~ accoum ur
furnish ony likeness. althoul.\h the mv,,.,nou., ond sw~-et
t3Slill,ll wLsdnm come< home so clearly to the mmo,1 !"'rt~
of our st,ul The soul then feds lt 1, plftccd In 3 ,·a..i nnd
profound solitude There, 111 th,. :iby\S of ,.,..tom, the
 ~ rm: ltt:LIOIOUS t:Xl•t:IUf,NCE • 91

•<>ul yo\\~ by \\ll!tt ll drink, in frc,m lhc "cll,1,rlng~ of thl!

compreh.,nslon of love . and recogullco. however,
subliml! and learned moy be the 1em1s "" employ, ho"
unerly vile, lnslitnlticam, and Improper they are. when we
seek IO <li<course of dh·ine things hy their me,ms (St Jnhn
of the Cross, ,1uotcd In Jame.<, TIie Voric1ics of Rcliytous
E.,perlc11ce, p. 407)
TIME M,\\ ,\PPF. \R TQ STOP AN!l SPM"E M ,\Y SKUI T(l
B!:CO)IE DISTORTt:D
The overturtl 10 \\'eber'• opera Oberon was a11now1oed (on
the radio), and I Ustcncd in pleasant anticipation ... After
a minute o r so I suddenly became aware of an nlleratlon in
my perception. The mu.sic became blurred and indistinct,
and nt the same time the bedroom was bathed in a light of
lrideso<.-111 rodirmcc I,() that itR outlines nnd furniture could
no lunger be dclu!cated . ..
I wns no longer in the uni\'erse nt all, but in the realm of
eternal life which is neither past nor future but only the
ever-faotln,I\ present. 1 hnd been lifted to~ height abo,·e nil
measumhlc hci_l\ho.. I wns ohle, in d1is situntion, to perceive
the cnlirc cr~1t<.>d world, for I wru, out•ldc it. I ·saw' and
'heanl' with die ·e~•cs' and 'ears' of the soul which nl5o ' felt"
the loving impact of the supr~'I!le power that embraced and
raised me . .
l wns no longer o sepornte isolated unit. AlthouA}i I h.nd
not lost my ldcmiey - Indeed, for the Or.i lime In my life I
hod rcn[ly cxpc,ricne<!d the id..,ntity of II whole pc,rson - l
was in union with all cr4'utlon :i.nd my idenllt)' was :idded t o
It, l\ivtlll! or its essence to the created whole ...
The silent music of e1emit)' j!a,·e way to the strains of
the Oberon o,•crture. I could establish, throu~h my
knowledge of the music, that the enlirc cpisod..i hod lasted
about thtcc minutes. (An C.\pcricncc o( Mnrun l.rncl, n
South .\frlcan Jew, quowd h, Cohen and Phipps, Tiu:
Corrunon E.,,xme11ce, pp 1411- 50)
l'tltSOS,\L TRA.\"SfO!tMAT!OS
~ly pre>'IOUS outlook ha.s bt,en entJrd)• chao_l\ed on RC<!Ount
of die new possession I find no life now in worldly life A
new possession nf the soul ha.~ t.~ken rlace. The fom1er
outlook has chan,lled My life has been filled with divine Jo)'
The tongue ho.$ pnrtakc.n of n new swccu1cs..,, aod·s name l~
(iJccd In rny mouth, and my mind h38 becornu tranquil
(Tukurama, a se,•entcenth-ceucury poet and saint of
~fahara.~bcra ln India. quoted In Ranade, J1ystici.Sm In
India, p. :10-I)
Jt was Ob I.hough my mind broke bounds and w~nt on
expanding uncil it merged \\ith the unlnirsc. Mind and
universe became one u,i1hin the ocher. Time oensed to exist.
It was all one thin!\ nnd in n st.ite of inl'inily. It wa.< as If,
willy-nilly, l t,..,came directly exposNI to an entity within
mysdf mid nature a t large. I seem~'<! LO he ,se.,1ng with
another ~igbt ln onot.her world .. .
92 • TIIE ftF.IIC,IOl S EXrf.RIU,CF .\l',l) ITS t::>,l'Rt.SSIO"I

,\lth1iu1\h my 't.'U.,mlc c~p.!ricnt.-.:' ""-' lrrnuonal In u,m"

ur our '1CCUS!1>m1..J "'"" <•I the ,-.,rid I nm not ,,u"fi....J th•I
It "n' slmpl)· nn 1llu""" nr dclu,lnn It nff,·"",J nw in a 1rn·
Nul wu1·, rcurlcn11.,J m1· m11luok und cnrio.:h1,,J and c11l.1~.J
my <.sm.c1,1u"'"~ In na.111)· '"')' Rut II JIJ po-..: a r1,IJh: lhc
ki11J of ride.lie mw cunnot ,mcmpl co ,ohc ,.,ll1uut h,,<.'Vnlln(
kt!t!nl) n1<.trc orthe ultlmatc nl)sttlr'I n( crc,uicm In du•
s~n,c, I would cull m1· Uf"'rient.-.: ' reltl\iou., ( ·1 hc ,:~pcncn<...,.
of nn nchcist, quutcd m Coh;,n nncl Pharr,. Th, (:nm,mm
~·x,,crn:11C<!, pp 17:l-l)

I have attempted co fom1ulate the:-e descriptions so a!> to include all lc"d'

of religiou" cxperhmce. ~lany of these description~ havtl hccn :iurihuttld to
mysticism and suites of deep medication, but I would maintain that lt h
more useful to see the mystical and mcdit:uh·e experience as heinA at one
extreme of a continuum of rdi,ltious experience and acu,·ity. At the other
end of cWs spectrum arc lhe mundane casks of the rel~iOu$ W'e. such ru,
nrranging the flowers in the church or sw1a:cping out the llindu temple. As
one goes from one extreme to the other, the lnteru.ity and irequeney of the
experience may chnnge, but all the :ihove features may occur at ony point
of the continuum.'
The experience o( che holy is d1e core of relij\ion amt ics inlriadnt and
driYing force. But rhis docs not mean to s:iy rhm 1he cxperienc1a: is equally
intense for all ( clearly, It ii; probable that a religious experience felt while
singing a hymn will be of :i difierenl magnicude to the expenence oi a 1i.~ion
or trnncc). It <loi.!s not even mean that c1·eryonc who p:irticipntcs in rdi~ioui.
activity does so because of such a personal experience. Kevenheless, it
rem:iins tnte chat, for most of chose who participate in religious acthiry,
their involvement is validated and reinforced by ioomc de~ree oi pcr.,ona.l or
group experience of the holy or sacred (although more humble people may
in verbalizing their faith, seek to tranl>fcr its validation omo the CAperienc1a:lo
of a priest, saint, guru or other reli~ious leader).

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIE~CE

Although l h::l\'e given here a generic description o( religious e\'.perience, tt

is possible to break thb down into several t),'pCl> of religious experience that
each have che1r own particular characteristics. Reli~ious experience may be
cl3ssified into four type.~ accordi.n~ to the way chm the experience b
described and by t.he result or the cxperitlncc.

The Regenerative g.x,perience

This is the experience to which most people refer when the~· ,peak oi a
religious experience. It is the experience of colllin4 UllO contact with :1
 ~ TIit; REl,I\JIOUS 1:.XPUUENCE • 'J3

Rt:UGKii:s R£\'l\'.\LISM' ChrisUnn evn,,gellculs believe that ii is neccssory to have !he

c..,p,.,ricnce of b<Jing 'born ngnin' in order 10 nchlcvc salvation ln !his picture, token to
81'4ZU, Prote,,tont e,•aagellcals are baptizing someone who tni,y have already C9DSidered
herself a Chrlstlan, but bas now been 'born agaln' In faith .

realicy that we recognize as greater than us and capable of transforming us.

It can be subdivided into several forms:

For many people, the experience takes the form

1 . CO!l,'\'F.RSION EXPERIENCE.
of 11 conversion. leading them to align themselves to a religious
movement to which they have not previously been aligned, becatL~e they
experience the tnath of that movement.
2. Cm,·poouNG EXPER1£NC£.For others, the ,experience regenerates their faith
within a religious movemem co which they already belong; the 'bom-
again' experience in Christianity and religious revivalism in Islam are
cwo common examples.
J. CoMMlSSION~G EXPERIENCE. This experience may be lo the form of a ·call',
a diVine commission to carry out some action or take up a new way of
lire

William James gives several examples of regenerative religious experience.

He quotes, for example, the account of n youn~ man whose father was a
minister but who had turned his back on religion and spent his dayi.
drinking heavily. Bouts of drinking would be followed by periods of remorse
for wasting his life and a determination to give up drinking. Then, one day.
during one of hls periods of sobriety, he began reading a book sent to hlm
by a friend who sought his opinion on its literary quality.
91 + Tll I, RF.I.IGIOl'S F.XPtRIF.N<:E. AJllll ITS EXl'Rf.SSIO:-..

I 100k Lhe book to wy bedroom . lnLcnclln,g to gin, IL 11 1.horoul!h ,tud~,

11111! then write her what I 1hnu,1!h1 of ii II wa;. here 1hn1 C,od mc1 me foe;:
w fae<.:, mid I shnll never fo'lle1 Lhc meeting ' lie that hath 1he Son hnLh l,r._
eternol, h" tbnt hnt.h 001 1J1e Son hnll1 not life: I hod reod 1hl~ ~._·ore, of
r,mes hcfore, but tlus mndc nil 1hc diffcrcnec . I wns now In r.oo·s rresenc.:
nod UI)' oucnllon wa., absolutely ':.oldcr1.'CI' 011 10 this vcr,c, nnd I wa., not
nllowcd 10 proceed with the bo-Ok ull I had {:11rly considcr1.'CI whnt these
wonb rcnll)• lnvolvcc.l Only then wos I nllowL'tl to rrocccc.l, focling nll 1hc
wlule Umt there Will> onoll1er bcl nA In my bL>droom, thouAh not s<.-.:n hv me.
The s1lllncs.~ wn.~ ,·cry morvcllous, nnd I fch ,-.,prcmcl~· happy. It wns mo,1
unquc,tlonobly shown mo. In one ~cone.I or time, that I bad nc111:r touchcd
the Eternnl· and that if I died 1hen, I must lnevi1.ahl>• be Josi I wn.• undon1:
I knew It ns well us I now know I am saved. The Spirit of God i.howcd ll 1111,
in ineffable love; there was no terror In It.•

The account goes on to relate the young man's eventual abstention from
alcohol and other sins. Not aU conversion experiences are I.hat dramatic hut
many are as profound. The person concerned feels that his or her life is
now filled 1,1th meaning and has a wore.by purpose and direction that it
lacked before. The individual's moral life is transformed Another accoum
relates the experience or a convert co Islam:

Tn the blessed pages of the Holy Qur'on J found solution to all my problems,
satisfaction to all ruy needs. ex.pllcatloo for all my doub!l>. Alloh atuacted
me to llis light with irresistible strength, and I g)ndly vielded to llim
E,•erythiog seemed clear now, everything made se11se to me, and I began
to understand mysell. the Uolverse and Allah . My whole world was
shanered in one Instant; all conct:p!l> had to be revised '

The Charismatic Experience

This experience makes those inYolved feel that a gift bas been besco"~
upon them. This gift may include a feeling of being in a 'wider life than that
of this world's selfish interests', a sense of being in comlnulty with the
p0wcrs of the universe, and a sense of elation and joy a~ the sense of self
and attachment to tltis world is abandoned. There is Inner equilibrium ant.I
calm. It has been described as the experience of salntliness.
Typically this 'gift' gives its recipient the ability to heal, drh'e out e"il
spirits, speak in tongues, and perform other miracle:. and wonder~. The
receipt of this ',!tiff is often marked by trance or ecstasy. The followin~ a 1,
description of a scene In an Africon indepcut.lcnt church for women I.hat
mix.es African traditional reUAion with Clirblianity:

The air Ii, heavily charged wlth emotion. \\'omen 81.onJ up ,uiJ ~peak out
their troubles. sometime.s wallin,11 or <ereruninl\. sometimes ln fre1121ed
\\'his~rs Their hodies tremble Their e)·C~ ar<: tiA)lt clos~,J or iuu.'Cl
 -1. Tllb Rl<:LIGIOUS EXPERIENCI<: • '.15

hen,•enwnrds. Talk Is of mir-Jcles, of the <.ick and the dcnd . until one will
~«trt l>huklng ,·lol..,mly In prcpnrotion for the moment when 'she h, tnkcn hy
the S11lrit' and b<i:gms to sreak. The other women listen lncemly, In close
partlcipation, and while the speaker slowly works herself up co II hi!lh pitch
or cmor1on, the fcebn~ ol the listeners find in her n chnnnul through \\hich
rhey pc>ur themsel,.es our, and by so doin~ generate at,110 renewed rension
111 the lndi\1dual \\honors AS n focus of. rmd out.lee for, tlte collective mood .•

Such experiences are found among the Jewish prophets, many Christian
salnlS. members of ChriSUan charismatic movements, walis, shaykhs and
pirs in some Islamic Sufi orders. Hindu gurus and sad/tu,~. and shamans
and ecstatics in primal religions. Such individuals ore often credited, in
tradltionnl uud ancient societies at leru.r, witJ1 grace. purity, wisdom, and
the power of prophecy. People would often nirn co chem in rimes of
pcrson:il or social crisis.

The .\lystical Experience

This experience is characterized by Jam.es as bei~ ineffable (impossible to
describe in words), noetlc (giving imsighc and knowledge that feels
authoritati\'e), transient (it cannot be- sustained for long) and passive

Mulla Sadiq -~ a prom11um1 .&bi ,,,.,1lcuer a &1/u,'i. On

one cx-c.'tls1on. he '1/DCls arresiedfor his faitlt, led th rough rlu,
.~1reets of Slrirw, and theri IMhed in public.
An eye-wimess .. rclnrcd to me rhc following, ' I was present
"hen Mulln Sudiq WO.\ being bCourgcd . r wurohcd hi~
pcr.ccutons each lJlt turn apply the lm,h lo hl1, bk-cdi,tjl
THE EXPERIENCE
~houlderb, and continue the ,trokc, until ht: becruno:
OF &\INTI.INESS exhausted. No one believed I.bat ~lulla SadJq, so advanced In
al!e and SQ frail rn hody, could possibly suni,e llfty such
snv~c strokes. \\'e mnn-cUcd Dl his fortirudc when we found
tho,, nlthoui!h the ttumber of the strokes of the scourge he
hnd rccein?d had o.lnwdy excce,fod nine hundred, his face
still retniJ1cd Its origiual serenity rind cnlm. A ,-m,lc was upon
his face. us be bt'ld bis hood bdor1: his mouth. lie seemed
uncrly tndifforcnt to the blows that were being showered
upon him. When he was being expelled from the city, I
succeeded in approaching him. nnd asked him wby be held
his hnnd hcforc his mouth , . He cmphotieolly replied : "The
flrsl seven Sll'Okes \\'ero severely painlul, Lo the rest I secm<.-J
to hove grown Indlffcrcot. I wus wo11derit1g whether the
strokes that followed were bcini! actually upplied to my own
body. A !eelin,I\ or joyou., exultation lwd Invaded my soul. I
was crying to repress my feclin~ and to restrain my lau,l\lner.
I can now realise how the almj.l\hry Dell\·erer is ahlc, in rhc
tv.inklinA of an eve, 10 rum pain Into ease, nnd sorrow imo
gladness.". (Nabil, The Dc,wrr-Bn't,kl!rt<, pp. 147-8)
% • TIIE REl. 1(;101 'S EXPERI ~.\Ch AMI ITS EXl'k~.Sl'ilOS

In this nlnctccn1h-ccn1ury lndinn pi<,turc tlmwn for the prince oi Mandi ,

llr.-1>l' HOLY lL\.'
n king ond merchant who h"vc ,u[fercc:J mbicmune ,·1~11 the herrnl1-,w1in1 llL'llh,1., fur hi'
blessing.

(although certain seeps may be taken to induce the experience, it then

cakes over and possesses the person).'"
A wide range of experiences can be included in this catc~ory. 1\c its
simplest level il> the sudden illomia,uion with which one understands a
religious tnath io a ccxc that one has read previously without 'seem~' this
tnath in it. ,\ deeper level coml!s from tlru.hcs of intense experience.

On my way back, suddenly, without wnminll, I felt I wn.s in lfoavt?n - an

lnw:m.l Mate of pence and joy and ru;surancc lmlc.crlbably lnteru.c,
accompanied with a sense of being bathed in a warm ~ow oi llJUlt, ns
lhou,dl th" l!Xtcmnl condition had brought abot11 the into,mnl dfoct a
feelin~ of havinft passed be~·ond the body, chou/lh the scene around me
stood out more clearly ond as if ne~ro,r to me than hefore, br rea<on of the
il.lummatJoo in the mldsl of which I seemed to be placi,d This d,:;,p
emotion lasted, thou/lb witl1 decrea,.iall ~tren~d1, until I reached home,
and for some time niter, only grotluall)' p4.~stng nwny "

Although all agree chM to descrihe full}' the advanced mystic i;cace is
impossible, the Muslim theologian and mystic al-Chnzali tncd co outline 11 :

With tbb first s1AAe o( the 'way' there ~in the rcvclotions 11nd visions
The my,.ucs in their waking stow no\\ behold an,tcls aud Lhc spirits or the
 4: TllE IU:LIGIOL•S EXPERIEKCE 97

pmphcts, die)• hcnr d1esc spca kinlt to them aml nrc instructed by them
Lnter. a hu!.hcr ~rntc Is reached; instcud of behold1111t forms and fliturcs,
the\· come co sroj\cs in the ·way' which it is lrnrd lO dCllcrihc in l:mituage; if
a man attempts to exp'<'!>, lhcsl.', his wor~ 111e,·luhly <.'Ontnin whnt lb
erroneous ... lie who has 11nnlned the n1ys1ic 'stnte' need do no more than
say, Of the things I do not remember, whm was, was; Think It good; do not
a,,k nu a<.'l.'Ouut of It (lbn ul-Mu·rnzz)."

,\1-Ghaz:ili's last remark rcfors to the fact that many mystics

have asserted chat lo che highest mystic state, they become
one with Ultimate Reality. In the words of Meister Eckhart:
'God must be ,·cry I, I very God, so oonsum.macely one that
this he and this I are one is.' u Statements asserting an
identity "'ith God (for a \Vestem mystic or with Absolute
Reality - Bmhman. Nirvana, or Tao - for an Eastern myscic).
were unaccept.able to an orthodox Muslim theologian such as
:il-Gbazall. Having experienced the state, be did not, however,
doubt its authenticity, merely the interpretation put upon ir
by manr mystics. lie considered the experience to be beyond
description, beyond any analysis .

•\ \\ide range of paranormal experiences have been reported.

Some of these have no particular religious connection in the
\\'est: for example telepathy, psychokinesis and clairvoyance.
Some may consider that t.he difference between clairvoyance
and the power of prophecy (which is considered a reli~ious lslrunlc urllsts,
'gift") is merely a question of the setting in which it occurs. prohlbhcd Crom
Clalr\'oyance, however, tends to be giving an individual drawinA human
specific information, usually about worldly matters. Prophecy im3>1cs, tried 10
tends more to be a general warning and is usually about depict their rcligiou.•
experience through
religious matters. Some holy men are credited with being abstmct patterns
able to read the minds or souls of others. Agaln, this differs Thi!, p,cwre !>how~
from telepathy in that the content of the former tends to be t!lework from the
spiritual affairs, the lntter worldly matters. In the West, this Suluin Mmet Mosque,
lsuinbul
sort of paranormal activity ii:. frowned upon by the religiously
orthodox. In the Hindu and Buddhist traditions, however,
paranormal activities are often regarded as evidence that a holy man has
reached a b.igb spiritual station.
Some of these eXpCricnccs ha,·e, however, even in the West, been rnkcn
as evidence for the reality of the spiritual world and hence for the truth of
religious claims. These include contacts with the dead through mediums
and, more recently, near-death experiences. If accepted as true, the contact
of mediums with those who are dead would powerfully conflrm religious
teachings about life after death. The following oral account of a 'being of
9R TIIE RF.LIGIOl'S f.lCl'ERJ~;NCt ,\NU ITS EXl'l\l:.SSION

light' cncouotcrcd In a ncar-deatl1 experience may appcnr to some tu

confinn p0p11lar Western religious expect:ulons ahout what will happ.:n
orrcr death:

It llld s,,cm thnr it lthc hcin,I\ of h,l\htl was a little dim nt fin,1, but then It
\Hu, Lhl,, huge beam It wa,, jw,1 n trcmcnduu.,, ttmoun1 of IU~bt it \\a,
just 100 much 11,1\hL And It ,l\avc off hem to me: I felt a wnm, scn~ntlon It
wu~ n bright ycllowil.b white - more while. It wu, tnm1c11Jou,ly bright, I
Just c:in't describe IL It Se<!llled to cover ;:vel')'thlll,I\. y;:t It didn't prevent
me from seein/l C\ICl')'thin,! nround me . ~'rom the moment the lil!ht
opok« 10 me, I felt rcally good - >t.'Cun: and loH.-d The lov" which came
from ir is just unim:11\.i nnble, indc.~cribahle."

TIIE RELIGIOUS Cn1s1s

Very often the precursor to an intense religious experience, such os those
described above, Is a religious crisis. In our lives, we build up cotJittiv.:
structures th:Jt enable us to interpret :rnd deal with our experiences, to
make sense of our perc.-cptions (for more on thi.s, see pp. 167-9). A religioll!,
crisis is usually a period of existential doubt; a questionirnt of one's
cognitive structures; a loss of confidence in one's interpretation of the
world. The previous answers to exlstendal questions (Who run I? \\11y run
I here? Wlmt will happen after death?) no longer seem adequate or
<.'Onvinoing. Interestingly, although many such crises are precipitated br a
stressful situation such as ill-health, bereavement or financial problems.
many report that their existential crisis occurs at a time when all other
needs are satisfied. There are three possible outcomes co such a crisis.

1. A R.ESOLUTIO!'f \VITIIL'I CL1tRENT COGNJTNE STRUCTURES. The person in crbb

may eventually be able to resolve the crisis within his or her extsun~
cognitive structures. This may be done by delving more deeply into the
scriptures of one's religion ao.d finding an answer there..\ltcmatl\'cly,
discussion with one's fellow-believers may result in a soludon betnlt
found. This may then he reported us a confirming religious experience.
2. A CREATIVE RJ-:SPOXSE, CllA.'iGE TO " NE\\ C:OC.lNITl\'E STRl'CTL'RE. The inner
struggle may reach the point ac which the existin~ cow,itivc structures
dissolve. Since our cognitive structures define reality for us, some report
It as n dissolution of reality. .\t this polnt, ilie religi0U6 pcr.,on often
reportS a sense of surrenderin~ the self ~il'in~ up one's e:dsrin.l!
cognitive structures, which define one's scli). Following tl1is surrender,
a new vision may cmer~e. a new way of lookln~ at the queMioru,, a ne"
self, a new cognirive structure, the basis for a new reality This may he
reported as a confirming or c,onvcrsion experience, but will uMuilly be
more intense than the first outcome.
 ~- il'IIJ:: RELIGI OUS EXl'EIUEN'-'J:: 9'J

J . .\ P.\TI IOl,OGIC.\ L RF.Sl'ONSf., COGNITI\T. lllSSONANCE. Some mny react to the

threatened brt.'llkup of their reality by retreating into denial of the
problems that c11used the crisis. In effect. they build up a fantasy world
in which they create a reality that accords with their cognitive
scrucmres. This type of process is usually unstable and evemuall)' breaks
down , os such n rcspanse ne~atively affecL~ the way that such people
function in society. The process can usually only be swbllizcd by
lndivduals either retreating from society or finding social suppan for this
pathologi011l response. In Hitler's Germany, for example, it was possible
for people who considered that they held high ethical standards to stand
hy and do nothing when Jews were attacked. The internal inconsistencies
in their mental processes received a large degree of external social
suppon. A combination of social isolation and social support occurs in
some fundamentalist groups or new religious movements. In these groups,
beliefs that are at variance with the conceptual universe of society can be
kept up by restricting interaction with the outside world. Tightly knit
communities are established, so that almost alJ of the social interactions
of lhe believer are With others of the group.

A PSYC IIOLOGI CAL MODEL OF TTIE STAGES OF

RELIGI OUS EXPERIBNC£

The descriptions of reli_gious experience given above have caused some to

propose psychological models for rel igjous experience. it has been
suggested, for example, that 1.he stages of religious experience arc similar to
the scages that have been described for creativity. One description of the
creath·e process involves four stages:

1. PREPAR.\TI0:-1. A problem arises chat baffles the individual because it

cannot be accommodated within the existing structures, giving rise co
an intense, frustrating struggle with the problem.
2. L"'C\'IIATION. The scn.iggle ends ,1ich the individual l\iving up and either ~IDA
off 10 some form of relaxation or mnling dteir attention co other matters.
J \Vhilc attention is not on the problem, it seems as though
ILI..IDIL'\,\TION.
the mind is able to reorganize the problem at the subconscious level, so
chat a new and often unexpected insight appears
4. YERIFIC.\TI0:-1. The new concept must be tried out. elaborated and
compared wJth existing concepts to see if it is really able to solve the
problem that was caUSing bafflement in the first stage."

The,;e stages may have a physiological b:ise, In dtat ceasing to chink about
the problem may allow it to be transferred from the dominant to the non-
dominant hemisphere, which is probably responsible for the maintenance
100 TIIE l<t:l.lG!Ol'S l'.Xf't. l{ff.M . ~- .\~ll ITS 1-.Xl'IU. S'illlS

of coj!niti\•e stnicturc~. Tltb theo oUows .1 rcor~tu1iLallon of the t'<>~1111,·c

struc1urc!. lcadin~ w n new insil!ht into 1he Jlrohlem (sec :11,o p Ii&)
It is po:,tul:11cd tluu reliA1ous experience folio"" n ~imllnr sequence
The fir.t i:.rnj!c h. thot of the rcllgiou., cxbumual crL~1,, dci.cr1hcd uho, c
This corresponds co the swj!e of prcparntton in the creau,·e proce,~ The
struit._~ic~ of the firM 1,tagc of Lhc rch~iow, ci.pcrlencc end In u point oi
dei.pa1r :ind hopelessness, which :-ome reli~ious \\Titer~ ho,e referred to a,
1.hc \l:Lrk niAht uf the soul' while mhers call it the ,;wj!c of self-surrender .\t
thl:, st,i~c. the 111d1vidual :wknowlt•dAe:. hii, or her mobility to re:.olvc the
prohlcm or crisis and 'lees ,io', allowinA the old ways of thinkin!l tO dis-.olvc
Thb corrc:,pond~ to the i.w~ of iocubatlon In the creative procci,:, Out oi
the despair or this sitmllion a new vision cmcr,ie,<;, a nc\\ tnuh is rc\'ealed,
often suddenly and unexpeowdly, transforming cverytlung In that person'1,
previous life. This iS what has been dcscnbed above as the reli,ltlou~
experience iLSelf, and corresponds to the stage of illumination in the
creative process. Lru.tly, as mentioned above, most would say that o trlle
religious experience must have some consequent heneficiol effect 111 the
way that one lives one's life. This corresponds to the stage of verification in
the creallve process."
A religious experience may therefore he thought of as a co,:Tiitive
restructuring that oc.>Curs to deal with an cxisteollal problem or crWs. It
muse be noted, however. th:n not every religious experience resulti. in 11
cognitive restructuring that enables one to deal better with a wider mnge o(
people and experiences. Jui.t as not everyone who I\OOl> throul\h the swgei,
of rhe creative process comes out wirh II solution that c:m be confirmed as
being better than the cx:ibting soluuon1,, in the same way, :some religiou:,
experiences can lead to a decrease in one's repertoire of adapch·e respon1,cs
to life. Religious experiences cnn lead to a night from the real world into
fantasy, excessive emotional dependance on a religious leader or group, or
an increased rigidity in one's conceptualizations, throug,h an excessive
attachment to dogma.
One can therefore construct psychological criteria for the evaluation or
a religious experience (although it may he difficult 10 assel'ii. whether thci,1.:
criteria have been mel). One can ask whether, after Lhe experience, a
person is better able to deal with his or her social and physical
environment, whether the act.Ions of that pen,on are consh,tcnc witJ1 the
values and ceachinl\s that he or she espouses; and whether that pt!TSOn can
be shown to have a greater sense of direction and well-being

MEDIATORS OF RELI GIOUS EXJ>£R1£1'CE

A religious exptiriencu occurs whenever a person believes Lhat the !>acred

has appeared. A hleropbany (the appearanoo of the sacred) can he
mediated through a number of different ohjccts or actl\•ities Mnny of these
mediators have symbolic or mythic significance. This Issue Is discussed at
 4. TIIE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE 101

)lre:ner lengch in choptcr 11. A few mediamrs and a~pects o r this subject
lhat :1rc not covered thcrc are AJven here.

Scripture. Recttal nnd Chancin!!

One of rhe most impon:mt aspects of the major wo rld reli!lions is rheir
scripwres. For m,my the sacred il, embodied in scripture. For the Western
religions. scripture ii. considered co ~ revelatory. This can be understood
in rwo incerlinked senses: scripture reveals the will of God; and scripture
re,•cab to human beings whm the world is refill~· like. For ~lusllms, for
example, the Qur'an Is che revealed Word of God. The earthly Qur'an is a
replica of the Mother Book, an uncreated heavenly entity thot is co-eternal
with God." It is suned to be inimitable. II Indus similarly belie\'e that the
Icda...- exist eternally. ,\t lhe beginning of each cosmic cycle chey are
rc1calcd to certain sages to serve as a guidance for hum:mity for that cycle.
The lan)!uage of most scriptures is differem from ordinary, everyday
speech Most of what we sny and write mtcmpts co convey a straighrforward
unambi~uous mebSage. Scripwrc is somerimcs like that, but its most
imp0rtam task is to try to describe that which cannot be described. The
reality ro which ic is refers trnnscends our worldly reality. Since our
lan~uage is confined ro words that describe our experiences in thls world,
scripture cannot use language in a
scraigluforwar<l manne r. The sta1emencs that
it makes are aot intended to col!lvey
information in che same way a.~ a cookery
book. It does not em'ihl1ge that ail readers will
read it in the same way. In trying to convey its
mc,,sagc, scripture use~ various de,•ices. It
uses imaj\es, metaphors and parables. These
have the advantage that they can be
understood at many differem levels, according
to the state of mind and capacity of lhe reader.
They conrnin multiple layers of mcaoing,
evoking in different peo ple divergent
LA.'<GUAGt. OF &:RIPTURE: BcglnnlnA
resp0nses. Some may cake what is written of St John'• Go,,pel io the ven1ion
literally, some may take ii i.ymbolically, by John Wycliffe (c.133()....$-t ).
ailej\orically or mec.aphorically. a forerunner or the ProteStant
In the New Tesmment , for example, Jesus Refonnation "ho initiated the fln;t
iS recordcd as restoring sight 10 che blind translation of the Bible inro EnA(ish
(John 9:<r7). Some may read that literallr as :t
physical miracle. Others may look to the words that Jesus said to the man·
'For judgemenc I am come into this world, that they which »cc not might
see; and thar they which see might be made blind' (John 9:39) and decide
that the real meaning Is a metaphorical restoration of the man's spiritual
M~t so that he could recognize the true nature o( Christ. Alternatively, a
non-logical juxtap0sition or words or ::i paradox challenges the mind co
r

lfll rtlf JU,J.HH<H :-, t.Xl'J::H.H,M:J,; .\1\11 11:-, t.XPIU,:-,Stcl'\

.,

C h
R!.Ll<.ll<lllS l lt:TAl'IIOR:>: The Tree o( Life. a) Chru.t •• the \"lm: Thi,, t. ~o kook
r,:prc:.cmatlon o( tlH, , ..,,.,,., " I am the ,inc, you .1.re tlie hmm:ht,:," (./<>hn 15 5). Jc;,u,, Is In
th" centre, wt1.h h1:, arm;, in a gesture of confcrri~ hlo:;,;,,n!\S The di:,dpl"'> ""' ,h.,
branches God and the Holy Splri1 (In the form of a d<>vc) arc nbovc .Jesus Icon in rbe
Museum of loons, Venice, hy \'ic1or, 1674 h) The Buddha Am,rnyu, ~ Tree of l,ife On tht'
k.ft side of thJs view of a pillnr 01 Sanchi (first ocnmry n) ban nniconic n:pR,cril.111on of
the Buddh:i, with ieet C,.>adak,;) nt th" bouom, mru-ked w,th the wh.:cl (cliukru), and a tree
o body consbting of supenmposed lo= palmencs \\'lth iruJb and garlands or Jlearb tn
(l:>

th" side; another wheel Corm;, the heud, cro"ned by a trld,mt (m.;;/uJa). cJ In the S.·uu·1
Faith, Baha'u11ah orum refers co turnsoelf m his writm4S ~;, the S.1drat ru-Mum:aha (the Th.-e
beyond which there is no passing), the tree bc_ing both ,1!11ide on the <pmtual 1oumcr and
a limit In lhis cruligrophy by the Bahn'! ortL~t Mlshkin Q;tlam, there is nlsn rcforcncc m till'
mcmphor of Baha'uTuth as n hird of p:,mdi>t! sini,tjng tlw di,111<' melody
 4 . TllE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE l03

hrcak lhrough its conventional reality lO the trnnscendent renlity cowards

which scripture is pointing.

And he [Jesus! s.1id unto another. Follow me. But he said, Lord, suffer me
fust to go and bury m)' fot her Jesus said un 10 him, Lei the dead bury 1.hel r
dend: bm jlo 1hou and preach the kingdom of Ood ''

In I.his pass.,.ge there is a metaphor contrasting the spiritual We offered by

Christ nnd the dcalh suffered by refusing his message; there is also a
contrast between the significant sacred acti,•ity of spreading the gospel and
profane family oblignrions. These ideas are forced upon the mind by the
non-logical pa.radoxicnl picture of 1.be de-ttd being instructed to carry out an
action.
This creati\·e function of trying to pTopel people into a new vision and
hence inlO a new life by the use of words is also found in the Zen Buddhist
koan The kocm is a question or problem that tries to force I.he student to
view reality in a new way, thus leadi~ to enlightenmenL A famous example
is· '\\'hat should you do if you meet the Buddha coming alo~ che road?'
While the conventional mind may come up with an answer such as 'Follow
him', one Zen answer is 'Kill him'. The shock to the mind caused by the
answer is meant as a trigger for thoughts about the necessity for self-
reliance.
Scripture is thus like poetry. It seeks t0 be evocative aod e,•eo emoth•e,
rather than descriptive or rational. It is trying to convey a picture or an
ethos. It is trying to evoke in the reader a ccrtnin response. Ultimately, it is
trymg to gee Its readers co transform themselves. lt seeks co create a new
reality within its reader or hearer. In summary, then, scripture perfom,s
the dual functions described above for the creative process: first, it breaks
down a persons's e:tisting conventional reality; second, it creates a new
alternative renlity. Religious art nnd poetry can act in a similar way as
mediators of religious experience.
Scripture, in most religions, is also the writing doYm of the sacred stories
that were, for many centuries, handed down from one generation to the next

1ta lh1s -uerse, an attempt is made lO describe the

~
indescnbable 11sin.g imGgef'.'• and 11on-logtcal la111Nt111e
('l(Aht upo11 Iii/ht? co tNOke a C<lrta,n meltUJI picture:

~ God is the Lijl,ht of the hca\/cns ond the earth. The similitude
o( 1lis light ls as 3 niche wherein Is o famp. The lamp Is In a
E\'OKL'IG Goo: g):iss. The, glAss is as It were o shining sur. )This lamp is I
kindled from a blessed tree, an oll\•e neither or I.he Ea~t nor
DESCRIBING THE of the \\'est, whose oU would almost glow forth (of itself!
tho~ no fire touched il, It is light upon liJ!ht. God !\uide1b
L'IDESCRIBABLE
unto Ills lit,ht whom lie "'ill And God speake1h 10 monkind
in all<-gork.s, for God b the knower of nll things (Quran
24:35)
 orally. In 1hl~ WD) , scripture p.m11Jds tbc oral
trndllion, of trihal and 1rnd1ti<1nnl cultun." Thi,
nspcct of scripture usunlly prc;.crvc;, 1h1: myth, th.11
cxploin for the hchC\cr ho,, thin,it., c.mmc u, Ix,
the wny 11hcy nrc. (On th1~ n;,pcct of scripture ;.cc
pp. 28(>-95. JJ:?- 7.)
Althouj\h Nome people may u;.c the ,cripture,
privately, 1hc majority of people <:Apcri1.ncc the
wripcures t.'Ommunnllv The recital oi ,crlpture,
TIit CU.\l.lll/NAL l>J'LRlfNGE Of Tllf said in :in altitude oi sincerity and devotion
~ KJl'Tl'lU'., RL>elrntlon nl th~
Hindu epio, the Romoyanc,, the whether printtcly or communally, will often rc:.ull
~IOI)' of Rnmn, In n home sculnll in a reliwous experience. ,\l:my scriplurcs arc.
in 8ritnin however, wrinen in :1 language hcyond the
undcrstaudin~ of lh1dr audience. ln such cru.<.>s, 1l h
not the rettding :md underswndiag of 1he scripture that creates 1he religiou,
experience, but the hearing of che recital or chanting of It and the
atmosphere evoked by this. The scriptures are often ln a fom1 tha1 make,
them suitable for chanting in order to evoke an atmosphere. This chanting
Is carried out in accordance with a specific tradition. In the Je\\1Sh
synagogue, the office of cancor w:u; created for che person who c.1rrics ouc
the liturgical chancing. The Bible may be chanted by Chrl!,tlans 31..'00rJing
lO the Gregorian, Armenian, Greek, Russian or ocher traditions. In Islam.
much of the Qur'a11 is in the form o( rhymed prose, which i.s especially
e\•OOatlve when chanted. Among Baha'b in lhe Middle Ea&t, lhc scnpture i&
usually chanced raiher chan rcttd, alihough chis is a practice
lhal has not spread much to other Baha'i c.-ommunl1Jc1>. In
Hinduism, the chanting of mantras is considered to bestO\\
special powers. In Buddhis1 monasteries. chc scriptures are
chanced at regular lncervals during the day (a practice called
paricca in Theravada Buddhism) Hearing such chantinl!
within the atmosphere evoked by a hol)• place such as a
church or temple is itself a religious experience for many
believers.

Tll.E US£ OP M~'SIC IJ,/ A
KJTLIAL CO~'TtXT:Buddhist
monks blow conch
~hells and beat a drum
accompanying a ritual
recital or the scriptures
Gandantegohinlen
Monastery, Mongolia.
Ritual
Human beings organize a ~reat deal of their social
interactions into formal customary patterns. On meeting
someone for the first time in the \\'est, for example, one
goes through a fom1al set of exchanJ!es of words and a
handshake. Ritual is the set of formal customary practice~
rela1ed to reU~on. For the follower:, of a rell,lllon, howe,er,
ritual is, like scripn1re, :i hierophnny· lt is che :ippe:irance of
the ;,acred. Through the pcrforma11ce of lhe ritual, !he
sacred is evoked. The rirual may include readlog or
chanting from scripture, hymns, certain 11clions, ccnain
 4 TIIE RELIUIOUS EXJ>EIUENCE 105

sounds (suoh os gongs, cymbals and bells), cerrnin smells (such as incense),
reliitious sy111bols 011d music, all coutrlbuling wwards the evocation of lhc
sacred.
Ri1ual is probably 1he most c.'011m1on source of religloui. experhmcc for
lhe majority or people. Indeed for many people, ritual is reliwon. For many
lnc.Uons, Jap1mesc Shintoists nnd LTihnl peoples, religion consists almost
ex.elusively of various ricuols (such as rites of pasi,age and daily or seosonal
rituols) ,\lthou_l!,h these riruals may implr certain beliefs, these tend to be
the in1erpretntion or scholars and are not usunlly in the consciousness of
ordmary people when they panicipace In ,a ritual.
Ritual may be regarded as an important part of the knowledge tlrnt a
belil.!ver has about her or hls religion. While cognitive knowledge may give
the indi\1dual the facts about a religion, ritual !lives knowledge of 1he 'feel'
or 'milieu' of the religion; it conveys nom-cognitivc, affective information
(what :.ome may call holistic knowled~e). The simple fact that one kneels
before an icon of the \'irgin M:iry in some sects of Christianity conveys a
great deal more information abom the religion than hours or prenchin~ or
instmction would do, Attinides towards oneself, other people, and toward~
L1timate Renllcy, are all com•eyed more direcdy and powerfully through
ritual than by any oilier means. Most importantly, ritual can itself be the
source of the centml experience of rcligiom. \\becher the ritual is that of nn
incense-filled church where the priest ls changing the bread and wine Into
the body and blood of Christ, or the techniques of meditarion that lead to
an altered sUtte of consciousness, the result can be a direct experience of
the sacred. To new converts, therefore, the learning of rlrual is jlL~t as
important as the learning of foct.~ about rneir new religion. Indeed, T pose
the question in chapter 7 (p. 180) whether it is cl1e ritual elemems in the
religion that predispose d10se of drnt religion towards their theology and
metaphysics or whether i1 is the theology and metaphysics that is primary
and the ritual that merely supports it. Ritual also reinforces d1e communal
reli'!ious CA-pcrience, the feeling of group solidarity and unity and the sense
of belonging to something that is greater ihan the in<llviduals who comprise
it {see Durkheim's vil.!ws on this, pp. 53-4).
There are numerous forms of ritual. rites of purifica1ion, regeneration,
thanksglVin~. self-denial. penance and propitiation. It is difficult at times to
differentiate religious ritual from magic. Both imply a supra-natural
process. Riruals are o£ten rites of passage (that is. related to the life-cycle:
b1nh, puberty, marriage, death), rites related to the calendar (weekly
rituals, spring, harvest, winter 011d New Year rituals), or the fomrnl re-
enactment of a sacred story or e,•ent. This aspect of ritual is discussed
further in chapter 11.

Prayer, Fasting and Other Austerities

Prayer and fasting are to be found in some form in most religions. 'The)' are
ways in which people prepare themselves for relJwous experience. Pmyer
 1()6 TI it. Rt..1.IGll>l'S EXl't..lUt...:-.C~- J\\ill ITS t.Xl'Rf.S:;10~

net,, by crentlr,A the circurns11111cc~ In which thc l>die, er

Some Sikh
DAIi.\ PR.\\'lR;
fumlllc~ ha\'l a room
d~ic,1led lO pra)•er wh.,re
lhelr scrlplure, lhe Adi
Cn;mth, is kept
Prayers arc sold there doily
•~ nble to focus, inn complete nm! eonccntrawJ ,,:iy, on
chc sacr~>d Prayer ma)' be :mid in pcni1cncc, implonn~
forgi\'cncss of the Deity for sorncthm~ one ha, done
\HonA; in prop111auon, to ti") 10 re2ain the fo"our or the
Deity when one hns offended it, In thnnk.~ith ,n~ for ,ornc
bown) recdvt.:<l, in J)(!tiuon for ~ome boum,•; or ,Imply
in praise of a Dciry. Some would consider thac prayer
should be discussed under the !wad.in~ of ritual:, , In
trnditfonal socielies. prayers are often i-a1d as pan of a
ritual nttempt to influence, or gain power over nntun1I
eventl,. 111 t11c major world rcli~io111,, apart from the
prayer that is ritual and formal, there is also prayer that
Is performed prh·ately an<l spontuncously. It ls then uo
longer a ritual.

I ' . ti

I
• ,o•
• ' If " ' u
The various positions adopted durlnl\ the Mu<lim dail)' ritu:il pmyer tsok,c) The left-hvnJ
hnlf ,hows the struuling posllions (qiyam) un<l the bcn<lin~ po,,itlon (n,Jm') On the right
are the sitting p<losltlons (jo/s,,) and the prosmulon (,;ajtlti). The numlx,r,. lndlc-.uc th._..
ord~r In which lhc positions ore adopw<l, some positions bctng token ruon; lllan onw.

In Islam. for example, tllere is the obligatory rllll!U prayer (St,fol) to be

said five times a day, preferahly conj\rcg:itionall~·. in the mosque Thb is
said in obedience to the command of God in the Q1,r'an There is also
private praye r, IO\'0kin,I! and supplic:nlng God (clu'a) or in privau:
com•ersation with God (,mmajac) Christians say puhlic conitre~rion11I
prayers In church scrviL'C!> and pri\latc prayer:; at home Prnycr is also to be
found in che Eas tern re l~ions. Althou4h Theravada Buddhism doe& not
have the concept of a deity, section~ of th1.c ~cripturc arc chanwd (pm'irm)
ln a manner that Is fw1clionatly idenLical w t11e saylnl! u( communal
prayers in Western religions."
 -1: TllE RELIGIOUS EXl'ERIENCi,; 107

Fastinit is also to be found m most rch#ons. It may be a symbolic

e.xprci-sion of a desire for purity nnd self-de11iol in order to be £it to
experience the presence of the deity Ahematively, Ca.stin~ can be done in
penance and expiation for wrongdoing. Some trnditions h:ive also regarded
1l os a means co splritual regeneration.
In \\"esten1 Cb riscianity, fasting is rapidly disappearinl\ as a fom1 of
religious activity. It is still prnctised in Catl1olicism to a limited extent, but
much more m the Eastern churches. Jews fast on particular days. especially
Yorn Kippur, the D:iy of Atonement. The ~luslim fast is from dawn to dusk
during the month of Ramadan. B.'l11a'L., fast from sunrise to sunset during
the nineteen d.iys of the lase month oi their calendar. Most Hindus observe
fascs, although these differ among the \•arious branches of the religion.
Fa.sting ls also part of lllllll)' traditional religions. Nati\'C Americaru. fast in
order to become worthy of bein!l possessed by a spirit or as part of a vision
quCSL
.-\pan from, or as pare of. fasting, other austerities are often practised in
religions These signify self-denial. 11 readiness to be detached from the
ph~·sical world in order to be worthy of entering the spiritual realm, a

• b
Setl-lla#llauon lS an e xcremc expression of penitence nnd repenUlnce. It is ofren an
expression of 11nef at the suffering and manynlom oi a central figure in the rcli)lion and
an acknowledgement of bumnnicy·s common responsibility for this event. a) A Shi'i
~lusllm Muhnrmm ceremony. Knrnehi, 1982. These oorcmonlt>;, mkc pl•oc In Iron nnd
Paklstan to commemorate the martyrdom of the lmnm llusoyn. b) Sctl-t1agcUatlon was
also common u1 medieval Christianity and bas sun·l\·ed in a few place, to the pres<!ot
day. This picture of OageUams was taken in the 1960s In San Vicente de ):1 Sonslem1,
Spain. durinl! Holy Week
101> TIIE Rl:.LIGIOUS l:.Xl'I-.Hlf:\Ct, A.'lll ITS J::XPRt.SSI0:0-

prepnrnrion for rclitiom, cxpcricnC(!. Au:;tcritic, lncluJc ohs1a111ln~ (n,m

sexual lnternour..e. \\ blch ls part o( the blnm1c antl wmc Jcw,,h fo,c., , onJ
wearing hnrsh, simple olo1hinl!, which is p:irt or 1hc Islamic pill!ri11111l!c. \lllrc
se\'crc austerities arc u.,ually confined to monk.s ur ascetics. ~lf-0:~cllaUon
is, however, performed hy ordim1ry f)l!oplc a, the Muhnrrnm
commcmorntions in Sh1'i hlnm Sc,·crc ,di-denial o( food. w the pouu of
:.wrvn1ion, rngcthcr with sclt'-inOicccd p:un (mt)ruficmion of the Ot:,h)
can be found in both ll indu rind ChrisLirm trndicion. ft is nlso pnrt of
some primal rcllgiou.-, trt1dilioru.. :,uch as 1.hc vb Ion que\t of :-.fill, c
Americans ::iuch austerities can lead to a crance-hke state by inducmtt
nlccrcd ~wees of conscio11.-.nc1>S and p.,ychic phenomena Sc\'crc nuMCrilic,
art: specifically forbldtlen hy lht: fou11der1, of BudJhbm and the Baha'i F•.mh.

Medication ancl .-\/rcred Scares of Conscious11ess

The process of meditarlon appears co work by scopp1nl! the normal no" or
thoughL, thus allowin,l! the individual 10 open himself or hcr1-cli to concept.,
and ic.lt:as lbat would not hav;: emerged ollierwlse. Somt: t.:cbniqut::. ol
medication and other activities prcscrihcd by some rcli~ions can also brinl!
about an a.lwrnd siaw o( t.-ousdousncss.
There are many different techniques of meditation in the world\
religions. In Hinduism, which hm, perhaps dc,·cloped tbei.c technique.-;.
more than any other religious tradition, there are a ran~ of practices
controlling bodily functions, especially hre:uhmg (prana.vama)
concentrating on visual images (mandalas); rcpctiti\•e chancing of a wortl
or phrase (mantras); or a simple repetitive bodily movemenr (mudra} In
Theravada Buddhism. the technique involves focusing the attention on
some object or concepc. Zen Butldhli.t tcchmques Include c.-ontempl.11U1~ a
kocm (see p. l 0.3} or becoming aware of. but not dlscracced b~·. thou~ht,
sensations or one's breathing. In Islam. Sufi cechnitJues ha,e involved
repetitive chancing and. in one Sufi order, a whirlin~ dance Chrisuan
meditation techniques can involve long prayer vigils, contemplntion of the
Crol>l., or repetition of simple prnyt!rs. ~1editalion il, a daily actlvit~· for
Baha'is, but no particular technique is advocated.
Altered :.Latt!s of consciousno.!Sb can be brought about by some of these
tecltnlques, especially rep1nitive chantlnl!, rh)·thmlc tlancin)!, and
hypen·entilacion (ovcr·breathin_g. rapid shallow breathing) This alc1.•n:J
state of consciousness is then interpreted by the participant a:, a rdi~OU!>
experience. Some religious groups (such as Rastafarians and Lhe :-.at1vc
American Church) have used drugs to achieve altered swtes of
consciousness. (The scientific backttround to alu:reJ srntc, of
consciousness is considered in chapter 7 }

The Pe rformance of the Religious Professional

The religious professional may !himself (or. less commonly hersdll be n
mt:diator of religious experit!nce. ThiS can be in the form of a rou.-.rnii and
 ~. TUE RELIGIOUS ~:XPERIENC~; 109

stirring oration, for cxnmrlc che preaching of r, Christian ev:mgclicnl

preacher, or throu,Qh a more dramatic performance, as occurs wilh
shamans and other similar rcli,Qiou.s professionals. '!'he religious experience
comes as u result of the hi,Qhly charged, cmotionril atmosphere that is
created. In such conditions, some partmcipant.s may have charismatic
rcli~ious c>.-perienccs and exhibit features typicnl of thut. such as ccsmtic
trance 1111d speaking in wngucs.
It has been su~eSted that the charismatic religious experience
mediated through n preacher or shaman occurs through the participant
htpcrvcatila1i11g, the experience being tl1e result of nn altered state of
consclou,~ncss induced by this. Certainly, a rrance-like state can be induced
by bypenenlilation which is not dissimilar to the trance-like state brought
on b~· rcpeutive chanting in certain mystical groups.

Unicy a11d Fellowship

.\!though many in the West think of religious experience as a prh•ace,
individual affair, in the rest of the world religious experience usually occurs
communally. A communal religious experience may be said to occur
whenever the communlry feels that the 'sacred' has appeared. This can
occur communally through ritual, as described above, but ii can also occur

·na,in!l embraced Tao the saiie

X.mrru: J,S ll£!JIATOR OY Tllt: IIEUCIOIJS £l\PRRIENCt: IN TAOIS\f·
responds harmoniously to thin~. Hrwin!l purified his mind , the worthy lllJIJl enjoys
form,; Landscapes exist in matcrinl substance amd soar into the rcnlm of the ~pirH ..
Moun!Jlins and rivers in their form pay homrige to Too, and the man of humanit)' delight.~
lo them.' (Tsung Ping, quoted lo Parrindcr, Jl/ysn'cism In dw ll'<>rld's Religion,,, p. 71)
IJ0 TIIE RELIGJOllS lXPERIENCE .\NO ITS~ Xl'IU.1,Sl()S

in any mcellng of I.he body of the believers. AmonA the effects of rchitiun J,
the stron~ sense of unity and fellowshir amonA che memhcn. of a rdi~OUJ>
community. This cim itself be a signiflcnnt reliAious experience llcli~lon
by creating a bond between members of the communit~·. act., to knit the
community togcchcr. It provides a higher focus of loyolry, under which
pcuy disputes and antagonism:. can be set aside. For Durkheim, th11, wu"
the primary function of reli_ition and the source of the reli~nus expcrtcnl.'c
(S<.'C pp. 53-4).

Nature
Many people, from all religious rradicions, have found the comemplarion of
nature a mediator of religious experience. This can be found, for example.
ill En~ish poets such as Blake and Wordsworth, ill the llindu t'pamshads.
in Japanese Buddhism, in many native African and American religiou~
traditions and in Taoism.

Dreams and Visions

Dreams and visions have played an important role in the religious
experience of humanity. Visions ore part of the religious experience itself
but dreams can be considered mediators of a religious experience. There
are two main ways that dreams mediate religious experiences. The first Is
the veridical dream, I.he dream that later comes true. In the relitious
contex t, rhese are usually dreams that provide some form of guidance that
shapes the person's life.

Again I bad an unusual dream. In I.his dream I Mt oppres.,,cd

b)' the crowded clcy. I walked for blocks until I came to an
open meadow ... l looked op and saw a man commit aero,;.•
ihe meadow. He walked with such dignity and Ar,lce that I
knew he was a man of G<id. lie wore a wMtc turhan nnd lone
robes of block nnd white. A snow-while beard frameJ his foe.,
A VERIDICAL DREAM llis eyes were cryst.11 blue like an early momtng sky
lie stood before me ru1d I asked him a quc-slion ·\\11y bn"t
mnu as bcoutlful as the Oowcrs?' lie lookeJ away for •
moment und I saw 11 ,,.1di1"l>S In his eye~ that told me h" had
seen men do worse tlung.s than I could ever lmagtne Then he
looked at me and saJd, ·Because a man doe,, not h,·e 111 the
\\'HI or Cod a• much a.• :t ilnweT does.'
&vcn years passed nnd there "~s still nmhmt u, !end me
to 1he wi~e mun or God Perhnr• it hn.t, alter nit. m.'Cn onlr n
dream
One <Jr the hcx)cb~ at the Fnlr c.~ught my attcnth>n It hud in
bold lctu, ns, 'BAI IJ\'1 . : I hrul nc,cr heard or tl,c Baha'i Faith
11nd had no i<ka whru lt <.'Uuld be ... On~ or th~ ramphlci.,,
ca,J4ht m>' eye. On lt was a <lrn"ing of Rn clJcrly bcnrdetl man
A white turban crown~-J hi• head I blllrt.'<I 10 amnzcmcm
 4 TI I E RELIWOUS EXPt,;I\IENCt,; 111

Could th is be Lhc mnn whom I hod lx-.:n 'lC<:klng for so long?

The pamphlet said the mnn's nnmc was '.\bd11'l-Bnha ...
A.~ I \\',1LkcJ lnhl tl1e IJnha'I home, the flr,,t ll1lng that <.'lluglu
my eye wns a porlmll of ',\bdu'I-Baha ... Ills eyes were a clear
blue Mr Stt.'J)hens showed me .some photogrupbo of 'Abdu'J.
B.1ha One of them w:,s taken in 1912 when he wu..s in Chicaj!o.
ln this picture he wa.s slender and wore a lonit black robe exactly
like the \\i.sc mnn I had dreamed ubout. (Terr:tlin C.1rroll, quoted
m Gottlieb. Once m Bocr:,• Mm1 anti J,,'Afiori, pp. 38-41)

.\ second way in which dreams and visions are importa.nr is when they
provide :i vision about the fate of human I[)' in general. Dreams and vision~
of this sort include much of the apocalyptic literature in the world's
religious. One of t.hc best-known of these is the Book. of Rooclatio11, also
called the Apocalypse of Sc John. in che Bible

I John . was In th.e isl<: that is calk-<l Patmos . . . l was in

the Spirit on the Loni's ,fay, and heard behind me a j\reat
,·oicc. as of a trumpet. Sayill,I\. I am .\lpho and Omega. me
flrst nnd the Inst. and, Whnt thou see.~t, write ln o book. 1111d
send [hi unto tho sc,•en churohcs . . And I turned to sec the
voice that spake with m<'. And being tum,:d. I sa\\ s;,vcn
.\.-.; APOCt\L\1"l'IC
golden candlesllck.s: And In the midst or the se,·cn
\'IS.ION «todlesticks lone! like unto the Son of man. clothed with a
l!anncnt down to the foot. and firt about the paps with a
golden girdle .
And I .John snw the holy city. new Jerusalem, coming
do\\n from Cod out of heaven, prepared as • bric.It: adorned
for her husband. And I heard a w-cat ,·oicc out of heaven
saying, Behold, the tahemacle of God !isl with men, and he
will dwell "ilh them, and they shall be bis people. and God
himself shall be v..i1h tltem, land be) their God
And I John"°" these thing..~. and hcanl [ thcmJ . . A11d he
sallh unto me, Seal llOL the ~a>•lng. uf the prophecy of this
book. for the time Is at hone.I . . • I Jesus have sent mine aa~cl
to testify umo you these thrn)!s in the churches. I am the root
ond the off'ipring of [)avid, land I the bright nnd morning star
(&ok of Rc,.,'<.!lurion 1·9-IJ, :?1 1-J; 22:8-10. 16)

In Mahayana Buddhism, in~tructions are given for the stages of

meditation required to conMruct a vision of lhe \\'eslern Paradise
(Sukhavali) of Amitabha Buddha. This vision leads the believer in sta~es to
~in·:ma~' (seep. 112).
Dreams and visions also play an important pan in many primal
religions and also in most forms of popular religion. Among Native
,\merieans of North America, dreams and visions (often while in a srncc of
llmlce) are a common feature (see p. llJ). In some lrlbes these are
restricted co the shamon. in ocher tribes they are open to all.
H2 TIIE RELll:tOL'S J,;XJ'l:.Rlt.Nt;E AND ITS t:Xl'R!cSSIOJ\

Thou •huuldM ,It Juwu pmpcrly, 1,,.,k11>4 in the ,...,kn,

Jlrcctlon, ani-1 J>rcparc th)' LhQUt\ht for o clo"" mcJ[titllon on
the ,un; cou;.c th) rn1nd m be nm,ly Ox.,J (on ill anJ ~'"
up<m it (more pnrticul;irl)'J "hen It 1s 11hou1 to ,c, nnd look.,
like n suspcndc--d drum
Afwr thou host thu~ "'"n the 'lltt let (thm im.;Jle) rcm1\111
TIIE litJDl)lt,\
clear nnd fi-'c.'<1, whether thine eyes be •hut or Of><:n ,uch ,,
the perception o( the sun,\\ hloh ,~ th~ Hr-.t M,..J11n11,.,,, .
TEAC:m:s 110\\ TO
NeJ<t thou shouklst fonn tl1c pcrccpllun of '""t~ f;JZ" on
( },\IN ,\ VISION OF the water clear and rurc, and let (thl< lmru!(-1 also run:un d,·,or
and fbwd (nfterwnrd.<), never rul0\1 1h1• lhllUl!ht to be .,.,.,t~n,d
TIIE \VESTERN an.J (C10,'1 \Vhl"n thou h!L~t tlm, "'"" the Wllh:r thou ,honl..l.t Jonn
tl1c pcrocptlcm of loo .\s thou 'it'<!st the l~-c ,hinln.l\ unJ
PARJ\l)ISE tronsporcm, thou ,houl..l.t ln~lm, the :tPP""Jr.U'"" or lap1&
LuulJ
(SUKJL\\'ATI)
Af1er that has been done. thou "ih 1-ee the #"und
consistln( of lnpis laiuh Bcncmh tho< ~round of lap" L11uh
there will 1M: hL>en a g<>lden hanncr with the ,even Jc,.<.:l, ,
iliamomb ttnd the rest, suppurtiu!! the ground E, Cl')' ,Ide
of tltc clgb1t qulU'W~ con~fsu. 01 • hunJro,d J'-'"cl> .
Each j,;wcl has rays of the hundred colour, which look ukc
llowers or hkc the moon 11nd smrs. l, odt\ed hid! up 111 th., open
sky thc.sc mys form a tower of rays Both sides of the tower
han, each a hundred millions of 0owcl')' bnnners fumJshcJ
and doc:J,cd "1th numberless mu.ioal mstrumeni. - ,uc:h
ls the perci:pti<>n <>f lho: wmer, which is the lxwnd ~l~duauon
\\"hen this perccpllon has been formed. thou ,hould<t
meditate on tt& (constitueotS) one b)· on" and make ( the
ilnaAc,s) as clear os possible, "'' that they m:iv ne,·er he
scattered nnd lost, whether thine eyes be •hut or open Except
<mly Jurlng tho lime Q( thI sleep, thou ~houlJst :th"1y; keep
tltls ln thy mlnd. Ono "ho ba.~ r<.'llcbcJ thls (st.ail<: of)
perc;,ption Is said lO have diml)' ,;een tho, land ol llid,l!St
Happiness !Sukhavarl).
One who has ohtoined the Snmadhi Ith" ,t21c of
supcrnnrural cnlm) Is ohlc to see th, lnnd (of the RudJhn
country) c lelllrly ttnd dbllncdy - ,uch i. the pcr~-cpllnn of
the lnnd nnd It Is the ThJm Mcdiu1llon
Thou i.hould;.t remember, 0 Ananda, die lluddhn M>nb of
mine, and repcac this law for :iccalnill,l! to cbe perct:ptlon oi the
land (of the Buddha country) for the sake of the )!rent mRss of
the people hereafter who may 11;sh to he Jeli,·ered from their
sulfenngs. If any one meditates oo th~ land (of 1hn1 Ruddha
uouotry), his s,no (whicll bind Wm 10) blnb., .ini-1 Jc:ttb,,
.Jurin!\ eW,l~' millions uf J«Jpas l""""' I ~haU be cxpl3t<.-.l;
after the abandonment of his (pre.em) body. he w,Jl a,._wn.,Jly
be bom in the pure lnnd III the ioUowin,I! life The pracucc of
this kind or meditation is c.'llled the ri~ht mcditaul)n If st he
of onothcr kind it is c:iUcd ·hcrcucal medilnlion ' JThe Buddhn
goes on ,n this sutm to ~Ive a1101hcr thirteen mcd1t11U,llh[
(Amlla)~"·-DJ~wna-Smra. In Cowdl et nl Budd/u.,u
.\1al,ayana Text.~, pp. l1>9-172)
 I Tllli. RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE + ll3

1 \\l\S .,II nlonc on th~· hilhop. I "11 1hcn, in the vi,jnn pil, ti
hole <lug Into the lull, my 11rms bugging my kn~'t!s 8S I
"n1d1ed old ,nan Chc>.st. lite lllt!dklne m:lfl who had brought
me there, <llsnppc:tr far down In thd valley .
'fow I w:i,. all hy my,elf, left on the h1ll1op for four days
nnd nights "ithout food or w:oter until he ctimc back for
L.\.,11-,; Ot.tR's
me , I "as si,neen then , still hnd my hoy's name and, let
VISIO~ QllEST me tell you, I wa, wnr~-<l. I was slnvcrin,l nnd not only from
the cold. The ncnrest human being was many miles ""ay, am.I
four days and niithtS 1:s a long, long time ...
N i~Jt was comm,11 on. I was still li~theaded and dizzy
from my l1rst sweat bMh in which I had purified myseli before
itoinJ: up the hill
Sounds came to me through the darkness: the. cries of the
\\ind, the whl~p<,r of !lie trees, u,e voices of nature, ttnlmnl
sounds, the hootln,il of l1ll O\\L Suddenly 1 felt ttn
overwhelming presence. Down the.re with me in my crttmpe.d
bole was a bi~ bird. The pit was only as wide as myself, ttnd I
was a skinni• hoy, hut that huge bird was Oying nrnund me a.~
ir he had the whole sky lO himself • This feelinit was so
01·er\\,t,clmlog that tt was Just LOO much for me. I trcmbh..-d
and my bonl!ll turned to Ice .. .
Slowly l per<.-eh•ecl Lhot o voice was crymg 10 tell me
something It was a bird cry, but I tell you, I began to
understand some of it ... All at once I was wo)· up there with
I.he birds . /\ voice said, · We ore the fowl people, chc
"ing~.J ones, the cngk:s nnd the owls . . . am.I you shall be our
brother .. You are going Lo understm1d ll6 whenever you
come to seek a vision here on Lh1s hill. You \\ill team about
herbs and roocs, and you will h~I people. You will ttSk them
for nothint in return. A man's lifo is short. Make yours n
worchy one.'
I had lost nil sense of time. I did not know whether it
was dny or oi~t. I WttS asleep, yet wide awo.kc. Then l saw n
shnpe before me. I I rose from the dnrkncss and the
-swlrlinl! fog which penetrated my earth hole. I """ that thii,
was my great-1\rnndfather, Tahca Ushte, Lame Deer ... I
could see the blood dripping from lhis) ohe.st where a white
soldier had shot him. I understood that my gJ-eni-gmndfathcr
,.;shed me to take his nnmc. This made me glad beyond
words.
l didn't know how Jong I had ~-en up there on that hill -
one minute or a 11retin1e. I felt a hand on my shouldt:r gently
shaking me. It was olt.1 man Chest, who had come for me. He
told me that I bad been In the vi$ion pit four days and four
niglus lie would i01 terprel my ,isions ior me. He told me
thnt the vlsion pit had changed rne in o way thm I would not
he abl<! 10 understru1d 111 Lh/11 time. De told me also that I wrus
no longer a boy. that l was a man now. I was Larue Deer.
(tlallfa.,c, Shamanic Voices, pp. 71-S)
 I 1-1 TIii; RlLIGIOUS EXl'i-,IUENt.1-. ANI) ITS 1-.Xl'Rt.SSION

TIIE SOCIAL I NFLUENCE OK RtLIGIOUS

EX PF.RI ENC~:
Mosr people who have II rcliltiOlL~ c~pcricncc at on~
level m,sumc that It ,s r, pure cxpcrleru..'C <.'OmlnA tu
them from outside themselves - in other word~. 11.,
form anJ t.>omcnt originate in ~me otJ1cr r<!t1btl and
are unaffeccw by the paniculars of the per.on to
whom it occurs This ha~ l>cen descrih<.-d as an
'irruption' of the sacre<l world lnto tbc profane (M.-c
chapter 11 ), On closer examination. however this
c-,mnot entirely be tJ1e case. We shall look 111 some
reasons for tbls.
The first point worth noting is that religiou.\
experiences tend to conform closely to culcural and
religious expectations. ViUa~e girls in Portugal ha\'c
Tue \\'f.sTF.RN P,,MOISe OP visions of the Virgin Mary- not of tJ1c Indian goddess
'Passing from
1\.lilT.\llllA BIIDOHA: Kali. Native Americans on their vision quest ~ee
here through hundreds of visions of North American animals not of African
thousands of millions of
ones. Thus it would appear that rellgiow,
lluddh11l11nds 10 the West, there
is " world called Ultimate Bliss experiences, no matter how intense and all-
(Sukhavatll. In tbJs land n consuming, arc subject to constraint b)' the cultural
Buddha called Amltabha rl~ht and religious oonns of the person to whom they
now teaches the Dhamma, .. . occur. Another way of looking at this is to say chat
All livirt!l beinJlS of chis country
there can be no such thing as a pure experience. An
endure none of the sufferin!l,8,
but enjoy every bliss' (From the experience always happens to a person. and that
Amlmblw. Smro) person already has an interpretative fromework
through which he or she views the world. Thu.\.
experience and interpretation always combine and
intcrpenctrutc.
The most basic interpretative framework is la~ua~e \\'e do not
have an experience and then find the words co describe ii Our lang\.lllge
prefigures our expcricmee of the world. A Canadian Inuit has many different
words that are equivalent to the single word 'snow' in the En~Jish language.
Arob Bedouins have many dJfferent words for the single word 'camel' in the
f;n~lish la~ua,l\e. This means that when native E~lish speakers look at
snow they sec just one thing, whereas an Inuit sees many different types of
~now. Similarly, when nadve Eni$sh speakers look at camels, they :.ee Jl.ll,l
one type of nnimal: an Arab Bedouin will see many different rypes of camel
Thl.ll,, It is language that enabl~ us co have experiences, or at lcaM to ha,·e
the richness of e,'t])Crieoce that we have. Thertdore, chc description of a
person's religious experience is connned \\'ithin the language 11nd
conceptual world of that person.
All human beings are constrained In the ronAe of their possible
experiences by the culture and society in which they live and were brou4ht
 4 TIIE ttELIGIOUS EXPEttlENC!s 115

up. \\'e may think that we are free to choose whatever religious style of life
we like, but In fact we arc very unlikely to choose some and very liktJly lo
choose others, because of our background. This background to our lives,
"hieh plays such a large part in detem1ining our actions and experiences,
can be dh·idcd into two aspectS. The first is our history: what we were
muAht in our family and school, our childhood experiences and our culrure.
The second is our current environment: our social role, our current group
of family and friends. Both of these factors play a large pan in the way that
we experience the world. If we have a religious experience, we are very
likely to ltucrprct it in a way l11at confonns to the 11om1s of our culture and
upbringing nnd makes sense to ou r family and friends. If a person has an
intense religious C"-pcricncc, they arc likely to :1ttribute it rn a meeting with
God or Chri~t if they artJ from a ChristJan background, which t:mphasizci,
a close personal rclationsl:iip with God or Christ. If they ~re from a certain
Hindu background ilicy may describe it as encowltering the Divine Self
(.\tman).
L'sing surveys nnd interviews, researchers hnve heen :ible to document
the effects of social factors on religious activity and experience. ~lost of this
work bas heen done in the United States and so the results thac can be
presented here :ire from that country only nnd may not apply elsewhere.
The following social factors have been reported":

1. S1::x. \\'omen are more likely tl!tlil iflCfi to atte11d rellgious ,etviccs (a
ratio of 55:-15), to pray daily (64:38), and to repon having mystical
experiences (44:36). Women :ire aL~o more likely to experiment
rclitiously than men. As one moves from the traditional orthodox
churches to the new religious movements, the proportion of women
members increases. This b one finding tlmt is Likely to be different in
other parts of the world. In traditional societies, it is usually you11t me11
who have the greatest freedom to change. Thus it is they who arc more
likely to be able to break away from 1rudltlonal religious i.tniclurc:. and
Join new reli~ous movements.
2 RACE. Black people are more likely than white to attend religious
services, feel strongly about religious beliefs :111d report religious
cxpcrlcnc~.
J. Soc:I0-ECONOMIC sr.~rus. Members of che upper and middle classes are
more likely to attend religious service); regularly but are less likely to
report religious expcrlcncCJ,, than mcmbers of lower classes. Members of
lower classeb ore more likely to join relitious g.roups that im·olve
emocional, spontaneous, physically active, fundamenmlist relitious
expression; middle- nnd upper clasi. people prefer religion that is verbal,
intellectual, reflective, liberal and o,tanized,
~ Education is stromtly correlated with socio-economic status
EotT.ATIOX.
and thus parallels what has been stated in point J . Increasing
116 Tilt. Rf,L,IOllll'S EX l't.Rlt.M:t ,\Ml llS tXl'lffSSIC)S

cducattonul auu111111ent corrdu tcs positively" 1th nLLend:lJJcc at rcl11\mlll,

:,.en•ices, hul netathely wilb rcpon.inj\ rcll~iou!, experiences
5. l:llZE cw Those hvinj\ 111 small towns und 111 rurol :irca, art:
coM,11~1TY
more likely to oucnd religious services and ore more likely to n:fl(ln
relil\ious or mystical experiences than those II, 1111! in cl11es.
6. l'Allt,.-:T's n.turnos: NOl i.urprl:,i n~ly, l\ivcn the 11nporu1nt role of parcn1.,
in rheir children's upbringing and socialization, then. is a ~tmnil
correlatJon between a person's. rt:ll_ilion and their parent..~· reli~on.

U~ing such infonnation, we can go a long wuy toward.~ prt:t.lictln~ the

religious experiences that a person will probably have, )!aven his or her
cultural background We cnn predict that an Afric:m-,\merican workinl!-
cl;u,,, woman raised In tJ1e American South will have a clo~e pcn,onal
relationship ,,4th God, wich whom she will talk daily In prayer lier reliitiou,
experiences will occur from about 1hc age of cle,,cn throughout most of bcr
life. \Ve can predict that her most intense religious experiences will o<:cur
at tent revival meetings held in her town, They will be of an emotional
nature (not visions or audi tory c.xperlcnccs). At the peak of one of thCl.e
revival meecin!!,S, she may feel chat she has lost control and been titken O\'er
by the Spirit of God. She will believe that Jesus hru, saved h(!r and that she
will ~o to heaven when she dies. On a day-to-day basis, she ,v1U be close!~
involved in her local Pentecostal .church and will derive much sadsfoccion
011d oomfon from that.
Of course, this picture is a generalization. There are alwa~·s exceptional
indNiduals. The woman may, for example, show a high degree of acudemie
ability. If she succeeds in breakini through the bOcial i.nJluenceb that would
constrain her LO follow her mother's occupation and lifestyle. and if she
wins a scholarship to a universit y, then we can make a ne\\ prediction
about her. By obtaining an education, she will probably move mto the
middle cla~cs. She will probably move from her Pentccm,tnl church 10 a
less t:motlvc church such as a AJecbo<list or suitable J3aplist con~egatl.011
nnd she may have fewer and less intense religious experiences than heforc
she went to university.

F URTH~:R RE AD ING

Some of the earliebt books in tWs field are still the oobt (althoul1h they tend
to be heavily oriented towards Christinnity): Ollo, The Idea t!f 1he lloly, :md
Jame~. The l'urieties of Religiow,; E."peril!1we. Se~ also Swee, My;;ne~m
and Philosophy; Cohen and Phipps, The Common Experience For socml
influences on religious experience (social psychology), see Bnt~on nnd
Ventis, The Reli~ious E~1Jerumce. espec1ally chapters 1-J.
 PATrI\VAYS TO R EL IGIOUS EXPERIENCE

N CIL\PTER 4 we noted that the central experience of re~Jon is

exhilarating and desirable; ii commands respect and anention. It is not
surprising. therefore, chat human beings have sought to recreate and
channel this experience io predictable and well-regulated ways by setting
up formal, communal p:uhwoys co it. (On the historical evolution of this
impetus, sec chapter 12.)
On ;i more cynical note. one could :say that the central experience of
religion, although pornntially \'Cry powerful, remains useless to individuals
who seek power unless its very personal and private nature is given
expression in some way. It is only by creating some form of social
expression, some pcrformativc dimension, that religion can become a
source of social power, that a professional rel~ious class that irulcructs and
educates people in one particular pathway can come into being, and that
the potential power oi rc~ion can be harnessed by tovernmcnt or by those
who seek power (sec chapter 16).
People from widely dlffering religious cultures have described lhe
central experience of reUgion itself in very similar terms (see chapter 4 ).
Human culcures and personality types, however, vary greatly. It is not
"urprising, therefore, that the formal, communal pathways co recreating tJ1e
religious experience, the performative dimension of religion, exhibil an
enormous variety.
In this chapter 1 shall survey the various pathways that attempt to
recreate the central experience of religion in u systematic way in society.
These then are the prlncipal forms in which religiosity expresses itseU Ln
society. Since the reUgious e,,cperience th·es one the feeling of salvation or
liberation, these pathways to roUgious experience may be called pathways
to salvation or liberation.

R ITUALI SM

This pathway co sah'ation is that of worship. Tt is the path of theism par

t::.:c.-e/lence. On t1lis path the believer concentrates her or hl~ efforts on lhe
correct performance of often \•ery elaborate dtual. Panicipation in a

117
 111'1 TIIF. RF.Llr.tOl!S i,.XPl'Rlt-:l'-C~: ,\"WITS f.Xl'IIF.SSl()'.11

Figure 5. / Social F:Apressions of the C.:ntral 1-:xpcricncc uf Rch~ion

The Pathway; to Salvation or Lll'l<!ration

GsoSTIC ·1si1 R1n ,usM

Central
Experience
of
Religion

/
M ON,\SllCISM

SOCIAL REFORMISM

correctly performed ritual will atom: for the sins of the believer and will in
some way appeose che Deity Salvation chen nows from the l!mce and
bcneOoenoe of the Deicy.
\'ery often. it is not just tl1e form of the proceedings that mul>l be
corwct buc also t.hc person carrying out chc ritual For ic is in this cypc ot
rcU~ous proceetllngs that the priest ploys a vlcal role. The prlc;t mu~t be
correctly initiated into his priesthood; he (for it is olmosc nlways o mon)
must be of the correct lineage spiritually. For example, Roman Cntbolici!>m
atcachei. weat importan~ to the ordination of ics priests and bishop; ln the
Apostolic Succession (chc spiritual lin~
,r J from St Peter). The pri~t may c, en ha, c to
be of the correct line~ physically· in many
fom1, of lllnduism, only Bmhmin deM.>cnt
emitles a person co pnel>tly function; in
ancient Israel, the tl=nd:mcs of J,.c,·i were
tbe prie!>tl)' tribe: ,Uld in Zoro.'ll>trianbm,
,..,
the priesthood is maintained amon~
particular families Only the priest c.1n
carry out lhe ritual corrt.-ct.ly ht.-cou..<:e onh·
the priei,c con com·ert the mere ionn oi the
ritual inco a vehicle for ..:.Lln11lon. only
the priest is empowered co rum tbc hr.:ad
- and wine into the hody and hlood of
Chrbt. A compari.\.011 ma) he dr:"' 11
Brahmin priest• pcrformin)l nhlutinn• 10
purify ,h.,.,ru,clvcs for A ritUJil The !hr"" between this m yl\teriou~ power of che
whltt! horuontnl llnc, mark 1hc111 ti!> l>t!lng prie~t and the magical p<m er of till: shoman
follo\\Cnl of Shl\'lL or witch doctor tn pnmal rcli~oru.
 S: P.Vrll\\'AYS TO RBLJCl()US BXPBRIENCE ,19

Ritualbm is usually based on thcistJc assumptions (see pp. Jl- 7) of the

n1hemes:s of a God or god ro whom praise and glorification are due. In turn,
the procc;.scs of ritualism reinforce thut theism b>• emphasizing the majesty
and utter im.'Omparability of the Deity. Such an exalted deity usually
requires some form of saviour fi,l!urc who will imcrcede on behalf of the
hdiever. This savlour/interc.-cssor is usu.ally the prophet of the religion, such
as Christ or Zoroaster. Lesser d~rees of mediation are, however, orten
perfonned hy saints or other figures such as the Virgin M:iry in Catholicism
or I.lie Imams 111 Shi'I Islam .
.\n important aspect or ritual is the need for purity in order to
participate in the ritu(II. Weber h(ls pointed co an important db,linction
bcrween these traditions. In those traditions in which the participant is
only expected ro be ritually pure (in other words , rhere is some
mechnmstic route to purification) the l"ituul has an emotive but temporary
effect on the mass of the people. It has little effect on their lives In chose
traditions where the person is also expected to be ethically purified in order
to ~ain benefit from lhe ritual , there is a grealer influence over the daily life
of the individual. Weber stated that the effect is ,itreater if lhe ethical
purification comes as a rci,ult of striving to live a pure Life (as in puritanical
forms of Protesumt Christianity) rather than confession of sins (as in
Catholic Chriscianicy).'
On this path, human beings acWevc salvation partly through the grace
of the Deity and p:ircly chrou~ rheir 0\\11 individual effort.~ and works.
Usuully these works Include some meritorious ritual act that involves an
element of expiation or penance for sins. and also the performance of good
deeds Judaism has ics Day of Atonement (Yorn Klppur) during which Jews
underwke fosciug and other rilUals. Penance has in the past even wken
extreme forms such as self-fl~ellation. This may still be seen today in Shi'i
Islam. where there is ritual mourning and self-flagellation over the
martyrdom of lhe Imam and humaaily's failure to lUrn to the source of true
ituidance.'

Before the daily pra}·er, all Muslims must he In a State of ritual purity (toharo) In order
l<I achicn, this they perform nru~l ahluti<1n~ (wiu/11') .
 -
120 TIH. llEl.l()IOl'li EXl'ElllE~( t AMI IT~ tXt•1u-:sslO'I

Rltuahsrn b by 110 menu:. <..'<mfrnccl to

the thebtlc reli~lun, It 1' abn 10 t,,,,
found, for cx::i111pl1:, In mo$t form~ nt
BudcJhgm and IlinJui~m Jc, oppcarnncc,
however, 11sunllv occ..-omp,111ic" the 1.:rn1:r·
g,cncc of 1111 !llthuuc of dc\"01111n and
wo~hip , In the co.-.<: of Buddhism. cl1c
object of adorncion i~ often the l.luddh11
himself.
The typical reh~ious :attitude on this
potb is thot of piety, Ion: and dcvoclun
There 1s both love and often some deJtret
of nwc or fear of the Deity or figure thm
Is tl11: object of t.he ritual or \\Or~hlp. In
tlhe object of devotion, whether it he the
"'cMcm God or the llim.lu deity Kr1li
thert: is a loving aspect \\ hich l~
The Goddess Kah 1s the wiCe and shakn beneficent and gracious. There is also a
(primal enerA)') of 1he ~od Shiva She
represents dissolution and destruction, fearful aspect to the Deity, who c..-an be
but o~ she cspooiaU)' des1roys evil and wrathful, Yengeful and destructive. The
lgnoronce, she is also beneficent 10 her typical religious experience o( lhiS path
worshippers, blci.ses those "ho ~eek is of the regenerative type. c..-onfimiu~
lmowle~c and malncalns che .,.-orld order. and commissionint (sec pp. 92-4)
She ls usually represented in a four•armed
fonn with a sword in one hand, a
decnpirnu.-d head (of n demon) in ano1h<1r,
the upper right arm making II gesture of L i::GALISM
fen.rlt:Mucs., while the lower right arm
confers blessing,.. She wears a girdle of
severed arms and a necklace of human This pach to sa.lvacion IS charnct1:riz1:d by
skulls She dances on the chest of Shi,•a. the belief tbat the will of a deity has been
revealed in the fom1 of a lloly Law ThL,
law determines most of one's actions In
daily life. One achie,·es salvntion by livin~ one's life accordi~ to it
Rirualb.m and legalism are sometimes close!)• connected and difficult to
differentiate. The holy laws are often obeyed as a way of maintaining the
rirual purity of the individual o r com munity, thus enabling the rituals to be
effective. One can think of the dllicrcnce between ritualism ancl legall!,m la
terms of the !mention or rnotivatin~ factor behind an action: ia le*'-li,m, an
action, such as a prayer, Is cu.nicc.l out bcoauw the lloly La\\ stows thlll
such a prayer should be said in particular circumstam.:e!i. la ritua.li~m a
prayer is said in order to achic,·c some spiritual, supr:i·mund:ine chan~c
The cwo major \\'cstem examples of this form of the !>ocial .,xprc..<.:,lon
of religion are Judaism and Islam In .Judaism, the development of
rnhhinica l law in the ,\fisfmc,h and llalakhah hns created a set of laws 1ht1t
lay down the deca lls of most aspecis of social life. The same l>icuatlon occurs
in Islam. The Shari'n (1 lo ly Law) developed out of the Qurcm and the or11I
trndilion (the fla.dith) of the word;, o.ncl deeds of Muhonunad h define~
 S: PATUWA\'S TO RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCI:.. 121

Table 5. I Relistious Experience and the Pnthways of Sal\'ation

P.,TIII\'.\\ l'oe:-m ,u,~1 v 1s R!cLIOIOl 'S SOV1to£ or RF.LLUJOllS TYPE OF R£LIWOUS
A'tTITl;O( t!XPEIUE.'/Ct, £J(Vf. lUE!-/Ct

Rllualisrn Thcll>m Piety. R.lcuo.1. scripture. Rcgcnemtlvc.

devotion community confl nning or
comissionint,
Le~lism Theism Discipline Ritual, scripture, Regenerative,
nnd self- community confirming or
control '-"'ID OJ IS.S iOuing

E\'anjlellsm Tbehm Puri trutlcal, Scripture, Charismatic

love, de,•otlon preaching
Socinl Tbehrn Outward- FcUow;,hip Regenerative,
reformism looking- service, commissioning
lo,·e and charity
towards all
,\.sceticism Theism DcUlchmcm Seri ptu res, Mystionl or
Monl!,m prayer. fasting charismatic
and ocher
austeriries
Monnscicism Theism lnward-cumin,il Scripture, Mystical or
Monism di,Ulchmcnl pmycr. fnstlng regenerative:,
and other conJlrml.ng
austerities.
com mun it)'
Gnosticism Monism Disciple: Scrlprures Mystical or
seo.rch for truth. reAcncrntive,
obcdlc,ncc conflnulng
Spiritual master-
detached love
Mrsticism MoniSm Turning inwards. Altered state.~ Myscical
seeking direct of conscious-
experience, ness
expansive love

:-on:· Sec chapters 1 •nJ R for theism ond moni.,m. See chapter 4 foT the dificn:nt types of
n:Ugjous •.rp.,ri~nc.,.

most ru.pects of personal life and social lmercourse. This extends from
personal macters such as cleanliness, prayer and fasting, co legal matters
such m, marriage and inheriwnce, and even to commercial matters such as
the terms of trade.
Legalism is also to be found in Br:ihminical Hinduism. The whole of che
caste sys.cem is a legalistic framework. concerned with maintaining the
proper functioning of society. The rules laid down in books such a" the
122 T11£ Rt::1,IW(JllS f.Xl'l-.lllf,.St:~. A!>U Ir S l:Xl'llL'il:ilO!,

IIJ!,VI IS\I
A (dnmscl) who 11> neither n liapmtl.~ frdatcd wutun 1hr,-.,
,it;:ncrononsl on the mother's ,1clc nor hclnnA, to th., '""l<i
fami ly un the t'-.11her'~ '"k
I le "hn hru, oppro:ichcd the ,luu/lhcr c,f hi• fa1hcr'• I.au,
LE(l,\LIS\I: Rl'LINGS
or
(" ho ls ulmt)St c4uul to) u ,htcr, Cthe J.tuAhcr) 111< n101hcr,
•i~tcr, or of h i, mother\ luU brother. ,bnll perform a lunar
0:-f FORflfDl)f:N pcnant.'C . .\ wi,c man should 1101 tJtkL n~ h11> \\lie ;ti\) o( th""'
three: they must 1101 he wcdd,"tl hc<:au-.c they urc I~,p1ndu- I
DEOREES OF rclntivcs, h.- who mnrrlcs (one uf them ), •mk< to" 11,mr~ ,tf
Mn1111 .1 5 9 1 7:?-.'.IJ
MARRIAGE
Jt11MSM
l-onc oi )·ou ,hnll apprnnch any one near o( km to him l«l
unoovcr nnkedne~~ i nm the l..ord You ~hall not uncu,·cr the
11ruccdnci11, of your father, "'bl<:b Is the nnkcdnc,,. of your
mother; .he ls your motlier. you ,hall not uncov1:.r h~r
nakedness. You shall not uncover the nakc-dne,,., of ynur
father'.~ \\ife; ,r ,s your father's nakl"tlnc.ss, You shall 001
unco,·cr the nakedness of your sister, the daul\hier of your
father or dnughtcr of your mother. \\hcthcr born Rt home or
born obroacl. You shall 1101 unco,cr the 1i.1k~-Jne,s oi your
wn's daughter. or or your daul\htcr's dau/!htcr. for their
nakedness ls your own nakedne,s You shllU not uncon:r che
nakedness o( your focher's wife's dau#)1er, lx-~onen h,· ,·our
father, <ince she 1~ your sister You shall not unco,·er the
nakedness or your father's sister, she Is your fo1hcr\ nc;tr
kl11s"'omao. You oball nut uncover the nakcJnc.ss of your
mother's sister, for she L~ your mother's nror kin~" uman fou
shall not uncover the oakedn"5S o( your father's hrother. that
Is, )'OU shal t not approach his wife; •he~~ your aut11 Ynu shall
not unco11,r the nakedness of vour dnu~htcr-in-l11w ,he ;,
your son's wife, you shnll ntll unco,•cr her nokcdnc.s, You
,he.II 1101 unco,cr the nakcd1t~• of your br111.hcr's •ilc, ,he"
your brother'., nakcdn.,.,.,. (L<..'<:tt1cuo lb:()..16)
(SL.\M
Do not marry women whom your father bad mnrncd, unit:~
it b already a th.lag that ba.s cx.-currcd. Truly 1t "llS a shrunc:ful
and hateful practice and an e,11 CtLstom. .\od It •• forhiddcn
to you to m11rrv your mo1he,., dnu.i!hters, ~,sters, nunt,,
whether maternal or paternal. brother's wiu~hters ststcr,
d:tu~h1crs, foMer-mother,, who hn, e suckk-,1 you. fo;icr-
M&ters, your \\t\'cs' mothers. your slcp-do..uthh:rs who on: ill
your core onJ :ire:. from your \\a·~~ whom you ha,·e b-;<:.n uno
- but ,f they a re from \\ives whom ,·ou h,l\'e not entered thc,n
there ls no sin In It ((.)uran 4 22~1)

Lc,ws of llfanu are considered to keep the ,, hole of i.ocie1y u1 11 i.rnce of

ritual purity.
Legalism is, therefore, the rcsull of two moin impulses in religion The
firM is a concern to maim.tin ritual purit~' In society. Thil, crn,ures that lhc
rimals of the religion can he perfonned in the manner decreed and ~o be
plensin_g to the Deity. The second, which Is in a sense a correlate of t.hc ilr,1,
 5 . PATlll\'.\YS TO RELIGIOUS •;XPEtlll:.NCE 123

is 10 mainiain the crhic.q and morn ls of 1he qociet:y, and thus to maintain the
order imd cornier fuuctlottlng of the society. The legal S)'Stcm acLS m, 11
fom1aliz:1tion and codiflcalioo of ethical and mornl irn1,erncives.
In this path of suh•ntion, the rcli11;ious professional is not, as with
ritualism, one "ho has a my:,terious po\\ er to Lraru,form Lhe riLUol act into
a path for saln1tion: rather he (for it is almost always a man) is che man of
learning who knows the Holy Law. Only such a person can guide the
beli!!ver in the snakes-and-ladders world of its injunctions am.I prohlbicions.
He is able 10 relate the Holy Law 10 the situations of everyd.1y living. The
method by which chis system operates is ve0• siruilar in Judaism and Islam.
In both. the laicy ask questions of the learned (the rabbis or ulema) and
receive \Yrirtcn responses. These re~ponses are based on the authority of
scripture, the oral tradition, and certain principles of jurisprudence such as
:mnlogical reasoning. This method allows the limiled code of laws to he
interpreted so as to cover the wide ro_nge of human situations.'
The religious actirude on chis path is one of discipline and self-control.
The helie,·er must conrrol his or her life so as to scay within the limitS of
the Law. One's religious life may be likened co keeping a bank acoounL.
Ever>' time chat one docs something according to the Holy Law, one's
account ls credited and ever>• time tha I one does something against the
Law, the account is d!!biced. Some actions are neutral in their effect. ,\t the
end of one's life, if one's heavenly bank account is in crndit; one goes ro
hca\'co; if one·;, acuount is in dcflcit, one goes to hell.
Le,ll.alism is usually linked to some extent with ritualism. The Holy Law
prescribes rituals thr1t must be performed according to the Law. Religious
e.xperieoce on the Jegalistlc pathways usually arises, therefore, out of the
rirunl ch:u is performed - often in the sayin,ll. of a prn)•er. lo Islam, for
example, the congregationt1.l prnyer ls said according to a precise rituru
oucllned in the Holy Law. It is often said communally, in the mosque.
llence, the sense of the sacred is evoked not just by the correct
perfonn:mcc of the ritual but also by the fellowship of the bellevers
ll.athered for the occasion. The religious experience on this pathway tend;,
to be of the regenerative type, confirming or commissioning (sec pp. 92-t).

EVANGELISM

In this group the emphasis Is on the grace and beneficence of the Deity.
Sal"atioo is then usually a maccer of faith that chis grace will be extended
co all who seek it with lo\'C and devotion. These groups ,,·ill
tend to
emphasize a personal relatlooshlp with the Deity. Thls pathway Is also.
therefore. predominamlr a pathway or theistic religion.
The tai,k oi the religious professional in these groups is to make the
personal relationship between the Delry ao<l the believer seem real. This is
llSllally achieved through an appeal to the emotions The religious professional
among these groups is, t.hcrefore, usuall~· a skilled orator who can r'.ili;c the
 r
12•1 Tltf: RE!.IGIOl'S f:XPf,Rlf.NCF. .\SO ITS EXPRfSS!()S

In India. Islam •~mll' mw dPsc t'<mwc, u-11h tlk ln,1um

bh«kti tl"(&(l1rw11 The, result~ rif 1/11., ,m~-rrwuon cun 1,,. ..._,"
Ill 1hcfoll<tU1IIIJ! S111dJu IK"-'111 b)• Sltah ·. 1l,d ,u-u.,tif '!f /Jhu
(J<,b'<J-1752),

~t v Prince "·ill &Jve mi, rrote<:lioo

EV.\NUELISM
- therefore m)' trust i< In God,
The bdm cd will rrostn1tc, ..,,II l11ment nnd cry
- therefore my trtL,t I< In God,
Muhnmnllld, th~ pure and llln~'CnL, w,11 mll!t<-~" thee,: for
his peopl~
- th<.'reforc m)' uu.<1 is in Gnd.
Wllen the tmmf""t s,,und$, the <"Yel> nll ,.,LI
he open,-d
- therefore my tn'-'I !~ In God
The plou~ will jl:!Lhcr, and ~luhrunnutd full of #fwy
- then;fore my trui,t ii. lo God,
\\'ill proceed ior e,ery soul 10 the door of the Benehtct•>r
- th,mdore my tnu,1 is m God
And the Lord will honour hun, forg.i,·c ••~ oil our sm<
- therefore my tr\1-"t i5 m God
l,\nncmorle Sch.lmmd. 'The \'enerotloo of the Prophet
~fuhammad', pp. !JS-{, J

emotions of hls audience. In I.be course of

on ev:tng<?lical religious e,·ent. it may l,e
claimed that miracles ( tbaum.aturgyJ.
ecstatic trances, speaking in ton~ues
(glossolalia). exorcism, healing and other
extraordinary events have occurred. In
tradjtional religions, the shaman performs
a similar funcllon, healing. discc.mirJg c\-ll
spirits and drivinit them ouc, and inducin~
trances.
Although evanll.dism Is a term
normally LL~ed only in connection ";ch
Chri:.cianity, 1 have been cornpdlcd to ll:,t!
i't he.re in connection wir.h ocher reh$on.,
for lack of a suitable altemnch•e .\ possihle
a lternative would be the I lintlu cenu b}uJm
(love and de,·ocion), which emphasizes
other aspects of this pathway from thOM:
associated with the term 'evan~lism'. The
term bhakti is, howe,·er. also closely linked
~EIU£)<CING nu. GRAU Of n ll DEm·: to one parcicula.r rdlglon
Represemauon of an African "itch doctor This pathway is, of cour.e,
Ill an ecswnc trance drh~ out c,i1 exemplified hy th<' ·snh·ation hy faith' of
~piriL,, C.on~
Protestont Chri~tlanity. It 1~ part,cula.rly
 S l'.\Tll\1',\YS TO Rt:LIOIOUS EXPl'.RIESCt: L21i

found in the morl' radical Protcswnt sects, such us the Pentecostalists, and
11mong the many evangelical movements in modem Protestontism, such as
Bill~· Graham's Evangelistic Association In such groups, salvation is only
,1chle,·ed through the grace of God and by faith in Christ, not through any
human action or merit
This approach is ulso a feuture of many Hindu bhakti sects.' In
particular, the sects de,•oted to Shiva often suess the grace and beneficence
of their dcicy Some e,·en consider that ilhis groce can deliver the de\'otee
from the inexorable workings of kanna {the law of cause and effect). This
parallels the belief of the rudieal Christian J>rotest:1nt sects chat thei r
personru relationship with God can cancel the effects of sin and therefore
lead co sal\'atlou. A further example can be found in the Pure Land
Buddhism of Japan and China; faith in the grace of Amitabha (Amida)
Buddha is the key to enlightenment and liberation. Through devotion to
and faith in Amicabha Buddha one can be reborn in the Pure Land of the
West, and thus achie\'e ~irvana. According to Honen, the nutin exponent of
Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, merely calling on the name of Amitabha
Buddha (a practice called ncmbucsu) is sufficiem to ensure rebirth in his
\\'escem Paradise.• It has al ready been pointed out that the religious
ceremonies of many trndirional socieries, especially those chat involve a
,haman-llke figure, hove many of the features of this pathway.
The percepcion oi these groups is of a world in which God intervenes
personally and directly. The most important oi these divine intcrvcntion8
will be the coming of a messianic f_igure that will si~al the end of the world.
Thus evangelism has close links wilh millennialism' (see chapter 10). Other
divine inten·cnlions include miracles, healing and the other signs described
abo\'e.
The religious attitude of this group usuall>• in\'olvcs a 'puritanical'
approach LO the world. It is cxp<.,-cted that one's life be lived accord~ to a
strict moral code. The world is dh'ided into the 's:l\'ed' and the 'unsaved'.
Believers try to spend as much tin1e as possible with the 'saved'. Their main
interactions with che 'unsaved' involve proselytism. Another aspect of the
religious attitude of these groups is triumphalism, the belief that their
religion will triumph in the end over all others. These arc also features of
fundamencalism (dealt with in greater detail in chapter 14), ,-..'irh which
C\'angcllsm is closely linked. The source of religious experience on thi5
pathway is scripture and preaching (or perhaps more accurately, the
performance of the religious professional). The nrnin religious experience of
this palh\\ay co salvation b often of the charismatic type (see pp. 9-!-5) that
iS brought on by the preaching of the evan~elist Signs of this include
ecstatic trance, speaking in 1onguc1>, and the other phenomena described
abo\'e. There may also be retenerative rclWous experiences or the
con,·ersion type (see pp. 92-4).
 -
126 Tllf" Rt:LIGIOUS EXl'F,IUEN<:t; ANI> IT~ fXPRESSIO'/

SOCIAL R gFORMISM

Mnny have felt the central experience o( rcliA1on most po,,crfully In till'
comcxt of 1l1e spiritunl uplif1mc111 of o 1..-ommunity united In Im e ,mJ
dc,•otlon . These feel that the be:st way of recrcaunl! 1h1s cxpcncn1..'t. is 10
crcntc an ideal community th:tl would he conducive toil Thb impulse h,1s,
historically, had two main di rections. The flrsl approach !ms been to try lo
isolme a s111:111 itroup frnm the rest of the world :ind ere.ire :i :,nwll island oi
perfection In the midM of a sco of Imperfection Thb 1s the p:J!h of
monasticism and is dealt with bellow. The sct--ond approuch , calk-<l lu.:n:, for
wunt of o hettcr term , ~ocial refom1ism, ha:. taken 1hc opposite path It~°"'
oul into the wocld aud seekl. to transform it into tlJl idcuJ socicty. This
pathway has historically hecn mainly that of the lheistic reli~1ons
This pttth of working towards the setting up of the perfect i.ociety hus
n:curred in ,•ttrious forms throughout the years. Sometimes the:..e ~rouJh
with their vision of a perfect society have tended to he revolulionary,
ttiming to overthrow the established order and substitute for it their own
vision of society. In Jewish history there have been several ~roups such as
the Zealots, whose aim \\'/IS to overthrow Roman domination om! l>Ct up the
ideal community. The Muslim armies, as they ~wept acro!>s the Middle ~.a:.t
and North Africtt in the seventh century er., had l)efore them the vision or
a perfect society. Many of the civil wan, and sectarian uprisin,~~ that wcrc
such a feature of ettrly Islam were also due co this impu lse Groups such :i.-.
the Shi'a and the Khariji}'Yll were disillusioned with the societies created
under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs and wanted w substitute t11elr own
vision of society. Th is vision often included goals of e~:ilitarianism and
social justice.
LiberaJ Christians in Victorian Britain were also aimint to change
society. They felt that it was thi.,
respOnl>ibillty of Chmtlan~. both
individually and collccrlvelv, to
work towards Improving t11e lot of
their folio" human bem~i, To th1~
end they set up and surponed
many socictles with such aims as
temperance, the abolition 01
slavery, missionary mc<lica.l work ,
rehahi li tatinA prostitutes an<l
helping the poor.
~luny of the new rcli,i!iuu~
movemems also M:e themsclvc, a,
Soc1A1. RF.TOR.IIISM IX mr 13,\IL\'I F'AITII; Tnr \'ooational engaged in the ta:.k oi rcvit,1lizin~
ln,tltut,: for the Educa1lon of Rurol \\'omen, Indore, and rcformia~ society. The Baha'i
luJla L, a &ba'I ~-ummunlty project promoti.ot
Faith emphasi1es sen·ice to the
oclucatlon anti sdf suft1ciency 111 tribal and rural
women commuaily, pinyin~ particular
attention 10 the promotion oi
 S, P.\THW/\\'!:, TO Rt:LIGIOl1$ t:Xl-'£RIESCE 127

SJMll~\I
.. .:.-cry Sikh ac1s aml prays for 1he universal brotherhood:
the Sikh prayer ieeks sarl><u do bhala ( welfare of all) . . .
Sikhism is quite clcnr a_\ to whnt kind of service i.hould be
nmJ1:r1:J and 10 whom M,ucrinl. physical scn·icc like
prO\'ldlug tl'St llIIJ ,.,la.xallon 10 others or rending ou1 r.bc
SOCIAi. Rr,FQR~IISM ""'"nptur\$ for 01hcr& to get splrilWll :,0lnee ls by far superior
to the t-oundess sncrifical fircS 1Lod performances of
IS RELIOIOK
ceremonies or mere mediuuion and worldly know-
lc~c Sikhism also lays down injunctions against offering
food or monc)' to the so-called twice-born, rnther it is the
poor •nd the neeJy who should he helped Ouru Cohind
Singh makes quJte on uoeq_uJvocal •tattrueat ln this rcgard:
True sen~ce is the se,rvlce of these (ordinary) people. I am
not inclined to serve the high-caste; chamy "ill bear fruit m
1his ,md the other world only if ~iven 10 such needy people.
(Sin,!h, Sikh Theology of Libcrcuio11 , pp. 124, 127-S)
TH& 8Af1A'I F,\ITll
The fourth principle oI teaching of Bob.a'u'llab is the
readjustmem and eqwtlitation of the economic st:indards of
mankind. This deals with th<.' qu~-,;tion of human livellhood.
lt iS evident that und.er present sy&tCllll> and condlUons or
go,·emmem the poor are subject 10 the greatest need and
distress wbUe othef'S more fonuaate live in lu.1ury and plenty
far bl:yond their aCiu.al ncccssitic~ Tlus inequality of portion
and pri,;lege is one of the deep and ,•ila] problems of human
50Cicty That there i< need oi on cqunliiotion ond
apportionment by wblcb all moy po•= th" ~'Orufori,, and
pri\.'llegc., of life Is vvident. The rcmedr mLL~t be, legislatl\'C'.,
reaJju~tment of coaditioas. The rich too mtu.L be merciful 10
the poor, comributin~ from willing hearts 10 their needs
without being forced or compeUed to do so. The composure
of the world will he, as.<urcd by the estnblishmcn1 of this
principle in the rcUgious llfo of mankind ('Alxlu1-&ha,
PromufBation "j U,u-rsal Peaec, pp. 107~)
Cnt1TSTL\1'"TTY
Theology must com<.: from the poor Tbc Church nccJs
the poor's reflect.ion. They know death on an inumate lc,cl
no latellt>otulll ean know . .. The Startin~ point of llberutlon
thcotog_v 1s commitmeat 10 the poor. the 'non-person'. Its
lde:t.s come from the ,ictim ... Gommi1mem 10 1he poor ,s
the ,·ery plae<! for spiritual experience. In commitment to the
poor one encounters God (Gutierrez( nck:nowlc~cd thot
God Is no, the moln subJ<-ct In liherotloo theology, but added,
'We're "orklng on 11'. Llbcrntion theology Is not
opumL<tic. it speaks often of sin and sin oiwation~. 'We are
not sure ol ano1her ,oclecv. hut "'" ore sure the preseat
l-Oeiet)' is not pos«ihle and we must chanl\C IL' (Rcpon of
address of Gustavo Gutierrez Rt n mcetin!l of the C"..ithollc
Thcoloj\ical .\s«>ciation, i-10 .lune 19iS, in Schnll.
l,bcrriti<ln T/icolo~· m um11 .lmt·rfou, pp . .)C,-7)
128 THE R!.;LJCIOUS EXPElllE:-ICE AND ITS EXPRFSSION

.ll'II.\IS\I
A ,le"ish theoloey of liheratlon r.~~11lnl1c, 1hn1 the """Id hn•
cha11~-d nrtd thnt h)' ~imply opplyhl)! pr.,•lloloenu" 1111J
lloloc~1u.,,t ootcit<>rle• lo the contempuriu·~· \\urld "" dmc our
eyes and eon. to Lhe pain &JlJ r>o1>Slhlh1y of the prC>Cnt lly
currylnj\ our """ hl,wry we bequeath lnsl~ht 10
contemporary struAAfcs If we are o,·erwhdmcd. thnu~h , lw
history nnd ~eek 10 overwhelm othcn.. our memory lx!com'"'
n wed~ of iml\cr nnd msulnnty, a blum inMrun1en1 m1hcr
than 11 ddlco.tcly nurtutL-J m<:mory . Thoo.e "h" ~11 o
""'rutlnl~
recum co ~ I were refusJnj\ lhc nM< of lllc \\ikl..rnc,,,
an undcrstand.'tble po.tjllon Yet freedom la,• el-..:whcre, heyonJ
the knc,wn, and new p:ittcm.~ of life and woro;hip were to ho,
dc,·cloped In the prun and s ~ e of lloonni,,n (f.llL~, T/lUltml"
k~i.'Y, Th<'Olo,blq/Lilx.mticn, p 121 )

education, agriculture: and health in those area, of thl.! world where large
communities of poor lfaha'is exl.st. An Oftlce of Social and f',eonomic
Dc,·elopmem has been sci up at the Baha' i \\·ortd Centre."
If, how,wer, a religious group decides to migr:ue to a ne\\' land In order
to set up the ideal society, chen we are dealing with a somewhat djfferent
phenomenon. These groups arc usually more closet~· linked with ,ocial
isolaclonism and ptetlsm than social refonnism. They are probahly better
considered as a type of monasticism (see pp. lJl-2).
111 recent years, social reformism has been rcvi\'Cd in the Chrbtian
world, particularly in South America. Here, the promoters of
'liberation theology' call for the Church to be more active in the field of
social action. Their aim is IO bring about, in the near fu1ure, a society in
which there is political, economic and cultural freedom , this being
a sign and anticipation of the liberation tO be achieved in the Kingdom of
God on earth promised in the Bible. Those who hm·e pun.ued rhi-. path
hove often become closely associated with Marxist philoi.ophy nnd
developed links with socialist revolutionary groups dedicated 10 the
overthrow of the 1orolitarian regimes in Latin America. A similar process
hos also occurred in the Mu.slim world, where groups have arisen
trying to make Islam a more socially active force. The desire rn ser up the
perfect lslamic society came 10 the surface mos1 strongly in Iran
where it was the basis of the J 979 Revolution. This was preceded hy several
decades of vigorous debate. Writers such as 'Ali Sh:iri'ati sought to evolve a
new formulation of Islam based on communalism :ind social action As ln
the Christian world, some of the groups dedjcated to 1he task of brin~n~
out the social egalitarianism inherent in Islam set up a dialogue I\ ith
Marxism.''
Religious movementli aimed at social refonn have also arisen amon~
the Eastern religions In modern tlmeb. Some Buddhist cnonaswries ha\'e
developed programmes aimed at ~nefiting tl1e lU and depri\·ed, while In
Hinduism there exists the Sarvodayo mo,•emcnt (see pp 501-2)
 S· PATIIW,\YS 1' 0 REi,IGIOUS EXl'ERtt;;,,cE • L29

The religious attitude in Lhis pathwny ls an oulward-looking one thal

e.'{prcsses itself in ser"ice and shows love and charily Low:trds aU, ia
particulnr the poor and disadvontoged. The source or religious experience
on 1hls pathway is 1he feeling of uru1y and fellowship 111th OLhers who arc
imbued with similar ideals. Some ma1,• ha1·e a commlssioninl! type of
n:gcncrntivc religious experience (sec pp. 92-1) on this pathway.

ASCETICISM

Some of those who see the world as the source of eVil :md corruption hove
considered that the best means of achieving salvation is to isolate oneself as
fnr as possible from rhe world. This is often linked to disciplining the body
severely, to reduce its dependence on the physical world. The world and its
pressiai! concerns are the source of eVil; IL is the pressure of worldly cares
and the temprntions of the ne.~h chat prevent human beings from achievinll
sal1·atlon. Therefore, the best way of achieving salvation is to live away from
contact with other human beuw;. This is the solution of Lhe hermit or
ascetic. This pathway is common to both theistic and monistic religion.

•
Christiartity has, in the past. had a strong ascetic ,.. • z C
tradition. It has tended to consider the world as the ..
domain oi the Devil; the human presence in it is the
result o( the curse of Adam. Asceticism also occupies a
cenrml position in Rinduism. The latter considers the
world as an illusion obscuring Reality and thus
preventing human beings from achieving liberation.
The ascetic ideal is represented by the sannyasin, who
is at the fourth and culminating stage in a human
being's social progression. In this srnge, a man who has
il:d a full and t'ruitful life as a household.er gives up all
or this. He retires to a life of seclusion in which he can
read the scriptures and meditate, free of the concerns
or the world. lie then underrake.~ a life of wande ring,
devoid of earthly possessions and free of all social
two main sects In Jainism -
bondi. and obligations, even the obligations of religious the Shvctombaro
rites and ceremonies. Even more committed to the (whi1e-0lnd). who dre&1
ascetic ideal is Jainism. In this, the moin path to in white. and chc
liberation is the separation of ji,ia (sentience or the Dlgtimbarn (spac.:-clnd l,
soul) from aji'OO (non-sentient matter). This is a who toke the doclrioe or
process that can best be promoted by the renunciation the renunCIIJti0n or oll
physical thm~ even further
of all things physical. and are naked Uere a
The ascetic aims to discipline the physical needs of Oigamh<1m sadhu offers
the body as much IIS possible so as 10 regulate the prayers while sumdiog in che
appetites, cravings and passions of the flesh. This holy water of the Rrun Kund
(Godavari Riw,)
disciplining of the body aims to cut the individual away during a Kumbba-Mel:i
from all lb.at b extraneom, to l,plritual development. In festival (a /!(ltherin,I( o{ sadhu,,)
lhe Hindu tradition, this is manifested in us mildest
 l,lO + TII& RF.LIGIOUS F.Xl'flUfNC P. AN!) ITS F.XPRrss1r1s

Ason1c 1S)I 1s Rt 'l>OIIIS~t A line of st,uues ol the Buddha ,n :t 11:illery a1 \\'at

Bencbamabopitr, Bnni!kok. In the srotuc ncnrcst to rhc comero, the Buddha can be sc,,n
with rlhs showing through the chc.st w:ill This represents the Buddhn dunng the ,c,·~n
fast that he undertook to try to achieve enlig,hi.,nmenL Loter the Buddha tau.Cht th<
'Mldc.!I,: Way· lnvoMil!\ avoic.llug bolh um.h.1c lll!l>tcrities ru1c.l undue nnachment 10
material thing.~.

form lo the braltma.c arya doctrine preached by .Mahat.ma Gandhi. sdf-

control and abstinence from all evil desires and passions. Its more extreme
form, capasya, involves the severe self-discipline of the body "
Mortification of the flesh is also an honoured parL of Christian tradition 111
both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Some have even taken it as far
as such practices as scli-tlagcUatlon or the austerities of St Simeon Stylicc:,,
who sat at the top of a pillar for thirty years without Jescendml!
Asceticism, or uc any rate ils cxtrcJnes, are disappro\•cd of in Buddhism and
the Baha'i Faith.
The religious attitude of those who follow this pathway is one of
detachment from the world. The}' put themsel\'es outside the social \\OrlJ
in which other human beings participate; they hecome ourside ohserver~
The main source of rcligioui. experience in tbi:, pathway i~ the rc:idin~ of
the scriptures, prayer, fosti~. and the otJ1er au~teritics tlult the aset!nc
undertakes. The ascetic may ha,·c ony of the types of rcli~ious experienc-e,
but typlcallr the mystical or charlMUatlc (sec pp. 9~-7)
I
MONAS'rlGISM

Similar to ascetics in their vbion of the world. nrc those 11 ho cum to

monastic communities llcre al!ain the world ,s seen os the ~rcatcst
 5· PATlf\\',WS T{) REl, ICIOlJI, EXl1t:RIENCE + 131

obst:tclc lo spLricual progress an<l, therefore, the aim Is lO !solace the

individual from the concerns anJ lCmptations of the physical world. Bue
rnchcr than (lJ) il1<livi<lual becoming n hcrmlc or ascetic, a c.-ommunity is set
up in which lhe ouL~ide world is shul out as much as p0ssible. The monastic
community provides the opportunity to concentrate on the religious life for
lhose who see no way of doing this In the outside world. Lo some monastic
communities. austerities and disciplining of lhe body are practised. There
i~ also a concern with the building up of an ideal community in these
~roups (see the discussion of social reformism, p. 128). This pad1way is co
be found in both lheistic and monistic religions.
As wilh ai,cetlcism, Chrlsti:mity
has fn1rnd monasticism in accord
,nth 1~ view or the world. The
monastic orders (both male and
l\!male) flourished in Europe during
che :\liddle Ages, forming the
backbone of Roman Catholicism
duriJ~ this period. Monasticism has
alsC> been very imporcam i11 the
Orthodox and Oriental churches.
The walls 01· che monastery enabled
the monks co hlock out the
concerns, pas,sions a.nd Impurity of
the secufar world. In addition, che MONM1'1CIS!ll: Thu Great La,·ra I, firM in the
monastery provided the ide:il hierarchy of mona.,,terlei. on Mt Athos in Greece
circumstances lrt whicb learning and is dedicated to the Oormilion of Athanaslus,
and ritual crndicions could be taught who \\1th !he help of his spiriru11I prote~e. !he
and transmitted from one .,mpcror Nikephoro" n Phokus, founded in 963
the first lavm (smoll group of hcrmiL< with •
generaclon co Lhe next. Buddhism, common ,upcrlor and a central house of proyer)
forbidden by Its founder from on Mount Athos and inr.roduced the rule for
embracing lhe ascecic ideal of cenobitic (monaslic} life. The monastery is
Hinduism but sharing with the famed for its library and fiftccnth-ccncury
lautir lts view of the physical world frescoes.
as an iJlusion hindering human
spiritual progress, ha..~ also turned to the monasclc ideal. In ThemvadrJ or
Southern Buddhism (in Sri Lanka. Burma, Thailand and Cambodia), most
males spend some part of their lives in the monastery. Monasteries also play
a central role In many forms of 11ahayana Buddhbm, especially Tibetan
Buddhism. In India, there are many Hindu monasleries but monasticism is
particularly impormnc among the Jnins Although i\luhammad forbodc
monasdcism, one iinds elemenLs of the monastic ideal in lhe Sufi retreaL~
called wkiyyas or khanigahs." Monasticism is also forbidden in the B:iha'i
Faith, but there are spiritual retreats in chc form of summer schools which
temporarily perform tbe same function.
We mo)' consider :is a subgroup of monasticism those sectarian .iiroups
of Procei.cantism that decided to separate themselves from iJ1e rest of
IJ2 + Tim IU; Llf;IOl'S •:Xl'I\Rl•:i-:c· P. .\)>I) ITS f:Xl'R•:ssio:-.

society. Thc1,c tried to scc up ml ideal 1,oclc1y awuy from the wicked wa, 1- 1,1
the world Such Amups emphasizt! pcm;on:11 piety and the ethical nml moral
obUgauons of the individual. 111 ChrislilUlicy, av111y rcligiou., woup<, w 1111 left
Euroix: to scnlc North .\merlca m the scvcnt1..'Cnth nnd c1iihtccmh ccmunc,
had hcforc them the ,<ision of crcming o perfect society in their new homeland
\\'ithin Nonh Am.:ric:i, there are many i,uch Aroups: for CA11111plc. the Old
Order .\mish and the Huucritcs in t.he United States ,. C'..erman and Dutch
Mennonites mo,•c.-<l to southern Russi:1 in the ei~hwcmh and cnrly ninct1..'Clllh
century and a ~oup called the Tempters of southern (}cnnany mov1..,J to
P,llcstine in the ninececnth century.' We may also include, as a ,u~roup of
mon~ticism, se\'eral new religiou:; 1110\'cmcnll> that :.e~rc/!,lte thei.r follow en,
in small self-contained communicies which have minimal comnet with the
outside world. lsi,;coN (International Society for Krishna Com,ciou!>nc~, llarc
Krishnas) and Lhe Children of Goel are examples of this."
We have noted (see p. 128) the close link between monasticbm and
social reform.ism. The bal.n.nce between isolaliorusm and social .refonniJ,m
hns wiried over the years in most monastic communities. Many monasric
communities have moved away from the aim of !solacing themselves from
the wo.rld. These are now active socially in tbe world and a.re thus tendint
towards social reformism. Monastic orders in Christendom, Sufi orders in
Islam and Buddhist monasteries have increasingly undertaken educacional,
medical and other social roles in the modem world. These then cease to ~
oi the monastic pathway as deFined here.
The religious attitude in monasticism is t0ward~ an mward-Lu.rnint
detachment from the world. The source o( religious experience is re:idinll
from the scripture, prayer, fasting and sometimes some austeritic~. There
may, in some monastic communities, be o reli~ious experience from the
sense of community and fellowship. The main types of religious e;,;perienoc
ou this pathway are tbe mystical or tbe confirming cype of regeneratwe
experience (see pp. 92-1 , 95-7)

GNOSTICISM

The principal idea of the gnostic m0\'cmcnts is tb:it the cent.rat religiow,
experience i!> linked to a special knowlcd,lte to which only a select iew have
access. The knowledge usually takes the form of an inner (e.~oienc}
undc.rstamllng of either the scriptures or the rituals of the religion. ThL,
inner understanding, which can only be achieved throu~h the path set out
by the group, leads to enlightenment and hence libertuion
Mose gnostic groups are not concerned with proselytism. They consider
that only a small number of people are capable (or ha\'e reached the ~ta~)
o( apprcciatu1g the gnoscic truth. Their smallness of numbers do~ not. In
any way, iavaUdate their claim for them, indeed it umlerlincs it.
Gnosticism usually has some form of religious hierarchy in which the
esoteric knowledge that leads to c nligbtcnment 1s handed do" n thro~ the
 5: PATIIW1\YS TO R~; LICIOUS EXPEIUENCE + 133

OF TEN DMNENAM&S

TH& K.\88.\IJST MOTIF OF 111E SEPIDRO'lll TREE: This motif is often also referred lO as the Tree
of Life. The ten Sephiroth, the ten circles in the picture, arc the primary emanmions from
1he unknowable GadheRd ( En.Sol or Ein·Sof, 'without end') The seven lower Scphiro th
are based o n 1 Chronides 29 J 1. Muoh Kabl>,'\lht litcrntur<.l Is concerned with ddincnling
the associali.om and relalio,uhlps between the Scphlroth. Thi• depicli.on of the tn.>c ls n
Chrutianized one, drawn from a Laun orWnal published by Athana..lus Kircher. n
German Je.wt scholar, In his Oedipus ACl!YPtiacws, ,•ol. 2, pan 1, Rome, J65J, p. 289
JJ1 • Tllf. RF.I.ICIOl'S FXPERlt:NCF. .\~fl IT:; FXl•RF'SSIO'I

Acncratlons from mru,tcr to pupil Only those \\ ho h;I\ e l'>t:t;II throuth th,
~ystcm and hav-e had the knowlcditc h:111dcd down IO them 111 the apprCl\ cd
manner con appreciate ii and benefit from II fully. The kno11 leJJ..lc con,
usu:1ll)•, only he learned on a rcri.on:11 mastcr-to-r>upil haM, In other w1,nl,,
it cannot be learned from books Most tradition, allo,, thn1 ,omc e, entunlly
IX!comc m:u;tcrs or tJ1eir own i.plritunl prol\rcbS. An c1 t,11 Mnallcr numhcr
reach the sca~c of hem~ able to reach the p(lth to others and rhu, become
l>Pirltunl 0111.l>ters Lo tJ1clr own right
Gnosticism appears in varied fom1s in all the world's maJor rcli~ou,
rrndition&. In .ludnism tht.:re h :we existed \'(lriom, tnm,tlc ~roupm~,
historical!~·. the Essene:. and Kabbahsl!>. and, (llllonll comemporan·
movements, llasidism ln tl1e Christian \\'est , #\nnstic <;ecc., such 11..<, the
Cathar~ were particularly prcn1lcnt in tJ1e Middle Agci.. but they sull
exbt today, for example in Christian Science. One of the featun,,
or this tendency in the \\'est is its eolectlc nature. Consequently, mnny
gnostic groups in 1.hc Wes1. have little connection wllh Christianity. for
example New Thou~t, the Rosicrucians and Scientology.'' The approoch
thot has become known as tJ1e Perennial PhUosophy can also be clmised a,
gnostic.••
Among Muslims. many sect.« and movements have exhihited gnostic
features. The mystical philosophy caught in Shl'I Islam under tJJe name oi
irfan (spiritual knowledge) or hikmar /wisdom) is a strongly mccllectual
gnostic tradition. Another Shi'i tradition , tJJc medieval lsma'Uu.. lx!Ucn,J
thac they had knowled~e of the inner (esoteric) meanin~ (the ban11) of the
Qu.r'an and of the rituals or Islam, whUe the mainstream onhodoxy had
only the outer (cxotcric) meaning (lhc ~ah ir). Tho:,c II ho reached the
hi~her srages of the lsma'ili initiation were introduced co yet deeper
meanl11gs (the batin of lhc lx,tin) Most Sut'J ~roups are also to a Large
extent based on an inner ceach~. Only by becoming an initiate (murui )
oi the order and hcing taught by the spiritual master, the shaykh or
murshid , can this inner teachin~ be ac.'(Juircd. There are sel'cral other
gnostic ~roups in the Middle Easr such as the Mandeans
llowever, the gnostic approach emerge;, from being a minority Interest
anc.l become:, the main:otrcam of the reli~ion as one pas&c:o from the \\'ci,tcm
reli~ions to the E:1st. In Hinduism, the ,auru is (Ible to Auidc his followers
lO self-realization and eventually lO sat-chi1-a1tcwdu (ex.htcncc-
consciousnci.s-bhss) and moksha ( liberation l In Buddhism, there 1::, a clO.l>e
connection hctween monasticism and gnosticism. Most fom1s <>i Buddhism
centre, !lli c.le:,cribed abo1•e, on monastic: communitie::,; within the Buddh1M
monastery, however, there jQ often a spiritual master-pupil relacion,hip.
witllin which the individual monks develop. In particular thi!- b true of
Tibetan Buddhism. The role of llhe spiritual teacher (the lama) and the
passing on of esoteric teachings are central to this n;ligious system
Th.: principal rell~lous attitude on tbil, pathway in\'oJ,~ a search for
truth This search is priocipallv incellcctual, a struMle 10 underst..1nd; some
would ~ay that it is nlso !'!lime. Pnn of the rcli~iou!- utcitude must 111::,o he
 ~ PATHWAYS TO REl,IGIOl!S EXl'Ekl ENCE + IJS

- - Tm. ~L\M>£.'-'\S OF IRAQ

TIie 's<roinJI t:ruclt' (ku,<ta) is r,roised in mt old tu.-ros1ic
ps(llm, u:h,ch is reci1cfl, /or example, aL u-eddi11,rl
ccrcmoni<.-s.
In lhe n:tme of the Great Life,
G:-;osTtClS~I the sublime li#il he ,Uorified.
Coml.' in kindnct,.s, kusL'l
You :ire the path of the pcrfcet,
the way "hlch leads up 10 the Pl"°" or Llghl.
\'ou are eternal life.
who wem fonh and settled in a lrue ht:.1n.
Woe to h ,m who Is nol aucmive t.0 you, my lord .
You arc rbc armour or the perfect.
the tmlh (Sroro), In which is no error.
You arc wise and pleasant.
you teach wisdom and praise lO all who love your
name ...
The dead heard you and Uved
lbe sick heard you and became well.
You grant forgiven""" to the elect ond perfect,
ln whose hcan.~ ku.<ui ha, sculcd.
(Foerster, G11osis, vol 2, pp. 136--7, 234-5)

\\'RITINC.S OP TIJE r o u ,ow[RS OF BAsrUDES {SECOJ,.'0-<:E.'/TURI'

CHIU$TIM Glit)~Trr. Ot Al t;Xi\$1\1,\)
So whoc,•er learns thc-se thin)ls and becomes acquainted "ith
all the .u,gcls and th<: cause, of lhclr existence - such n
person bccontL'S lm'isiblc and incomprehen,.lhlo to nil anguls
and uuthoritle; . . ,\od fow people can know lhese thlt,gs -
only one ln a lbouSlllld, and two ln ten lhousand . ..
One is wholly forbidden 10 reveal lheir mysteries; rather,
one must keep them secret in silence. (Quoted m Loycon,
Tlw Gnoscic Scriprufl!8, p 425)

thac of obedience to one's spiritual master, particularly in the early st~es

of the path The attitude of the spiritual mnstcr to others is one of
compassion bul dctachmenl. The main source of rdi#ous experience is the
scriptures; it occurs when there is an intellcctm1I enliAbtcnmcnt rcl!ardlng
the true meaning of the scripture. The gnoslic pathway is closely linked to
mysticism. Many gnost.Jc pathways use the experiential dimension of
mysticism, including medication or chanting, which helps to achieve
nltcred states of consciousness.

l\1YSTICISM

The term 'mysticism' iS used to describe a wide variety of religious

phenomena. For lack of a more suitable word, I sh11II u~c it co refer to chose
groups that consider that the central religious experience can be~t be
136 • Tllf, REI IOIOl'::I EXPP.Rlf.NCf ,\Ml ITS f;Xl'RlSSIO'-

recreated throu~ acbic, ing altered states of con~citHbnc;.;, Such stat,"

can be reached in two different wnys. The Or-l i~ the p:tth of 1nereaM.:<l
p:,ychological 11rousnl nchic\'cd, for example, hy rhythmic11I chunw1~ or
d:meing. This cuJmlnarni. in my~LlcaJ ecstasy (In Sun~m. the ,rn1c of U'<Jfl/
or /ta/)." The second is the path of decreased mcncal nctivily leadm~ con
deep ,tate of medlrntion (in Yoga, this I:. called sw11otl/11) Both paths lead
finally co a trance srnte. This st:ne Is considered to lead the hcl11:"er co sec
Reality anti, therefore, it le:1ds to libcrntion. ,\ <.-ommon tcdmique u.,ed 111
mysticism to achieve an altt!red st:1te of con:-c1ousne~ b the ntual
repetiti\'e chanting of a name or a short formula Thi<; practice c:in he found
across Lhe rcliglollb world. ll h, known as l11.:s.vchmm1 in Eru.tcm OrthodoA
Christianity, dliik-r in Sufism. JOp<l (the rec1tlnA of mantras} in llindui,m,
and 1wmbucsu in J:1p:111ese Pure Land Buddhi~m. 1•
This rypc oi religious experie11ce, which can be found in hoth Eascem
and Western religions, is usually closely linked to gnosticis-m This is
b~cause the method of achie"ing the trance stale can only u:.uaJJy be uiuiwt
by a spiritual master, who acts as a guide on the mystic path In the
Christian \Yest mysticism is n fringe accivicy of a smaU minorily buc in the
lslamlc world, the Sufi orders play a much more important role. /\!, "e
proceed further East, the importance of this ;1ppro:1ch incre:1ses greatly and
it occupies a cemral place in lllnduism anti Butldhlsm. The various sy!.lems
of mediracion are a central concern in t11ese Eastern reli~ons.

llln·AL R£P£TITl\'E CllA.\'TL~G Members of a Sufl orJ.:r chnntln4 (dJ11kr}

 5: P,\TIIW,\YS TO REl,I0I0US EXPERIENCE • 1.17

There 1s o ne Important difference ootwcen the mysticism of the West

and of the East. The trance-like state achieved hy \\'estern mystics is often
described us filled with vivid visions and auditions_ Examples of this include
the visions of Christ, Mary, angels and so on
rcp0rtcd by such figures as St Theresa and St John
of l11c Cross. The imnce-Uke state of the Eastern
mystic, however, is usually a forn1less. , •isionless
experience. This difference perhaps takes us back
to the orientation of these respective rellgions.
Western religion is predominantly devotional in
nature. and so the product of lhe trance-like state is
o ,-isiou of either the object of devotion o r
something closely associated with it. Eastern
relil!.i on is predominancly o riented t0wards
achie,in.g a.n abstract norion - insight The trance-
like state thtmdore tends to be empty and formlei.s.
The main method of :ichieving altered states of
conscionsness is nlso difierent in the two forms of
mysticism. It is achieved by increasinjl levels of
mental arousal through chanting and similar
activlt)' in the Western religions, and decreasing
levels through meditation in the Eastern religions.
This may also have a bearing on the content of the A nlnereenth-cenrury depiction
of the prophc1 f:~ckicl's ,ision
trance. (See chapter 7 for a further consideration of of God'• g,lory !"our angels
this theme.) emerge fron1 n storm and
The rellgJous attitude on this pathway is one above them is the Lord
that tends to be rurned inwards, crying to obtain a seated upon His throne.
dlrect persona.! experience of the sacred. Once it is (Eukiel ch 1-3)
iclt that this has been attained, then there is usually
a feeling of love and compassion, not just towards other individunl human
be~, but more expansively, cowards the whole cosmos. The main :,Ource
of reli~ous experience on this pathway is in the achievement of a1tered
state~ of consciousness by such melhods as chanting and meditation. The
reli~ous experience on this pathway is of the mystical type described in
chapter 4 (see pp. 95-7).

Tl-I E EVOLUTION OF THE P ATHWAYS

Oi course, religions take time to evolve this variety of religious expressions.

From the initial small group of disciples gathered together after the death
of the founder of the religion , there is a gradua l growth and development of
the religion during which these pathways emerge. Different relig.loos have
manifested them at different stages in their evolution. This depends co
some extent on the teachings of the founder. and to some extent also on the
spiritual culture of the environment. The Buddha gave instnicdons to hi~
 l.}'j • TIit, IU.Lll,lOt s F.Xl'EIUE:-.t.:£ \1\1) I rs f.Xl'IH,t'iSICIN

diwlplc~ tu fom111 monu.;,tlc community tlw, pa1h\\.1y lh<:rcforc Jc:n.:lopcJ

early In UutlJhism IluJJhism nro~e In :in cn\'lronment 111 "htch lhc
i2um..Ji~c1plc relotion:,hip wos well c:.1..1hlishl'd· the U11ddh:1 hnd moJdlcJ
lum~cJr on this pattern in hi.s rclmionsh1p wilh hi~ disciples anJ therefor<:
the l!nos1ic plllhway also :iroi-c e:rrly in the hismry or Budtlhhm
111 Christloni1v,. monascic orders took ~omc SO(l vcnrs to l'mc~1: .
(altltou!Vl :,omc prow-monastic commumtlc:,. Lhc cenobites. had e,l,t1.:J
for nho111 :?SO years). Muh:1mmotl forhadc monastioi:,m and therefore 1h,~
pathway cvol\'cJ late am! only to a ,cry limited cxwnt in blam Thl
mystical pathway In Islam probah.ly die.I not arise tmul /llw.lims had hccn 111
conroct wilh Indian religion~ :111d l~rncd the techniques of nchil:, lnl!
alu,recl :.rnte:, or C()nsciousne~:, from them. Thc 8ul1 order:,, LJ1crefore. tool..
~ome 500 years 10 emerAe in Islam.
A nc\\ er religion such :ts the Bal1t1'i Fuith ha:, 1101 yet, In it:. 150-ycar
h1s1ory, h:td time to develop these social paths of reli~otL~ expre~slon to
tlll)'lhlng more Lhun a rudimentary e,'l:tcnt. The potential i:, ne,·cnhclcs,
prebent \\ill1in th1: teachings and structure:. o! the religion to s:1tu,fy thOM'
who would incline towards legalism, reformism , mystici~m. or any other of
tl1c pathways. The most important clistlncth·e feature or the Baha"i Fruth in
tlm regard, however, b the absence of a class of reliitious professionals to
act as priests, men or learning or sp iritual guides. The only 111divitlw:ib who
ha,·e a degree of personal prominence in LJ1e religion, the Counsellors anJ
Auxili:iry Boord members, hn\'e only limited terms of office and no
authority. This restricts their ability to build up any dcgri,c of pi,rsonal
leadership or rel]Aious professionalism.

l am not , of course, In this book trying to answer any 1>UC!h quesllon., a:,
which of these social expressions of religion is che most valid,:, Such a
question is , on reflecllon, pointless. lndi,•iduals or societies choo,c
panicuJar forms of reli~ious expression because these forms seem to brim~
them closest to the central religious experience. Thus it ~eem, thnt
particular form:, or religious expression evolve to sutt particular types or
individuals and societies. One can think of this a~ tlie way tha1 the vast
array of human types and cult1Ures expres:. tl1e ccncml experience ol'
reli~on. The only sensible answer would LJ1ereforc appear 10 be that each
form of reli~ious expression is the most valid for thos1;i follo" it rind find 11
co be satisfactory.

A CLASSIFIC,\TIOX OF R ELIC.IOUS GROl'PS

Wt: have seen m chis chapter that the \'anous p:1thwars 10 rell1Vou1-
• experience, the perfom1orivc aspects of religion. cwcrlop co some cx1cn1
Any one rcU~ous group may exhibit one or more of thc~e pathway:, to
sah-ation. The~e expressions appeal to different human hein,l!.<; ha.,ed on
differences in personality and culture. Thi~ leuds us to a p(>~,ihlc \\ riy of
 5 l'.\TIIW,WS TO RELIGIOUS EXPf.RlENCE • lJC)

cla:-sifying religious groups rhat is different in b:i.~is to the clnssificarions

~hen tn ebapcer J (pp. 7J-7).
Some reli~ious ~roups only exhibic one of these melhods o{ social
expression (or possibly 1wn imerlinked methods). Therefore their appeal
will be to on1y a narrow range of psychological types from among the general
population. \\'e may nnme chese groups ·sects' or 'culcs'. Pencecostalist
churches, for example. predominantly exhibit evangelism. Sufi orders in
bl:t111 chiefly exhibit mysticism and gnosticism. In general, the word 'sect'
applies to those groups 1hat are more tighcly organized and where beliefs are
more 11.'U'TOwly defined (that ls, they are epistemologically authoritarian);
the word 'cult' to die more loosely o~anized groups where there is not such
n ,1rict insistence on ndberence to particular beliefs (see also p. 77).
On the oilier hand, any reli_gion that would clnim to be a 'world religion'
should include all the different forms of religious expression and thus,
poientinlly, be able to appeal to :ill types of people. Any of the major
relilljous traditions, such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism, are
ahle to do this and can thus appenl to all types of individuals.
or course, many religious groups e.tist that are Intermediate between
che two extremes depicted ahove. An approach incorporating more than
one. hut not all. social e.xpressions can be found in intermediate groupings
tbac we might call 'churches' or 'denominations'. As an example of this from
the \\'est, we may cite the Church of England, which incorporates ritualism,
eY.u\gellsm. rcfonnbrn and even a limited degree of monasllcism and
mysticism. From cite East, we could cite 1'ibetan Buddhism. This combines
gnosticism, ritualism, monasticism and mysticism. Because these
~rouplngi. incorporate se,•eral different approaches. they appeal to a wider
cross-section of the population. They are
often, as in the two ex(lmples cited,
national religions, or as In the case of
Sikhism, che religion of a particular
p«.:oplc. This category would also include
most of those groups that have usually
been called denominations, such as the
Baptist and Congregationalist churches in
America.
.\s discusS<..o<.J in chapter 2 (p. -ll), this
way of defining religious groups can be
extended from the social expression of
r"Ugl.on co the co11ceptual level ab<>. A~ well
as catc~ for all cypes of social reU~ious SUUllb.\t. Guru Nanak ( 1469-1539) .
3ft~r many ye,,~ of tra,·.:lling. settled
expression, a world religion must also in Kanarpur where he fanned and
app,;al to all t)'pel> of indhidua.ls :tt the preached. g:tcberlllj\ around himself o
conceptual Je,·el, by IL~ ability co encompass grour, of followers Many of hl~ hymn\
both the theistic and monistic viewpoints. ure includ~'<I in the AIii Grw11lt He Is
.\ sect will usually on1y appeal either to the rorisiderL-d the flnn of rJui ten
~ru-foumkn. of SilJtihm.
theistic or co the monistic ,icwpoin!
110 • Tiff: RF.I IC,l{)l:S F.XPF:Rt~;:,.;()f ANO ITS ~:Xl'Rf.Sstoi-

lnfonnalio11 011 each of th~c tlil'fcrcnt pathway~ of .,oc:i:JI e..,prcs.,ion of

rcliAion must be sou(\ht in book1- that denl with them 111d1\'idualh· On
r11u:11ixm, sec Crimes, /k.4i1111i1vis irt /U1uul S11ul1cs There :ire no ncfoqumc
studies of l~:1lbm. but see Falk, /,aw und l<dt~ion. esp. pp. 9-24, und ~I.
~I. J Fischer, /ran , pp. 32-10.3 The hcsl nccount.~ of c,·nn~cli,m arc to lie
found In boo~ on millenarianism nnd fundamentalism :;ec Mu~den,
F1mdam<mcolis-rn and 1\meri<'un Gulrnrc, Sandeen. The I<ooc,q 11(
Fu11damc11talis111 and Coplan, Stmlie.~ in Religious Fwulmmmtttlism (,cc
also the sujl,gestcd funh1,r readin~ for chapter 14). On social rdom1ism, ,ec
Gutierrez,,\ Theolnf!y o.f I,ibcrorion. On usceticism, s1..-c i\nwn. Tht· r.<11/ rif
dw Desert :l.Jld Shiraishi, ,-\scecictsm in Butldhism a,ul Bruhmwmism On
monasticism, see Panikkar, 8/e:.-setl SimpliC'icy, and Lawnmce • .\fcrlit~Ylf
Monasticism. On gnosticism, sec 8. \\'alkor, Gnosticism. On myslici-,m, liCC
\\'ood;,, U11derstantlin4 .Myslicis-m, and Underhill, Mysc:ic,sm . See chaptl!r
J, pp. 73-7, for various other typologies of religious groups.
 6

FAITH, BELIEF AND CONVERSIO~

Ii. OW'TER 4, WE EXAMI!>ED THE CENTRAL R£LIOIOt:s experience LhaL is the

ori~aung Impulse of religion. Closely con111ec1ed with and arising from this
is religious faith, which keeps religion going In this chapter, we shall look
a1 the nature of faith and belief, examining how It arises in individuals as
they grow up and how faith can change (oonversion) or renew itself.

TUE NATURE OF FAITH AND BELIEF

~!any philosophers and lheologians have tried to define religious faith. Clearly,
there is no agreed formula that adequately describes all ru,-pect:, of this
phenomenon. One useful distinction that can be made is between two concepts
that hm·e been ,·ruiously described as 'immediate and intuitive' faith and
"i.ntcllectual' faith;' '(aith in' and 'faith that';' 'belief in' and 'belief that':' or
holding to a 'personal' and 'impersonal' math: f;vcn in Buddhism, which is
sometimes considered to be a religion that does not invoh·e faith, these
concepts exist.' To clarify this matter, I shall define here the first part of each
of die al><we pairs, which I shall call 'faiili-in'. Faith-in is immediate and
tnlultive; it Is pre-propositional in the sense that it does not d<:pcnd on
doctrinal formulas and propositions. It can be described as a cllsposicion to
believe in something (or someone or some event), or ns hnvlng n particular,
commlned worldview. It is personal in the sense that It mu~t be located in the
hean of the indh~dual belie,"e r. The second or the above pairs, which I shall call
'belief-that', is" hnt resu!LS when an attempt is made 10 fonnufate a content co
i8!th-in. At a Simple le\'el, this may just be a credaJ fonnula; at ics most complex
it can be o multi-volume work of system.'ttic theology. Belief-that is intellectual;
Jt relnws to a proposition or doctrine; it indicates a dispo~icion to believe that
a proposition is crue; it is impersonal in the sense that it i.s independent of the
person making it. Fruth-in is represemed by swtements such tU,: 'l have fa.ith in
(or believe in) God': while beUei-thac would be represemed by: ' I beUc,·e that
(or ha,·e faith chat) God is three persons in one'• The first is only meaningful
when taken in relation to the person who makes it; It Is not a freestanding
proposition. The second hru. a meani.ng independent of its author.
Havin.g mnde this preliminary distinction, we can now try to extract
some of the meaning from within the concept of religious falth. In the
• 1-11 •
142 • TIii' Rf:( ll~l()VS EXrERlt i:-r.t A!'/ll ITS F:x1•1u:ss1os

follu11 in!\ unalysi:., each 11.>pcct o( faith will be c.\:tminc<l ,, lth rc(\.1r<l tu
foid1-m (md lh:lid-th:u

f.'tdt/1 - 111 C111d Bdief-tltc.c :

T11l'S1'
faith -tn: h,irh-in involves an elemcm of trustm.l\ in the ohJcct oi one':, f:uth,
it lnvol\'c., the fco:ling thnt the object of one':, foith ii, in M>me WII) 4n,,1tcr
than onc:.elf and as able Co lead one to w-em.:r fulOlment :rnd happanei.,; that
om; c:111 lrn!-11 it to act in a hcncficent way
Llclid-th:1t: Tn,st exprcsse,- itself In doctrinal fonnukll, 1hat speak of tht:
lkity :1:, the Beneficent. This ru.pcct of belief is found iu Japane!>e ,\m1tahha
(,\mida) Buddhism, where doctrine holds that callin.l\ on the n:11111.: of
.\mitabha Buddha with faith wiUI lead to the believer's rebirth in ,\miUtblw
Buddha's Western Paraclise.

Ot:n;/\Ot.NO, Ok Rt;UA1'<.:E
Faith-in· The foetor o( crust leads nacurnlly to che feeling of dependence 1>n
the object of foith ; a feeling thut one oon, with confidence, rel}' on the
object of one's faith.
Belief-that: Dependence is expressed in such doctrinoJ formulas a,
determinism (thtat all oi' one's ci rcumstances and actions are already
predetermined by God), which is to be found in J'roteMant Cbri:.tianlty and
1\~h'ari theologr in Sunni Islam; there is ales.~ extreme fom1 in the Sufi idea
of tawakkul (reliance upon God) and rida (contentment with the ,, ill of
God).

FAfTI Lf1JJ.N£SS
Faith-in: Part of the faith-in relationship involves a sense of loyalty and
faithfulness towardi; one's object of faith. together with confidence that tlu~
is reciprocated.
Belief-that: Mose reli~ioos have a doctrinal formula chat emphasizes che
need for foithfulnei.s and loyalty. This lb often tmni.lated into doctrines of
failhfulness and loyalty to the institutions oi th..: reh~ion and to the
religious community Laws relatin.l\ co marrial!,c and the hrin,iin~ up of
childr..:n often emphasize the need for tJ1is loyalty to thc r..:ligion

LO\'f,
Faith-lo: Faith-in involves a grem sense of love towanb the object oi one·:.
iaith 110d a iecling of being in mm )O\•ed
Belief-that: Lo,·e is often emphasized in crcdal formulas that reicr to the
mutual Jove betwcc11 God :ind hunumity.
 6 ~.\I fll, BELlt,F .\NO CONVERSION • 14.1

OBF.ntl?-Cf
F:iilh-in: One aspect of faith-in is the ,,;llingncsb to obey the inscructioos of
thc ohjec1 of one's faith .
Bclief-thm: This uspcc1 of a belief is expressed in the reliitious requirement
10 c;ury out the detaU:, of rltuul low or spirilUal discipline. Any deviation
from the lnws und rules of 1hc reli!!,ion need repentance and expimion. This
a~pect of n belief is nJ~o usunlly extended to obedience to the institutions of
the relition.

S.\CRlflCE
faith-in: One aspect of faith is the feeling that one would be willing to
sacrifice for the object of one's faith. There is also often the idea that the
s.icrlfice is mutual, that tl1e object of one's faith has already sacrlflced for
one
Belief-that: This aspect of belief mny be expressed at the simplest level in
sacrifices of one's property and wealth to the object of one's faith ; it ma)'
also be expressed as a state of detachment from material thin~. From the
other perspective, the object of one's faith is considered to have sacrificed
:tlso - in lhe doctrine of atonement through the sacrifice of Jesus in
Christianity, for instance. A similar doctrine can be found in relation to the
martyrdom of the Imam Husaya in Shi'i Islam.'

CERTTTl'DF. A.''D ~IEi\NING

F'aith-in: Faith-in is accompanied by a feeling of certalnty concerning the
promises made in the scripnires, cogether with the disappearance of the
feeling of doubt and meaninglessness.
Belief-chat: Belief-that fom111lations of this aspect of faitl1 include Sl
Am.elm's mulm credo w_ inrelligam - I believe in order to understand. The
ntrlous creeds, doctrines and dogmas express the certainties of the religion

Co:-.sEQLUCES
Faith-in· The consequence of foith-in should be seen in the life of the
UldivlduaJ. Faith-in leads to a focus and direction for one's life. It acts as an
absolute standard for one's conduct.
Belief-that: The consequences of faith are expressed doctrinally as hcin~
born ag.1.in, enlightenment, transformation, the work or the Holy Spirit.

Thus we can see that reli4ious experience produces a certain disposition in

the individual - foith-in . If the believer tries lO express tllib faith-In, bl:l OT
she can only do so in terms of concepts that are available to him OT her -
this immediacclv th1m enters the realm or belief-that. We mov sav that
faith-in is analysed by tbcolowans and reli~ous philosophers a,;d p~[ into
doctrinal formulas that seek to express it - and so becomes belief-that
Howe,·cr, the fonnulntlon nnd expression mu.st olwayb be a secondary
-
111 + TIIE Rt: LICH)IIS EXl'~.Rl~;J,.(:F \:,ii) ITS t Xl'IU;l>SIO"I

maucr. Indeed it may even oo somewhat incidental. \\'llfrc<l C(lntwc!J Smith

has noted that

From Umc to time one meets a porwn lhl! wlnuln~ 4onllty of" hoi,c hv,nit
is an immcdintc embodiment of his fmth m so spontaneous yet compclhn~
u wuy th:tl on1i ot oucc rcC(1i,11.,cs 1J1c lucomporobilitv ,u1d Ounllty or
human character When we do mee1 such a pcr~on, we rcali<c how
:-cc.-oud.1')', if nol actW1lly irrclcvont, arc other rdi,i\tous cxprc,;sittni It
nwucrs little ,f lhal p.,r,on's faith muy he rdatal p.:rhaps to a s\,tcmatic
n irhnl i:tarcnwnt 1ha1 to us is curious or :llit!n, co a form of wol'\hip 1hr11 it)
us b r-:niut<!, anti ~o on. 111

Faith and Superstition

D. Z. Phillips bas ~iven a!> an example of faith a woman

who brings her bahy before a i:tacuc of the Vir~in Mnry
and asks her to ble!>!> it. A non-belJc\·ln~ philosopher
would describe such an action as sheer super,cition
and mngie. An experiment t.'Ould he sec up and would
almost certainly show thac there Is no demonstrable
difference in the lives of those who have recei..-ed ,uch
a ble.,~ing an(! those who have qQt. Rcli~oll!> faith i:,.,
howe,·er, a much more complex matter than this Ii It
could be shown that the mother'~ intention in her
action was only co secure the material prosperity of
Statue of Mndonnn ond
Chllu ln n Roman Catholic her child then ic would be true to call it supen-cition
church in Brszll But then ll would not strictly speaking be a rttliglow.
action either The \'irA!n Mary would here be merelr a
means to an end that is intelligible without reference
to her. The religioui. aspect is therefore somewhat tncident11l if tlw
mother's only intencion were her child's future material prosperity and if it
could be shown co her that this could be obtained in some ocher ,111y, tlum
that way would be adopted. In such circumstances, homa~e to the \'mt1n
Mary is incidental co the main aim and the mother's :1ction is the equivalent
of uslng a lucky charm o r magic ::,pell.•
.Magic and relij\ion are not easily separable entities. Most reli~ions have
incorporated at le3!>t some magicol clements, if not into the orthodox
religion. then at least into the popular reli!\ion (see chaptt!r 15). lndt!ed, U
we consider the miracles said to have been perfom11?d by the founder of the
religion ru; magic, then almost aU religions have what may be called m~ie
even in their onhodox clements Most reli!\Jous people Jo, hnwe\·er,
recognize a difference between reli>\,ion and magic (~ee p. ::?S). In moM
t:xamplcs of religious faith, although there mar be some oi this
superstitious, quasi-magical elemenr, there is also more. In the cxomple 01
the action of the mother bringing her baby before a statue of the \'irtin
 (, f'1\ITII, llELn:F MIO CON\'1-,RSION + H5

Mary, \\e ma}' rmalysc several proccsM!!> th:11 may be goinjl on c.'Onsciously
or subconsciously in lhe mother qulle apart from any ma~ical or
supcrstiriou.~ thoughts:

1 She may he exprcssin~ her trust in che Virgin Mary and her confidence
t11:11 Mary will protect and wateh over llcr child.

:2 She may be wishing to express her dependence and reliance on the

beneficence of the Divine.
J Sile m:iy be wlshl11g LO express her venerotion or the Virgin Mory.
-t She may he identifying her 0 \\11 situacion with thac of tlle Virgin Mary
and her care of tlle infant Jesus. She may thus be seeking to identify her
situation with its sacred archetype (see chapter 11)
5 She may be wishing to express her faithfulness to the Virgin Mary and
10 the Church by bringing 10 it her most valued possession.
6 There may even be a sense of sacrifice in her wish to consecrate lhe life
of her baby to lhc service of the Church.
7 She may be seeking to establish that lhe birth of her baby is not an
anonymous, trivial event in a vast univ-0rse but lbat tbc lifo that she has
~ven birlh to has significance and imporumce.

ACQUISITION OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND BEHAVIOUR

In terms of the numbers of people invoh·ed, che most important pathway lo

acquiring religious faith and beliefs is the learning that goes on in
childhood. This is a different plwnomenoo from the conversion experience
in adullhood (see pp. 151-J). Children go through phases in their
acquisition of attitudes, beliefs and behaviour.

Kelman 's Sca/.les of Auicude De'Velop1ne11c

Herbert Kelman has given a general description of the ways that a person
oaa appropriate new attitudes. ITis description can be appUed to a wide
range of attitudes, beliefs and behaviours, including relig)ous ones.•• More
particularly, Kelman's description can be applied to tlle progressive srnges
in a ch.iJ<l's acquhltlon of religious attitudes. beliefs and behaviours. We can
thus outline three phases.

l. COMPLIA..'ICt:.InitJalJy, a chlld learns certain religious bclids and

beha,iour through a mLnure of reward and punishment. Any belief,
behaviour or attitude that is continually reinforced by appropriate
rewards or punishment:. tend!, to become established within a child,
even if there is no real understanding of them. Suoh influences can be
\'CT)' powerful and are often effective even in adult life. Teenagers, for
example, can express certain attitudes and behaviour wich which l11ey
J 11, • TIit. REI.IGIOllS EXl'ERff'li'C~ A'W IT:-i f.Xl'l\f.SMO~

do nol renlly agree, lll order to fil In "ilb their frn:ntb and apjlt!&r
~ophlsticntcd and 'adult ' Socrnl prci,sure con induuc adult~ to cxpre"
ottatudcs und hchaviour which they know in their heart lO Ix \Hon~
( rncial and rdi,:\loul> prejudice. for example) Mo,t rcli~iou~ pl!oplc \\ maid
n~rce, howc\'cr, that true rcli~iou1- bchaviour should nm be hm,cd upon
such considcrntions. Compliance only rcsulLs 111 a puruculnr dtccl 1L,
Ion~ as the rci11forccm1:n1 conrlnncs It docl, nol, therefore. reprc,cnt :a
~clf-perpe1uatlng, pcmrnm.:nt ch:rn~e \\ilhin Liu, lndhidu,11
., lm.xr11 Lt:MIOX. This way of acquiring beliefs, attitudci., nnd bchunour
involve,: rnklng someone whom one admires and lryin,:\ to l)li like that
person as much us possible. It no longer depends on reword1- t0
perpclUale lt. Children II ill often mlk obouc. and c,eu dunk alK>ut,
rcli,:\ion in the same way as their parenrs, or as some admired person
There is always a d:1nger of lhc admired person being ,ho,, 11 tu he
scrioui,ly llawecJ, thus caui,in~ a t•risis 111 the 111div1dual. In older children
and ndulcs, 1h1? identification will ortcn he wich :i cemr:il fh(ure in the
religion 1,uch ai. Jesus, M:1ry, Muhammt1d, or the Buddha.
J. IXTf.RSAUJ.ATlt)S. While idenlificatlon mvoh·e., conforming, in order LO
think and act like an admired person, internalization involves a process
of cransformJng oneself i,o that new ways ol' thinking and ac.ting ~omc
a pare of one's personality and bein~. These new ways are thus valued
for chcmsclves and can exist indepen<lently of whnt others may say or
do and independently of whether an admired per~on ~a)':. or d0el> them
Most reli~iou.s people would say chac a person's religion is noc rrue
religion until it cxisLS at this level ,,ithio the individual.

Fowler's Sur,ies o.f Faith De'{)elopmcnt

Some h:n·e gone further and attempted m describe the whole of :m
individual:~ religiou~ development. Drawing on Piagec's work on 1---ognitivc
developmem, Kohlberg's on moral developmenc (see pp. J-'11-:?J and Erik
Erikson'i. on psycho-social development," .James Fowler has produced an
analysis of individual faith development. F01\lcr regards faith a., the humru1
way of finding meaning and parcem in one',- life F'ollo"inA a srrucnir1--d
interview, scores arn assigned foir seven aspects of foirh development.

• fon11 of loi,c
• perspective takin,I!
• fonn of moral Judgement
• bounds of social awareness
• locus of authority
• form of world coherent.'C
• symbolic fuactlon .
 /,, fAlTII , BELIEf' AND CONVERSIOS • 147

Prom this, people are assigned co one of six stages of faith development that
are considered to c,·olve out of the basic pre-stage of undifferc1nit1ted faith
1.hat i_i; characteristic of the first two years of life.

I. u.,\HTl\'E-PROJECTIVE FAtTH.This is characteristic of ages 3--7. The child's

faith is fantasy-filled and imitative of parents and ocher significant
adults. There arc the bcgim1ings of awareness of self-identity, death and
sex, and of the taboos related to each.
2. Mn1nc -LtT&RAL FAITH. This corresponds to
Piaget's stage of concrete operations ( ages
7-11). It is when c11e child appropriates
the stories, belids, and practices of his or
her faith community. " 1hereas, previously,
perception of experience had been
episodic and unstructured, there is now
a logical construction of experience
involving order and meaninit. Narratives
and myth become important ways of
understandmg experience. Interpretation
is, however, concrete and literal rather
than abstract and symbolic. As children grow, they first learn the
stories, 1hcn the beliefs and pmc1iccs
J. StNTi1£1'1~-Co~'VENTIO~AL FAITH. At this of thclr rellJ!ion. Here o J!roup of
stage. which is considered to emerge children in Iran In the early 1wentle!h
around adolescence, a much greater century attend a school where
1hey are muj\ht the Qur'art
iliverslry of life experiences emerges and
the individual begins to define an idellltity
for him- or herself (the identity crisis) and
to establish a life narrative. It is at this stage that deeply-held values and
beliefs are eStablished often by identifying with and internalizing those
of authority figures and role models: a personal Ideology evolves.
4. U.1)1\10lJATIVE-R£FL£CTIVE FAITH. This stage, which may occur in young
adulthood, involves the integration of the various roles and patterns that
the adolescent has acquired. The individual moves away from reliance
on identifying with authority figures and role models and consciously
develops and assumes reSponsibility for his or her own commitments,
lifestyles, beliefs, and attitudes. In relation co falth, chis involves a
realization of the fact that one's own view is oaly one of many p0ssible
worldviews and a rejection of literal interpretations of narratives and
myths Je.a med in childhood. The strength of chis style of faith is ltS
capacity for critical reflection; its danger is an over-reliance on criclcal,
analytical thought.
5. Co);JUNCTIVE FAITH. This sroge, which may emerge in mid-life, im·olvcs a
sensitivity to partems of interrelatedness. Efforts are made to accept
and unify apparent opposites. There is a re-examination of ilie symbols
1.ifl + Tllf l\t.l.lGIOL 'l'i tXl'f;RI f.l'/t:t. .\\II ITS F.Xl'IH, SSIOJ\

11ml myth$ of thll foith community :ind thll dc\'clopmcm uf ,111

11ppreciallon of thc~c as a i.oul!'CC of non-lo,eical ln~l,'!ht. The d11n~crs of
this !.l:lge :ire thll development of passivity, compluet:ncy .ind cymcnl
I\ ilhdrnwul.

6 Rarely, individuals mny reach thl! st~c which

UNIVEIC.Si\LIZISG rAITII .
involves an nwarene.% of an ulllmatll environment that is incluM\'C of 1111
being. These individuals incnmatc the spirit of an inclush·c and fulfilled
human community. They not only free 1.hcm:.elvcs from the :,ocial,
polit1col, economic and ideological shackJes that bind humamty but
they create this pos.~ibility for others. Theirs is a uniw:rst1l, affim1in~.
transcendent viewpoint. Because of this, they are ofum rc~rdcd b)
social insticutions, including those of their religion, n~ hein~
su bvcrsiv<:."

The surveys that have been done 1.0 asses:, Fowler's stages have shown that
there is a defwte movement through stages 1 and 2 and into 3 in thi; first
cwo decudes of life (probably due to cognitive maruration, as described b)·
Piaget). The evidence beyond this gets somewhat weaker, with rou~)
equal numbers past the age of 20 heing assigned co sta4es J and 4, while 5
is uncommon and stage 6 is rare_ The evidence may equally suggest that
what Fowler calls 'stages of developmcm' arc, In adult life, different styles
of foich . Stage 3 corresponds m a_n orthodox adherence to 1r:1dit1or1al
religious beliefs; scage 4 is a style involving critical analysis and self-
reliance for interprecacion. and scage 5 involves symboUc and paradoxical
interpretation of religious concepts. Thus it may bo that, as \\;!I be
discu:.sed in chupter 1.3 for Kohlbcrg's sui~ing (see pp. 341-2), Fowler has
taken che different styles of faith thot exist in the world and given these a
hierorchical ,·alue based on his own liberal Protestant Cliri~tlon
background.

TITE LA'.\'OUACE OF F.\IT[I

One philosopher who directed a great deal of attention towards trying to

identify the nature of religious falth was Ludwig \Viugens1.ein ( 1889-1951)
I-le asserted chat reli~on is a unique ' universe of discourse' or ·ta~ua~e-
game'. An athcis1. may present evidence against the existence of God nnd a
believer may presem evidence for le. Wittgenstein argued, howe\·er, that
they are not contradicting one another, nor are they in disagreement with
one another. They arc not engaged in the same lungu:1ge-~amc; they nre
speaking by different rules about different thin~: hence it is not surprblng
that they are unoble to agree.
Wiugenstein's ,iew is effectively a relativistic stance. Ru1rto has wken
it further and developed the ide:a of differinl! conceptual schemata lh:11
portray differing rcnlitlcs to thoi.c who possess them 11 Since oil concepts
 1, PAITII, BEI.IEI' AND CONVERSION -+ l-19

arise from wilhin one conceptual scheme or anolher, there i:.

no neutral position from which one ltmguage-gamc mil)' he
judlled against nnother. ln this view, it be,comcs Wogical and
irrelevant to criticize srotements made within one lang1i.1ge-
~ame (or worldvicw or conceptual schema) from the
viewpolnl of another.
Since a i-eligious faith is a particulnr worldview, it is a
sdf-t.'Ontained, internally c..-ohercnt conceptual schema. Thus,
o juditemem as to whether a particular religious statement is
correct or not Will depend on whether the judgement is being
made from within the rdigious worldvJcw or from outside it.
If we accept that religious and non-religious statements are
<ltf{<!rent lrultullgc-garnes, then it follows that no one from
outside a religious language-game can ever easily refute a
s1:1temenc made from within it. Indeed, it we accept that all
judjtementS have to be made from within one conceptual
1,ud\\,;g Wittgenstein
schema or another, it would seem that intellect and reasoning (1689-1951) ,
(wWch must always operate within a particular world,·iew philosophy
lllld therefore favour that view) can rarely provide compelling
reasons for us co choose one worldview over another
William James argued that, in practice, human heings choose a
particular conception of che world on the basis of faith and only rhen do
t11ey look for :irguments to support the conclusions that they have
reached." The work of several writers from fields other than religion seems
to suppon James's view by describing paTallel processes in other fields of
humllll activity.
Thomas Kuhn has advanced the view rtbat science prop,resses thi-ough a
series of what he calls 'paradigm shifrs'. Each scientific paradigm, \vithin
"hich science works for a oonsidcrablc period of time before it is replaced
hy another pamdigm, shares many characteristic~ With the worldviews of
the different religions. Each is based primarily on faith; each regards the
other paradigms (other religious worldviews) as myths. Thus, for example,
modern science regards such theories 3$ the phlogiston theory and che
theory of humours as myths, finding it strange that former generations of
scientistS helieved chem And yet the evidence seems to suggest thar these
fonner theories were neither less scientific nor more the product of human
idiosyncrasy than those current today. If rhese former theories were myths,
rhen it would appear that they were myths produced by the same ~orts of
methods and held for the same soi-ts of reasons os modern sciemjfic
theories. If, on the other hand, they are to be called scienet:, lhen we must
acknowledge that science has included hodies of belief thm arc complcrcly
Incompatible with the ones we hold today. Kuhn, indeed, states that the
move from one sciencific paradigm. which bas a massive hody of wricinit
and research behind it, to a new paradigm, which hos as yet tackled only a
fraction of the area wilh wWch science ls conc!lrned, must be a decision
that is 'made on faith'. If we are to be renlistic. then we must acknowledge
150 • TIil Rf.LlGIOlJS t;Xl'l,.RH:Nt:t: ,\NU IT::. hXl'RlSSIO'IJ

1hat in 1,c,cml hundred ycors time, 1he scientisti. of I he futun.• will l(>0k
upon our prn,cnL firmly hdd sclcntlt1c hclidl> wu.h the same ,ort of
incredulous condesc,m~ion with which we look upon 1ht: tlu-ories of 1h1.:
pa:.L.' This 1.'Qnccp1unl g.ip between M!icntists toduy nnd tho,L of thc paM
is noc v.:ry dilicren1 from the conceptual ~ap hccwccn tho"i ,,11h1n one
reli,:!ious worldvicw and those in onmh~·r (or hc1wecn cho"! within 11
rcLIJ!ious worldvicw nm! tho:;c in an atheistic one). The rnuln diffor1.:11c1; ,,
that the scienufic concepcu:11 Aap i:, a M!quenu:11, hbtorical om.: wh,lt chc
religious gap is usually o contcmpomneous one
llavden \\'l1ilc lws nr)lucd that hl,wrical truth I!, cstablbhcd
rhetorically The disparare explanacions oi a hisroricnl cp,~o<lc hy nmou,
hiswrlans ure bused on dilforcnt meta-h.l!,torlcal prci.uppo,iliom, abom the
nature of the historicnl field. There is no point in discussrn4 whccher one
nineteenth-century European hiMoritm, such as de To1.-qucvillc, is mor~
correct t.han llllOther, :,,uch as Burckhardt; or whet.her one ,merprecauon ot
history, such as Marx's, is more correct than another, such a.s Nierzschc's
Their htalU!, as historinns or a!> philo:,,ophcr:, of history dO<!l, 1101 depend on
the correcrness of their data or the strength of their reasoning :ind lo)t1c. It
is difflcult LO refute them ,~ith dat:i or altern:lti\'e explanation:,. Their
lnlluencc is the result of the consistency, coherence and illumlnatlve power
of their 1isions of history (the viewpoints chm they cre:ite within their hodr
of work). This in turn depends on the pre-conceptual, poeclc, rhetorical
persuasiveness or their models.•· Religious 1l'orldViews opernte in very
much the same way. They cannot easily be proven by anr external logic.
They appeal by the persuasivenesi. of their internal coherenoo and the
illuminatiYC power of their vision of humanity's place in the cosmos
We can see from these two examples that the idea that each rcllglon
forms an internally coberem system chat is not susceptible to disproof from
outside is not unique to religion - it also obtains in science and in history
lt would appear chat human beings have tO live within one worldnew or
another. Which one they choose may largely be due to birth, culmre or the
accident:, of life, but their basl:,, for choosing muse ullimacely depend on a
leap of faith. Once having chosen and securely established themselYes with
a worldview, however, human beings arc able to produce very good reasons
as LO why chis choice is logical, reasonable and compcUJng. Their reason,.
however. 0ril!inating as they do from within this world,·iew. will nm
necessarily be lo~ical, rcasona.blu and c.'Ompc.lllnll LO d10;,e ,, ithln another
worldvlew (unless t.he two worl<l,•lews alr~ady share a large c.-ommon area).
It will no1 always be apparent to believers thnt the reasons that they adduce
to support their hclid1. are only urue from wlt.hln their conceptual uruverse.
This is because all of us tend to treat our conceptual univer!>e as the only
real uni\'erse (that is, as reality ilseli) \\'e therefore consider to be
MiU-evidcnt truths and basic premises what are in face only truth:.
within our conceptual uniYerse (sec. for example. the discussion ahout the
nature of reli~ion itscU, a_q vicwt:<l from different religiou~ u-:.1ditions.
PP· 21-n.
 6. l'AITII, 8El.llff ANO l:UNV£RSIOK • 151

Diffcrenr worldviews. l11nguage-games or conceptual schemas :ire not

usually, of (.'Ourse, totally incommensurable and Isolated from each other.
\\'orldviews are social constnicts and so will be similar to other worldviews
constructed by that society or by simifor societies. Even completely
differing societies will have a small area of common experience that can
form the hn.~ls of some degree of overlap in their worldviews. We are, after
all, strongly influenced by certain biological factors chat apply in whatever
society we grow up. Each worldview, therefore, will have a number of
adjacent worldviews with which it shares many concepts and an additional
numher of more distant worldviews ,vith which the degree of overlap is less.

CON\'ERSION, REFORM AND RENEWAL

If, as I ha,·e indicated, reasons given from within one worldview are not
convincing to those operating within the realities of another worldview,
how does it come about that conversions from one religion to another
occur; how does it come about that people do switch from one worldview
to another?
The phenomenon of change of religious worldview occurs whenever an
individual or a whole social group converts Crom one religion to another,
when a reform or renewal movement occurs within a religion, or even when
a religion itseti' changes in response to outside influences. Again. the
parallel insights of other disciplines can be of help here.
Thomas Kuhn has, for example, outlined what happens when a
scientific revolution occurs, when the scientific community shifts from one
e:tplanatory paradigm to another. The first neces~'ity is for there to be some
source of dissatisfaction ,vith the old paradjgm, A number of troublesome
questions must have arisen to which the old paradigm was unable to
provide adequate answers. The word 'troublesome' is an important element
here, because there will always be some observations that do not fit in
comfortably with any paradigm but these can be explained away or even
ignored as long a.s they a.re marginal. Tihe old Ptolemaic astronomy would
have concinued to predominate (and any untoward observations would
ha\·e been explained away by such theories as epicycles), if the failure of
observations to fit the theory had not begw1 to have serious consequences
for navigation and calendar calculations.
The second requirement for a scientific revolution is the presence of an
allemative theory. The decision to jettison one theory is always
simultaneous ,vith the decision to accept another. By and forge, existing
paradigms arc not overturned because they fail to fit the observations. They
are overturned because they 11,ive a worse fit than the new paradigm.
\\'ben a new paradigm is advanced and is seen to be successful in
deallng with the tr0ublesome questions. that the old paradigm was unable
to resolve, that is not the end of the revolution but merely the beginning.
For the prop0sers of the new paradigm will usually meet stiff resistance 111
152 • rtl!. IU.t..l(ll()US un.RIENC£ J\NU IT!- EXPR~.!>SIO'.I:

firM from thl! estohlii.hmcm. The lr11tcr rire fl<.'Oplc "ho h:ivc invcsu:d ,1
lifetime oi work In the old paraditru. The new pamdhtrn rnearn, a complcu:
reapprni~nl of that work, even its possible jcuisonin~ There will he an
additional rc:,istunue from the foct thm the o ld paradiAJn ,~ flrmlv
emht!dded in the educati<>aal syst.em that prepares and licenses the :,iudent
for profcsi-ional practice. Thii, process re,l,ult:. in the old pnrodii,n h:l\in~ a
deep and subtle hold on the tnlnds of all educated per:.on!. in th:u :,oclcty
Those who adopt the new parndi~m. panicularly in Its earliest ,tn~,.
must often do so on the slenderest of grounds. All they will have b the
knowled.Qe that the old paradigm has failed In a fe" instances and the new
p:m,digm works in those instances. They must have faith that the ne,1
paradigm will eventually be able to replace the whole of lhe vru,t area I.bat
has been covered hy the old pan,digm so successfully for so Ion~. Bue unul
all that work is done, the move to the new paradigm must invoh·e a large
element of faith."
This rather lengthy description of Kuhn's explanation of scientific
revolutions is justi.fied by ,is close parallel to religious revoluuons \\11en a
religious revolution occurs, whether this be in an individual conversion, the
mass conversion of a society or a religious reform , many of the same
features arise. The first necessity is for a sense of dissatisfaction With the
old religion. There must be import.ant, 'troublesome' questions chat the old
religion is either unable to resolve or over which It cannot agree. Twentieth
century society has, for example, made a gre:ll deal of relition's old
concerns irrelevant while the new concerns (equality of men and women,
global poverty, environmental issues. and so on) are either inadl!quately
addressed in the established religions or there is disagreement over them
An alternative religious viewpoint must be available which addresses
these issues (or ac least some of t!hem) co heremly and in an illuminatin~
manner. The increasingly plurali:stic nature of our society makci. th~
availability of alternative religious worldviews truer LOday than ln almost
any past age. 1• One important point to note i-t that there must he some
degree oJ overlap between I.be o ld religious worldvicw and the new one. 1f
there were no area of overlap. it would be impossible for the new even to
talk co the old. A modern European is extremely unlikely to unden,rnml, Ice
alone adopt, the religious worldview of a Papuan head-hunter, but there is
a considerahle overlap between the Christian-hosed European worldview
and those of communism, Islam or the Baha'i Faith.
Those who represent the old worldview. in particular the priests or
religious professionals of the established religion, will put up resisrnnce to
the new \iCwpolnl. .. Among other measures, I.bey wW adapt the old
worldl'iew so as to make it more compatible with the new questtom, that
have arisen (in parollcl, for example, to the tht.>ory o( epicyclei. that sought
to make the old Ptolemaic system .fit ne\\ astronomical obscrvauons)
Those who adopt the new religious worldvicw are, in effect, makin~ n
leap of faitl1. The change from ont! worldvicw to another cannot be 1,olely
justified on rational grounds, for each worldview is wholly consistent and
 o: l'.\ITII, B£LIEP AND CON\'£RSION • IS.)

coherent within i1self. Moreover, the new worldview, if it is one of the new
religions (rud1er than another of the escoblished world religions), will not
h~1,·e the depth of systema11c 1heology or breaddi or social lnvolvement that
the old religion has
Thc~c parallels give us II model for the woy tbot religious change
oc.-curs. whether In a.a individual or in a society. Once the shift to the new
world,iew has occurred, e,·erythin_g is different. Everything that appeared
eswblished and comfortable bas to be looked at again from the new
,iewpoinl. All pre,·iou.s relationships have to be worked ou1 anew. Some of
!his reappraisal may result in little change. while other nspccis will be
radically altered.

THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CONYERSION AND

R ELIGIOUS Coi,.n,ll'l'MENT

There are. however, faccors in religious conversions that are not found in
the analogy with scientific paradigm shifts. Conversions have been
prc:.emed above as though they were purely intellecuul decisions, but they
:ire frequently, especially in the case of individual conversions, a resulc or
social and emotional factors.
Psychologiscs and social ps)'chologists have studied the phenomenon of
religious conversion and the subsequent process of commitment to a new
religion exlCnsh·ely (allhough mainly concentrating 011 the phenomenon in
che \\'est). '!'here are a number of gener.al factors tha1 psychologiscs have
found motivate all hum:m actions. These include:

• the desire to experience pleasure and avoid pain

• the need for a conceptual system
• the desire to enhance self-esteem
• the need co establish and maintain relationships
• the desire for power
• die yearning for transcendence.

All or these may apply in the case of religious conversion. PsychologiMs

have also identified a number o( benefits ll11H can accrue from an accion
such as a religious conversion. In general terms these can he S[(lted to be
the acquiring of:

• a system of meaning (cognitive)

• emotional gratification (affective)
• techniques for livinit {volitional)
• leadership and power.
IS-I + THh llEI.IUIOt:S t:XPt:RH.Nl:t .\NU ITS J,,.,\l'IH:ss1ox

~lore ,pccifically. in rhc process of rcli,l!iou, convcr<,ion and commttmcnt to

n nc\\ rcliwon, a number of i.ocial and pi.ychc,lo,1!1cttl facton. ha,c been
noted in research ·

~IAIU;ISAUTY. lndh•iduals who arc at the ma~ins of society (111 term, of

bcin,I! connected to Lhe sourcei. oi' J)O\\Cr or hcin,I! invol"ed in the cuhurc)
arc more likely to convert IO a new religion that b prcscnt1..'tl to them

SOCL\L nR C111.Tl'ML C:R1s1s. lndivitluals from cuhurcs nnd socictic;, that arc
i11 crisis nrc more likely to co1wen than those from l>table culture;, and
societies. A cultural crisis is one where the established world\'icw, the
c..-onccptu:.11 world of a people, Is umlcr ilic threat of bcin,I! 1,ubswatially
undem1ined: for example, a traditional indiAenous culture confronted with
modernity. ,\ social crisis is one that aficuts the ordcrinii of society The
percei\'ed breakdo11 n of law and order in modem urban environment~ may,
for exnmple, be contributing to the modem quest for new forms of
spirituality. The crish shows up the deficiencies iu a cultun: or society, thUl>
stimulatin~ the search for alternati\'es. In a social crisis, It will be those who
nrc affected most by the crisis. usually the poorest and least powerful
elements in the society, who will be most open to conversion In a cultural
crisis, it may well be the most talented and creative members of the
community who convert, since It is they who see the crisis and the
ad\'antages of conversion mosc clearly Social and cultural cri~e~ often, of
course, coexist, since the one may well lead to the other. In general, the
closer the new religion Is in ilS general cosmology and worldvie11 t0 a
person's culture, the more likely it is that rhat person will be anracced to
the new religion. A high degree of cultural and conceptual disl.onancc will
inhibit com•ersion.

lNDl\10UAl. Crusis. Just as social and cultural crises serve to hi~hli!Utt the
breakdown of the old order and lead to a search for a new basis for sociery.
so an individual crisis may destroy the old framework of a person's ll(t! and
open up the possibUit)' of a new worldview. Apart from the usual personal
crises in health, finances or family that individuals may experience,
mystical experiences, intcllccLUaJ doubcs, leadership crises In their present
religion, or dissatisfaction wilh life can all lead to indl\·idual crises that
leave a person open to conversion. In the cruie of conver!,ion to the new
religious movements, there is evidence that imporlllnt positl\'e
contributory factors are the srrong communal spirit of these mo1·ement~
and the sense of commitment to a useful cause (both of \\hlch may be felt
by the convert to be Lacking in his or her other social interactions.
see p. 512). Of course, both with lndh·idual crises and social ond cultural
crises, Lhe new religion mt11>t offer some ne,1 vi:.ion or a means of
interpreting the cu rrenc situation ch:n offers o better resolution of its
problems th::111 the ex.lstlng reli!\I0.11.
 <, t'AITll Bt,l. lEF A:-'ll CON\'P.RS I01'1 + 155

Research has shown that those who do convert to a

l~lll\'ll>l' AL B.,cKGROl!Nfl.
nc" religion have a much grcacer likelihood of having had a long hisrory of
.:motionoJ problems In clllldhood, adolescence nnd In the period
lmmediacely before conversion (ofcen resulting in problems in making
rdationships), when oomp:tred to those who rcnwin within a religion."

K)'ISlllP \\1) F'R1F.1'1)~111P :-IF.TWORKS. Religious conversion is much more likely

to occur withUl networks of families and friends. The conversion of a friend
or relacl\'e whom one knows to be trustworthy opens one up to the
possibiliry of converting oneself, especially if one observes n change for the
better in that lntlivldunl. The formation of a strong bond between tlle
belie,·er and the potential convert is on important factor in the conversion
process. This fociliwtes the 1110,·cment from a superficial enquiry to a
deeper attraction. ,\ close personal relationship helps the potential convert
to feel nccepced; it increases self-esteem and enables the potential convert
to overcome confiicu, and unccrtaintlcs that may block the path to
conversion. Of course, those who have experienced emotional and social
c.leprivation in their earUer years will be more attracted to the new religion
by the formation of a close personal relationship witll a member of tlle
religion. It should be noted that just as frequently, kinship and friendship
networks may be a constraint upon conversion. II the family and friends or
a potential convert are strongly against the potentiaJ conversion, this mar
be a decisive factor in his or her withdrawal from the process.

M:Lny converts report that what initiaJly attracted

CRAR!s~L>\TIC ATTRACTION.
them to a religious movement was the charisma or the leader of the group.
The perceived power, energy, :Lnd authoritative exposicion of the leader
ca n be an important cat:ilyst that operns a person up to the possibility of
change.

EsCi\PSL'L\TIOS. I noted abo,·e that human beings arc constrained in their

choi<.-es by their background. their culture, famlly, friends, soclaJ roles and
so on. All of these may act to inhibit a person from changing religion from
such considerations, we oan appreciate the significance of the action of
those new religious movements such as ISKCON (Hare Krishnas) and the
l'nification Church (Moonies) that move potentiaJ converts away from their
homes and surround them with a new environment. In this way, they arc
creating the circumstances that enable the potential convert to break away
from his or her social roles, social nom1s crnd the consu·nints of family and
friends. In this encapsulated environment, strong personaJ relationships
can be built up with the potential convert to bind him or her to the
community; rituals can be caught th:it help the newcomer to i11teyaw into
the community; teaching oan be given that cremes for the potential convert
a vision of a new interpretative framework that glve~ guidance and meaning
to h1:r or his W'e and new social roles can be presented. If the person does
oonven, the commitment of the new convert is thus more firmh-
15<, • TIU. RE.Ll(:tOl S EXPlKIE:-.(,1:. ,\ 'ill ITS f.:XPIU,;~Mt>S

c,tahlii.hcd by d11: crcmion of new i.!leial role,, i.ocial norm, ,111J II nc"
cm lronment 01 'family' and frknd1,
Encapsulation mny be or different kind, :md de,t!r1:c, . Phy,ical
cncap;,ulot1on may he acluc\'cd by remov1n~ a pcr1,011 from oll contact w11.h
his o r her nonual daily lifo This would usuall\' be achlc\'cd hy ,t!oine, LO 11
remocc loc:llion or !I ph~·sically surrounded buildin,t! ~uch a;, a r1.:1rcat
Social encapsulacto11 means restricdne, the acce:,s of chc Jl(ltcnuaJ (.'Olln:n
co ull nomlal social interactions. '!'his may be achrevcd ,n some ,t!roups by
fillin~ up all frcc time with group activitie;,. Chrbtian mhl.louaric~ u_,ually
insi;,t on mdre,cnous con\'erL,; chan~rne. their names to Chm,ti:tn nam~ anJ
frequently c,·cn chnn~ine, their style of tires;,. thus makin4 che (.'Onvcr,ion
public and, often, isolaun~ the convert socially. ldeolo,t!Jcal encapi,ulatlon
means the creation of a st11tc of mind that resists conslderonon ot
nl1ernt1tln: religiou:. option~. This may b<! achieved by ccachlne, that chc
group's doctrines are the only pure and redeeming path and chat the
outSide world is irredeemably evil and corrupt. By preparing the con,·ert for
argumenL'i thac may be used against his or her conversion by friend., and
relatives, me convert is 'inoculated ' ~ainsc the creation or doubt
These cnca~ulatioa strategics are used by many religious ~roup:. (and,
Indeed, co some de,4ree, by anyone who seeks to convint.-e someone else or
anything). They onJy become objeccionable when they become overbea rin~
and coercive. Many or 1.bc objections that have been rahed ~ainst ne"
reli~ous movements concern their renJ or imagined cxoe.o;.si,·e use or rhe;;c
strategics (see pp. 512-5).

Afcer Con'Oersion
The process of conversion is often sealed hy a ritual, such as the Chriomon
baptism or (.'Onfirmation. This serves to give public tt!l.timony of the C\'cllt
that has occurred in che convert's life; it sets the boUJ1dan• between che new
and the old and it sen·cs to num che com·erc's bridges, thus making it l<!.',s
likely chat the convert \\ ill return co bis or her prevlous alle~ance.
Rellgious llterarure is full of accounL~ of com·er.ion (see pp. 9-1 and
160-1). J\ certain degree oi caution is needed when reading these. They :tn:
often iull of assertions that the convert's life has been radically and
irreversibly ch:mged by the con\'ersion experience. Often this <t..'Jtem<ent i<.
corroborated by the assertion of friends of dle conven 1l11.1t he or she hru.
changed ~reatl\'.
The first nocc of caution lies in the fact that, however emhusiaslic the
convert may be, a com,idcrable proportion of convert;, do le1wc tJ1e rd14ion
again lnevitahly. at'ter a lime, the initial euphoria of the com·ersion
experience wears off and a 'post·COU\'er..ion deprei.slon' may M!l in. Unless
the new relie,ion bas somt:: inbuilt mechanisms for rt::newin)! enthusia;,m
and maintaining comminnent, the likelihood of a per.on drinin~ awav
again ls high. Some \\ riter.. ha\'e likened th1s co the proce~~ of fallln~ into
 6 P.\ITII, Ut:LJU' AND CON\' EltSIOl\ • 157

In b<>IUl' re.llAiou~ lrudltlons, rcquirc.ments U) mt>dify onc'b

clolhlng, Jlet. or other paucms of common dall)' beba,iour
CM sen·e this same function of reinforcln,I\ the rejection of
old patterns and behanours ond the incorporaaon of new
behn,1ours into one's life. AL the henn of conversion ritunl is
the difficult comb1n11tion of snying no nnd sniing yes
COJ.'\'ElU~JO:-1
Cou,.orsion implies d1n1 a person Is 'rumlng away from· the
RITU,\LS
past and 'turnln!( 10' a new future. Rm,al \\,tnessed by ochers
can be powerful in advcnising the new condition of !he
person or persons who are convening One of the most
drnmntic con,·crsion ~ in the rwcnLieLh century took plucc on
14 October 1956. An. esUmatl'<l fh c hLLDdtl'<I thousand people
gathered near Na~pur lo die western Indian state of
~Wiarasbtra. Led by B. R. Ambedkar, hundreds o{ lhousands
of Mahars renounced their Hindu faith and embraced
Buddhism Dressed in white robes. the people foUowcd
Ambedkar in reciting the Buddhist oaths ndminlstcrl!d by
Chandr.unruu Mahasthavlr, the oldest and most TC\'ered
Buddhist monk In lndlil. The massive gathering of people. the
wblce robes, and the recitation of oaths were simple but
powerfuUy effecth•e rituals in transforming the Mahars from
bcin4 Untouchabl,cs to being Buddhists (Rombo,
Understondin,g Religious Conwn;im,, pp. 127-8)

• b

F'allh and c:on,crsloa bring about a •pirltwtl ck'<llillllg, Olli! unh·el')jal ,ymbol of whld1 I,
the use of wa1e_r In riLual clean;lng. a .l Chri,tlans being baptized ln !he hol.te:,t rin:r of
Chrlsuamcy, the Rl,·er Jordan b) l:lindus bathing in the hobest ri,·cr of Hinduism, the
Gan,tes, at Varanasi (Beruircs)
15S • Tllf' 1u; 1,1 G10l' S EXJ>ERIE!'<C$ ,\Nil ITS ~:Xl'RESSIOS

and oul of IO\'C. Some may fnJI out of love and jtrndually drift nwav, while
\\ith Olhcrs somechlnA may trigger conflicl and acrimony.
The second note of caution relates lo the dcArcc of chan~c that ho~
occurred. Ahhou~h It is conventional to lhlnk of a conven,ion a:, llelnA ;1
complete rcjccdon of the past and n turning lo o new way of hfc. in fact
thcru is rarely such o L'Omplctc ch:1J1gc. Ilurnan l>Cln/;l> cannot change their
slruclllrc of reality :;o rapidly and completely as :1 relht1ous <.'On\'er:,lon
would theoretically require them to do. lncvitnhly, each 001Wert hrings into
the new reU~ion wmething of hi:. or her prcvlo~ rel~ion. All con\'erts ,•ie\\
their new religion to some exten t through the viewpoim of the old This
remnant of the old will somclimc, dccrca..c and diliappea_r but :,omctlmc:,
it remains and is even passed on to subsequt!nt teneration5 1xamples of
this abound in all religions. The Emperor Constllntinc co1wertcd 10
Chrisci:mlty and did much to establish that religion In the \\'est. lie
appears, however, to hove retained a great deal of attachment lO his
prc,•ious belief in the cult of the Sol lnvictus. St Augustine is the grc::ucst o(
the \Vestem Church Fathers. lie converted to Christianity In 387, and yet
his writings betray the cominuing influence of his previous belief in
Manicbaeism. ln the present day, it is possible to i.tudy, for example, the
manner in which Western Baha'is recast the Baha'i ceachinl!-~ and give them
a distinctive \Vestera 'Christian' or 'New Age' ct.hos when the Baha"i Faith
passed from a Middle Eastern em•ironment to the West at the beginninA of
tho twentieth ccntury.21 We can :tlso see the continuing influence of
traditlonaJ African religion among the converts to Christianity and lslam in
Africa (see pp. 506-7). Perhaps more remarkable is the persistence of
African religious practices among the descendants of African slaves In
South America despite unopposed indoctrination by the Roman Catholic
Church for several hundred years (see pp. 399-403, 507-8). Indeed, most
of what ls called in chapter 15 'popular religion' is, in fact, the remn:l.llU. of
religious beliefs pre-daring the established religion of each area

MOTIFS OF RELIGI OUS CONVERSION

The experience of religious conversion is reported differently by diffcrllnt

LndividuaJs. This experience is partly moulded by the expectation:. oi what
conversion will be like; for example, if one is black and lives in the
American South, one expeclS religious conversion to occur suddenly end
emotively in a revivalist setting. John Lofland and Norman Skono..,d
('Conversion Motifs') hove described sLx patterns or motifs of religious
conven,ion (see Table 6.1).

1. INTELl,£CTUAL. This ln\'olvcs :in intcnsi..,c study of a religion, using books.

lectures. celc,•lslon, the Internet and otl1er mcdin 1hac invot,·e lntle
interpermnol contact. Socinl pressure is usually a,·oided and t>eliei
precedes participation in the community.
 fl FAITII, BELIEF ANO CONVERSION • 15'>

2 MYSTICAi.. The prototype of this is the 'Road co Dama..~cus'

C..'tJ)l!ricncc. It occurs suddenly :md dramatically and may
be ns~ociaced with dreams or visions .
.J E;..PERL\IENTAL. Thls lnvoh·cs an active exploration of
different reU~ious options with the potential convert
assessing whether a religion 'works' and what benefit it
brin~~. Thi~ motif is gradually worked through over a long
period of time and participation in the community
precedes belief.
.J .\FFECT1ONAL. This i1wolves the creation of a direct,
personal bond with members of the religious group over L'<Tbl.l,ECTIJAI. ~IOTIF:
a period or rime, thus gi\'ing the potential convert the Dr Bhimrao Ramji
experience or being lo,•ed and nurtured. Amhedkar (1893-19561
was n Hindu of
5 RE,·1\'ALIST. This is the type of conversion that occurs in a Uniouchablc birth
revivalist meeting. IL uses crowd conformity and a high who rose to become
degree of emotional arousal to achieve the conversion. India's law minister
1n 19-17. Despalrinl!
6. COERCIVE. This is the type of conversion that Involves of the effects of the
brainwashing, coercive persuasion and thought cnsce syscem, he led
programming. Although many new religious movements scveml hundred
are accused of using this method, it is, in fact, probably thousand feUow
rare (see pp. 512-15) and is often reversed if the coercive Untouch:ibles ln n
mass conversion to
pressures arc removed. Buddhism in I 956.

Conversion Motifs

CO!>'\'EllSlON DF.CR£t OF TEMPORAL L!EVEL or AFFECTl\'E BEUF.F·

MOTIFS SOCIAL DllllATIOS A~r'l!C:Tl\'E CON-rt::<T l',\RTICIP.1\TlOS
PR&.'iSUR£ A.ROIJSAL liEQIJ£NC£

ll-TtLLECTUAL Low Medium Medium Illumination Belief -

or none pru-Uclpation
MYsnOAL ~one Shon lligh Awe. l'cnr. lklid -
or litde love p:1rtlclpacJon
EXPERlM~'T.\L Low Long Low Curiosity Participation
- belief
AffECtlOSAl ~ledium Long Medium Affection Participation
- belief
ll£\1VALtST 111th Short lligh Love Pnrtlcipallon
(and fear) - belief
COEkCJVE High Long lllt}, Fear Participation
lor short I (and love) - belief
SotlRct. Based on John Lofland and Norman Skono"d, 'Conn:rsion Motifs', p. J7S.
16() • 'l'llf: RELl<..101!6 f:Xl'ERIENC.:E \1-'U ITS EXPRMiSIOS

t,n.u.u,'TI/.\L
Looklnt nt ,\mhcdkar·s ncuon.s. spe1.-chi,, nnd I\ rllln>l,, (In the
rroccss of his conwrs,on IO Buddh,~m I one cnn draw ur
11 list or' ' neoc,,s,ucs' wh,ch nny rclij\11,n hopml\ 10 dr.1"' 1he
Mnhn~ (J\mh<..-dknr's cMre( should p(>,<c-. No curr,111
religion met all thcSI: demands One by one. Amhl:Jlu1r
Fol "R Cnt-YERSTON rcJllclL'd the pos.,lbi!Jtics. h\'cn b.,(or._. the l'>J6 ca,,tc mcclln~
Morws he tuld rcponers, I shall not tnkc the re,;pon,lhtllrv of ~Lantn4
,1 new swt. There are some dtfilcuhie-; In the I\~>· .,; our
ncccrtinl\ Buddhism \\'c ~hall ~"Onsidcr the question o/
joining the Sikh religion ' Sikhli,m come clClhbl w m<"<·t1nl!
the ~lnhnr nccthl. But, ultholll\h Amhcdknr went Iii i\mro1"6r
to vi,,ll Sikh lcudcn;, he bCcot~ to h.tvt: abandoned lhc
posslblliry of conn,rslon co S,khbm. (t,. Zt!lhot, 'Th"
Psycbol()J\icaJ Olmensloa 01 the Buddhist Mo,emcnt lo lndrn '
in Oddie, Rdi4io11 in R<mih Asi<i, pp 192, 197..J,)
EXPERWE.,'TAI..
l learned 4uite " hit that day, hul \\·a,sn'1 ready to make a
commitment. So my brother ,¢we me his prayer book rtnd
enoourngcd me to try some of the Baho'i pra)·cr.
Underhanded? Maybe. but It worked.
I lcit, and began saying n few prayer., each day. Slo\\ h·, I
became a happier person, hetter able to deal \\1th life. Aiter a
while, other things took prionty and l storred sayinl! the
prayers. I notic,ed that the quality of lifo went down I thought
it rather stmn,g<, that it hnppcncd right when I 4ult iuiyinl\
those prayers. So I g<>t tl1c old prayer book ond swnl,1 up
ngnlJ'I. The quality of life went back up_ I was oC>t as apt to IOM!
my temper, and could be more tactful. witb le.-,~ stress ro
myself. 1\vo weeks went by and I qult saylnl! the prayers
ngnin, this time on purpose, to se" if there Wh an,·
corrclnlion Of cour.c there wa5, but I wasn"t con,·lnccd until
I'd run Lhll experiment thtc« more tlrucb. I dcckfod I'd l>cttcr
ttJve 111 (Gottlieb, Ouet' LO Ewry Mun and 1\'ut10n. PP- 54-S}
AFFECTIONAL
Their personal contact wilh ~lu.,llm fncnd,, nr a<--qunlntanCclo
whOSI: optnJoos or behaviours are ,•alu<:d play~d a rol<: an their
co1l\'ersion Emtly recollected how she was impressed bv lhe
Muslim family that she knew: · At that time I w:i., .eein,!
this Muslim family and I was watchin~ nnJ listcniOJl to whot
lhey said ond what they did I \\':IS tryu1g to sc., how dtc}' w,rc
different. They were very ,mcc,e u, their faith ,m<l they "er~
Crit:ndly la tl11s materialislic aml selfish society. fbat really
heli>ed towards my rcver.lon.' (Kose C:on"-'t/J"SI-On to /slum.
p. 101 l
Cot.RCJV!
Owlfl/l to tbc unbearable oppression of the v,Jldltc authorluc~
not only myself but all my ltinsiolk have become C:hn,uan,
ln former times when n theft occurred. "hocvcr mit\llt he the
thief, the 1·i1111ge onlhoritle~ u!<ed to arre.c us tLnd pur lib in
pri,on for son,., tiny,. But ~Ina., "" h.m, ht.-come ChrilillJlll>
 6: fi\lTtl , BELIEF AND CONVERSION • 161

we ota free fro,n ,ucl1 trouble~. no one Is bolJ cnoui;, to touch

us without the permls,ilo11 of our pa,,tor. 13<:,.1Jes thot wc are
now worshtpplm\ the true God. (O<.ldie, 'Christian Conversion
amoni:1 Non.Brahmins m i\ndhro Pradesh'. in Oddie, Reli,eion
in South Asia, p. 115)

Because Lofland ond Skonovd are considering people from North America,
they fail to mention one further form of conversion that commonly occurs
in poorer countries. when pressure is applied to those in the poorest
secllons of the populmion and those with the lowest suitus. This pressure
may be in d1e form of financial inducements or in the promise of a higher
social status. It ma~, be considered as a form of coercive conversion in
Lofland and Skouovd's scheme.

TIIE CONVERSION OF WHOLE SOCIETIES

As I note elsewhere (see pp. 24-5), the phenomenon or individuals

converting from one religion to another is a particular feature or the
modern world. The concept of conversion as a choice for the indiVldual is
itself 11 product of che individualism of modernity and is rarely found in
previous sOcietics (one other mnjor period in which ll1efc docs appear to
ha\•e been a large degree of choice for individuals is the latter centuries of
the Roman Empire). In general, the relit.ion of a trad itional society is a
matter that is decided by the society as a whole. Thus any change in
reli~ioo also tends to be a matter for social rather than individual concem
One way in which whole societies have
been converted Is as a result of imperialism
and coercion. This coercion has sometimes
been a mauer of brute force: 'convert or die',
as for example happened co Jews and Muslims
in Spain under the Inquisition in the sixteenth
century. lt has, however, sometimes been a
matter of psycholo,llical, social or fiinanciaJ
pressure. In classical Muslim societies, for
example, non-Muslims had to pay a poll tax
which they could avoid by 1he simple
exp.!dient of conversion. lo Tonga and other
Pacific islands, conversion to Mormonism is In most rr:iditional
the only realistic way for poorer islanders to sooielies rellftion 1ends
obt.ain for their children a university education to be R comn1unal tnthl.!r
than ru, indh'ldlllll concern.
and all the social advant:JAes that entails. This picture sho\\S o Mu.illm
There have been a few ~tudics of the rellgious gathering ai Oyo, Nil!(!rla, in
process lm·olved when a whole society changes the eatly cwcndeth cenlUt)'.
religion. One situation that has been studied is
162 • TIIE KEl, IGIOl' S EXPERIENC f: A~O ITS EXPRF.SSl<)S

-
The two socl,c llcs or llarolonj\ :uul Uasotbo alon,ct tl1e C11.lcd,m
\'alley, j!cncrally l\<)l alonl1 wlLh the mis~lt•MI')' ,e<.-1, amonl1
them The chieRy clas;; ~pcoiflo:,llv admlroo their .._~..,l.ir
usefulness nml wn.• dctcmllncd to keep them cl,1"1 If that
w:L, .,uhfcvctl 111 thc et)M of n ll<!tlrablc •acnflce tbcy ""'"
prepared to pay I.be 11r1,..,. But. \\hen II ~'ll!l,c w ~,c,1wcnlnl\
CcN\'f:RSION UNUF.R
people, mlsslonarie.s n1mcJ II blll\\ ,u their tnid1uun,
IMPEIU.\LISM
and liulc differentiated hetwt-.:n Chrisiianity nnJ w.,,.1,,r.
nirmicm, which rcprc'4!nrnd n conRictlnl! oo,mfc ,·1ew
Throu!lhout 1he nineteenth century the two ml"lonury "-'CUI
(ruled to rc:1Duc ,,, did uc.>t cnrc tbnt they oould c, nneditc
Jespltc, or"""" throu,l\h, Lhelr adherent,; tradluons In •hort
mls•lonnrles were unmlstalu,ably lmpcnahsuc In Lbe1r \le\\
[Rather! th<tn h,we theJr trad111ons and h,mce their identity
destroyed the Baronj\ nod Basotbo rebelled :1_~ms1 the
imperi111lsm. l,ikc vnriou.• communities under •ln,·cry, they
even feigned complete ln.:lk of uodcn,tnndin,ll of •imple <fl{·W
about Christiattlt)', which k'<i the missionary to th! nk Lhat
they were either srup,d or Inherent!)' depraved So the
Barolon,ltand Basotho cnga!\C(I lin nl passh·c rcsiSt<LOce, more
against chc mi•sionaries , than a,ll~insc Chn<tlnnicy
( Machohanc, C/1risricmi.'!Grion and the ,\fncan Rc"P(),~""·
p. J:!)

lhe lslamicizatlon of an African tribe (lhe movement from the tradltiona.1

African tribal religion to an Islamic way of life). The process resulcs in a
radical alteration in the cosmology, social relation~ and even eating
babies of the tribe. All this change cannot occur ac once; Lt Is a proc,:ss
chat may take several generations to complete. Moreover, the change
occurs piecemeal, with some matters bein.g accepted more rapidly than
others.
At first, a Muslim injunction such as avoiding nudity is adopted by
some for reasons of social prestige; It then becomes a mauer of
respectability to be cloched; finally it becomes a matte r of public decency,
such that failing to be clothed becomes a matter of shame. The crucial shift
that occurs is when che indl,1cluals In the tribe cease to think in cerms of
'to be a good Muslim one should not eat pork' and instead chink ·co be o
good person one does not eat pork'. In other wordi.. the injunction cease!>
co be merely a reliiious injunccion (and thus only a matter for rcl~ious
merit or demerit) and becomes a question of tribal morality (\1 Ith the full
force of customary social sanctions again~, anyone who breakl. die
injunction). The focr that the eating of pork i'l wrong is then no lonater a
question of Lndivldual choice: it bus become pan of d1c way that lhc world
Is, the svmhollc cultural universe of the tribe. The tribesman would then no
more think of eating pork thun a Europc:in would think of eating
cockroaches!'
Another study, on the conversion of trihal peorles to Islam in ca.'ltem
Bengal, has described o number of ~togci, In the process whereby the
 6 FAITH. BELlEF ANO CONVERSIOS • ll>l

deities, symbols and concepts of the forme r religion were replaced by those
oi Islam.

L lsCLUSJO)I. first,the Deity, symbols anti concepts of lite new religion are
included nlongside those of lite existing religion. The new is seen as n
more effective way of achieving spiritual or supernatural power.
" IOE~'TIFIC..ATIOS. The Deity, symbols and ideas of the new religion are
identified as being the same as those of the old religion. The God of
lslam is identified with the high god of the tribal religion.
J DISPL..\C£.\t£.ST. The Deity, symbols and ideas of the new religion displace
those oi the new religion."

THE R ELIG I OUS LIFE

As well as the different pathways to sah·ation, the different ways of

recreating the religious experience communally {outllned in chapter 5),
dtere are differenc ways for the individual to be religious, different modes
of me religious life. Psychologists who have looked at this have described
se\'eral modes of rellgious life, akhough it must be noted chat almost all
studies hil\'e been done on Nonh American Christians. One categorization
thnt is very in0uential distinguishes between extrinsic nnd intrinsic wnys of
being religious. Persons widt an extrinsic religion tend to use dteir religion
for 1heir own ends. Religion is thus instrumental (for some other purpose}
and utilitarian. Thus, for example, such persons may use religion ro provide
security, solace, or selr-ad,,ancemenr. Persons with an incrinsic religion. by
contrast. have their religion as an end in itself. They attempt to internalize
the beliefs and prescriptions of their religion. Od1er considerations are
subordinated 10 religious heliefo and lhing the religious life." Tn summary,
the 'extrinsically motivated individual uses his religion, whereai, the
intrinsically modvated lives his':"'
To this, a third mode of religious life has been added by some
psychologists, the qu.esc mode. This ls characterued by persons who are
open-ended and questioning in their approach to religion. They resist clear-
cut tidy answers to the existential questions that trouble hunrnn beings.
\\'bile ackno,, !edging the importance o{ rcU~on and of a transcendent
religious dimension to a person's life. such persons feel that dtcy do not
know, nor can they ever know, the final definitive truth about such
matcers."
When these modes were first described, they were considered
de\'elopmentaUy; 11 was thought that people moved through these modes as
stages in their religious development. Thus. when originally describin~
these modes, Allport called extrinsic religion 'immature religion' nnd
intrinsic religion 'mature religion'. It would appear more satisfactory,
however, to regard che.se as independent modes of religious life.
16-l • Tllf Rl, 1.ICHOllS f.Xl'l:.RIESC~ A'III> ITS 1:.Xf'Rb!>SIO\

Tublc 6 .2 Psychologic:nl Compariwn nf Oiffcrcm Modes of Rcli~ou\ Life

bimu~~,c I\IIU,~11, Ut 1.,1

Lmrnn OR IIIM)\(;E
lkli~luu cxpcrlcnL-cd ns Bond:11\C ~'recdom 'l(cutml
freedom or l:>011d:1Ae
Willlntness to h,nJ oneself to Unwil lmll Wlllt~ I 'nwllllot
religious beliefs
MF\"f.11 11£.\LTII
Fear of dcnih, clcnth ,mxie1y No offcct or Dccrensed Su clkct
increa,,ed
Meu~u Ul.nc,,b More llkdy Lc1>:> likely No clear tffo<.:t
Appropriate social bchnviour Less likely More likely Nu data
Freedom from worry and guilt Dcorca.scd Increased Nu clear cffoc1
(but dccrea;eJ (po;,Mb(y
for ltuiltJ decreased)
Personal competence and Oecreast:tl lncreased No clear ef£.:ct
control (possibly
lncreabed)
Open-mindedness nnd D.ccrcnsed Ko effect Increased
DexlbWLy
fRlEOOlt fROM PRUUIJICE
Prejudice pr~cribt:d by Increased Decreased Decreawd
religion , a.sscssed ovenI}-
Prejudice not proscrihed by No effect Increased Decreased
religion
Prejudice, assessed covcrrly Increased Increased l.)ccrcnscd
COSCf.RN FOR OTIIERS
Help in response co low-cos1 Decreased Increased lncrca,cd
requests
I lclp that Is rcspom,ivc to need DccreascJ Dec rl.'a1>cd lncrCllbCd

\·anous siudics hm·c been done assessinA these three wa~·s ot l>t:in)!
religious against both individual factors, such m, mental health, and ~ocial
factors, such as freedom from prejudice. The resuJu, of thi~ research are
complex and some of them arc concmry to what one might expect
Excrinsic religion pcrfonncd poorly in nil area~. lml.ividuaJ,. with l!J<Uu~ic
religion have poorer resultS on mencal health, are more prejudiced. and are
lcs;, likely to help othe rs. Taking the mental hcnlth of the individual as one\
criterion, intrinsic religion scores best of the three types in th<: ,·uriow.
factors that have been e.lamined. If one examines whnt most reli~ons
 6 : t',\ITII , l:IELIEF ,\ND CONVl:.RSION + 165

con~idcr to he good relationships with others. however, one finds that

indlvlduab wich inLrinsie religion perform wcU only In elrcumsuwces
where they are promotin~ a positive selr-image. When measured by more
11Ublle, co,·ert techniques, chcy arc also prejudiced, they only help others
when chere il~ minimal inconvenience to themselves and their help in such
circumsrnnces is likely to be only poorly related to the needs of the other
person. ln other words, It was found Lhat thelr actions were motivated more
hy a desire to present themselves a.~ good, caring people than by a concern
ior others. lndi\'iduals with the quest type of religion were found to be less
prejudiced than olhers, even when th is wa.s measured covertly. They were
not particularly more motivated to be helpful than the other groups but
when they did help, their assistance was more closely related to the need;,
of the person being helped.

FURTIIER R EADING

~!any hooks hove been \\Titten on the s ubject of this chapter. Most,
however, ha,•e been ',\,rinen from a theological perspective rather chan from
the more neutral viewpoint of religious snadies. Among the more important
works from the religious studies perspective are: on faith In the Western
reli!!ions, \V. C. Smith, Faith and Belief and The MeaninJI and End of
Rdigion ; on faith in Maliayana Buddhism, Park. Buddhist Faith and
Sudden E;nli4Jwmmen1 . See also Rouner. KnowinJI Religiously; Runzo and
!horn. Religious E.~pericnce nnd Religious Belief and the article hy Jaroslav
Pellkan on 'Faith' in Eliade, Encyclopedia of Religion. On the development
of religious belief and faith, see B:itson, $<)hoenrade and Ventis, Religion
mul the lndicidual, chapter 3, and Fowler, Stages of Faith. On religious
com-erslon, see Rambo, Undersr.andinJI Religious Conversion . On mo<les
of the religious life, see Batson, Schoenrnde and Ventis, ReliJ1ion and the
lndi1:itlual, Pan 3.
 TO\\'ARDS J\ 8CIEN1'JFIC UNDERSTANDINO OF
R ELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE

4 EXA\IISEIJ TIIE VARJO l'S WAYS O F describing religious experiCOC(:

IL\l'Tt:R
and undcnook some preliminary analysis of Lhis. In chapter 2 , I nttcmptctl
to define the distinAuishinJl features of two concrastin~ types of relu!,lon
These I called theistic nnd monistic (non. theistic) religion Each side of this
dichoLOmy has clalmed that iL holds 1he trulh and thaL Lhe other Mdc eitht.!r
ii, misinterpreting reality or holds to a 'lower' form of 1he rn.1ch. Thi,
chapter will examine work in cxpcrimcnwJ psycbolo~v and
neurophysiolo~v th:u sheds liAht on 1he nature of the relil!,ious experience
and on this question of the interpreuition of reality In theistic and monii.tlc
wayi,.
Much of the scientific research presented in this chopwr relate~ to
states of deep medirntion and trance. However, 1he results of these
invcstiAations have a much wider significance than mar at first be
apparent. First, nltcred states of consciousness as a result of religious
activities are not as uncommon as one may think. One survey of
487 cultures and societies found that 90 per cenc of these had one or
more institutionalized, culu.mllly panemcd form of altered srnle of
consciousness, usually within a reliliious context.' Second. we can d1ink of
deep meditation and trance as situated r)t one end of a continuum of
rellgious experience. Thus statements made about this st:ttc may appl} w
lesser degrees to less intense forms of religious experience.
Tbb chapter begins by looking at some finding~ and experimcnwl
models from experimen tal psycboJoJ!.y and neurophysiolo~·- The reader 1s
asked to bea r with o number of pages of materi~I lhat do nol at first ap~ar
to ba\'e any relatlonshlp to the study of rcli)Uon. ll is hoped thal the
relationships will become clear later in the chapter Before proceedim!,,
though, the reader may find it useful to reYiew some of the mnin
characteristics of the central religious experience (see pp. bS-92 ).
We shall start with o passage which describes the reh~ious experience
of one lnd1viduru.

Suddenly, Al church, or in company, or when i was rcndin~. and al"m·s. I

lhlnk, when m)' muscle.- \\Crc 111 rest, I feh lhe approach oi the mooJ.
 7 SCIENTIFIC lTN0 ERST,\N0ING Of REl.lGIOUS EXP&R l~;NC ~; lt,1

lneshtlhly It 100k possession of my mind nml

wlll, lo.sted wha1 seemed an eremlcy, and
disappeared In a S<:rics of mpid sensations
whlcb rt-sembled the awakening fro m
anaesthetic influence. One reason why I
d.isliki:,d this kind of trance was thnt I could
not d.cscribe It to myi,elf J CWUlOt even now
find words to render it intelligible. It
aonslsted In a gradual but ~wiftly proi1,ressiw
obliteration of space, time, sensation, and the
mulritudinous foctors which seem to qualify
what we are pleased to crul our Self. In
proportion as the.•c conditions of ordinary
consciousness were subtrnctcd, the scn$C of
an underlying or essential consciousness
acquired intensity At last nothing remained
but a pure, absolute, abstract Self. The
universe became without form and void of
content But Self persisted, formidable i.n its
vivid keenness.' The interiors of many religious
buildings are designed to ele\'nte the
This passage, by the noted literary historian human spirit and C\'Okc o rcligiou.~
James A. Symonds, mentions several of the txperlence. This plcture shows the
Interior of the Seilmlyye Mosque,
factors of religious experience to which we
E<time, Turkey.
shall return in this chapter:

• his inability to explain or describe iL (despite the fact that he was a

\\'Titer by profession)
• changes in time and space
• a dissolution of the personal self into an absolute, abstract Self
• the vividness of the experience.

Scienti.Oc studies have shed some Ught on some aspects of such

phenomena.

PIAGET AND THE PERCEPTUAL

DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

la the I 920s, Jean Piaget, the $Wiss ps~•chologist. published several books
and papers which, although much refined by later work, remain the basis
of sclcotlflc thought about t.he perceptual development of children. This
work helps us understand how our sense of self develops and therefore what
happens when thls sense of self dissolves, as many have described it doing
In their religious experiences. Using observations and extrapolating from
his fintlin~ in ohkr children, Pl:1gcl lrh..-<l w deOne the pcreepw:11 world of
1he newlx1m hab)•. lie concludi.!d thaL a ne,,tx,rn hahy hw, no rcrccptlon ru
itself a,- hcl11,1~ a ~eparntc entity from its em·1ronmcnl. '.\ hahy has no
c.'Qnsciolll>ncss of self There is II total comlnuity lx:t,, ccn uncrn,tl unJ
cxtern(ll e:1:pcricncc.'·' A.~ the hnby ~rows ond hcgins to manipulate its
cm·lroument, It learns hy c.~p<.:rimenwLion t11at the bn111.I is pnrt of 'me' nnd
the cot is 'not-me'
Grudunlly, the child imposes ~chcmntn upon the extcrn11l wnrlJ
(recognizing certoin paucrns or sensory stimuli ns spccinc thmj\s
experienced before). After a while, these schemarn become automauc 11nd
subconsclou~ and do not havt: Lo be thought through Ulich lime. llowc,er,
even as late as the time during which the child 1s leamin~ to speak, it docs
1101 distinguish between 'thoughts' and 'thing.~· The thoughl 'ch:iir' i<
considered to be an inherent part of a chair. It ls only lncrea:.111~ ~e that
brings about the complete subject-object detachment of ~,du lt thougln. In
this latter stage, incoming stimul1 nre processed rapidly through pre·
exlsLing schemata, which become subconscious. These schemata are
thought to lie in the subcorticnl zones of the brain. These aTcas analyse thc
incoming stimuU and integrate them into the meauJng patterns built up
during childhood. This infomiation is chen presented, already imbued with
meaning (that Is, interpreted), to the cortical areas or conscious thought '
Although much more inforrnacion can be processed as a result or this
adult adaprntion, each individual unic of stimulus muse necessarily have
less Impact. This is another wny of saying that childhood scn~ory
experiences are more vivid. To give an example, if an adult picks up a book
he or she usually looks at the Litle. The visual lnfonnation regarding th1:
size, shape and colour or his or her own hand that ~oes forward to pick up
the book will he suppressed. It \\ill bnrely register in conscious thou~ht, as
it will be automaticall)• procc~cd in the subcortical zone~ and £iltcred out.
Even che shape and colour of the book may not have any treat impacl on
conscious thought as the adult conccutmtes attention on the title of the
book. If the book is put Into the hand of an i11£an1, however, all the sensory
information rel:ning to hand and book arrives in the brain making equal
demands for nttcntion. The infant may thcrcforc pausi, to gaze tnwntly at
its own hand. The changeover from the infantile parcern to the adult
pattern is a gradual process. TJ1ere are several intem,edi:ue srngei. in
cb.ildbood.
In adults. incoming stimuli nre compared with the schem:ito 111 lh1.:
subcortlc:il areas. If the sLimull nrc recognized as being oi a bimllar p:itwr11
to one of the schemata held in the subcortical areas, d1en the rt?la1ed
memories and nssociations arc automatically s,,itchcd on ,\JI thi~ happens
al tile 1>ulx.'Onseiou:. Je\·el. It only becomes consciow, If the pcn,on tunl:. hh
or her arccntion to these particular incomin,I!. stimuli, or if the incomln,I!.
stimuli are completely different to the pattemb (i,chemata) held in the
subcortical areas. In the infant, however, the schemata at the suhc.'Oruc:il
level arc as yet undeveloped. T he ineominii stimuli are therefore not
 7: SCIE1'TIFIC UN0£RST.\N0INC 01' RELIOIOUS EXP£Rl£NCE 169

'recognized' and go through to the conscious level unprocessed. There is no

st!parotion of corucal and suboordcal function; both are within the
consciousness of an infom, whereas only the cortex is in the conscious
domrun of till adult in normal srntes In the adult, it is tl10 cortex that is
responsible for the conscious perception or the stimuli that have come into
the subcorrex and been analysed subconsciously by it.
It con be noted, in pas~ing, !hat Bellah hru; proposed a scheme for the
hbtorical c,·olution of reli,1Uon (see pp, 70-2) that has parallels with Pia~et's
scheme for tho development of the individual. Bellah proposes that
prinlith-e or archaic reUgion is characterized by world acceptance, since
this was the only possible response to a ' reality chat invades the self to such
an extent tl1:1t the symbolizations of self and world are only very partially
separate'.' The emergence of the historic re~ions is characcertzed by
world rejection, enabling the human mind to srnnd back from its
encompassing environment and become conscious of itself as a distinct
entity capable of salvation.•

Medication and B1·ai,1 Function

Some forms of meditation, in particular Zazen (a form of meditation in
Japanese Zen Buddhism), have been shown to produce a state that has
similariries to the wny that Piaget postulates that the infant brain functions.
\\'hen a person Is In Zazen meciltadon, alpha brain waves appear in che
electroencephalogram (EEG). These are similar to what occurs as a person
goes from a state of wakefulness into drowsiness. When a person who is
~oing into a state of drowsiness (and Is exhibiting alpha waves on the EEG)
is subjected to a regular clicking noise, at first the noise causes a
dhrurbance in the EEG. After a while, however, the brain appears to
become habituated so chat no further disturbance in the EEG occurs. The
clicking noise can also interrupt the brain's alpha waves seen when the
subject is meditating, but this time no habituation occurs.' On Piaget's
model we can postulate that in the person going from wakefulness to
drowsiness, the clicking noise at first intrudes into the consciousness. But
as soon as it has been processed. interpreted and integrated into the brain's
schemata as not being of any consequence, it fades from consciousness. It
no longer diswrbs the brain wave1>. This ls the adult pattern of perceplion.
ln Zazen, however, no such integration oc,curs and the sensory perception
of sound continues to impinge on the consciousness. Each click is treated
as new Information that has never been beard before. The subject reportS
apprehending the sound as pure perception 'Each stimulus is accepted as
stimulus itself and treaLeJ ru. such.'' Thi!> corrc!>pondi. to what has been
described abo,,e as the infant's mode of perception.
Not all meditation results in the state described in the preceding
paragraph. As a Zen med!tator increases in skill, a state is reached in which
a clicking sound is oo longer apprehended at all. IL produces no change in
the EEO.• ,\ similar state is found in deep meditation (samadhi) among
170 • TU~: Rf.Ll(HOlJS £XPl:.1Ut-:.NCI:. ,\.'W IIS l:.XPRI.SSIO),,

yo)!i:, 1 . \ )'oJ!o master in deep mcditnrion shrm s nc; intcrnaption in h,, l·.t:l~
patrcm dc:.pile fiashmA IJ~ht:., soundin~ ,tun~~. ur the touch ol u hot lc!-l
IUOO II

STATE-DEPENUENT LE.\R~IN(, ,\NU

ST,\TF.-BOUND K:-10\\'Lf,f)(,f,

,\ second nren of research is of inrcrest \\ith rc~11rd to the report, of the

inability of dill ~ubjcct to dc.,crlbc hb or her reh4iou!- cxp.;rlcncc,. Th~·
more intense :m experience, the Jess the suhject L'> able to put II into wonh
This research into the phenomenon of st:ite-dcpcndent lcominA and i.tntc-
bound knowledge (or meaning) also helps to explain the way chat ntual,
and reli)!ious symhols function :u che psycholo,itical level Rcli~lou,
experience often in\'olves :i state of altered conscioU!,ne:,s ExpcrimcntaU,·,
in order to mvestiAote this phenomenon, it hai, been found ustdul to u.,c
drugs to nchieve srnces of altered consciousness.''
In brief, it con be stated that any msk or memori2ation learned at one
le"el of consciousness is best remembered at the same level, nither than at
other levels. It is not, however, just. memory that is affected by varyin~
levels of arousal. .\;, we move away from the level of consciousnc~
associated with our ordinary, cYeryday routine, the di~tincrion between
subject and object be<.-omes blurred. 1lost of our rational proces:.eb, !ouch a;,
Aristotelian logic, depend upon discounting any interaction between the
observer :mcl the observed. The:,e processes are therefore onf~, appl!c..1hh: at
lhe level of arousal of daily routine. Our system of logic and e\·en the
meaning of words hegin to break down once we leave this le\·el Thu,, as
Fischer has seated: 'Meaning is "meru1lngfuJ" onl}' at that level of arousal at
which it was e~'J)Crienced', and so ·every experience has its scate·N>Und
meaning'. u
What is experienced In scates of altered conscio=ess is, first, not so
well remembered once the individual returns to normal le,·els of aroui;nl
Second, e\'cn what is remembered can only be poorly expressed La tcnn., of
a vocabulary that is firmly bound to the nonnal le\•el of arousal In
recounti ng these experiences, recourse cnn often only he made to
metaphor, symbob, art, poetry or music.

Reli~iaus Symbols
After a p:irticularly d~turbing experience, most people find that for a lon!t
lime afterwards. seeing or experh.mcinit :,omelhin~ that reminds thtcru of
the episode leads to a sudden nashhack It raises rhem to :i h1~h f.,\·cl of
arousal :1goln. Take, for example, hn,•ing an accident at a crossroad., with 11
rnd car. for a Jon~ rime afterwards, a driver will e~perience unplea,ant
symptoms o( arousal whenever he or she comes to (I similar crossroads or
 7. SCIENTll'IC l/11.0E ftSTANDING O•' REl.lt:IOl'S EXrER IENCE 171

\Yh,1t ca11 l sny 11hout the station., of those "110 hnvc nttnint'<I
lUllon cx<.-.,pt thnt they ~re tnnnttc, wbllc the st.itlon• or the
tm,clers have a limlt? The llmit of the travelers ts union. But
"hat could be the limit or those in union~ - chac Is, that
union which cannor be marred by separation Ko ripe ,lrnpe
ever aAain hccomes Arceo, :and no m:nure (nail ever :1g;1in
TILE L'SE Or become~ rnw (Jnlol :ii-Din Rum I, quoted In Chlt1i.ck, The Sttfi
METAPHORS A,'\'l) Patlt of LQf,c, p. 24;)
When cJ10 wiso knows thot It is th rough the ~rent nnd
J\L\GES TO PORTR.W 0011t.iprc:s~nt spirit m us that we rut: con:,cious in waking or
In drerunln~ lh1:n he goe, beyond sorrow.
MYSTICAL
When be knows the Atman, the Self, the Inner llie. who
EXPERIE.'ICE elljoys like a bee the sweetness or the flowers or the senses,
chc lord of what was ,md what will be, then he Aoc• beyond
f.mr. This in truth is Thnc ...
l\s the water roinln~ on n rnountaln-rldllC runs down the
rocks on all sides, so cbc man who only secs variety of things
runs after them on an sides.
But as pure water becomes oae and t:he same, so becomes,
0 Nochiketas, the s;oul or t11e sage who knows. (Kru:ha
l.'pani.s/it,d 1 part 4, in The l.'panisliods, pp. 62...J)
The duality that so l<1n/! existed between the Self ond rhc
world, now ceased to exist. The mind become immediately
oomr,o--ied. lm~mnlly there wns a feeling of jo)' On du,
ouuldc. lht:: Mrcntth ol the limb~ fodcd away ... Drop~ ol
$Weal crept over his body, M drops of water creep on the
moon-stone when it is touched by the rays of the moon. As
an unblow,1 lotus swings to and fro on nccoum of the bee
which is enclosed within its petals, similnrly the body of the
devotee began 10 shake on account or the feelings of u1i.,mru
bliss. As particles ot' crunphor drop down when the womb of
the camphor-plant ls full-blo" n. similarly, tears of joy
trickled down from hi:s eyes. As the sea experiences tide after
tide when the moon bas arisen, similarly his mind
experienced surge after surge of emotion from time to time.
Thus all cJu, eight . . en,otions be,ian 10 oompctc in the mind
of the my,lic and he sat on the throne of divine Joy.
(Jnaneshvara, quoted In Ranade, Mysucism In India,
pp. 125-6)

sees a similar red car. This gives us an insight into the role of a religious
symbol (see also pp. 27~9). The central experience of religion ls
undoubtedly one chat leads co a certain level of arousal. The symbol is an
aspect of that experience. When encountered again in the course of our
everyday life, the symbol can transport us im.medlately to that level of
arousal where we can again partake of the experience. ln the case of the red
cnr, the experience recalled is unpleasant, while lu the case of the religious
symbol, the experience recalled Is pleasant and attractive. 'fbus a
Christian, for example, may have a profound emotional experience in
reflecting upon, or seelng an artiMic or dramatic representation of, the
17.? TIit, RELl(,IOL:S t;XPf,RltNCt; ANll ITS t,XPkl-:1:iSIO'I

~ @ t.) flt' ~
IUnduism lluJdlusm Tno,,m Shinto S1khl,m

r~
~
Jud,ti,m
t C
GhrbllWllty blum Zoroa,,trlanl!.m
0
Bruu1'1 ra,th

Rt:LlGl()llS S\' MB(>L-'In modem um~. each relJl\ion ha. ndoptt!d • ~)mhol that ha, 1><.•comc
1he hnlhnurk of 1h01 rcliition In some cases such as the cros., for Chr1-•t1anl1V and the
Star of Dtwid for Judrusm, the •i•mbol h<IS had long-,rnnding n.ssooletlun, and ,to
adopuon lws been nu1urnl and unconuovcrslnl . In other ca.'C> the udopt10n b n11>rc
questionable. Islam, for cJtample. cannot be ,a,d 10 have bad a symbol. I~ armies, 111 b<:n
li!lhlin,I\ rehl!ious "ars. usually foud,c under banners "1th quocatioru. from the Qur'un on
1hem. The star and crescent was more properly the emblem of the Ottoman Empire, but
has been ndopted by Muslims for lack of a suitable nlcemutwe Similarly. the Hindu
simhol comprises the Snnskri, letters for the holy sound 'Om'. It is the sound thot 1,
considered ho()' rather than the lclwn. There arc numcrou. other ho()' ,ymbol> lu
lllntluhm such ll$ the "'"Stika :ind padmu (lotu.).

Cbru.tlnn pilgrim> nt Ea.swr re-enact th~ last jount~y of Jc.-.us hy cnrry,n( crn,scs p:1.,1
the 'Station• of the Cros..' In Je=hlm.
 7 sc1t::-:TIPIC \;NDF.RSTANDINO ot· RELIGIOl' S t:XPERIENCE 173

sacrifice nnd sufferings of Christ when he was crucified. The symbol or che
oross brin~s the.se feelings back.
It is not only an objeec or sl,ttn that may act in this way IIS a rellgious
symbol Elemonu; of a religious ritual can have the so me effecc: n particular
smell (ns with incense), or 11 sound (as with a bell or the voi(.,e of chc
muezzin), or che words of a prayer. Any of these can take the believer
immcdiacely to that level of emotional arousal at which the religious
experience is relived.

FISCHER ANO A ~1AP OF MENTAL STATES

\\'hat has been presented thus far is r,elatively uncontroversial and is

accepted by most workers in this field. Some of Roland Fischer's work,
howe,•er, has been subjected 10 criticism, chiefly that it is oversimpllfied."
Sinoc it does, however, lead to several valuable insights, it is here briefly
presented.
Roland Fischer has collected data both from bis own work and the work
of ochers to describe the neurophysiologJcal changes that occur in a variety
oi states or altered consciousness. These include meditation and trance
states associated in particular with the Eastern religions. He has described
two wayi, in which consciousness can be altered. He names these 1wo the
erROrropic pathway, signifying increasing arousal culminating at the
extreme in mystical ecstasy, and t.he trophor.ropic pathway of decreasing
arousal culminating In deep trance. These two pathways can be
demonstrated to be different. For example, the pattern of the brain waves
on the electToenoephalograin (EEG) shows increasingly higher frequency
discharges on the ergotropic and increasingly lower frequency disch~es
on the trophotropic pathway. Other measurnhle differences have also been
shown to occur." Some of the features of these 1.wo pathways can be seen
in figure 7.1 (p. 174), which is adapted from Fischer.
However, these two pathways should not be considered as opposites,
for they are in fact patbi, chat proceed in purallel. Al che extreme end of the
two pathways lie mystical ecsmsy and deep trance, respectively. But, in
fact, these two states aro not very far from each other. They arc lntcr-
cunvertible, in that a person In a state -0f hyper-aroused ecstasy can go
directly into a stare of trance \\'ithout retracing his or her steps along the
ergotropic pathway. Thi~ frequently ob~erved phenomenon ib called
obreacdcm in some studies and rebound phe11ome11011 In others. Mo,·ement
in the opposi te direction is also to be found, in that a state of trance is
frequently followed by a state of ecstasy. This link between the ergocroplc
and trophotropic pathways is not just confined to their end-points.
Experimental data suggest chat each level or hyper-arousal Is linked to a
corresponding level of hypo-arousal. Thus, for example, it was found that a
series of numbers memorized at one le,·el or hyper-arousal is besr
remembered ,u either the same level of hyper-arousal or the equivalent
17-1 TIIE llELIGIO\TS EXrt;RIE:-1<:t, ANO ITS EXl'IU.SS IOJ\

Figure 7.1 Pnlhway~ ro .\lwrcd Swto.:s of Conscloui,nct-S

EKti<lTKom1, TkOl'U<Jl HOl"k""!
P,\illW,\''( PATIIW.\Y
(lncrc:i.~cu (D<-.,rce,cJ
nrous.11) arou"81)

Lf.\U lit P,m IOLO<llC\I. Rt:ULIOl:S RKL1t..;tc:M.IS MO PATIIC )J.AA..tC.\I.

1:0~~IVUSSts., ,\NI) STl.\ll't.\TEll A.'lll l.VlRrP,\\ t:Vfl\¥11,W ,~v
PATIIWAVh ACm1Tlf.S ,\CTl\1Tlr!, \Tl~ll'I-\TW
'I' Oh1ect fl,\Tll\\'i\Th
/(111/tlm

Lf:\"F,t. <» t:vcryJay Normnl

VAJJ.V llellrl'llit ucuv\ty
, rclaxaUon
, ''
~lru1Ja , ,' '' Dcpre,~lon
Schizophrenia ,' ', lf~pnO'-IS
LSD :Exc' item ent ' .\IL-ohol
D~'Cp,
~foscnlhlc :surnuuulon ln<>ronslng rclaxallon Dhucp~m
I
Crowd ,I ~llld :irousal intensity
h )•sterfa I
o( senMtion
I'
Oecrcnscd Concentration

!
I
I
,Anxiety nbillt)" lO
I
I
I
verify Contemplation
I
I
sensory input
I
I
LE\'f.l Of I
I
CRUTl VITY I
I
I
I
Drowsiness
:sufl Ila/
: (chunLin!l,
:dhikr,
'
•dance)
I I
I I

:Ecstatic ~!ed1tation· :
:dancing Yogi. :
I I
I
I
Zazcn 1
I
I
:spirit

,
I
1 I
possession

..
\ I

Lt:\'El OF £XTREM£
ALTEREf> STATE. Of
" Ecst.-isy .. Abreaction

Ri,hound
OL>ep U":tJlO<:
(Saml4dlu)
COMlC:10\JSNEt;S phenomenon

'Self
Subject
K,1QW<.'r

Sot/RU?: &sed on ll Fl~er, "A C'.ano.f!mphy of Ec:sutlc and Medilath-c Staie<'

 ;_ SCIENTIFIC UXD£RSTM,DING OF R£LIGIOUS KXPl::fUl,NCE 175

A woman in a mince smie on ihe floor durin~ a ritu.'ll of C.~ndombM, Brazil

level of hypo-arousal Bur it b not w wdl remembered at other levels of

either hyper- or hypo-arousal.
What htis been found expcrimenmlly is that, m, a person goes along
either palhway, several subjective and objective phenomena are
consistently reproduced. These apply whether the stimulus for proceeding
along lhese pathways is natural, pathological or artlficiall)' induced by
drugs. lo our routine activities, we maintain a nigh level of motor activity,
which continuously act.S to verify the perceptions of our sensory input.•• As
we go into states of altered consciousness, hyper- or hypo-arousal, we are
less able to perform voluntary motor activity. And so we become
increasintly unable to verify sensations. With increasing levels of either
hyper- or hypo-arousal, moreover, the EEG shows decreasing ,•ariability.
This is reflected subjectively in a loss of the ability to inrcrprct sensations."
Thus, as swtes of hyper- or hypo-arousal are induced, there occurs 'an
illtensification of inner sensations, accompanied by a loss in the ability co
verify them through voluntary activity"." The over:ill effect of this is a
mar ked dlmlnucion in our interpretative repertoire.
At the le,•el of daily routine, there is a sharp subject-objecc definition.
Individuals are able to view themselves nod their actions in an objective
manner. One of Lhe effectS, as we travel along these two pathways 11wny
from our everyday le,·cl of consciousness, is that we begin co lose this
distmccion. The boundary between tJ1c observer and the observed becomes
more and more blurred. Other boundaries also break down. The Hnk witJ1
the chronological time of lhe physical world is broken and time can appear
co speed up or slow down depcndlng on certain personality parameters." A
174 • TIIE REl,IGl()liS EXf>EIUENCi,. ASO ITS ~.Xl1 1lESSHIS

pcr,-on who b in a high :,,l/ltc oi hyper- nr h~'JlO·arou:,,al hccomcs, 11, notcJ

prc\'IOusly, lncrcasin~y imp«.!rv1ous to external Mimuh

1'11E NEUROPIIYSIOLOC:lr.,\L
BASIS OF REl, ICllOUS EXPEIURNCE

It would be \VTong to think that we are here J.,;almst only \\ 1th the e:\_lrcmc.-,
of experience, such 11s trnnce stmes ond mystical ecstasy These
phenomena arn more marked in tbc1>c extreme :.tates and. therefore, more
easily mea~ured experimentally. But they are, in fact, phenomena thm nre
frequently experienced in e\'ery<lay life in less extreme form:,, They occur
whenever anything happens to change our level of emotional arousal. \Ian~
commonly heard expressions bear witness to the fact that these
phenomena, in less inten:,,e fonn. are part of our everyday experience: 'IIO\\
time !lies when you're ha,1lng fun!' or 'Every moment of the ordeal seemed
like an hour' (time passing more quickly or slowly at a raised le\'cl of
aroui,al); ' Lcan't remember what happened last 11igbt but it must have bo.l«.!n
good!', or 'If you haven't experienced it, you cannot know' (state-bound
memory and knowledge); 'lie was so wrappt!d in thought that be did not
hear me' (decreased awareness of external stimuH). And of course, if these
phenomena aro a common part of everyday life, they are ve~· much more
a part of all forms of religious life, which is usually charged with emotion
and may therefore be considered to be at a different level of consciousness
to our daily routine.
What light do these findings in neurophysiological and psyoholo,itical
research shed upon religiotLs experience? We ha,·e already noted in chapter
2 (p. J6) tlrnt the Eastern religions place a great deal of emphasis on
meditation or repetitive chanting, ::icth•ities which lead co altered states or
consciousness. This alteration in the state of consciousness produces a
state similar co time described by Piaget for lhe Infant (an imegrarion of
cortical nnd subcortical ncci\·icy). Deikman called this sratc
'deautomacization'"' because there Is a deactl\·ation of those automatic
schemata (in the subcortex) which organize and interpret inconun~
stimuli. Meditation transfers the attention from abstract tltouglu actl,ity
(co#)itlon) to perceptions. 'The active incellecmal mode b replaced hr a
receptive perceptual mode.'"

Experiences o.f Trance or Mysrwal Ecstasy

Many writers from Eastern traditions, as \\ell as from those \\'C1>tem
traditions chat encourage the achie\·emcnt of trance srntes, hn,·e tried to
describe their experiences (see pp. 9+7 and 166-7 for examplCI> of thu.)
We fmd that manr of their descriptions match what we would exp;.-ct from
the scientific finding!. of Piiiget, Fischer nnd other~
 ; SCli,;NTlflC UI\OERSTANOl),I'(: Uf Rf:l,IGIOl!S EXl'ERIEJ\CE 177

1. Those who cnwr bt.atcs of tr:mce or c-cstas>' report the experience of o

monist state (i.e. "hen tl1e 'me' ood 'not-me' division In the world breaks
do\\,1 and they experience an intense sense of unity with Reality).
Trance or deep meditation produces a stale that appears to correspond
in m:my respects to the 'infantile state' (Piaget), lhe 'state of hyper- or
hypo-nrousnl' (Fischer), or 'dcmnomatization· (Oeikman). These states
result, as described above, in a breakdown of subject-object
diffcrcmi:icion. The self and the world around become merged. A
monlstjc i.Late is experienced.
2. They report the phenomenon of the differing passage of lime. Those who
ha,·e an intense religious experience often claim that time SlOOd still or
passed very slowly during this!' This, agaln, was found by Fischer to be
a phenomenon associated with altered states of consciousness, hyper- or
hypo-arousa I.
3. They report that their intense religious experience is ineffable (its
rea]jty cannot be communicated by ,vords). It can only be undcrsrood
br another who has also experienced the state. This phenomenon can,
as described above, be explruued on the bal>is of staw-bound knowledgl;)
and meaning. The experiences of a person at extremes of hyper- and
bypo-arousaJ only have meaning in those states. The experiences cannot
easily be commurucated once the person lias returned to the level of
e,·erydoy life.
4 They reporl unusual perceptions: perceptions of infinite energy.
dazzling light and so on.~1 In states of altered consciousness, controlled
analytical thought is absent. The subject's attitude is one of receptiviry
to stimuli. There is heightened attention to sensory p:ithwayl.. All
sensations are therefore experienced more vividly. It may also be that
psychic phenomena (such as tension, conflict or repression) will be
perceh·ed by being translated via the relatively w1structured sensations
of light, colour or movement."
5. They report a feeling of reality associated with the mystical experience.
Those who have had intense religious experiences often assert that they
do not need external evidence for their reality, because of the intense
'feeling of reality' experienced during the state. In foct, howc,·er, this
Intense ·feeling of reality' has no connection with an objective
judgement of reality. h may, for example, be expe rienced in dreams. On
the other band, objective reality may on occasion be deprived of the
·feeling of reality'. This occurs. for example, in the brief feelings of
depersonaJjzation (where one feels as though one•,. self is unreal) or
dereallzation (where one feels as though the world around is unreal)
that most of us experience from time co time (often associntcd with dejc',,
'1lL and other similar phenomena). During the early childhood swgcs of
individual development, the ·feeHn~ of reali ty' becomet, fused with the
objects of the outside world. ln states of alcercd consciousness, however,
17H TIit Rtl,l<llOl'S t:XPERlt,NCt; ANO ITS tXPKt;SSIOS

the process of dcuutomatizat1011 breaks !.hi!> link The ·feeling o( realit~~

can then become linked to th c feelings :111d Iden~ that enter :1warcnc"
durinl\ chis state. The stimuli and images of the inner \\orld hi:comc thus
endowed with UlC 'fcelln~ of reality'
/\n addirionnl reason for this 'feelin,I\ of reality' rcsulcs from tJ1e procc.,,
of deautomatization. Due to this, Stimuli tltc no lor~r 1>)':,tcmat.ued UJlll
selected before be1n,I\ presen 1ed to conscious tJ1ou~c. Therefore aU
stimuli present themselves cquully stron~y to the consclou\nes,, which
"' only able to focus on one un!.Clcc1lvcly That om: :.umulu~ thernfon:
has none of its icaru res aucnuatcd h>• ~ubcortical pcoccssin~ h also hn,
the 'foelrng of reulity' atwched to il and 1,0 it appear!> with u ,1vldnt:!..,
unlike anything that is experienced In ordinary life.
6 Lastly. 1t should nm surprise us if che mystlc describes his or her world
as being outside lhc bounds of reason or not nnalnable by intellect and
analysis!' This i:, to be expected beca~e. as we han: noted. in movin'!
away from the te,·el of everyd ay experience, we are moving :iway from
the realm in which /\ristotelian logic and inu:Uectual analysib funcdoo.

SPERRY A~D SPLIT-BRAIN EXPERIM ENTS

Another area of research Lhac is illuminating ,,ir.h regard Lo reliAious

experience im•olves the results of split-brain experiments There are a
small number of people in whom the braln has been verclcaJly ~plit into left
and right halves {either due to an accident or for cherapeutic reasons)
\Vhen such people ba,•e been tested, it is found tll:n one half of the brain
(usually the lefc) Is the active, verbal half. ll is this half thac dlreccs
intellectual and analytical activity; it is usuuliy called the dominanc
hemisphere. The olher half of the brain is receptive and concerned with
spatial and other non-verbal information, as well as intuitive or integrative
(gestalt) experiences...
These considerations can also lead us to examine ilie difference~
between the mystical scates achieved in tile religions of Ease and \\'esc In
the West, activities associated with the 'dominant' hembphere (acclvicy.
verbal, analytical and rational rhought) are highly prized Reliwon also
reflects this tendency. The trpe of mystical scate mosc often achieved in tile
West ls acclve, hyper-arousal mystical ecsuisr This can be seen .imonit
Christian mystics like St Theresa, in Christian ecscatic/revivalist group!>
and among many Sufis tJ1rough clhikr, repetitive chanting. Jn che Ease, lhe
emphasis is on hypo-arousal cechniques such as meditation culmlm1tin~ in
trance This corre~-ponds to me fact th:il receptivity and intuitive thouP,ht
are generally more highly prized in lhe East; this in cum corresp011ili, with
the accivtcy of chc ·non-dominanr' hemisphere of the brain "
We noted in chapter 2 thm within I.be predominantly thebtlc rellglow,
tradition of the West there are ncverlheless woups or 1nd1viduals. such a.,
 7; l;CIENTIFIL: U)olUERST.\NDINCl OF RELltllOUS EXl'EIUENCf. 17'.I

Dance as a means of acluevin,I\ a trance State in Afro-American reliJllon. Broz ii

~leiscer Eckhart, who came lO monistic conclusions without an>' knowledge

oi the Eastern traditions. Similarly, wirhin the Eastern traditions, many
subscribe to a theistic \'icw of metaphysics: the followers of the Hindu
bhakc{ cults and Japanese Pure Land Buddhiscs for example. This should
not surprise us, given the above analysis, for all human beings possess two
ha l\'eS of the brain and thus are capable of bot11 types of experience. Which
type of experience predominates in a given sociecy muse depend to a large
extent, one suspects, on upbringing nnd other cultural inAuences, but it is
always possible for lhe Olher type of experience to break t11rough tJ1is social
conditioning in a particular individual.

TYPES OF R ELIG I OUS E XPERI ENCE

Ii we now lea,·e aside the specific area of mysticism and turn to the more
~cneral area~ of religion. we find ourselves wltJ1 three sets of lnterrelated
facts,

• mosl Eastern reJiwons ha1·c a monistlc metaphysics

• the Eru.tern religions encourage meditation and other activitii:s lllitl
re..,ult in an altered state of consciousness
• allereJ i.talCs of con8ciousncss result iu a monisde mode of seeing
realiry
Thc:.c finding, lc:wc us in a quuncfary o( tJ1c ch1ckc11-und cM nirh.:ty. no
t:;;1,tcrn reliitium, metlitutc hccnuse it helps them lt) perccl\'C rcal11y u, Lhcy
con:,idcr it really is; thaL i:, , in monb1ic moue-.. Or tlo they i.cc reality in
momstic mode bccuus<: Lhcy metlitutl!., Simil:1rly, do \\"c,h:rn rcllitiun,
emphnsi1e ~uch act:. a~ prayer and ritual worship hecau,c the~· help the
believer to sec the reality of the thci,Lic mode? Or do they tend to ,(;c
reality In n theistic way hecnusc of the acliviLiel> of prayer antl ritual
"·on.hip":' In other words, is the pattern of rchi\ious nc1iv1ty cstohhsh1..-<l
bcC11u:,c II helps to reinforce the mcrnphy:.lcaJ stantlpolnt o( tJw rdl~un•
Or did the mctaphysicol st:indpoint of the reliit1on arise bccau!-c of the
predominant pattern of religious activity und the viewpoint towartl:. "'hich
Lhat acclvlty pre<llsposetl the indl,Tidual In that society?·
There is an altemati,·e response co this quandary, tha1 of rclouvism
(:,cc pp. 41-J and 195-9). This rcitards all metaphysical :.tandpowt:, ~
bein)l relative to the Viewpoint o( the heliever The ,;ewp0int of the b.lliever
can then be regarded as dependent , to a greater or le&ser cxtcn~, on variotL'I
factors such as personality type and upbringing. With re~ard to the material
presented in this chapter, one coulld soy that the ,·iewpoint of the belien•r
may also be dependent on the type of relig.ious actl\'ity which he or ~he
predominantly undertakes

CAUTIONARY NOTES

lt is perhaps necessary 10 interpose some words of explanation Some

relig.ious people may disllke the fact that tl1e results of research often
obtained using drugs or resulting from highly abnonnal situations such as
the split brain should be applied to religious experience. But it should be
realized that these scientific findings have nothing ro say about the validity
of the religious experience itself. All that they do is to shed some light on
the different ways tJ1at this experience manifestS itSelf. Fischer's work on
state-bound knowledge, for example, shows that the aroused srnre oi mind
produced by religious experience Is also produced by several other
mechanisms (including the use of drugs), all of which produce certain
common features {time passing differently, state-bound knowledge, and <;0
on ). It Is therefore reasonable LO asi.ume that these features are due to the
common result o( the different mechnnisms {the aroused state of the mind)
rather than tJ1c mechruililm of arousal Itself (my:.ticism, drugs and so on).
ln other words, If trance-llke states produce several common features no
matter whether they are induced by religiotL~ mysticism or dnigs, then one
can as&ume that these features arc a general property of the
neurophysiological state induced in the brain, rather than the s-pecific
property of the religious experience or drug:, themseh·es This obscrvmion
cast!> no aspersions on d1e veraciry of the reliAious experience. It merely
indicates that these phenomena probably cannot he used as proof of 1he
truth of religious experiences. It &bould be noted in passing, howc,·er. that
 7 SCIEl\Tlt' IC UNOERSTANlllNG OF RELIOIOUS l: XPt: RIENCE 1111

se,·eral religions have used or srrn do use mind-altering drugs in their

rituab, thus attaining sla tes of nltercd consciolL~ness. Eltamples include
soma in Hinduism, bnoma in Zoroastrianism, kava In Polynesian religion,
peyote and various other plane substances in Native American religion and
0
cannabis In R.astafarianism.'
A second cautionary note regards lhe fact that what has been described
above may tempi some intO value judgements. They may argue that living
life in an .:1duJt mode (with respect to Pl.aget) and at the everyday level of
consciousness (\\ith respect to Fischer) would appear to be the more
tlcsirublc: swtc of affairs. This would seem to favour the Western religions
th,ll em.-oura_i!e this. rad1er chan the Eastern religions that promote altered
~tares of consciousness, which lead to an infantile mode of perception.
Indeed, supedicially, Lt may appellr that humankind's greatest triumphs
ha,·e come from rhe world of science, where modes of logical rhouli,hr
predominate. Thi, would, nowevcr. oo a premature conclusion. For even in
the field of science, the \\Titints of Kuhn '' have demonstrated that the
greatest adwmces do not come merely from perse\'ernnce in the application
of logical thought to the sum of what Is known. That only produces scerile
lo~ical progression within the same framework. The major advances in
science invol\'e jumps to a new framework, 'paradigm shifts' as Kuhn calls
them, that come from a spark of tnsp1ratlon welling up from the
subconscious. For this co occur, the individual needs to be operating
son\cwhcrc bctwcctl the two cxtfcmcs of everyday consciousness (where
no ~parks of inspiration come), on the one hand. and extreme hyper- or
hypo-arousal (where whac is understood cannot be communicated), on the
ocher. This medial position between th e two extremes scemi. to be the
position of humankind's maximal creativiry - che source of all of the
greatest philosophy, art, scicnoc and reli~ous thought.

FURTHER READING

Sources Cor this chapter include Deikman, 'Deautomali2adon and the

~iystic Experience', R. Fischer, 'A Carcography of Ecstatic and Mcditati\'e
Staccs' and Lewis, Ecstatic Religion. Many of the sources used for this
c:hapter are compiled in \\'oods, Understanding Mysticism . The book is
primarily about mysticism, but, hy treating mysticism as merely the
extreme end of the range of religious experiences, it ca n pro,·lde
information about other forms of religious experience. Another useful
compilation of articles is Tare, Altered Scates of Consciousness.
CONCEPT UAL A SPECTS OF R ELIGION
 THE N,\TURE OF REALITY

F.LIGIO:-: IIAS ALWAYS 81::EN COSLERNE0 with explaining lhe nature of reality.
The anthropologist Edward B Tylor (1832'-1917) propounded the theory that
religion came into being in humnnlty's early history as a way of explaining the
world. Primiti,·e human bein!!,s, Tylor ari!ued,
were disquieted hy, and therefore needed to
e:1.plain. such phenomena a~ death and dreams.
\\'hy would clo_se relatives who had died still
sometimes be felt to be present? Why "·ould
they still appear In dreams-:. This led people to
believe in a spirit that occupies the body
during life but continues to exist after death.
This belief in spirii.s was then extended to
nawre: such things as mountains and trees
were thus considered co have spirits. This
helped to explain such violent natural
phenomena as lightning. stomlS or volcanoes.
Tylor called this belief in spirits 'animism' ,\
parallel development is fcti1>hism, w bich
im·olves the belief that a particular objecc or FtTJSLllS~I: Representation of the
person has special powers, usually because it worship of a feLish, C'.on~o
has been possessed by a spiriL
Reljgion·s explanations of the nature of reality have changed and
dcrnloped consldemble compleidty since prehistoric times. This chapter
~xamine..s the views propounded by the different religious systems concerning
the nature of reality. The first area to be considered is the narure of what is
beyond, or transcendent to, our phy,,lcaJ world ( the existence of a i.plritual
world, questions regarding the Ultimate Reality, the spiritual oature of the
human being and so on). This is an area of enquiry that may be described as
metaphysics, although the word is here being used in a restricted religious
sense, rather than in the more geneml philosophical us.,gc that is concerned
Y.ith the whole of reality. The second area to be considered concerns the
origins and end of this physical world (cosmogony and eschatology). The third
area to be considered is the question of knowledge itself (epistemology). What
can be known of reality? How can reality be known? Much of this chapter is
a more detailed exposition of some of the themes outlined in chapter 2
IHI> c:os<: FPTl l.\ L ASl'U:'rs OF Rf.l ll,lllS

TIIE NATURE OF Ut.'flMi\Tt RE,\LIT\

.\s dc~cribcd In chnptcr 2, chc major rcll~ious syswm, or tht.: worlJ or,p,,ar
to he divided Imo two m:Hn Aroups O\'cr the quc!.uon or the nmure ..,r
l ' llirntllc Reality Those thnt wc c.:an call che theistic rch)!ions hold 1h111
there b un lJhhnmc Reality whose nawrc Is compktcly beyond anJ
tr:msccndcn1 io 1hls physical world The other ~roup, which moy he c:1llt.:J
the n11mlstic rcligloni., hclit.:ves 1hnt thh phy,icnl world, o r Bl lca,t hum,111
hem,~~ - arc inherently pan of. or identical to, the L'ltimate llcaUty There 1,
then :1 third Aroup chat holds 1h:n mcrnphysicnl quc,tions arc ultim:1teh·
not ooituizable; we cun only view them froru a limited \'iC\\ point and thu,,
Aain a rclati\'C knowlcdtc or the truth

J l'IJ.\J!>M
Praise the Lordl . . The Lurd i, h1$ abow 1111 nation,. 11Dd
his glory aho,·e the hea,·1<ns' \\'ho is hk1< the Lord our C;od.
who is s eated on hij\h , "ho look, for down uron th11 h~'"'l!rn.
nnd the e:mh" (PM/ms 1131 1-o)
TIIE NATL'RE OF CIIIU~T~\., ;rrr
And when they hcord ir, they lifted ,heir ,·oice« ro~1hcr m
UI.TIMATF' RF.ALITY God and sold, 'So.-.:reign Lord, who didst make the hea,·cn
ond the earth ond I.he aca and c,erythlng In them • ."(,\<:1,- r,J
IN THEISTIC Tlw Apvsiles, -l:2-1 )
RELlGIOS'S We give th:anks to thee. Lord God ,\Jml,thty. who 11rt a.nd "ho
wa»l, thnt thou hnM lllken thy grc:,t po\\·er and bcl!un 10
ro~1. (Book of Rewl,won, IJ . l7)
bl.AM
lie is Goel beside Whom 1here b no other god. the Klnj\, the
Holv. the bringer of peace and security, the Pro1ector, the
Alml4),cy. lhe All-Subduing. the Supreme Prni'-C be 10 God
above what they associate with Him lie i~ Goo. the Cn,atc>r,
the Maker, the Fa•hloner. To lllm bclonll the Most Rcauriful
Nomcs. All that is in the hca\'cns and on earth pral"" Ihm Ile
L• the Ahnighty, the .\Jl.\\'ls<,. (Qur'w, 592.}-I )
S11Ull1'll
There Is one Suprcn1e Being, thl! E1em:tl Reality lie IA
Creator, with 0111 f~ir and d,,..old of ennllly. lie 1,- lmmorutl,
never Incarnated, scU-cxisu,nt. known b~ l\l'lt<'e Lhroul\h the
<luru (Openinj\ word., of Guru Nanak\ JopJt, quoted in
McLeod, Te.qua/ So11rce.,Jr,r the Smdy ,if S,kJ111,m, p <;r,,

Theism
The theistic religions bclie,·e in the existence of a supreme hcin~. God in
the universe. Recognizably the some God is found in the Qur't:111, chc ,\'l.-w
Tesramenc and the Hebrew Bible If we take some of che ker attribute~ and
actions of God, we c::m find parallel passa~cs in each of these scriptures
 k . nm N.\TL'Rl o~· REALITY 11;7

The scriptures of nll three religions arc emphatic with re/lard to the
umr,· of God. There ls bur one Goel ftud i<lolatry :ind polythclMll are among
the gre:1test oi sins.

IIEBJU:I\' 81111.ll
Ikar. O ,~mcl The Lord our Cod Is one Lord (Dcuw"'m,my
6:4)
Thus s:iy, the Lord, the Klng or lsmcl. ond his Rcd,'<:mcr the
Lord or ho:.t.~. I nm the Rr.-1 and I run the lrun, and beside me
Tttf. Ui-:JTY OF Goo there ls no God. (Isaiah -H .6)
XN n.~T-~IEl/T
One of the ,cribc, crunc up and ... ask..-d Lum, '\\'hlcb
commandment 1s the first or all?' Jesus answered, 'The llr,,1
Is, "Hear, 0 Israel, The Lord our God, the Lord is one."'
(Mom 12·29)
\\'e know chat 'an idol has no real existence' and that 'there b
no other God bu1 one.' For allho~h there may be so-called
~s in heaven or 011 earth- as inde<ed there arc many 'gods'
and man)' 'lord5' - yet for us there is one Cod, the Father,
from whom arc nll things and throuj!h whom we exist
(/ Corimhians 8 :46)
Qv11·.,.-.
There ls no ~ but He: that b the "'luws, of Goo, of ms
angels and of those endowed with knowledge ... There Is no
goo but Ue, tbe ~IJgbty, tbe \\1se. (J.18)
Cod hath said Choose not two ~ There is only one God
So fcor Me. llOd only Me. (16,Sl)

God is regarded as the creator of this phenomenal world.

HEBREW BmL£
In the bcginnln,t God created the heavens and the earth The
e.1rth was without ionn and 1•oid, and ,farkness wa.s upon the
focc of the deep; and th<' Spiri1 of God wn• moving 01·cr the
focc of the "-aters. And O()d said, 'Lct there be light', uml
there wn., llgbt ... And God said, ' Lcl there be a £lmtru11cn1
Goo THt CREATOR ln the midst of the \\atcrs' . And lt ":tS .o ... And Cod
!>aid, 'Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together
imo one plae<e, and let the dry land appear' And IL wa.~ so.
(Qene.tjs 1·19)
~LW T1.;,1:A.11£~'T
And the four llvim! ,creamres day and night they never
cease 10 sing. 'Holy, holy. holy. is che l,ord (',<XI Almighty, \\'ho
\\'M, nnd i~ and Is 10 come" And the four and twenty
...
I,~., <.:OKCE.l'Tl',\l. \l:,Pl:.CT::. or 1u:1 11,IOl'i

dJcn, foll 1.l.lwn hc(nr,: him "h" 1, """'•'<l ,,n 1hc thrunc, ,,nJ
wo,-.ltlr hlru "'"' IJ,·c:, for c\·cr u_nJ c•cr the)' c•..i 1hc1r
""'""-' bcfor" the throne, ,1nj!Jnl!. '\\'ort11,· ,,n 1hou, nur LmJ
ilnd Coo. to r.it.'<;!l\'e l!Jnry and hunour anJ JXl"'cr, for ,h.,u
did,1 crcn1,:; 1111 111111,:ii, 11nd hy 1hy '"II the)' c~isi,·J sn,1 ,.,n•
created' !/look of R,-,,..-lntoon I <; 111
Q1·R-.\.,,
\'cnly, your 1.ord is <':<xi \\'ho crcau:d the hcnH·ns nnd the
cnnh In six dnr,, then lie mounicd the Throne Ile Cllu'<4'th
the nl,iht to CO\"r the Jay, pur-.,nnit 11 S\\lltly .\nd lk h.ith
moue the MIil, the moon onJ the ,Uln. sub:,~n 1cnt 10 ll1>
command. IJo not cre,rnou and command hclon4 w mm··
( 7 5~)
Pr.ui-c be to God, the Creuu,r of tht: ltea,c,i- am! the
eanh . . He ad..t:. to cre:1tion whm lie wllb. for (;.,J h"'
power m-er all thin~~ (J5· 1 I

• h

n) Got> THE CRF.ITPk Represenuillon of Coo crc:itinl! the Sun. from the cc11in4 ni thi,
Sbtine Chapel by .\llchcl~clo Buorumml (l-l75-1564 ) h) G<lll TIit .\U.·l\llll:IU'l'L
Cttlll~aphlc exprl!SSIOn or the f)O\\er of God tn lsltlnt. The \\rill~ In the ccnm, '"", ·GoJ
Is mOSL greac'. Around IL Is texL from sura U2 of th" Quron ·s~y II~~ Gou. ch" One,
(',od che Ecem:tl lie j!ll'es nor blnh nor ts He horn:

In the following scriptures, God is declared to be nll-powerful, to be able lO

do as He wishes.
 & TIIE !'IATl1RE OF RE,\LITY 11>9

IIWRt w Brnu.
Sn) to God. 'How terr! ble ore lhy 1focdsl So ,l\re:it os thy power
thu1 thy enemies cr1n~e before thee. All the eanh worships
thee; they sin~ to thee , sing praises 10 thy nanw. Selah. Come
anti ~c.-e whrtt Cod hns done: he i.• 1errihtc in his deeds among
men. lie 1un1cJ the "ca into tl11· 11tml, men pa••ctl throu!l),
Gon Tit£ tl,e river oo foot. There did we rcjoic., In him, "ho n1les by
.\u.-PoWERF11. his ml~ht for e,-er.' (P.~alms 66.J-7)
l'IE\\ TEl>"l'AMfST
Let every person be ~ubjc.-ct unto the governing authorities.
For there Is oo authority cxet.'Pt from God, and those that
exist h:l\'e been instituted hy God. ( Romans 13:1)
QuR'A.'<
Say· 'O God. Lord of Power! Thou gh·eth Power to whom
Thou plenseth and Thou removeth power from whom thou
pleaseth Thou exal1eth whom 1hou pleaseth and thou
bringeth low whom Thou pleaseth In Thy hand is 1111 good
\'erily tl1ou hnst power over nil Lb!,~ ' (3,26)

Another of the allribules of God that is common to all three of these

scriptures is the fact that He knows all things.

I lteRJ:.-w BtBL&
Whence then comes \\1sdom? And where ls the place of
understanding? ... God understands the way or It, ood he
knows ils place. for he looks 10 the ends or the earth , and
sees everything under the heavens (Joi> 28:20-4)
Goo THE N.tw TESTMlf.,;T
For God is greacer than our hearo;, and he koo\\0$ everything.
ALL-KNOWlNC (I John 3:20)
QUR',\.,;
Cod knoweth whacsoever is in the heavens and whlltsoever is
on the earth, ond, verily, Cod is the Knower of nll things.
{S:97)

Because God is a supranatura1 re.ality - not

PROOFS OF Goo's Ex1sT1;.'ICE.
immediately apparent to 1he senses - a grea1 deal of effort has gone into
proving His existence in Western religion. The commonest lines of
argument l™ld by rellglous philosophers in the West have included the
following.

L The Common Consent Argument attempcs to prove the existence of God

by appeal to the fact that the belief in some form of God has been held
In all cultures and ages. Not surprisingly, this argument is conside red
somewhat weak. First, the unh'ersality of belief in God may be
questioned in relation both to all cultures (it is doubtful whether
Theravada Buddhism can be sald to ent.ail a belief In God. for example)
l'IO CONCFPTIJ.\L ASPF.CTS <W RFl, IOH>N

and to all aj\C:, ( the moc.Jorn worlc.J ha!i :.ccn a 111:irkcd decllue In Lhe 11.:licf
in Clod). Second, other \\~c.lcly held beliefs (:.uch us the idea that the ,un
goes arounc.l the earth) han: been ~lwwn W he fuhlc
2 The Cosmological Argument hns been cxpres~cd In II number c,f
c.liffcrcnt ways. \\'hat tJ1esc differclll ways havc In oornnaon I~ that they
all proceed frc:,m the ohservnhle fact.'! of the uni"erse and nrj\uc toward,
Cod as the entity lyln,I\ behind thc.-.c obscrvohlo: focts For e11amplc, u
simple form of the ar)tumcnl runs somewhat alon~ the followin~ line~. 11
is an obi.crvoblc fact thnt every motion in Lhe universe hm, u mover,
everv• cfiect has a cause·I slm,c the unh'crse lcsctr exists and is m mot.wn '
there must be some Prime Mover, some Primary C:111~c - thi!> is nod In
lltis line of argument, it is neces.'!ary to seres, the radical difference
between God and the rest of creation. God a!> First Cau:.c do1:S not in
turn , have a cause; God, as Prime Mover, is not moved, This, in cum set~
up otJwr radical dU'fercnce:.. God il> eternal, everything in creation 1:.
ephemeral; God is self-sufficient, e\'crythinA in creation is dependenc.
God 18 unchanging. everything in creation changes.
Can the eosmolo,Ueal ar~ument succeed in takinA us from the
obsen•eccl, the world, to the unobscn1ablc, God? Critics of this line of
argument would say that this drawing of a line between God and the rt::.t
or creation is purely arbitrary_ \\'hy should there he an entity that is the
First Cause? \Vhy could there not be an infiniw rcgre!>:.ion of cilultci.-;,
3. The Teleological Argument or the Argument from Design is an extension
of the Cosmological Argument and is based on an analogy hctwtcn the
universe and a machine. A simple form of chis argument would state that
if we found a watch on the ground (and we had never before ,ecn a
watch), we woulc.l be forced to postulate that i,uch a well-ordered enticy
could not have come into existence by chance; i1 must be the product
or a mlnd. Our unl\'erse is also well-ordered; thcrdore it ls prolY.ihle that
a Cosmic Mind is the source of this order. This Cosmic ~1ind, chis Grand
Designer, is God The universe as a whole has a purpoltc cowards which
it Is moving. God is the originator and sustainer of this purpose.
Criticism of this argument questions whether in face the univer:e is
Ukc a machine. A watch has a purpose I.bat we con ldcmlfy nnJ each
part of the watch can he seen to fon,•ard I.bat purpose But we are not in
a position to identify the purpose of the universe nor to obsen•e hm, it.
parts sen•e that purpose. Moreover. even if the~c objections coulJ be
satisfied, we are not in a position to observe the enrire universe There
may be partb of the universe in which chaos reigns. Then! is nl,u the
problem of the exisumce of evil, which would appear to cast douht on
whether the world wns created h~· a morally perfecc hein~ (on the
question of t.heodicy, sec chapter 9).
4. The Ontological ,\rgumcnt ULkcs variou;, formh. nil ll priori n~umcnt,
seckil11\ to prove that God must necessarily exiM. Thu:., rnll1cr lllan
11rl,1uing from our experience or from obsen•able phenomena, this line of
 8 TII£ N.\Tt,;RE o•· IU.1\LlTY 191

urgum<?nt seek.<; to cJcmonstrntc from fomml rCll!,Oning that God exists,

bcc;1usc to postulate that Ile docs not exist would lend to contradtclion
or illoticlllity. One fom1 of this argument, advnnced by St Anselm and
Descartes. su1rts from the foct tliat our concept of Goel Is of ll supremely
perfect heinS\. than which nothing more perfect is possible. Since
existence is an attribute of perfection, it follows tllat God muM
necessarily have this attribute - otherwise lie would not be t.hat entity
'thnn which nothing more periect is possible'. There is :m inherent
illogicality in tlw idea lhnt 1.bat being 'lhnn which nothing more perfect
is possible' could hove been more perfect (by having the attribute of
existence). Therefore our concept of God forces us to the conclusion
tllnc He n~essarily exb-is.
Those who h(l\'C criticized this argument have pointed out that
existence is not the same sort of attribute of perfection as wisdom or
beneficence and to treat it as such is fallacious. Moreover, the same line
of argument could be used to prove the existence of things that we know
do not exist - for example, an island tlian which none grearer is possible.

It may be logically :.atisfacto:y co de,·elop tllese lines of argument but to use

them a:- proof or the existence o( Cod implies a complete identity beiween
the real world and these conceptual worlds - nn identity tlmt few would
automatically grant. Thus, whatever proofs the medieval world may have
found satisfactory, the modem world has found thoc there is no longer one
purely rational proof or combination of proofs of Lhe existence of God that
carries universal conviction.
One reaction to this failure has been the fundamentalists' counter-
offensi\'e. The lacter have insisted that there can be no human proofs of God
since human bei~ can only know what God chooses to reveal of Himself,
and that most particularly in the scripture. Our religion is only true religion,
they assert, if it is based on foich. not on reason and human intcUect. This
reaction can be found historically in the Proteswnt 'dialectical tbcolog_v' of
such figures as Karl Bartll, produced In reaction to the Catholic 'natural
theology' of Aquinas and Anselm; and also in the .\sh'ari reaction to the
rationalise theology of tlle Mu'tazila in medieval Islam.

Monism
The idea that this phenomenal world, or at least the human reality, is
identical co the lJ1tlmatc Reality in some way can be found in many
rell~ons. le stands most clearly identified in the Advait:a Vedanta. It can
also be seen to some extent in Buddhism, where everything in our physical
or mental world is conditioned and lmpermanent, leaving Nirvana or
Shunyaca {Voidness) as the only permanent, unconditioned reality. Tn
Taoism, the Tao is the Ab»olute Reality. It Is tho dynamic but impersonal
process tllrough which and Within which e\'erytbing else comes into
existence.
192 CONC~:l'TIIAL ASPECTS Of RIF:1, IOION

i hNl,C~sM
'l'locc this snlc m \\'liter and come tn me tnmom,,. m•tmllll\
Swrnkc1u did lb he wn.s <.'<mlm,tnd,-d. and 111 the morn In~ h,
fothcr ~aid w him ' llrlnj\ me the ,ah you put Into thl! water
111.'ll ll~ht.'
s,•c1nl,c1u i()Okcd Int<, the \\atcr, but <.--Ould llol find It. for ,t
Tm: NATl'R.F.. of' had dissolved.
ULTIM,\TE R1-:,\LITI' I hs fothcr then Sft1d· 'Ta<l" the " "nter
'It i~ snit '
N MONISTJC 'I.oak for llw Nllh n~Jn nnJ come 10 me'
The son did so. s.1)1inj\: ' I cannot l>t!C the s3l1. I onJ}' ,cc Ilic
RJ-:UGIO:SS wnlcr.'
Ills (mher then said 'In the snm" \\3)'. () m,· <on , you cannot
sec the Spirit But in truth he l< here. The imisihll! nnd ,uhtlc
essence is thto Spirit of ihc "hole unh·cn.c Thnt I• Rc•hty
That ,s Truth. Thou Art That ' (C:J1tmdt111<1ya I '11a111.,JtuJ
6.13, lu 1'/tc Llpw1islwds, pp. 117-b)
E,·cn by the rnlnd this truth mu.,t he .ccn there nrc not mnny
but only One Who si:,c,, ,•tu'luy nnd not the U,my wanJcn. on
from Jenth tu death. Behold iJ,,m ~ One the lnft1tltc and
eternal One. (BriJtad Aranyaka l 'pan£slu.ul -I -I 19-20, ln T/ie
L'panishads, p . 14 l)
TIIUIA\'ADA BL'UDIIIS.\l
Dependml\ on the o,I and th.: ,.,ck doe, the lil\ht <>i th1: lamp
hum; iris neither In the one nor in the other, nor illl\'thin~ In
it.self; phenomena ~re likewise nothin~ m thcm....,Jw,- \JI
things ore unreal; they are deceptions, Nibhono (1-i"·unnl 1s
the only truth. (MaJj/uma Nuwyu J , Dialogue 140, pnru . .?-15,
quoted in Murti. Tlte Central PJulosoph_v of 811ddJ1L,~n. p. 501
~l~IL\Y.\K\ 8L1JDUlbM
Since Jharmn-oature iS round and lntcrpenuri1un4
It is without any sign of dua1J11·
In One is 1\JI
In Many is One
One i~ iden tiu:d to All
Many I~ ldcntlcal to One .
Saniswn and Nirot.ma
Are alway, harmonised together.
Particular-phenomena (sltilt) and t:nlversa.1-prtnciple (II)
Are completely mcr~cd without distinction
(The 'Oce11J1 Seal' of Ui~ang, the first pntriarch of Korean
llwaom (Ihm-Yen) Buddhism, quoted In Odin Pro..-.:1,..•
Mctapllys1c~ wul ll11a-l,m Bwkllil;,m, pp. xill-n)
1'AOIS1t
The 'way' (tao( which cW1 be designated b~· the word '"ay'
l'tao'J ls nol me real \\'ay (Tru>I . . In lu •tatc of ctcrnttl 1'un-
13clng [I.e. Its unmanlfest •tateJ ooe would,.,., th~ mysterlou,,
reality of the Way [Tao l In its stme of eternal Betlll\ c.ne
would see tbe determinations of the \\'ay ITo<>l These two
nre ultlma1ely one nnd the same Bur once extcm11hzcd they
ru.,,wne different names (i.c BeH)A ond .Son-Bcm,!t) The
 'i. Till! NATURE OF RE.\1,ITY 19J

Too ln l<s ob.solute renhty has no 'nnme'.. It I, (<-'Ontparohle

10) uncarvcd wood . only when IL b cut ou, ore there
'names' (1lw Te Cl,m/l I: l-2. 4: J2: I. qumed in lzuL<;i1,
S11fism and Taaism, pp. Jk2, Jk4. :W2-3. Material in square
brackets is odd<.'<! )

This concept of the nature of th e Ultimate Rcallcy can be called

monistlc since it considers that there is only one reality. This reality is
L·alk>d the Abso lute Reali[)• because it is unconditioned (there arc no
conditions 1hac give rise to it). Monism also differs from t11eism in that it
coru.idcrs the Ultimate Reality as an impersonal reality, void of any
anributes. This realiry does no c act in d1e world and cannot be said to
possess those personal foacures mat are typical of theism, such ns being
pleasL>d \\i tb certain human beiligs and angry with others.
In me Hinduism of Advaita Vedanta, the ultimate truth is the
realization that behind the veil (maya) concealing us from the tn1th, reality
LS one. The Absolute Reality is named Brahman. But since Brahman is the
reality underlying the cosmos, it is also the realicy of all things.

Exalted in songs has been Brahman. In him are God and the world and the
soul, and he Iii the Imperishable supporter of nJI. When the seers of
Brahman see him in all creation, they find peat.-e in Brahman and are free
from all sorrows, •

In Taoism, me Tao is the primordial and ultimate reality. Tbe Tao lcseU' ls
beyond description or understanding. Tbe opening words of the Taoist
scripture, the Tho To Ching, state

The Tno thot can be spoken of is noL the eternal Tno

The name thaL can be named Is not the eternal Name
The Tao is like a well: used buc never used up.
It is like the etemal void: filled with Infinite possibilities.'

Tbe Tao can only be known through its opposites, just as beauty can only
be known by seeing ugliness, and longness is defined by shortness.3
In Buddhism, the word for 'unconditioned' is asamskrica. Those entitles
that are asamskrita do not arise, subsist, change or pass away. Different
schools of BuddWsm consider different entities to be asamskrica.' Theravada
Buddhism c.-onsiders Nirvana, the state of liberation towards wWch the
BuddWsc strives, to be asamskrita. The Buddha refused to describe the
nature of Nirvana itself. lie said dmt it wns not an annihilation, bUL one could
not even say whether a person who passed to Nirvana continued to exisc or
not. Such a person was beyond description (for a funher discussion of
!,;itva.oa, see p. 240). The following passage from the Uda11a, a Theravada
scripture, describes me unconditioned nature of Nirvana.
19 1 • COSCF.l'TUAI. ASPF.CTS Of RF.I.IGION

Thterc is, monks, nn unborn, unurl_l\lnot<.-tl. uncrcat,-tl, unrumwJ If.

monks, there were no unhom. unori,l(lruue<l, uncrcutc<l . unfom1cd. 1hcr"
wouJJ be 110 eS<:apc from the bum, oritlnntcd. crculc<l. formed llut 1t.,
monks, there i~ rh,s unborn, unori,l!inatcd, uncrcatcd, uniorm<.-d, rhcrdon:
c,,mpc from the horn, nriginntcd, form,'<I, b f)Qs,iblc •

The M:ih:iy:inn ~chools have many ways in which 1\1,,.Qlutc Rcnllty i<,
dci.crlhed. The Obamrnlu1ya b U'lol a:,pceL of Lhc Buddha which ,,. ot one
with Absolut" Reality. It denotes the unity of the Buddha with e,·erythtnfl
t.hat exists, :md is thus n moni,.m. The nll-cncompa~ing natur" of the
Ohunnakaya is emphasized In the following quotation from the wnun~" or
Vasubandhu;:m outstanding early Indian Mahayana scholar:

Jusr :is there are no material fonns ourslde space, so there nre no helnf,\.,
outside the Dbarmulrnya.•

Most r.111h:1yana schools, however, recognize a hi~er level of ,\hsolurc

Renlity, the Absolute ot' Absolutes (if i,ueh a contradleUon in tcrlill can be
accepted), Shunyata, the \IOid or emptiness. Shuny:na Is the true realit:v
behind all phenomena and nil men tal states. Shunyara ctm be considered to
he Llrn logicaJ extension of the principle, found in Thera\'ada Buddh11,m, of
pracicya-samucpada (Pali· pacichcha-samuppada), the interdependent,
mutually-conditioned causal nexus {for one fonnulation of the cham, sec
below). According to this concept, all things In this cosmos ori~inace out oi
a mutu:illy self-susmining causal chain - each link in che chain arises
because of the other links. Nothi ~ in this chain has an independent self-
sustaining origin The annlogy is d rawn. in che Theravada scripcure1-, \\itb
a bunch of stlckB, each leaning on the other; take away one :.tick and the

T/1i11ft>,.,nulatitm is found i11 mt1n.)' Butldlu.st sc.-npruro:s uud

tr:ntin.gs. 'tl11dt minor ,;t1nants.

1. As n result or w,orance (croul.m ). men1;1I /orma11on,

(mlitlon~. karma-formmions. samskaro I arise
~- From nacnt.nl formation!\. C'Onsciousnes..."l (t{iaritt) n.riscs
'Ii CE Cm\DI OF J. Fmm onm~CiOtlSnc~ 1 mcncat nntl phy~ic-al nnrnl.~ unJ
forms ( ,11mu,rupa) nrise.
MIJTIJAI.I.\' DEPE.'mE.VT -1. From mi,nta.1 anti physical names Mil ionru.. the ,u
OruGtN,\TI0:-' sensory faculric., ( the five senses plus the mint!,
shrulavownr,) arise.
(PIUTtrnl· 5. Prom the ,ix 1<ensory faouhics, 00111act with the worlJ
(1q>1m,lw) 11nscs
s.~\{l,Tl~llll) LS: 6. From ~'<>ot.11:1., "'"~:nivn ,1nd fcclm8 (toln1111) ur,...,
7. f'rom ,...,n,;alion ontl C...-chn,I\, era, ln,I\ (tn..<luu,1 ari,.,:;,
8UDDIIISM !,. From cra,•m,I\, clfnlllnll 10 e.~1,u,n,-., (11padwu1) an,..,,
9 From clinitin~. hl'COmm!\ (l>hmx,) arise:,
10. From h«ominl\, hirth (jail) nri,cs,
11. From birth, old a~c, tlcath, grid, s"Uffcrin~. tlb1n:,< pnJ
 1" THE l\,\TUJU OF RE,\LITY 195

Luncntation nrlS(! . l:iuch Is the uprlsln~ or suf(er,nll.

(See. for example, Samyum1 1,;;Jmyo 22:90, In The Book
q/ Kintln:d &);niis, vol 2, pp 1- 2: Otsilui /\;ika,)'O
2 55-71 , In Rh}'.O. 0:1\ids, Dwlo,l!u<'s ,if rho: Buddl10 , .-ol
2. pp 50- 70; VUU1ya,pil.ttkt1 I I. In Conte, Bu.tldhtSI
Tc.>:CS, pp. I,(,-i)

"hole scrucwrc collapses. From chis and other lines of argument chat were
common to both Thertl\'atla and ~lahayana Buddhh,m. Mahayana l:>Cholan,
built up the concept of Shunyaca. They :ir~ued that if everything is
impermanent (anicca), devoid of csscncc (anatta) and arises ouc of other
impermanent mutually dependent entities, lhen the reallcy at the heart of
the cosmos is emptiness. The concept of Shunyaca means chat nothing that
!em.ls co multiplicity (all conceplS, ideas, names, designations and so on) is
applicable to the crue nature of the world
This doctrine of emptiness, Shunyarn, is not simply nihilism (that
nothing exists), buc rather an assertion thac things are notbin.g but their
appearance. This then t.-ikes the Mahayana Buddhist on in his or her
meJlrntion, to lhe proposition that one should not attach oneself co these
things of the world, but rather, having comprehended chis truth through
wisdom (prajna), direct one~eli toward~ Nirvana.
The concept of empclness also extends co Nirvana, however. Nirvana,
since it is unconditioned and unoriginated, is also Shunyaca, devoid of all
subsL"ince. fnasmuch as one directs oneself to the true reaJlty behind the
world, Shunyaca, then this phenomenal world (Samsara) and Klrvana are
one This is summed up in the Mahayana formula that ·samsara (this
phenomenal world) is Xirvana'; they filiC not two separate realities. but
rather the field of Shunyata seen hy spiritual ignorance (in the ca~e of
Samsara) or hy true knowledge (in the case of Nirvana)."
The Mahayana conclusion, therefore. Is tbac there Is nothing real
associated \\ith this impemianent world. There is only one perm:mem
Absolute Reality. This is gi,·en different names according to the context in
"hicb it is bein~ discussed: Nirvana, Shunyata, Dharmakaya, and Tathata
(Suchness).
The qu<::Stion of whether Budtlhbm i.;, a monhm that can be Oued Into
this scheme m the way indicawd here remains a matter of debate and
ultimately a maner of opinion. There are some Buddhist scholar;, who
would :.ay that Buddhism should not be com,idered a moni;,m. There arc.
however, at lease some Buddhist ~holar._ who would appear co agree \\ith
thh analy!.i!, '

Relan~ism
\\'bile theism and monism may appear co he concracliccory and mutually
lrrcconcilable. the path of relativism, a..s briefly described in chapter 2,
l'l6 C.01'C:fl'TC.\L .\SPECTS 01 R•:1. 11:11 I\

\L,1111\'UIIKA llL°l>l>IIMI

GJ
(RuJJh11 hn., rroc:lnnncJI the mnnistu, l'r1n,·1rk ,>f Rch11i,hI,
the pnncipl" thnt nothtrul III the I ' nh ,,...., c.111 J,..,,pp.,,r nor
cnn uuythlug ncv. uri*, n<1thht'l h,i, un cnJ, nuthln4 t,
ckmnl. nolhlnj\ 1, 1tsdf nur t, th"re annhlnl! Juforcnu.ucJ
ln lbdf, there b no motJnn neither to\\JrJ., l" , nor ""'J'
REL\Tl\'ISTIC \'1t:ws
from u., - c, crythm~ •• rclauvc
o•· rm: XATLIU. Uf The subject m311cr thl' ccnrral Iden of th,• trc.,w,c
[Nnll,1f)unn', book I is thi, "'""'"'" pnnc,plc of Rclom ,er
ULTL\J.\Tt: Rt.ALITY chnrnctcri,,cd hy these c1!l),1 negarn" ehJ1r11"tcrt,uc,, . The
rum of the t reullse ,s 1ntllc.1tctl In the """" ,aluu,uon. It 1,
Final Dclin,nuiec. :,/U'\-'31l3, "ltlch ,, charac:1<:n., cd ru, the
blLss of Quiescence or e,ery Plurulltv (Chandrnk1rtt
Pm.sannapa.da , a commentary on \nAAIJunn', \1/Jdh,.,mtka
Kanku, qu<>1c<l in Stcherba~~ky. T/1c C:011,-.,1>ri1>11 1if 8uJdJ11J<t
Ntrt.>a,ia p . l:?J; el C,,ndr11k.iru, Lm·w Expt,.ii11tm of ch<:
Muldfo Wuy, p. JS. bu,hcrbot.sk)· 15 here tr'IIJlslatlng pruru:,....-
stunywpuda as ' Principle of ReL11l\ity' Thls would api--r tu
be justiJ'ied by Cbaodrakirti's own cxplanru.ion c,f th" term a.s-
pmtt{\'CI , 'dependent' or ' relative·. gano11IJ)<lda, 'ari~mll' or
'becoming manifest' l,tLCtd E.'l)OSlnon, p . JJ)
ISUM: Sl't'ISM
Th11• a mon who sticks 10 the l>ellef of his parucular ttlJgion
believus In n god aC</Ortltng to what h.c ha> ,ubJL'CUVd)
po!iited ,n his mind Cod in nil pnrtk•tdur religions is
dcpendeni upon the subJecu,·e aot of poslung . on the pan
of believers. Thus a mon of UlJS kind sees (In the form of God}
only h is o,,,, self and what he has posited in his mind (Ibo
al-' i\rnbi, l'\,.~u.• al-Hikam, quoted m lzursu Su/i.'1111 cmd
Thom-n, p. 25-1)
8A11A'J fAITH
It is clear 10 thy eminence that all the vnrinlions which 1hc
wuyfarer in the stages oi his journey b.,hol,kth lo th<! reall'l'I.!! of
being, procc,,d from his own ,islon. \\'c shall ~,·c an urunplc
o( this, that Its meaning may be<.-ome fully clear consider the
,i.gble sun: alchoW!h 1t s.hlnech with one radiance upon all
things, and at the behest of the King oi Mamfes!Jltion
bestowe1h Ughr o n all creadon, yet In l'tlch place it bccometh
mAllifol>l and shetldclh Its bounty accord1nil 10 the
potentlaUtle$ or dut pL1oe. for hli>lrulCI!, ln a num,r it
rcllectclh IIS own Jl;c and sbnpc. 4Dd thh 15 Jue to tl,.,
•ensnMty of the mirror; in a crysuil ii makech llre 10 app,.,ar
and in other thin~ it showeth only the effect or us ~hmm~ but
not its full disc. (Balu'u1L1h. The Sc«n \Wk)"', pp 1$--21)

cakes Lhe approach that all human knowledge Is necessarily relative.

Human beings can, cherefore, never ha\'e an absolute knowled~c of the
Ultimate Reality. All that we can achie,·c Is a limited L'Ontingcnt knowle<l.itc
from a particular viewpoint.
The Madhyamika school was founded by Kagarjuna in India at about
the end of the second century c£. Jts ceachlnits form the philOi,opbical ba.~1s
 8 THE NATURE Ot' RE,\LIT\' J 97

of much of Mnhay:ma Buddhism. Acaording 10 1his school, all cmegorics

;tnd doclnnes arc illusory; no absolute knowledge oi' any reali1y, let alone
the l 'ltimate Reali[)', is ntt:1in:tble. All ccmceptualiz:ttlons and views ore
rclaU\'(! and subjectiv«a: only. Nagarjuno's mc1hod was LO remove oil nollom,
and conceptualizations of the 1ruth. Trudi or che Real is co he reached not
by creali,ig a new viewpoint but by rigidly excluding all viewpoints, ns they
O\erlay and thus hide the truth from us. Truth or 1.hc Real can only be
known by uncovering it, by the remov:il of the opacity of ideas. This is not
nihilhm, which is itself a viewpoint, but a rejection of all viewpoints.

The ~ladhynmik3 mc1hod is 10 dc<.-onccp1unlisc the mind and

to dlsbur<len i[ of all notions, empirical as well as u
pnon The method Is ncgntivc. Uaivcn;ality and certitude
Jre reached not by 1he summation of partlcul11t points o f vlcv.,
bur by rigidly excluding rhem: for, 11 ,'iew is always panicular.
(The Mndhynmika method] is tJ1e abolition of all restrictions
which coneep1ual pauems necessarily impose ... The
implicntion of t.he Madhyamiko me1hod Is 1h;it rhe reol is
°'etlald with the overgrowth of our notions and views.•

Thus, in the M:1dhyanuk:1 system, Shunyata, the voidness or

:-agnrjuno, thu
l'mptlness of all things (substance, causality, motion,
~~'<:und-cemury
concepts, etc.), is not itselt (mother concept or dogma. It 13uddh1S1 monk whu
doc;, not claim to be an object of knowledge, bu1 rather an founded the
attitude co knowing. .\ lndhyamikn school
This is a traditional
Emptiness, then , 1.-, an adjecth•al qualicy of 'dharmos', nm a Tibcutn hlock prin1.
subsrnnce which composes them. It is neither " thin~ nor is it
no~ac.ss: ratJicr it refers to reality as incapable of uilimaccly lx:in.g
pmned down In aoneepts.'"

The apprehension of m1s truth of Shw1yata is gained througb pra;na,

which is unitive (or non-dual) knowledge or wisdom. It consists of the
negation of all doctrinal views and ca1egormes (Shunyata: hence this school
is sometimes called the Shunyacavada, the te:tching of emptiness or void)
This is a knowledge freed from conceptual distinctions and from the
illusions caused by avidya (~norance).
The Madhyamika system may thus be charac1erized as epistemic or
cognitive relat!Vism, thal is. reality as It appears to the lnLellect empirically
or through rational lhoughc is subjective and therefore only rel:trively true.
There are many other features of the Madhyamika school (its concept of
liberation, Its concept of time, and so on) which would tend to align le with
the Eastern, non-theistic religions.
The approach of the Baha'i Frueh is also tJ1at of relativism. but In titis
case the religion comes from a background of che dieistic Western religions.
The Baha'i scriptures contain statements that tend towards both monL~tic
 1% co:-rc:~.r·TL'M. MlPECT:. 01- REI l(,ION

nnJ thebtic metaphysk.-s. Tlus Jicbotomy i~ rcl-olveJ lhrou~lt a rda11v1~111

found in the writin~s of Hah:1'u'llah, :1110 based on 1h1: follt1\\lll~ line 01
reasoning
An nh~olu1c knowlcdtc of lhc mclaphy~ical ~LnaclUrc of the '-'OMnos ,,,
13aha'u'llah st:m:s, impossihle for- human hein~ 10 nehiC\'C because oi 1hc
finltc rwLUrc o( the human mind.

th:it no mind ur he.in,

So perfect 11111I 1.-umprclu:n~iv.· I~ Ill~ crc:iclun
however k~n or pure. C!ln ever l\rn~p the muun: oi thto mo~t 1n>11\mi1~'llm
of llis cre.1111res: much less fmhom the my~rcry of lhrn \\'ho i~ 1he Oav Su1r
of TruLh, Who ib th.: lm·isible and unknowable E,,cn<.'C.11

There.fore, no absolute knowledge of lhe cosmos Is U\'llilohlc to human

beings. All descriplions, aU schemarn, ol l aC!empts lo portray lhc
metaphysical basis of lhe universe, are necessarily limited hy the p<1int
of view of the particular person making them. They ore relative trulll~
only.

AU that the sages aud mystics have sold or Y>Titlen have oewr exceeded.
nor can they ever hope to exceed. cl1c /imiiations rn td1ich man'sfinil.c
mind hath bt."t."11 strictl_y subjct•w4. To Y>bau:ver bcithi.s lbe mind or the
most exalted of men may soar. however l\reac the depths "'h1ch the
c.lernchcc.l one.I unc.lcrsrnnding heart cnn penetrate, such mind nnd hen rt t:(ln
netier cmnsc:end clw.t which is the creature of clte,r O'Wll cltoug/u,.. The
mt.'<litations of the profoundest thinker, the dcvoti,ms of the holiest of
81llni.s, tlio h!ghcM exprt!~stons of pral~e from either huma11 l)<!n or tonAuL.
are hut a reflection of thac which hach been created w,cltm themse/ecs "

Thus the Baha'i posiclon regarding the dtffercnc

This Baha'i ,.-ymbol is called
the 'Grea1est Name' because
the leue.-.. or which ii is
fom1cd, 'BIIA', form the
word 'Bnho' (glory), whlch
is cofilldered tl1e Grea1e,-1
Name c,f Goe.I. The tliret
levels of the symbol represent
God, Lhc Manlfcsmric,n of God
(the prophet) and humanity
There arc mnn}' olhcr
,ym.boilsms 11...sociatcd with
I.bis fom:L
metaphysical srstems is that they difier noc because
they arc in disagreement abouc what they arc
referring to ( the metaphysical scrucrure of the
universe) , bul rather because they are encb looking
al the same structure from different viewpoinu.. They
h3ve each constructed a mernphysiC$ from their own
perspecliv,e. The source of the differences ti. 1101 in
whac is being ob~er-ved but in the iacl that each
observer has a p:irticular psycho-socinl rnlckground
that pre-determines the way that she or be loo~ al
these matters. 'The differences amon~ the reliit1ons
of U1e world ore due to the \'arying cyp<.'S of mind;,' '
Indeed. in the Baha'i \vr:itlnl!l,. 1t i~ a:.st:.rted that
no matter how hard humnn hcini\,~ scrh'e in chcir
c!forlS w .gain knowledge of the .\bsolucc, the only
ultimate success is to achieve a hener knowlemte of
their own i.elves (or ruther of the Ahi:olutc ns
 l',: TIU. JI-.\TURt: Ot IU:.\LIT\' 199

ma.nifc»tcJ withm thcmseh e,), not of th~ .\ hsolute itself This is likened 10
a c.'Ompass no matto!r how iar the compass travels, IL Is only going around
the point :it its centre ,\ C(:()rding co Bah:i·i belief, th is is also the me:ming
oi those pass:iJles ln the scrlpcun:s of \'arlous rcli,~ions that enjoin
humMkmd w praise God nnd to i,tri\'C to know God "
It should b,/ emphasized Ll1at the B:iha'i concept of rclllci\ism only
extend:, 10 metaphysics. In other areas. ~ucb as morality, Baba'u'llah gave
definite tc:ichinits \,.-hich all Bahn.is nre expected to follow. There is no
rdauvizuig or ethics or of religiolll> law.

TR.\KSCENDENT \ VORLDS .\ND 8El~GS

~lost rcli~ions h:i\·e the concept that between the Ultimate Reality. whether
the theistic God or monisric Absolute Reality, and the world that we
inhabit. there are intermediate worlds and beings that lnhabi1 them. These
worlds are pictured as either paradises o:r hells and che beings chac inhabit
chem as gods. spirits, angels, or devils. These worlds and human beings'
relatlonsh1p co tltem are described further In chapter 9.

The Founders of the T\'orld Reli,:iions as

Jnrennedianes
.-\s smtetl abo\·e. there art' in1ermediate worlds between
che L1timace Realicy and this physical world One flP,ure
lhac plays an important role as an intermediary be1wcen
the Ultlmac.: Reality, the transcendent worlds. and our
physical world is chat of the founder oi each of the world
religions. !11 the cosmologr of most of the world
reli!lions, cbe founder plays a role cllat places him
between che Ukirnare Reality and chis physical world
l:le i,, Ul>ually conceptualized as being more Ll13J1 jUSl an
-
ordinary human being.
In moM form;, of Christianity. Jc:..us Christ is
COfilideretl to be pan oi Lite Godhead, the third person
of the Trinity .\c tlte Council of Kicaea in 325. Christ
was ~weed co be 'of one substance (Greek: homoousws)
";ch the Father· The debate about the exact nature of Tl1E t!srYER.~.\1 Oiu>ER 1s
Christ Wal> not c:onclutlc.-d. however, with thi~ council, 20ROA5TRL\Sls.M f'ruvoru
ll.lld theologians ha\'c continued to debate u:p to the lrt!prt,St,nUn,~ the IIOII
Sp1ritl sits abo,·t,. th" Kine,
presen.c day ahouc che nature oi Christ All schools of
Is seared on bis throne
thou~t in Chri~tianity, however, agree in giving Chris! In the centre, and his
a supra-human stacus. <abJl!Ct bears h1< 1hrone
In Islam. we come clm;cr to conccpruolizin~ the hcncnth him From o h:1.<-
founder. Muhammad. 3l> mend~ a human beln~. In part, rclJcf n1 Pcr,-cpolis. lrnn.
the Qur'cm pornays ch,s as a reaction co che excessive
200 c oi-c:t: rn·At. ,\SPECTS OF Rn.lOIOS

b
1iIB SPIRITUAL STATION OP TIJE FOCl<IIF.RS O F WORLD RELIOIONS: a) In the trnditional art of the
RlL~>lnn Orthodox Church, the Trinity ;,, identified with che three ang<.,ls who ,1-IMI
Abraham (Oe-nes,s lS: 1- 16). ThlS icon ohowo Abrnha,m and &rah serving the th~..,_
angels. who are, from left to right, the t'o.tber, che Son, 11nd the lloly SplnL b) In Sh1'1
representations of Muhammad such us this Turklsh picture, his face Is blank to indJcau,
chat it is not possible to represent it adequately and his bead is surrounded by fl111t1es
olluding to descriptions of the Muhammodan Light, the primordial 1igh1 from wh,ch
Muhammad ond the Imams were formed.

deification of Christ in Christianity. In the Qur'an, Muhammad i'> made co

proclalm: 'I am but a man like yourselves . . .' (18:110). Despite this
declaration, some schools of Islam project Muhammad inro a hie,her
station. In Shi'i mystical philosophy, the reali ty of Muhammad is de~cribed
as a Ught that was the first thlng that God created before lie created the rest
of creation. The first Shi'i Imam, 'Ali, is reported to have said: 'God is one;
Ile wns alone in His singleness and so Ile spoke one word and it became o
light and lie c reated from that light Muhammad.'"
In the Baha'i scriptures, the founders or the world religions are called
Manifestations of God. This is because they arn considered to be
maniresraclons of all of the names and acrributes or God. They are 001
however, incarnations of God. The analogy that is found in the Baha'i
writings Is that or a mirror. The ~l:anifesULlions oi God are Uke a mirror that
perfectly retlects the attribuceR o{ God. These figures, therefore. have the
authority of God.
 11 TIii:, NATllRE OP REALITY 201

The door of the kno1vlc<l~ of lhc Anc,ient !kin.It hath cwr l><.>en, ond will
continue for ever lO be. cle-scd in tl1c face of men .. . As a token of Ills mercy,
however, and us n proof of llis IO\inj!-kindncss. Me hath manifested unto men
the Dar SUI.I'S of Uls dh-inc guldonce . . 011d butb ordnlned the knowk-<lge of
1hese sanctified Bcint:, to be idencic;i l wich the knowledge of His own Self.
Whoso rccogniteth them hath recognized God ... Every one of them is the
\\'ay of God thru connectelh tbls world "ith tbte realms obovte.1•

In I hnduism, one find..~ the concept of the

a,·ac.ar. fiitures such as Krishna and Rama
are considered to be av:nars.
U1camatiom, of the deity Vishnu. In the
Bha~ai:ad Gica , Vishnu. speaking as
Krishna, says: 'The foolish deride me
when I um clad in a human body; the~·
know noc My supreme nature, that I am
the ~rcat Lord of all being.' "
ln Buddhism and 'taoism, the author
of the major scriptures oi the religion is
regarded not so much as an intermediary
between the transcendent wo rld and this
world but as the discoverer of a pathway
or of an ancient truth. The Buddha is
seen as ha,ing achieved his
cnli~lncnment a, a result of his own
efforts. Yet even in Thera,•ada Buddhism,
"here there is a great emphasi;, on the
fact that all human beings are capable of
achieving what the Buddh11 achieved
(enlightenment and Nirvana), there are
nevertheless hints in the scriptures that R.\.11.,1, ll'ICIIR~ .\TIO~ Of TIIE OF.IT\": Rama
the Buddha is not like other humans. "ith Si1n (his wife), Lakshmana (his hnlf-
hrothcr), <tnd Hnnumnn (the monkey !!od)
with wbo,,c help he defeated the demon
Since a Tachagaca l1hat is, a Buddha).
Ravruta.
even when present, is unknowable, ii is
inept to say of him - the Uttermost
Person, the Supernal Person, the Attalner of the Supernal; that after dying
the Tatbagtit:t IS, or is not, or both Is and b not, or nclthur I;, nor Is not."
Whocl'er, Sarlputta, kno"i ng that It ls so of me, seeing that It I~ so, should
speak 1hus· 'There are no suprahuman states, no excellent cognition and
insight . . In the recluse Gaurnma; the recluse 01lutama teaches Dhnmma
(Dharrua) on a system of his 01VI1 dev1.t,in.g beaten out by reasoning and
based on investl~tion' - if he does not retract that speech. Sariputta, 1f he
does not cast out that view, he Is verily oonsigncd to Nirnyn llcll for this
~in .,
 202 C(l);('M'TU.\L ASPFCTS Of Rf:LICto::-.

Qulw :ipan_ from the!>e h111L~ In the "crtplurc,., the

Df:WlTl(lS TO nrr. BIJllOIL\: A
womnn kneels in front o( n
roodslde shrine 10 lhe
Buddh,i, Bangkok.
extraordinary dc,·otion Jl:tid l<> Matuc, or the Huddlrn m
Thcril\"3da t1m1ple:,, nmply demonstrate, 1h:1t ,, hatcnir
Lhe UH.'tlrctical position 1ru1y he, BuddhbL, thcm,dH:s
give Ll1c Buddhn o for higher swuon than is nccordcd to
any other humnn being. Popul:1r religluu:, praeueL In the
t.'Oumrles Jlr:JCti~lnj;\ Thcrnvada Buddhbm makc" 1h..-
011ddh:1, in foci, an intcrmcdi:iry between thii. 11orld :md
higher realm~, :ihlc to )!mill w1shc!, and r1:qu1::,L\
In Mnhayana Buddhism, chis tendency 10 elevate the
i.tation of tht: Buddha b t:1ken much iurth11r The
number of buddhas in ~laliayana Buddhism is .itrcntlr
increased. Hundreds of huddhns arc named and they arc
said to be as many as the ~n:11ns of s11Dd In th;: Gan~s
They are all, howe,•er, in their inner reality one, for the
same spiritu:il rcolity is active in all of them. This reality
is called lhe Dharmakaya. The buddh:i-reality is stated
to have three bodies, the Trikoyn. The firM is the earthly
body, Nlrmanakaya, which is wbat appears to humanlly
It is through this body thnt the Buddha is able to fulfil

Th~ Sanskr.lt worJ 'Drumnn' ('Dhamma tn Pall) ha, ""' era!

m<-'aning_<s In l llndul~m and Buddblsm that <.-an cau,,., confusl<>o II
they art not dilltrcnliatcd_ Tht basic meanlng u( tht wurd b
'carrying. holding or supporting', there/ore that "hJcb bol<h or
supports ~ the ruuunll Mate of thJJlgs. I f ~ ate In thetr
naw.ml ~tau::-, they are tru1: to themsch-·t.-,
THE ME.-u'ilNGS l The cosmic lnw (Hindui<m ond Ruddhi!m)
Dhnm1a cnn mcnn the cosmic ln:ai, the order of the uni\'CN.e
OF THE \VoRD the world nonn.
2 The m,ch, spccillcnUy rdijlous cruth (Hinduiml nnd Buddhl,ml
'DIL\RMA' Dhnnna mean, the truth It b nfttn used 11i1h the .._.._'00.d.,n·
dcri\'cd meaning or 'rcli,:ious tmth', thnl is, the "J"-"Ctfic
doctrines. o( lllnduism and Buddhl<m the dootrtnes thot lead to
lil,crntion Thus llindus call their rcli~<,n ,r,uuwmtHlhannn
(eternal dhnnrua) and Buddhl<r~ call thctr'!' l>tJddha-dlt<1TT1W
J Norms of bch<l\lour, tthknl rule;., the montl urd<,r ( lhnJui<m
and Buduhl,m).
Dhnnna can ulw mean 1><,1ng tnte to on.,..,ll "" • human
beJng. b,.,,ng the way that human bdng.< •hould be; hen~.., It
com1;5 lO mL'an ,W,t<'OU>n""", duty, vlm1<:, tu .. , morality Tile
Ohnrm• b for lllndu. Lite b,l'il!, or buman moralll"; mon:
stx-clflmUy, for cnch lndMdunl, It l• rulflllJ~ Lhc duuco of
onc'g ca..te. Simlhulv. ,n BudJhbm< Ohnm1a re,,.,,.. tu th<!
norms <,( bcl111v1ou; anJ rule~ roe cthicul c..·,mJuc:t f•,r
Tbero,••d• tluddhl,t muuu and nun,. thl, b ""' out m thc
J)lltt a! the .s(lriptu.rcs <'lllkd the I '111<1).,·P,IWW
4 A ph•.nomen<>n. • thl(l8. • fuctor o! belnt (8udJhbm)
,\ny ext,.Ling phtnomcno,1 con be <'RIied a dhJ.rulll. Thus for
.:nmplc, II m.n1 be satd that n,pu (boJy or funnl t, a
conditioned dhatlllit "hllc hln •M l• an un<•mJiuom...J
db•nna Thi, ml'.lnln~ ma> Include wcnUll <'00.IN<=t.a, 1.i...,,,.
 II: THB NATUHB OF R~)i\l,ITY 203

hb ,·ow to guide nil beings to lihcrotion The second body, the

Srunbhogakaya, b the heavenly body, in which the buddhas enjoy the truth
th:H they embody. Each Buddha occupies a huddh:1-rield, n pure land or
paradise. The third body ls the Dhnrmakayo, the transcendent renlity
which is Lhe true body of the Buddha. t\t Lhis level Lho Buddha is t.hc
essence of the universe. at one with 1111 things. This level nlso represents the
<.'Osmlc law, the uni\•ersuJ order, the Dharma. Tho Dharmaknya is therefore
uuconditioned, timeless, free of duality, free or characteristics, h,mce
identical to Shunyntn 11nd Nirvunn.
If we now take these ,M ahayana concepts and consider what they mean
re~nrding the narure of the historical Siddhartha Buddha, we find it has
great implications for the conceptuolization or that figure . W11ile the
bio~aphies o( the _Buddha speak of his having achJeved enlightenment
while sit1ing under the Bo tree , in the Mahayana cosmology the buddhas
have all. in their Oharmakaya, been enlightened from the beginning of
time. According to some Mahayana schools, 1he very appearance of
Siddhartba Buddha upon the earth, his Nirmanakaya, was an illusion
created by his Sambhogakaya, in order to guide human beings. Since it. was
just an illusory body, there w:1s nothing present to pass into Nirvana at his
death."'

REVELATION AND ENLIGHTENMENT

Corresponding to the difference between the Western, theistic religions and

the Eastern moniscic religions in the ways they view their founders is the
du·forence in thei, view of their scriptu res. For a theistic religion, scripture
is considered co be the word of God o r the will of God revealed to the world
through the mediation of the founder/prophet of the religion. In Islam,
Muhammad and the other prophets a re thus regarded as passive
transmitters or the scriptures. The word ' revelation' conveys a sense of
uncovering co humanity something that has always exis ted. This, again , Is
brou~t ouc most strongly in Islam, where the Qur'a n is considered co have
a pre-existent heavenly archetype of which the earthly Qur'an is merely a
COP}'. The function of Muhammad was therefore to uncover, or reveal , the
cexc or the hea,•enly Q.ur'an.
The process of rcvclacio n in the theistic religions is seen as having four
major aspectS:

• the ori&in of the message (God)

• the transmitter of the message (the prophet)
• che recipients of the mess,age (hurnaruty)
• che message Itself (the scriptures).

There ore various elaborations of this basic pattern in the diffe rent
 20~ r.ONCEPTU,\I A8PF.CTS o~· Rl'I.IOION

nlllgions. In Christiunity, Christ i~ hoth the trrm~rnltlcr am.I h l11ms<:11 part

of the messaAc, lie is rhe \\'or<.I mt1de flesh " In [Qf:im, the ,<\n,ltd (;nhrwl,
through whom Muhammnd receives the scripture, sharclo in the role o(
trnnsmitler.
There is, in the theistic rcli,ltions, nlso u more Aencrnl 1<ensl: of the word
'rcnllution·. This cru1 mean any divine 1,clf-c.lisclosure. Thus vbionb :md
intim::uions experienced by saints may he con~idcrcd to he rcvcl:Htons rn
thi11 sense. Indeed, the whole oi the natuml \\Orlt.1 I,
n:velalOry of Got.I lO some ei,.ltmt (sec bclo,, J
In Buddhism. hy comr:tsl, the words of 1hc Buddh:i
thttt a.re con tal11cd in tJ1e various Bud<lhbt scripture;.
ore 1101 con:-idered to he transmated by llw Buddha
from some transccndcm source. They ure the re~ult of
the Buddha's own wisdom and insl)thl, the
enlightenment that he achieved through his own
efforts.
llinduism has, perhaps, an imermcdia1c position
between Buddhism and the theistic reli~ions in Lhis
context. Pan of its soriprurc1. can be 1,aid to Ix, rc\'eaicd.
1'1L£ J3UOULL\ .\S .\ SOliRC8 Lle
uut1 r: This is a,1 nntc(mtc These arc the Vedas and the L'IJ(lrrislmds, which arc
representation 01 the termed shrwi (heard) scrlpwrc;,. These urc held to
Buddha as a pilkir of Are A have been direct, divine re,•elation to the ri.~hts (~c~)
throne cn11 be seen upon of ancient times. Tbe rcm:iining llindu scripturus.
whlch the pillar Is set called smrici (remembered), are ascribed to Lratlitlon
flnntl!l. emerge from
either side of the pillar. Lu
nnd nre thus the work of human sages and scholar.,
from and on ei lher side
followers a re en)!aJled In
devotion nod wor6hip of the II U~,1.A.~ NATURE
Buddha. ,\mam\'ftU,
sccond-ecnmry t:l.
The subject of the nature o( the h um(ll] beinl\ h. on..,
that has received extensive co,·eraJ!c In the n:l~ions of
the world. There arc, moreover, profound differcm.--cs berween the religions
on this subject. Al.I that C(ll] be attempted here Is a brief overview.
The nature of the human being in classical orthodox Christian theol~y
is closely lied up with tho doctrine of original sin. This doctrine holds that
ever since Adam and Eve comm.itted their sin in tbe Garden of Eden.
humanitr has had an Innately sle1fol nature which is transmicted from one
gencralion to the next. As a consequence, human beings arc inherently in
a state of alienation and esrran~ment from God..
In [slam, by contrnst, there il, a much more positive ntlituc.le coward~
human nature. Adam's sin is not considered to be transmlrted throuAh the
generations. According co che Qur'an, God created man, 'breathed llis
spirit into him', and mac.le him ~uperior Lo other creatures, such lhot e,·..,n
the angels were commanded co bow down before him." Human bein~ are
God's vicegerents (kl,a.lifa) on earth.L' They h(lve, however, an innoce
propensity to certain eVil traits such as lust (lilt.[ greed, buc they are
 S · TIIE !-:ATLlRE Of RE.\LITY 205

commanded hy Cod to oppose these tcnde111cies within themseh·cs, ,111d the

reward for success is paradise.1'
In the B:ihn'i Fnith, human hci~~ nre considered to have a dual nature.
They h11\'c a spiritual nature, which is cJ1clr u-uc 1dcm.lty. \\'hjJc they nrc in
this world. it is their task to perfect their spir-itual attr-ibutcs 10 the greatest
possible extem. I luman beings i1Lso have an ll.llimol nature that functions to
:,.atisfy their physical needs and If cJ1ey allow tbh: side of themsekes to
bc<:omc dominnnt over their spiritual namre, men they commit e,•U deeds.
Throu_ith spiritu:i.l discipline and education (such as the teachings brought
by the founders and prophets of the world relieions), human beings can
conu-ol lheir anim:i.l aspect and realize t.lteir true spiritual identity.''
For all reli~o~ systems that believe in an Absolute Reality, human
beings have a relative o r contingent reality only. Indeed, the apparent
reality of lhe physical world, is, in fact, illusory. The real is the Absolute
Reality which is masked by this physical world. If human beings could see
things as they really are, mey would see t.llat there is only one Real.Icy
which 'is'. Everything else (including our hwnan notion of having an
identity sep:1rate from the Absolute) has but an illusorr or relative reality.
In Mahayana Buddhism, me real.It)' of the bu.man being is ldenlical to the
Absolute Reality, Shunyata. In Advajca Vedanta, this truth becomes real for
human beings when they come to understand that me Atman (in ner reality
within each. person) is identical to the Brahman (the Absolute Reality). In
the words of the Upanishads, 'Tat roa,n asi', 'Thou [Acm:mj art That
!Brahman)' (seep. 192).

Brnhntnn ls all nnd AtmM is Brahman. Atman, the Self, has four
conditions .. The founh condition is Atman in his own pure SL'lte: the
awakened life of supreme consciousness ..• He is Atman, the Spirit
himself. that cannot be seen or LOuchcd., that ls above all distinction,
beyond thought and ineffable. In the union with him is the supreme proof
of his reality. He is the end of evolution nnd non-duality. He is peace and
love."'

In Theravada Buddhism, human beings are composites (skandJ1as) of

bodil)' fomJ, sensation, perception, mental fomJations and consciousness.
All of these are impermanent (anitya) and ha,,c no essence (anatman) .
They all lead to c raving (trishna) and hence to suffering (duhkha). For
Mahayana Buddhists, enlightenment is to see the emptiness (Shunyata) at
the centre of all lhese skandhas.
ln Confucian thought, human beings rure essentially good but in need of
guidance and education in order to show their inherent goodness. This
inherem ~oodness is most fully demonstrated when cultivated human
beings participate in and thus improve the social and political order.
l()(, C:ONCrl'n·.,t \SPf.C'TS 01 Rf.I.IOI():,.

1'1n: P11vs10.\I, \VoR1,1>

The views o( the various rclil\ions about the physical world folln\\
approximately their ,•icw:- nhout the nnturc of I he human bci11~. they rnnt,c
irom ,·icwmj\ tJ1c world as tJ11: abode of evU, a.\ unreal and 1llu1,ory, lo wl:inl\
it in a posillve li,(tht as a place for human spiritual etluoacion and tr:iininj\
In Chrh,tinn tJ1colo)ty, God is the c reator of the world, but lie ha., put 11
under the rule of Sot.an. The r h rase ·rrince of this world' in the fullowinl\
vcr~c of the Gospel <if St John is interpreted 1L, refomnai 10 Sa1an 'l lcrcof1cr
I wUl not talk much,, ith you. for chc prlnt.-c of this world cometh, and h.1tJ1
nnthinl\ in me.'" Hecause of su.ch consideration~. the Chri~ti:in tradition
has generally had a negative attilude towards the world, ,,bich has, In tum.
stren~then!!d tJ1e tendency towards ascclicism and monaslic1~m

The Devil is a creature or C,od, the ch,d 01 the '3Uen onj\d,

hut he most or the time ac~s as if he had for .l!reatcr I"'" er II-,
IS lord o( this world, chief of ft \'.l!>t multitudl' ur po••l"l'll
oplrltWII n11d physl<!'11, 111.gt,llc aud bum.an. th~t nr1: arniycJ
$lt1St the Kio~om of God_ SaUUl Is not on!)' the Lonh chid
opponent, he has under hi< ~nerabh1p 111/ oppo,,unn to th.:
SATAN Lord An)·one who doc~ not follow the Lord 1s under 1hc
control of Saran . .\s Christ c.-ommnnd~ the 11m1k,~ or hd,t
Sntnn c<>mmands those of darkncs., Thc co,mo;, L• wm
ootwecn light :ind d:trkn~-ss, good und cnl, splnt llUJ mau.:r.
soul and body. the ne" eon and the old. t.he Loni and Sal4ll
The Lord rs t.he creator or all things and the ~uammor of their
j\oodness, but Sat:1n :ind his kint!dom h:t\'e CQrrupted this
world In the end, Satan and his powers ,.;ti he defeated
cast down, 4nd perhap, 1111nihilntc.-d, and Christ\ Mher world
the kingdom of goodne,,_,, or h_tht. of >pint, \\ill be forc,cr
e,tabUsb,;d (Rus.cll, TheO..•vil. pp. 1-17-61

Islam has a more positive nttiwde tow:irds the world, helieving that le
is God's creation and that lie is in command of everythi11t that happe~. fie
is sovereign over the earth"' and has cre.-.ced it for 'just ends'_ i,,
The Baha'i Faith also has a posith·e auicude cowards the world ln
Baha'i belief, God ha~ created the world as a rrainin~ Jtround ior bumnoHv,
the place where hum:1n hei111gs cnn rerfect their divim.1 :iurihutc~.
Humanity is, however, neglectft1l o( God's providence.

Out or tlu~ waste,, of notl1ln~nc.-..,, wi th tl1c clay or My command I made

thee to appear, and have ord:tinL'tl for thy uainio,il every atom 111 ex1stenc.: .
•\nd M)' purpo.-<, in 3 }1 this w:i.s that thou mi~htest analn ~ly cvcrlastinl\
domution and become worthy of My lmi,lblc bc,towab ,\nd v~t hccdlc;,,
thou d1ds1 remain tlmu didst neA}ecc ;1II My !><>untie-. ond occupk-J
thyself \\1th thJne idl-, lmnglnln~.
 Ii: Tilt; J\ATLIRt. OF' REALITY 207

In che Eastern religions, there is :ilso :i net,'ltive :uritude cowards the world,
b.!ct1usc it is considered nn illusion iliat veils us from progrc~ along the
p:ith co liherarion The Illusory nature o, this world is summed up In the
concept of mayo in llindu Lsm and similar concept.~ in Buddhism, such as
puriknlpiw. This phyi,ical unlvcrse presses upon us becnusc of the
immedi:icy of our contact with it. It ties us 10 it by the innumerable threads
of our dally concerns, enme~hing us in a social and psychological network
of s~·stems ch(lt order reality for us. By co111linually reinforcin/,\ the apparent
objectivity of 1he outside world, it strengthens our subjectivity. It reinforces
our feding of being a separate, cxisten1 realirr.
This world cannoc, however, be che Real because it is a place of
impermanence, c.'Onlinuously changing; everything in it is ephemeral and
evanescent (the concept of miiccci or miity(I in Buddhism). Therefore our
attachment to this world and the consequent strengthening of our egos lead
us to false knowledge (aoidya). This false knowledge in tum engenders fabe
concepts: duality and difference. In this way, we are caught up in the law of
karma, which states that what we do in 'this world has consc.-quence.s that
muse be worked out either i.n this life or in a future one. This leads to the
cycle of rebirth, from which there is no escape except through right
knowledge or wisdom U1"ia11c, in Hinduism; prajiia in Mahayana Buddhism).
The Dhammaprula, a Buddhist scripture, summarizes it as follows: 'When
a man considers tbis world as a bubble of froth , and as the illusion of an
appearance, then ihe king of death has no power over him." IIaving
stressed that this world is illusory, however, Eastern religions do accept chat
1werything, including this world, is part of the Absolute Reality. It is
therefore possible 10 come co right knowled~e chrougb this world. Thus, in
\'edanta Hinduism, maya both conceals and reveals rhe Absolute; in
llarutyann Buddhism. this contingent world (Samsara) is the Absolute
Reality (Nirvana)."
As a consequence, each of these religious systems has a concept of
Reality and Appearance, rhe Absolute as hidden and revealed. In llindui.sm,
there are the cwo concepts of Nirguna-Brahman (the Absolute in its aspect
of being devoid of qualities, beyond c,onceptual thought) and Saguna-
Brahman (the Absolute with qualirJes, as it appears in the world);-" in
Mahayana Buddhism, the Absolute Truth (paramarcha-satya ) is named
Sbunyata (the Vold or Emptiness, that which Is devoid of all concep~, al l
predicates. all relationships), while the contingent world is only samorici-
sa1ya (apparent or conventional truth ).

TThtE, THE ORIGINS AND TIIE END or THE WORLD

As far back as we are able co go in trying to reconstruct the biscory of

human thought, human bein~ have asked and most religions have cried rn
answer the questions of bow this universe came into being (cosmogony)
an<l ho" It will end (eschatolog_v). Most of tbc prim.al rcUgious systems that
 ~0'1 CONCEPTl'AI. ,\St>f;CTS Of Rt.l,ICHO!\
r
anlhropoloAl:.i.-, have described include <,omc
story o( the Ori$!in o( the world Often , then: 11,
an act of destruction or ,:wrlnce thnt re~uh1, in
the Acnesh, of the world In many erenuon
myths. the world emerges from a cosmic ci:A
8uch mytlu. have been found In plnt.'C~ a:. far
apnrt a~ lndin , Finl:md, Central .\mcric.'n nnd
Pol~·nC'sla Ln some i11~t11.nccs, the \\Urid h
created by the action of a supreme Uod In the
Polynesian myth, lo i,ummoncd creation into
bt:ing In much 1.he same way a~ doe., the God of
the Hebrew Bible In other nwrhs, the world
cmergei, from the womb of o Aoddcss The
cosmogonic myth Is also closely related to
myths and rituals associated with the fortilil\' of
the land and of women."
The Hinduism of l\dvairn Vedanta is, al> "c
have described above, a monhtic !'.ystem. The
folJowtrJA pasi.a~e from die Taiuiriya L'ptmr..,luul
descrihes how the cosmos t'Ome, into bcin~
from Atman-Brahman, the Absolute Reality:

From /\un,111-Brahmnn In the h,:gtnnlng cam<c

Co~u1. UJG: Pro,u, (lit.emUy 'bruMh')
is described ln the Arharo-l'eda. a
Hindu scnpture, ai, the oo~moilonic
principle. the lord of the Universe
In the l'p,mishads, the forrnl""s
cn:,ator i• Sllttcd to enter the body
rlt!bt down co the Lip~ of 1.he nails
and assumes the n:1me ru1d function
of Prana Prana is here shown
s1andim\ upon the cosmoj\onic cl!)!
space. from space came air. From air. fire.
From fire, water From water came solid earth
From can.h came livinit plant:,. From plan~
food and seed, and from seed and food came a
living being, mnn. •
Prom the Tao all other things come into bein~
The followlnt passage i:, from the Taoist
scripture, the Tcio Te Chin~ Very similar
passages occur in the /-Chin~ and in ~eo-
Confucian texts ( the tradilional incerprccauoos
are in parentheses):

The Tao beget.S one; (c'ai-i, the Greatest 01ie, or Leu-chi. the Supreme
Ultimate)
The one begelS two; 1.>,,;11 and .),'01\!!)
The two begets 1hree; (three heavenly beinj!s in charge of he:l\'Cn, e::mh
and water)
The three bej\cts the myriad crearures. •

Time In the moolstic sysrnms I~ cyclical. These c~·cles take the world
throu#l periods of alternating prosperit)' and disaster. There is often no
beginning and no end postulated to this prO(.'CSS, the world c,•olves to a peak
 'i TIIE NATl,RE Of RE,\LIT, 209

of prosperity nnd ~ood fortune :rnd then declines ag:iin

from this suite. The ad\·enc of :watars and buddhas
usuallv si~nah. 1hc onset of a period of decline or the Start
of a golden age. These cycles may last thousands a11d
C\Cn millions of ye:irs. Even if there is complete
J.,s1n1ction at thl' l'nd of a cycle, this leads into (I further
cycle \\'tt.h the el'entual re-emergence of the world.
The \\'estem religions hnvc in common a scory of
God':. creation of the world. The world, therefore, bod o
lx'l!,LOmng when le was created. This represents the
hcginning of time, which is then viewed as being like a
river. flowin~ ine,itably :md trreversibly downhill This
1-Cmsc. Tm: BooK or
flow of time is seen as the working out of God's purpose CIL\NcltS; The symbol of
for humanity. The theistic religions are keen to record the \1n and Yo.ng lmt1lc/
history of the evolving relarionship becween God and femall.'. Ughc/dark,
humanity, :,ince chis is what gives meaning to humanicy's heaven/earth, etc.) forms
prc~ence on the planet. At the end of this flow of time, the cenrre of this
diagram Around le arc
!here is a cataclysmic event, the end of che world, the Day the eight trigrams
of Judgement." Between these two, there are a number of formed Crom vary~
crucial evem1> in the course of the Oow of time. The most comblnatlon~ of broken
iruportam of these is the appearance of the prophet- and unbroken lines. The
founder of each religion. cop rrigrnm (three
unbroken lines, ch 'ien)
The appearance of a Christ or a Muhammad marks a represents the mnlc
turning-point Time flows on, in one sense, after this (>'01Jll), the bottom
e\ent. since humankind continues to head towards cbe trlflram (three broken
final event. Bur in another sense, time seems to stand stUI lines, k 'un) represencs
Before this event, humanity's relationship with God was che female ()-in). The
central circle appears
C\'Ohing, but afterwards it is fixed, from the appearance of more commonly in
the founder forwards co the end of time. lt really makes no contrnsting block ond
difference now when a human being enters the world, as wftlte (see p. I7:?).
!his state of affairs remains the same until the end of time. - - - - - - - - - -
Chrislians, for example, sec time as having been linear and historical
before Christ, with the history of God's relnLionship to humanity evolving
through a succession of m.ijor and minor prophecs portrayed In che Old
Testament - what is called salvation history in Christian theology. But once
Christ comes Into 1he world, sacred history scops; the relaclonshlp between
God and humanity is now fixed and constant, back to Christ and forwards
to the Day of Judgement, with no further evolution. The Re\•elarlon of
Christ has established it for all time. 'There is no other name under heaven
!tiven among men by which we must be saved.'-'8 The Christian Bible takes
sacred history up to cbe first generation after Christ. cben in the final book,
R~lation, it refers forwards to the Day of Judgement. There is nothing
between these cwo points in time because. in eCfect, sacred history has !><.-en
l'Tozen; God's relationship With h11maniry is no longer evolving.
The same state of affairs exists in lslam. Here the Qur'crn clearly
poruays an evolving relationship between God and humanity through cbe
ZIil CO!l:C: fPTl!Al, ASPECTS OF l{EI !GION

medium of 11 ~cries of prophl.!ll,. Muhamm:uJ hlmi.clf L~ porlra)·cd a, Another

prophet in this series who i~ M:nt 'ofter II break in the ,uc<.-cs,ion of
prophclS'." Out 1.hc tloctrinc U'Ull Muhamnmtl i.'! 1.hc 'Sc:11 of the l'ropheL,•..,
a¢.lin freezes the now of time The Qur'cm thus bcc.-omcs the final rcvclauon
from Go<l nntl lhc relationship between God antl humo11kh1d cca.-.c, io
e\'oh·e any funher until the Day of Juditemcnt
Thus the rhcistic rcli~ions h:ivc a (wofold rclarionship tn time after 1.hc
:1ppc11.rance of 1.hcir founders On the one hand, titcrc I!, a cca.~elci,.~ no" of
rime towards the inevitable Day of .Judgement Hut on the ocher hand, the
i.pirltunl evolution of the world ]rns reached a pcnk heyond "hich then, ..,
no further progress LO be made. God hlL~ spoken for the last Lime, chc
relationship between God :ind humnn beings is now estahlished There "
no longer any concept of forward evolution io the spi.ritunl development of
humanity. There is, of course, some dej\ree of chanj\e (the traditions of :i
religion are constantly evolving), but this represents only the working-ouc
of a relationship that Is fixed. Indeed if anytltim\, it i:, t.-oosidcred that there
has been a dccerioration in society since the comin~ of the rcli~ion·s
prophet-founder. The social goal of the reli~ious community is often
conceptualized as travcllin4 backwards in time in order to try to recreate
some ideal primitive religious community. For many Chri:.tians. the ideal h
often porlrayed as being the early circle of apostles and <lisciples" while the
Islamic ideal is the community in Medina with Muhammad as its head (see
pp. J2J...4). And so not only is the bpiritual evolution of humankind
perceived co be frozen in rime, but human social e\·olmion is considered to
be deteriorating from this prima I ideal
Baha'u'llah refers co the two coomctlng views on the quescion of the
beginning of time and creation; che view of philosophers that the world 1s
eternal, has always existed and always will cxisc. and the view of
theologians that the world was created at one point in cime and will end at
o set Lime in the future. lie says thal ' titis is o matter on which conceptions
vary by reason of the divergences In men's thoughts and opinions'."

,\s LOtliy questlon whctl1er I.be physlcal world Is ,ubjc'Ot to any llmiwllow.,
know thou tha1 the comprehtosloo 0£ dus matter dependech upon the
observer hims<'{{ In one sense, ii is limited, in another, it is exalted bl.•yond
all llmJtatlo~. ''

In the Baha'i \'lcw of time, cyclCl> of advant.'t: and decline affect oil hwnan
affairs Reli~on 1s no excllplion: each reb~on ascends to a Aolden a~ when
it becomes che foundation of a c ivili:rntion le 1hc11 decline~ into 11 \\inter of
rigid formali~m and &piritual bankruptuy. I lowc\er. undcrlvin~ titli. cyclic
concept, there is also an element of linear historieal time llumanicy i~ seen
to be progressing and cvoh•ing i,OCiaJ]y Eneh religion cnkci, humanhy n
furtl1er step forwards In spiri tual and socinl evolution, ,, hlch i~ not
completely lost e\'en when the religion eventunlly goes Imo dccl111e This
process docs noc cease with cJ1e -conung of Bol1a'u'IJ11h, as a further Ogurc ll>
 ll TIIE 1'ATIIRt, Of Rl! .\LITY 2 11

expccwd in the furure co oonlinuc the proces:.. The Baha·i concept of time
may pcrhap~ therefore be best dcscrih<.'<.J :ts t1 spiral, rather than as linear
or cyclical.

EPISTEMOLOGY

The question of what we c:111 know and ho\\rwe can know (epistemology) is
ont! thm has ext?rciscd many theologians and philosophers. \\'hut arc the
foundation~ of knowledlle? The religiow;. person sees the whole of life in a
reli!!jous mode. His or her faith is thus an interpretati\'e medium for all
expcrienCt! and. hence, knowledge. A philosopher. may try to bui ld up from
fir;t principles o systematic picrure of what 1Ye can know and how we can
know; for example. the well-known enterprise of Descartes, starting with
the statement 'l chink. therefore 1am'. A religious person tends to treat the
scripmres or dogmas of her or his religion :tl- foundationnl knowledge.
The major difiercnce regarding epistemology foils a.gain between the
theistic and non-rheistic religions Por the theistic religions, truth is
rc,·cakd by God and is w be fou11d in the scripwres. The major branches
of knowledge. therefore, are related to lmerprerntlon and undersranding
the texts (hermeneurlcs). There is, however, a tradition in most theistic
religion:. that also maintains that truth can be derived from reasoning. It is
usually considered, however, chat knowledge that is derived from reasoning
ii,. in fact. identical to knowledge derived from the scriptures, because both
ultimately derive from God. In theistic religions, there is also a tradition.
influenced br Neoplatonism, chat refuses to describe God in any wny. F'or
theologians and philosopher!,, apopharic theology maintains that the
knowledge of l.,1cimme Reali()• (God) is not ohtainahle hy human heings.
The ~·,a ncga.tiuu of tJie mystics arrin:s at n point where the only way of
characterizing tntlm:ue Reality is through negation and such words as
·unknowing', 'darkness' and 'emptiness'.
For non-theistic religions. truth Is dlscovcred or w1co1·ere<l. Jc lies
potentially in che world. bur is concealed (by nwya, illusion). ,\cquiri11g
knowledge ID\'Olvcs di:.eovering tl:iis trudL In most non-theistic religions.
thb discover)' of truth is experiemial. It i11voll·es certain actil'i.ties such as
meditation, which lead to the tmeo,•ering of the truth inherent in all things_
The knowledge that b obtalncd through this path is not, howc,·er, the
d1scurs1ve knowlcd~e that is implied in the term 'cpistemolog)". lt is a
holistic, non-dual kno1,lcdgc that, in most tmditioni., cannot be reduced to
words. The En~ish word 'wisdom' conveys hetter. perhaps, the meamnl\ of
this type of knowledge "The iao that cnn he spoken of is not che ecemal
Tao_'" It b, therefore, ;,imUar to the apophutic theology mentioned :1bove.
There is thus, in both theistic and the non-theiMic rch~ions, a trndition
chat hold:. that whllc dhcur:.ivc, analytical, conceptual knowledge i;, or
some value, it can only take human heings a pare of the way 011 their
spirimal parh To go further, one must rely on an inner, intuitive knowledAC
 -
;?I:? c' C))/1: f:l'Tl ' AI, Asn.1·Ts (H llt.1. 1n10~

ur wbdom that cannot he <lci.orihc<l in ,,orJ, It can onlv h<.• .1chic1.,J h)

folhm 111j\ the Jllferclll spintu:11 paths oi each rd1t1011. ,uch :is rniv.,r.
mcclitutlun unJ fostmA
In sumnwry, theism. no11-thc1~m :Uld rd:ttlvhm .ire similar 111
cxprcsi.inj\ :i polarit) rc,j\nrdm~ cpbrcmoloA>• At one pole is the l th1m:n1:
Rc:illly No d1scursin, kno\\ lcdi/,<.' is nvnil:ihlc n.:j\nrdinat tlus :arcn of n:hl\lon
t1nd. accurd111)t tu rclauvism. :my ,w1crnc1H~ that t1rc 111adc :m, r11lauvc 111
the'''"" point of the ohscn•cr. .\t nhc other role nrc mnucr,, co1111cm1nl\ the
world a11J hunumity I lcrc, for 1.hc \\'c,wrn rcUJ.tlous, tbc ,crlpturcs urc 1.h1,;
standard hy- which all knowlcd~ ,hould he JUdl!cd. while ior the l:.a,tcm
rcllj\ions, the scripmrcs arc the guid1,; for prol\rcs\ nlnnj\ the p:uh to
knowh.:J.l!,e and 11bdom.

FURTHER READING

The suhjccts covered in this chapcer ore usually discussed in books on the
theology :uul philosophy of religion in each of the various reh~on,..\ good
compilation i'rom a Christian perspective can he found In Rowe and
\\'aimvri~hc, Philosophy of Religion. See also Smart, The Phi/owph.v '!I
Religum and Reaso11 und Faiths: Coplc~ton, Religion and 1/ie One and
Ward. Concepts of Goel.
 lJ

SUFFERING, 8ACR IF [CB ANO SALVAT I ON

to give meaning and purpose

'-E OP THE CE.'-TR.\L CONCER.>;S OF RFLIGIO!> is
to human lifo. ln partleuh1r, religion seeks to give meaning to one area of
human life rhat perhaps most appears to demand it: che phenomenon of
random and seemingly undeserved human suffering. The Buddha e,·en
made che question of suffering the swrtiog point of his relipjous teaching.
One of the aims of religion is to deal ,vich the prohlems of humanicy's
psychic and spiritual Ufe. One of its main roles is therefore to provide a
means of understanding, and escaping or relieving the suffering that comes
ineseapnbly to human beings in this lifo. The first port of chis process -
understanding the origin and role of evil and suit'ering in tbe world - will be
dealt ,,ith in the first part of this chapter. In the second part of this chapter
WI! shnll consider the rclawd issue of s:icrificc. In the third p:irt, we shall
look at tbe ways Lhat religion ~ves to human beings of escaping from 11vil
and suffering - the process of salvarion or liberation.

EVIL, SIN AND SUFFERING

Suffering is part of everyone's life rn a greater or lesser extent. Physical

suffering (illncs:., injury, hunger, old age) and mental sufferinl! (de:.-pair,
loneliness, frnstration) arc pare of everyone's experience and, even if one
cries to, one is not always able to avoid being the cause o( suffering to others.
Western cheologians and philosophers refer to that which results in
suffering 'IS evil. In discussing the question of evil and suffering, it is useful
l'l differentiate between moral evil (that which is intentionally caused by
human beings) and natural evil (that which is caused by natural
phenomena such as ea rthquakes or floods, or by human beings
unlntcnlionally). Boch cypes of evil have been a particular problem for
those Western religions that believe in a lovinj\ and :1ll-powcrful God. for
these religion~, the problem can be formulated thus:

1 Ir God is lo,·ing then He presumably wants co prevent evil nnd suffering;

., If God b all-powerful. fie presumably can prevent evll and suffering;
3. and so if a loVin~ and all-powerful God exists, why then does e,·il and
suffering ex.1st in cbe world?
213
211 C0'1Ci>PTll.\l, Mll'f.C'n-l Ot Rf 1, ICilOS

Tith i" 1hc J!>!>uc rderrecl to In Chrbtinn 1heulu~· a., the prnhlem of
1heodlcy. lli>inl! 1his rcasoninlt, the pre!.cncc of evil and ~ufterin~ m tht
world hn~ e,·en been argued hy i-ome philosopher, from Ep1curu1, (.311 2ill
r1ci-;) 10 l):ivitl llume ( 1711- 76 u,:J w ca1>l doubt on the cxlsh:ncc of Go<l
Other more modern writeri. i..uch (IS F'roud :md \l:tn ~uAht rn ,how th:11
rcliglu11'1, cxplnn:uloni. of 1hc presence of evil ontl ,uiierinlt were ha\ctl on
clelus,om,.'
Bccam,c the que1>tion of the cause and role of suffenn,ll nnd evil hns
hceu hUCh a central cont.-crn fu r rdi~ions, it has been an u_rco of much
philosophical and thcolo~ical cloborntion. resulting in ,1 \·ariety of an~wer<-
to the 4ucsUon of why suffering exist:, Comequently, there h II m:ll>., of
theorv and speculation in the writh1g1, of the various religions on tll1~ issue
The follo\\·ing is :111 attempt to creme some degree of order ou1 of thi~
111or~:. of compUcatetl theories and intricate claborntion:. N. with nll
simplifications. some may c.-onsidcr it an ovcrsimplificalion. >.;evenhelcss,
it outlines some of the main ways i11 which religious thirtker;, han: M>u)tht
to explain suifering and el'il:

1. C.,i;si, A.'ID f:l'f'ECT. Evil and suffering are the consequences of human
actions.
2. I c-ioR.,KCt'. Sufferin~ result~ from human failure co $ee thin1ts as the,·
really arc.
J. E,·11, BtrnG (oR BEL.'IIGS). Evil and ~uffering ore the result of the acUon~ oi
:m evil bcin~: Sawn, the Devil , lhlis: or there is an inheren1 tendency m
c reation opposing God.
4. Evu. 1s L'lllERl,;.'H 1!>1 m ~ tAN llEl1'.<lS. The doctrine oi original sin.
5. RlililILT m llllhlA.'11 t Kl:.l WILL. Since hlllllan beings h:11 c been given free
will, it b inevitable that they will $Omc1imes do evil Olherwise they coultl
not be suid to ha\'e free will.
6. O F.NL\L OF GF.1'lll:,IF. EVIi•. There ore only differing degrees of good, and evil
o nly appcani to be evil relative 10 the hil!her degree:; of i:\oo<l that e~1~t
7 Bt:~T m AJ,1, l'!l1*>1BU. ,1·0Rttis. The worltl I hat exisi,, L'<>ntalns tlle greate'>I
umuunl of good and the smnllcst amoum of evil thnt it is po:,sihle tor
God lO have created.
8 . MEUI.\I\IS~I tOR Sl'(R(Tll,\I. GRO\\TII. The sut't'ennfa\ that incli1·iduab
experience in the world is pare or their spiritual cduc:nion.
9 .\CTtos or Cloo OR OF c10os. 1\II suffering :md C\'il i~ determined ond
decreed by God (or one of tluo gcxb)

II should be pointed out that nny one of thc.,e explnnalion~ doc~ not
nece:.:.arily nile out the ocher. The main orthodoxiC!> of alrno~t all ol the
major religions have used severa l of the posilions outlined here
 <1 SlJFFf.lUNG . SAClRIFl<'E ASD !!AIX,\Tl01' ZIS

J. Ca use and E.(fect

Whatever snficr-in)! falls to :1 person is the
n!Milt of pust aclions by thnt person. Th<!
law of luimw in llindubm and Buddhii,m
i~ a In" of cause and effect. Every event
that 0¢cur;. is caused by prcvioui, evtmts.
lf sufforio~ occurs in the life of a person.
then this has been caused by evil dccc.1s
done by th :ll person in the pasL \\'itb Lhe
concept of reincarnation or rebirth, 'the
pa1,l' includes post lives. The Buddha
taU~ll that:

J::vU in the future llfo Is the frult of bodily

offence. Evil is rite fruit of o ffence by
\\Ord, by thought.. in the future Ufo. If I
offend Ju deed. In word. in tho~lll, should
nor I, when the body breaks up, after
dcoth be reborn in the Waste, the Way of
\\'oe. the Downfall. the Pul')lalOI')'-:.,

A notion of caui,c and effect is aJso to be

found in the Bible and Qu r'cm. Here evil Tut WULLL Of LU L, A f\Ll'Rt.'.>1-NTATIU~ Of THY.
LIW OF MmLI: The outermost circle shows
and 1,uffering arc often stated to fall upon the twel"e links in 1he chain of causation.
people because of wb11t they, or even what The next ci rclc shows the six realms oi
their ancestors. have done.' The wrath of rebirth rderr~'<l to in the 1ihcrnn Book of
God is said to fall upon them because they the Dcnd . ~ s (a t the top), titans, humnn
ha,·e transgressed the law of God or realm, onlmal world, splrh~, nnd hdl (nt
the bottom). At the ccnm, arc una~ o(
disobeyed Cod.' the for<--e, that keep the "heel tumln,i!:
desire, 11!uornncc. hatred. 'l'he whole wbt-cl
is in che gnp of the demonic ,itod of time
2. l,i!norance Tibctnn Buddhist T'ankn
Ln the Advalta school of Ilinduism it is
taught rhnr suffering arises from a failure
to i.ee thingi. ru. they really are (addya:, wrong knowledge or ignorance).'
This physical world possesses an illm;ion of reality, maya. Because of
this, the world takes on a spurious impormncc that distracu. from and thus
hidel> true Reality. Thus the Real is concealed and buman bemgs are
djstracccd from scekin~ it. Instead they seek the thin~s of the world :md
are led into gr1.-ed and pal>sion. Suffering Is the result of this state of
alfalrs.
This concept of ignorance as the underlying cause of suffering is rurcher
dc"clope<l b)• the Buddha. The classical analysis by the Buddha is given In
the ~'our :--:oble Truths (ariya-sacya) .•
21<, 1:1 mca.:1•n•.,1••,:-1>1::<:T:. 01 10.L11,1u:,;

I ,\U a.,,,,,.,t.!> of "ur \\orldlv hk 11.-nJ w ,ufknnl! (t/ultklWJ I •

m
h1r1h. ,ickncss. deca~ dcmh 1-.wo rlcu,unit.lc
~xpcnt.•nL..~, nrc inn1IH.J . iJ1 the l'<Jll<..-...·r,1 ot tlultkl"' ,1ncc
dtl'S fire \!'\..inc...ccnt +1nd thl'f\.~(orc ult1m..1t1:h un-...;H1..,h mg,
2 Th~· rool c.rn,i..: ot chh, ,..uffcrm4 1, dll l·tU\ 1114 tor klltvn.·
rlcnsurc lh\: llllJJdllllClll (O th\: thiu6 ,,I tJ11' 1<0,rlJ
Tm: ~'<llfR J ~, ht: "Hl lo the r.:c~..alJnn o( !tUJlcrtu.J! l"- the stUJlJ1i11t ot
l!rt1\·i111!, the llhcrntlun from du, attaduncnt. ,h:h1ch·ffll'IH
1':nm ,, TRt'1'IIS c,f 1hc slate 1ha1 1, c':1111:d 1'm nna ( ';11,h.mll)
~ The parh lc:1Jln~ ICl 1he c 1:"n11011 nt .s11ffonn4 ,~ 1h, '\ot,J-,
~;iJthtfold Pnth

The ultimate cause of suffcrinA h- ignorance of the pa1h rnu~IH hy the

BuddhH The remedy is wisdom and kno\\ lcdtc (knowled~e here mean, a
deeper existential <.'Orupreheasioa rawer than a i.upcrficiaJ knowlniU of l11c
pnrh - 'righr view', which is the first part of rhc Noble Eil\hrfol<l Paih.

1. Rigln ,·ie"' A vie1< ba*d On uoderi.wmlio~ the Four Z,.uhlc

TnaLhs and such doctrines as anaun ( <l'C p.:?Jli)
:? Ri,i!hl resolve Resolution 10 renounce the world and 10 nee
with beneficence towards itll sentient hcinll~
J , Right speech Spcaku,g truthfully und kmdly, a,oiding
slander and go...lp.
TIIE NOBLE
4. Right conducL Conducting oneself accordlni! lo moral
EmllTl'OLD PATll priociples (shila)
5, Right livelihood. ,\doptini! o lh·elihood thot docs not honn
oneself or ochers.
6, Right cfforL S1rivi~ 10 achieve noble quoliLJes and a,·oid
Ignoble ones.
7. Rlitht mindfulness. Self-awareness, compa~slon,
equarumity; avoidance of uowhofe,;ome thou#,ts and
feelin~
8 . Right conccntrntion Concemracion of the mind
eulmlnnUn!,\ In absorption (d~mw ) nnd >'iSdom (prrv,l«)

The Buddha 1aughL thal everything tlmt arises or c.'Omcs Into

being in this world - including physical things. emoLional states or
menLal concepts - is all ultimately duhklia, suffering. Suffering ilself nri~c!.
as a resull of craving. This cr:win~ is In tum caused by sensation and thu~
one builds up into n chain of cnusation char is in face ci rcular, the \\'heel
of Life (or WJ,ecl of Becoming). Through ignorance of the nature of Lh,s
chain, human beings are bound co 1he Wheel of Life, whlch goos on
turning. The encire chain rests upon ignorance. :ind so this is often seen
as the flrslllnk in the chain. This leads LO t.hc conc.-cpl of prncityu-
samucpada, oo-dependenc or mutually dependem ori,l!ination (see p . 194)
- so called bccuusc each Hok in the chain arise:. because of 1hc other
links,
 9 Sl ' fH'.Rf)W, SACRfflCi,; .\Nil S.\I.VATION 2l7

In the rcligionQ of the \\'est, a similar attribution of sufforing to

i~noronc;;: ls lo be found in a numb.Jr of gnostic and esoteric schools. tu
gnostic cosmology. 1he world has a 'light' side thal is nearer
10 God and u 'dnrk' side th:n is remote from Cod. In
physie;1l LCnns, this 'dark' side is matter, the physical world,
the human body; in psychological terms, it is ignor:mce and
fo~etfulness. The darkness can be transfomwd Into light
through rhe ncquisition of knowledge or wisdom (g.nosis).•

3. E~·i'l Being (or Bcitt,4s)

In the theistic religion:.. there is a belief that evil ls iu the
world due to me actions of an evil being who opposes God.
This conc:cpt, which is often called dualism (but should be
dls~uishe<l from the dualism described in chapter 2 as an
nltem:1tive name to theism), finds its clearest expression in
Zoroa,,lrl:mbm. llere the evil principle, .\hrimnn (Angra-
Ar n:c: DaIT,
~iainu), struAAles against the good, Ahurn-Mazda. It is T1..-oynomlqul, the:
probable that many Judaeo-Christian-Musllm concepts of goddess of death
the Devil, Satan or lblis can be traced back to Zoroastrianism.

A revolution in the hlstor)' of coneepts occurred in

Iran ... with the teachln)!s of the prophet Zarathusrra, who
lnid the basis for th" firsl thoroughly duolist religion.
Zarathustr:t's rovclotiion wa.~ chat evil i!\ not u mnnifo!ittalion of
the dh'ine ttl nil; rather IL prcx.-ecds from a wholly separot,:
principle . . . The durulsm of Zoroastrianism or of
ZoRO.\S'l'RlAN
M:micheism is oven; 1ha1 of Judaism and Chris1ianlty is
COSMOLOGY much more covert, bur it exists, and it eirisc., at least ln lal'Jle
pMI o" in~ 10 Iranian inOucnce ...
In the bt,ginning there were two spirits, Ohm111zd nnd
Ahriman, and the)' wen, scp:irnted by the l'old. Ohrmnzd Is
tood, light, and unllmlt~-d In dine (eternal), thou~1 llmltcd In
space hy the ,·old and by Ahriman, who lies on the oclier side
of the void .
In the bcginnin!!, Ohnna1.d knows of the cxim,nce of
,\hrin1nn, bu1 Ahrimnn, in his dork Ignorance on the other
side of the ,·oid. know1> Ohm1J1zd noL But In the counK of the
nn.t three thou~and year,,, Ahriman <liscems across the void
a point of light ~ad. see~ that U~bt. covets It. long, for IL,
lusts for it, and determines lo possess ll. Ohmla1.d now
creote, 1he l!<)od lhings, and Ahriman creaws ""ii thing:..
such ns M-'Orpions nnd toads. In his envy and lust, Ahrimon
ouacks the work of Obrma:z.d wllh his wc,pons c1i dnrk.ncss.
con.:uplsccnce, and dl...,rdcr. (Russell, Tltc D<..,:il, pp. 98-9.
107, J<IB-9)
 211, cosct:l'Tll.\L ,\SPF.CTI; ()f IHI IOIOS

In mo:st cAamptc,. or thi, t) p<; of thcod1c,·. it 1,

Tilt. CuL~l.Sl HSTl\ ,\L O> Gll<>SflL
Durinl\ the se,cnth lunttr month
(usually somcume in i\u~ust ), ii is
hclicv<.-<l 1hrtt oil the souls suffcrln~
In the unJcl'\\ urld 11rc frccJ onJ
p,,rmlttcd 10 room ahout the earth
The cllnw., ul the Gho.st Fcstlvru is
on the l'ouneent h and fiftc<enth ul
the momb, when lamcms arc set
aOnat upon the wnter 10 siilJ,nl 10
the water ~plrlrs the: prcpamtion of
• _llro.:nl fca,,L This picture, utkcu
In Taiw,111, •how• the Lan~ \'ant
dancers during !he Lantern ~·e.suvaJ
m Ta,pei
t>clieH.'d 1hnt the role or the :m1i-l :o..i ,, hmltcJ
by Cod':. omnipotence unJ thnt, rtl the end of
time. Go<l will t.lcfoa1 t.hc force, uf c,·il Jt may he
s:Jid thm this i,ct oi hclid, :iohc,. the proh!..:m ol
thcot.licy hy m:1l111:1lnint! that lioJ h:1,
\'Oluru:irily hut 1cmpororily w~penJcJ Iii,
omnipotence. This 111low, the l)c,·ll to 1.•:-111.,e
suffering anJ c, ti In the world until the L.1.,1
Jud~emunt. In the popuhtr rcli~ion of m:inv parh
of th<i world there b a bclid itt u,·il ur nu1le\'Olcn1
beings or spirits that cause sufferln,tt.
Evil spirits, or ~pirits th111 hm·c be<.'Omc nn!l~·
and need co be proptll:'!Led if they arc 1101 to
cause suffering, play a prominent role in mam·
other .rdigiorn,, including llindubm, Buddlui.m.
Chinese and J:Jpanese retiwon. :ind cspecialh in
the primal religions. One of the c.-ommone!.t
forms of belie!' Is that when people die, t.huir wub
become malevolent spi n t:. who room the ean:h
trying to h:irm human beingi. Most religions hnvc
at lellS'l some rituals, Jnvocationi. or inc:'lnt.ation,
for wa rding off such spirits

4. E~il is lll/tere111 m Human Bein~s

The idea of a fall from ~race is ·the cradillonal (Augustinian or C:tl\'inbt)
Christian ,'iew of suffering and evil In the Carden oi Eden. human huin~
had the po:.sibility of not sinning and therefore not ,uffcring. Bu t .\Jam aaJ
E,·e did sin (as a resuh of their free will) :ind were consequently exiled from
the Garden of Eden to this world. llere the pos~ihility of not ~innin~ ii, no
longer present. In Christian belief. we are all .\Jam and t\'e's cluldrcn.
therefore in :i st:ice in which our n:irnre is inherently t1nwed and chu, tent.ls
towards cvi I.
This position enn also, hy extension, aceounr for n:irnral e,·il For it wa,
noc only Adam and E,·e who fell, hue also Samn. an nn~I "ho disol><:yctl
Uo<l. Tht distortion of Satan's narnrc in tlJsobcyin~ God. is no\\ rcOuctct.l in
the world in the form of namrol disasters. accordin~ t(l some belief:-.• Thb
view thus develop~ to b,womi, closely rclutct.l to II bclici 1.b:11 evil i.J, caused
by an evil bein.~.
The idea that human being.-. ha\'e an inherent 1endenc.•y cnwort.l, thl'
morallr " ron~ can also be formulau.'<.I in "ayi. that t.lo 1101 inw,h·e the idea oi
a fall from gmcc In the Baha'i scnptures, for example. human nature 1s sc.-cn
n:. hl1\'ing iwo nspucts- an animal :.it.le nnt.1 n spiritual side. It ,~
the former that d.raw-s humans 1oward1, e,·il If It b not balanw<l by the I.mer
 'I; sn·tt:IUNl.i, S.\Clllt'ICt: .\NI) IS,\l,\'.\TION 2 1•)

IINWl~)I
Let .\gnl chc klll.r or Jcm<m, unit" wlcb this prayer anJ expel
!rum bt.:rc tht.i u11c whohC ruuuc iis I)\ il, "ho Jtelt ~llh JiscnM: upon
,·our ttnbry-o. yO\I r wumh
Tbc one who,,c name Is ~-vu, "ho h"" \\ilb disc•"'-' upon your
embryo, )'our womb, the Ocsb-eatcr - Ai,!nl has driven him '"''")'
GHOSTS A.\1) E\1L with prnyer
The one who kil1s the embryo 11s it scnle~, n:i. h re~ts, a~ it
SPIRITS stirs, \\ho wishes 10 kill It when II i• born - we will drive him
a" ,1y from here,
The uoc who sprcrul, upurt your two thigh,, wbo dl~'S between
the marrl.:ll palr, "bo> Ucks the Inside of your womb - we wJII
dd,•c him owo1· from heN
The one who by eballj\lng into your brother, or your husband,
or your lover with yo", who \\'lshcs 1<> kill your offs:pdng- we ..;u
drive him away lfQm !here
Th<' <>nc who oowirchcs y()u with • lccp or dn.r kncss and li<'s
with you - we will drive him awuy from hero. (lncantmion for
tlcicndlng tltc unborn clliltl from c,·il spirits, RIil \cda 10 162, p
192)
Ctustsl Rtut1,os
Ghosr!-. nru 1he souls or pcaple \\ho died In rhe "rrnng v.•ay or m
the wron~ time
Most .ouls a, oid the wor,.t horrors o( thu underworld. The
IMnt sm·e lhl'm by hlnng pn~sts Who know how to bribte Ille
nppropnme underworld officials. The soeially ma~mal ~os1s,
however. have no one to perform lhese n1uals. and lhus ne,•er
make i1 throUl\h lhc complexities of tho underworld Olten
buried without cercmon)' , ,hey must under)lo kng1h)•
punishment from \\ hich funeral ritunl hns rclcnsed more
fonunalc sou]~ enwo.r"hippL->d. they b:we neither food to cm uor
money 10 spend Mno,y 1.hus rewo.bt in the world o( the hvin!l 10
take what they can . .
Ghosts arc thus dru11!Cro11s because they are the ,;ouls o(
people who faU Into the fmcrs1lces ()( the sys1em o( social
cate~nes
The fir~, type of tmswer to why people worship Aflost.~ \\'ll:,; l()
.sk for n penL..,(ul lilc (ki" pieruj rm) l'il'l/f un L' a frcqucntly-
MJlcJ goal t1£ rdtCJCJU..<i WUJ"'dllJ) J...itcrull)' 'to,IJIC>ttlh 1t.nd pt.!Ut.'\!ful', it
mcmts rr~ct.kun fton1 ull typc!OI of rnb.f,,nunc. Thi! f\t:<.'(JnJ c::i.tcgury
cuvi:n.·J a \\·fdcr range ot unMH.·rs. but all corrlcd wm1: lmpllcanon
that the wor..blppcr 'Mb Jotng an act o( klullne... for the ghosts
(\\'"'1er. l'n1L1<-. w1d 01~'<'1'81tws 111 (.;ltmc.,,c Rd/,1/1011, pp 60-o..l)
L~l~T
Eskimos llnultl bcllc,..c Uldt ghost1' .ire hnm1f,J unJ r,kntlc..l)
mallciou, a, lung os lht:y remain tn tl1c memory of lbc livLui:, Oo
Jcoth, the ""I'll"'
ill not renul\ ...J frnm tltc ldoo by \\U)' uf lhc
Joor thl\ woulJ make II wo "'1s)· for tl1e lingering 1lhos1 10 re-
enter Ralhe,r, a bole ,s chopped tn 1he h:.1ck. la1cr to he reflll"d
oftl.'r rcmol'al n( the llodr Thi< h:tfD.,. the 1!110<1 ThCII, ,n ca•c
the ,dlost dl)CS find tire enrranre, knives ore set III the snnw 0oor
c,( th~ dt)t;lrway for 1hn-~ nidit-'t after hurinl Ruch bo<,hy trap"!<
di'<e'Oun14<> ~ost~ (llocbd nntl \\'L'tl\..,r. A111hrupot1111.~· wul 1111·
1/tUIIWt Exp..'t'h.'lll-.C, PP 56:?..J)
220 (:ONCErTlf,\L ,\SPt: crs ()f' Rff,l(;I()',

A ,·arinlio11 on Lhl& conccpl that evil is inheren t b, c.."pn,i,.-.cl.l In 111.111~

Middle Enstcrn crcmion mylh, , and hy :-c,·eral philo:-ophers from Pinto (111
the Ti1t1m! 1tS} onw:irt1'. Thb vie,, pre~cnu. God n~ n fa:-hioncr creminl!
order out of a pre-ex,:-tem chaos. Since Oo<l h, workinl! \\Ith pre-cx,,11:111
mutcriub, fie con only conslrni n or pc!'llundc the crc111ion tuw.irJ, the
perfect onlt!r that lie wirnL, to hrin~ about. 13ut there 1!. an dcmcnt in
e\'crythinl! rhot resists God's consrraininl! and it i~ this inherent resistance
to Uo<l tl1t1t b the source of c\'il Thb idea ulblJ rcpr.:scmi. n way in which
God 's power is limited. The con cept has been rokcn up as ;t ,yl>tcm ot
the<>dicy hy the Proccs.~ Philosophy or the school of Alfred \\'hitchcnd ,md
Charles I lurtshon1c. 11

5. Result of flu man Free U' i/1

Also part ()f the tradition;il Christian view of the presence of moral c\'il in
tlle world is the concept tbot God gave human bel.ngi. free wtll ,,hen lie
created them. Since free will entails the ability to do both good and evil, ii
follows that some human beings will incline towards evil. Moral evib arc
tbtL~ the result of humankind 's exercise of rhis free will. This hne ot
reasoning involves God's volun t:11:' cession of part o( llis power as I le allows
humanity dominion over part of che world. The Mu'tnzila in Is lam abo held
char human hein~s have free \\~II .
This view appears to leave open t.he question ol' why God would han:
chosen to create humankind and the w1iverse, knowin~ that this would
result in much evil and suffering. This is usually :inswcrcd hy the assertion
that, in the long run , the good rc::.ulting from God':. creation wUl outweillh
the bad. The ·1onit nm' here means primarily that we must take eschatol~r
(what happens when hum11t1 beings ure ju dged after death or on the Day oi
Judgement) into account in our final summing up of the amount of ~ood
and evil in the world.

6. Denial of Gen uine E'Vil

This view can be 1rac1:d back to the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinui.. It
consists of two principal :1sscrtions: that the universe as a whole ,s perfect
ond gool.l; and that the perfection of being requlr~ that C\'cry level of
existence must come into beinl! (the principle of plenitude) Smee there arc
different levels of being, there must also be different level!. of goodness
Some Lhings will be at a lower level of ~oodne~ (ond i.o will bc I~ good)
compared to other rhin~s. But since the existence of these less good entitie!.
is re4uired for existence a;, a whole to be perfect, Lhcsc arc pan of the
~r1:ater ~ood. There is chus no genuine evil In the world - 1f by ~t!numc evil
wc mean that without which the world would he bener.
This view was taken over by Sc Au~ustinc and St Thoma~ A4uinru. and
became one of the main planks of the traditional Christian rheodicy The
main argument adw1nc.-cd by these philosophers \\:t;, thot nothing is created
 •1 :;Ltt' t·t~RING. ~,\CRl¥1Ct. .\ND SAIXATH>Jli 221

c,·il hy n:trurc, humanity's moral evil is only e,·il hy will. Furthem10re, evil
b allowed to c:\.bt III the' unlvcr~c only in order I hut there 111uy he u greater
.;><><.I IC llus amount of ,Nil were not pcm1mued hy Uod, then a much J!reater
:1moum of ~ood would also he nhscnt "

i Best o/ All Pussibk ll'or/cls

Closely assooioccd 11•1t.h che previous ,·iew ls thllt put fonvard l11 the
Christi:in world by Gottfried Leibniz (H>-16-1716) He asserted that there
were m:iny universes that God could have created. Since God I.\ good, the
unl\·erse i:hat lie has created must necess:1rily he the hest of all possible
worlds. Evil exists because, although indi,-idu:11 things in isolation could he
cr1.'l.1ted without evil, when brought together in a composite. a certain
amount of evil becomes necessary; what is evil for one indhidual is good for
another. Leibniz al.so accepted the fact that human free will (see (5) above)
re~ultS in some moral e,•ll.
ln brief, then, this view holds that of all the worlds t.hat God could
po~sibly have created, the net amount of good in this world is the greatest
chac it is possible co obtain. This view was centuries earlier put fon\'/lrd by
Pinto in the Timaeus. More modern proponents of thjs view tend to merge
it II Ith l11e Irenaean position (see (8) below).
In Islam, chis position has held a prominent position since it was
ruh-ocarnd in the elC\'<lllth century by the eminent Muslim scholar, Abu
Hamid al·Ghazali ( 1058-1111 ). lie held that there Is nochin_g possible that
is more wonderful than what is at this precise instant. This view had the
corollary that whatever exists or happens does so by di\•inc decree; nothin_g
exists or happens by necessity, but only by the divine will (see (9) below).
Thi~ position was opposed, however, by many Mu.~lim scholars. They
considered that this view undermined God's omnlpocence by Implying chat
God was not capable of creating anything more perfect than this world.u
'Nhile al·Ohaznli emphasized God's abilities as a l!reator, the Mu'tazili
position (wblch was prominent in Islam up to the eleventh cencury CE)
went further. It placed a morol obligation upon God to create the best
possible world. The Mu't.azUa went as far as to assert the perfect rlgbmess
of every individual thing. no matter bow tig)y or lowly it n1-igbt he. (Al-
Ghazali's position was that some tl1ings arc noc good and have no intrinsic
worth but that they arc necessary so that thls most wonderful world can
exist; they ace in a way as a ransom for the more perfect.) The Mu'tazila
themselves faded into history; their positlons were, however, adopted and
continue to the present day In 'lwelver Shi'I theology."

8. Mechanism for Spiritual Growch

The idea of suffering a:, a test from God may be found in both the N1..'W
Tescamem" and the Qur'cm" LOgether with the concept of suffering as a
punishment from God (see (I) above). This is sometimes called the
222 CO'ICf rTll;\I. ,\SPECTS or RF.I )<:ION

11,snn:..11
lndm crcat,-d chis l)lnomnc,,, Crrt•,d.wr) l<>r 1h, d.:,1nrct1u11 of
.\sum• (de, ,Is)
Uy th\~ (i~nonmc~I men Jcdnn: chm ch~ m.111,rn.:lou., b
ou~pfciou!). thftl the o.u~phJmLL, 1~ IOUlL"'iJ)h:lnu~ . They ,,,y chu
there ,hould be am,nuon 1nml w o dhllrm11 "l11d1 1,
E,·11. ANI)
desm,c11ve of th1: V<.-tla, ond of other '!Crtpturc, (x/11v.rru.,1
SllHIIRINU (Maun l'11arrisliarl 7 '} Ill Tltt· Tlurt<<'n l'nr«-11•/e
( '1>m1ix/tu,ls, p 15(,J
Imo hhnd d3rkncss crncr those "hll lollow 11!,rlomncc .lm·k•"
arc those world~. t-O\·cretl \\ilh hhntl ,lnr~nc.._, Tu 1h,-,c
wnrlds, nft._.r dl.!nth, ll<> tht,-..: who ha,c nut lo111\\1'....Jl(c, thll
ore not awakcn<.-d (Dn/uuL\ru11yuk« l'pwu~ltud IA HI-II,
In T/11, T/tin.ceu l'n111.:iplc I 'pwuslwds, r, 1-1~)

Ol 1.1t>IIIMI
This Is tl1c Nohle Truth ru. to suffortnt Dlrtl1 is painiul, old 111(c
ts painful disl:nse ai1d ,.It.11th are painful ~,oclauon ",lh
the uncon,itenlnl IS polnlul, *Jlnrn1inn from lowd ""'" ,~
p11inful, not 1,.'ctring whnl one want• is painful In fac1 .._,..._.,.,
part of uo, existing, n,- we do, bccau<e we grn,p hnltl of hfo -
L, subject Lo ouflcrlng,
Uut o, lO lh~ nublc Truth os tO the t:allM! uf ouffcrhu\ It ,~
iguor-.uu crovlng which leads w rebirth and s.;, as.'>Oclatal "11.h
Jesire-attochment; o.:eklng after plea.sun, e, erywht!re. the
cravmg for hnppine~< ill this lifo or m a future Ilic (The ti Rt
two of the F'our Noble 1'ru1hs prcuchc-d by the Buddha am!
ooccptcJ hy all Buddhists us the fouuclmon of fiudtlh1,m,
quot\.-d in Allen, The Hudtllsa's 1'/ul1>1>0phy. p. J:?)
13.\11~·1 F\ITII
The mind 6ml spirit of mon ruh-unce "hen he Is trtcd by
sufforlnl\. The more the ground is plouj\l,cJ the bcncr the
seed \\'Ill grow, the beuer the h=·est will be JuM os ti,.,
rlouj!h furrows the earth deeply, purif\·lnl! It of w ~ anJ
thistles, so suffcrinj\ nnd rrihulnsion free man from the r,env
affnirs of 1his worlJly life u111il h<l arriws at ,1 <tatc of
<.'Ompl<>tc dclllduttcnt . Mun Is, MJ to ,peak, unrtl"" 1h,
hem of t.hc flre or ouffcrlng "ill moture him ('.\hdu'J.&h.1,
Puns '/a/ks, p 171,)
C11R1bn.van
Wbo,ocvcr corunlluctll ~In tnm•Jlr""""'h nlw the t,,. . lur ""
L, thl' wu1sgr.,,s1on of the law 11 Jo/111 J .--1 ,\\'J

JUl>,\l~M
The)' sluJJ therefore k~>cp mine ordlnan(...,. '"-" tl1cy hear '10
for 11. and die therefore. Ii the)· prnfanc tt (iA~rn.~1s .?2 '> .\\')
ISI..Uf
.\lubommod 1s rcponal lo h11ve said ",\JI m1 fl"Oplc will cm,r
pt1r.itlu,e e>cept tlw,e "ho refuse. On hclru! a:J.cJ who
rcfu!'Cd. ho replied 'I le who ohcy~ m<: \\'ill emer Pamd,,c nn,1
he who disohcy, me has n.,fuscd' ll"md111nn frorn Rukhnn, ,o
.u-llagha" i. Misltku1 ol-Mu•...,l,i/1, vol l. r .WI
 ~ 8UH'UUN{,, Si\l:R.lf ICE ANO SAL\".\TION 223

inMrumentnl theory of suficrio.ii - the theory is th:11 suffering is an

instrument of Go<l's purpose for hurunnkind,
A hinher de,·elopmem of this view, in nssocintion with the concept of
'the l'ICSI possible of nil worlds' (sec (7) above), leads to the position that
secs ;,ufferinj! as a mechanism for spiritual growl11, Suffering. 11 accepted
and responded 10 positively. becomes a means of moro l and spiritual
l.'ducation. Suffering and dlfficultics can be seen as tests of faith, obstacles
to be 01·ercome. opportunities for sacrifice, detachment and spiritual
itrowlh
There arn many aspects to this idea. Suffering, il suggests, helps human
hei~ ro realize the illusory importance of the material world and thus to
Jetnch themseh·es from this and turn towards the ~plritual world.
Moreover, it is felt that the occurrence of suffering enables human beings to
show their best attributes of compassion nnd 10\·e. Indeed, if there were no
suffering. there would be no point to ma:ny moral qualities - what would be
the point of prohibiting i:tealin~ if no one suffered ai: a result of Lheft? ~'or
suffering to give rise to spiritual growth, it is necessary for there to be on
element of mystery ahout the exact reason for the suffering. For example.
if e,·ery instance of suffering could be seen to be caused hy the individual's
own past actions or as part of the process of moral education, there would
he less impetus for human compa.~sion towa rds the sufferer. J\ personol or
geneml cat:istrophe can also, from this viewpoint, be an opportunity for a
ne11 start, the 11rst e1•ent In a chain leadlu~ to a much better hltuation - if
human being.~ take up the challen~e of the catastrophe. Morn) and natural
c,·ils can thllll he an important source of humanity's spiritual and social
education. If seen in their long-term perspective, the~· arc not evils at all.
This view has been credited to the early Christian writer lrcnncus,
but it ,s more completely identified with Friedrich Schlcicmmchcr
/li61>-lb3-l) and the modem theologian John llick. 11 It is also one of the
ways in which the question of suffering is cnckJed in the Baha'i Fnith. In the
13aha'I scriptures, It is asserted that 1.he whole of creation is for 1.be tmining
of human bein~s so chm they come co know ond worship C',od." Therefore, in
~ view. it is not ~o much a question of whether God has created the best
PQSJ,ible world or nor, but rather what He has created the world for. If the
purpose of creation is the spiritual clcl'elopmcnt of humrm hcings, the
p~encc o{ l!Ome of l11c suffering 1n the world can be seen as part of the
process of spiritual Arowth. An episode of sufferio.ii can also be seen as a test
that allows the individuHI to assess how much spirimal progress he or she ba;,
mllde. If, for example, our love is oot puc to the test., how can we know hO\I
stron~ it is? SufferinA is thus both rhe instrument for ~rowrh and m the same
time I.ht: yardstick by which to mcru.urc how much growth ru1!. oc.-currcd.

9.•-\ctrons of God or ,if Gotls

In Hinduism, natural evils are seen as parts of the actions of Hindu deities
~lost of the Mindu deitfos ht!Ve a positive and ncgaLivc side to them. Shiw1,
2:?--1 (;OXC:EPT1'1\l. ,\Sf>[('TS nr KF,l.l(JH)S

RJ- .\("tlO'.\ At,.\1\:-.T (1011

GJ
l lOLO(:.\VST
Why. hut \\lw bhn11IJ I hll-s llun" ln cH:ry fihtcr I rd,-;tl"l
flccnuse lie llnd thOLL,,mds <J( Ch1ldr.•1t hurnl~f 10 II,~ rlt••
lkc:IU:,.4J Ill.: ht.J(ll ~lJt cn.:matu1h:" "'urkln~ n~hc 1-t nJ Jo, , on
SunJay• nnd '"'"'' ,J.,ys'• 114.-.,au.c In hb grcut 11111\hl lie: had
cn:01.:d ALL';chwiu, Birkcnnu, lluna and w m.,ny f.1~111,w, "'
tlc:11h-, I Ehc Wk'!<d, quotL'O 111 Hhs, 1ix.:arrl " ./tvu-/1
Tm:oL<X.lY: T111u;i,. 711eolotl)• ,if l, tb..>mmm, 1> 1,1)
l)t.Tt.HMIMHllS TO $t' R\WE
MODES o• Rf.Sl'ONS" They had L-onclcmncd us to die in our tJ\\ n 111th, to dm\\·n 111
mud, in our own excremen1 They wh.hcJ to l1htt.,v u~ 1 to
dc~troy our hunmn dl~nity, to t.!fittcc C\·c.ry \.c1,ti~ ui
bumnnlly Frum the ln,rnnt "hen I l\ra.,pcu the
motivlttlng prlncipl,; ... It \\;I~ BS tf I hod bc.:n awakcn1.-J
from a dream .. I felt under orders LO ll\'e AnJ ii I J1J d1c
in ,\uschwil7.. it ,1 ould Ix, as a human lx,intl I would hold on
to my dij\nity (Pclnl!ia Lc•>insk.~. qun1ed In Cohn~"hcrhok ,
llolt.t<:m,,,, Tlr4!ology. JlP ,19- 50)
S£.\R<1II FOR Mr.A.'l'r-ir.
The I lolocnu.i cnnnot be us.,J for tnumph•li<m It, moml
chnllengc must nlso 1,c appllc'tl to Jcwi,. Thn,c Jews "ho f,:cl
no guilt for the Uolucau,L nrc abo tcruptcd LO moral ap.iLhy
RelitJom, Jews who US<: the llolocaust to morally impuj\n
,:very other re~ious group but their own arc the ones who
:lii! teillf)lOO 1hen!l)y ifll<> ind,fferenc., :it lhe Holocaust ol
others N<:1thcr faith nor 111orolity cnn function 11,ithout
serious t\Vhting of pcn.pccuvc, even to the poim of bc<:ommg
demonic, unless they nre Illuminated by t.hc fires of
Auschwitz anti Tr<!blinka. (J,.llis. Towarcl a J,....,isJ, Tlu..'Olol!s
of l,iberacion. pp . .:? 1-2)

for example, is a loving god. full of grace, especially cowards his dc,•otees,
but there Is also II dark aspect lo l1b character - he 1s the <lest roycr. The
dance of Shiva simultaneously creates and destroys the world Thul. events
such as narurnl car.astrophes as well as personal misfortunes. are seen :is
aces of the gods.
This view is also co he found in orthodox Islam and traditional
Christianity where there il. o morked tcn<lcncy towort.ls <letcnninism (oilcn
in associa1ion with (7) above). This means 1hat all e,erns are
prederennined by God and are thus God's will. In the majority Ash·an
position lu Sunni Islam. God was held to be resporn.ible for the creati<>n of
every action. Howe,·er, the Ash 'aris rejected exrreme determinism by
maintaining that, when God hos created an :iclion, lhc individual human
heing acQ. to ·acquire' it. Even the terms good and evil ba,e, uccordm~ to
the Ash'aris, no inirinsic content rh:1r C3n he disco,·ercd hy the iniellcec
They are defined primarily m relation to tJ1e wiU of God. \\'hate, er God
does (Including therefore natural disasters} is ri~ht and jusL ~loral l!OO<I amt
evil are defined by God's will as manifested in the lloly Low (the Sh::iri'nl
\\'hatever ls commanded In that I::, ~ood, ,, hatevcr is forbidden is evil.
 'I SL'HERIN(;, SACRll'ICt: .\NO SAL\'.\TION 2~5

The cxrrcme vcn,ion of this vi(m is represented in

Prolc~rnnl Christianity by Luther and Calvin and
among Mu.slims by the more extreme 01 th1: ,\sh':1riyy:1
a:. well as the Jabnyya. Such ~roupi. sec nil cvems. both
n:11ural and moral evil, ns detcrml ned hy God .
.\ccording to chi!- view, God is fully responsible for
f\'Cl"\'thin~ tlrnc occurs. Every event is to bt.: accepted as
the will of Go<l, witholll question

S,\CRIFICE AND D ET.\ CIIMENT

The concept of sacrifice occupies a prominent pince in

I.be religioru. of the world. In the oldest religions, the
concept was one or offerin~ up somechrn~ valuable co ,\c.;Tb o > Tut LOI);;: Namrajo.
I.be Deity as o symbol of the fact th:it ultimately 'KJn.fl or 1hc Uance' is a
e, erythinJ! belon~d to I liJn and as a wken or obedience clnssiC.'ll depiction of Shiva.
to Him. An important part ot' the earliest religious His dance simulmneousl)'
literature that we ha,·c, including the Hebrew Bible and destroy~ and creates,
mnlnrnins. ~mbodics nnd
the i't:>das, consisrs or instructions ahout and hymns for liberates. This Is the
the ritual assooi:1ted wilh the sacrifice. The vtgorous. masculine dance
paradi~matic example of tliis aspect of sacrifice (the called wnda'tVJ to
ghing up of something ,•aluoble in obedience to the differemlate i1 from la.~'O.,
Deity) in lhe \Vcstcm religions is Abraham's willingness the delicnce fominine
dance Bcnenth his feet
co sacrifice his only son•• on the command or God. he crushes th.: demon
Mujala.ka, symbolizing
Thus spoke the Lord of Creation wbeo he made both man ignorance.
and sacrifice: 'By saoritlce thou shalt multiply and obtain
o.li 1hy desircs. By s11cri0ce shalt lbou honour the gods
and the gods will then love thee. And thus in harmony with them shalt
thou attain the supreme good. For pleased with thy sacrifice, the gods will
grant 10 thee the joy of all thy desires. Only a thief would enjoy their gifts
and not offer them in sacrifice .. .' (Bh"*1vad Oita) "

Sacrifice also enables human beings to enter into the functioning of the
rosmos:

food is the liie of all being.q, and all food comes from rain above. Sacrifice
brings the rain from heil\'en, and SllcriOce is sacred action. Sacred action
is described in the Vedtls and these come from the Ecemal, and therefore
Is the Eternal ever present in n sacrifice Thus was the Wheel of the L,aw
set in mouon, and that man ll,·cs indeed in vain who ln a sinful life of
pleasures helps not in its revolutions. (8/JQgcwa.d Giro)"

In the non.theisric primal religions (see IP- 47), sacnfice is also imp0rt11nc
'Every ende,l\'our is made to secu re the t'avour of the spirits so that mana
 22<, CONCF.PTIT,\I. i\SPFCTS OF RFLH~ION
Tbc prtr11digmallu emmple of
,acrlOcc - rhc ~Mng up or
some1hlnJl valuable in obedience
10 1.he Deity - in the Wescem
rclil!ions is ,\hraham's willini,,css
10 s•crifico his only son (lsnoc In
the Jcwish-Chrislinn tradilion,
Ishmael In the ~luslim tmdl!JonJ
on the command of God. This
picture IS a cradltlonal Christian
reprcsenrntiort or thar story.
Offcrin~• at " Tlh.:tnn 13udt.lhi,t
shrin~ i 11 • library nt l iru, Bator,
.\101.,gollo
[powl.!rj will nlwayi. he a\·:lilablc. Sacrlftc«., ore th..-
commomcM method o( wmmnt nppronrl '
Socriflc<.! thus bccarne hmh nn cxprc~,h)n uf
honra~c to a higher or mnrt: fl0\\1,;rful lkrn~ (or
hcinAs) and nn cxprcs,ion o( thanks~1v111)! Onl' 11/
1..he t.-ommo1tebt exprcs!-ion, of llt1i,. for ..-..\.urnplc
durrn~ a trme o( trouble or dan~r. involve, the
sacrific~ of :,omcthinii to 1hc Delly (a propltiau,n·
offorlng). Alternauvcly, a VO\\ mav he made ,uch
th:n, if the Jangcr h averted, a ~aerlficc will llo.'
made taler (a vouvc offering). ,\ Mlcrlfici: may abn
he macile a~ p:ln of a suppllc:uion for :in
onticip:ued fovour from the Oetty Such
expres~ions of sacrifice exist to the prcwn1 Ja~
in popular religion· for example, lhc sacrifice ,,(
an :UlUIHII on oohalf of a sick •\.(rican tribe!>man or
che ~ifts offered to spirits for pro:-peril~' in
Thailand.
However. wilh lhe passaite of tlme, 1.he
cmphnsjs in many religious communitie~
gradually shlfteJ to a more rnct.aphorlc-J.I form
The sacrifice that was now made was of the self
(It!> desires, will or views), rather than of one\
possessions, for the sake of a hlither obJect - ua,
higher object being conceived of either as Goo·~
pleasure or ~ one's own spiritwd progrus (or
both simul taneously). The Bha~a,.:ad Gita
expresses the change of emphasis· 'There are Yogi,
whose sacrifice is an offennit co che )!od.s; hue
ochers offer as a sacrifice their own soul in the fire
o( God."" The trani.action involved rs often
conceptunlized as one in which somechint
epheme ral is given up for something llint is of
permanent value. Obviously, the rcllgiou., person
helie,·es that whar is tth·en up 110\\ is wonh les,
than what Is gained ultimately.
The -corollary of the,e ' hiJ!her' llt)(lonl> of
sacrifice is 'demch01ent' or 'self-surrcndu·
Sacrifice ln\'olves ucrnchmcm of the i.df from
its desire and cravin~ for the 1h111~s oi dus world
This spiritual purgation, the Jcath of the s(;ff.
centred life, Is deemed co he an c~~enual
prerequisite for spiritual pro~rcss Such t.'flnccpts
occupy a central pol>ition in 1..hc maJOr reUtti<mi, of
the world :rnd theTe is much li1.erature on che
l>Uhjcc1. In thr~ liumnure. the individu:tl human
 'I $\;H' •. fllNv , s.,e111•·1c:t-: \NO $;\l,\',\Tl()N :?27

hcinl'! is described ;1;. being grnsping anc.l sclf-ccntrcc.l hy n:tture . As such,

there is an innate fear and doubt rej\urdjn/\ the el:um of religion that it b
hcuer to heoome detached from this ~rllsrin~ and self-cemredness In
particular, religions usk thuc a person gi,·cs up the control chat we t'ccl we
muM have over our lil'es; this control must he given up eil11cr to the
religious leader (:i gurn or shnykh, for example) or to the spirit of the
religious tcachlng, ullO\, lng it to enter into the lnt.llvidual's bean and being.
There is often II conflict witbin the individual between tbe desire for the
pcrcci"c<l ooncl'ics of the spiritual life and the fear of giving up control.
Ultimnu:Jy, thtl conllict must be resolved, often by taki.tig a 'leap of faith'
:rnd committing oneself to the new path. This is eiqJericnccd as a libcrntion,
rcllei or bnmkthrough.
Trus process of decachmem became the cemraJ plank of the Buddha's
teaching. The third oi the Four Noble Truths is thnt:

This Is the noble Truth as to the end of suffering: it Is tbe putting an end
10 l~noram cra\'lng, giving up dtnt des.Ire-attachment, ohandonlrtg duu
pleasure-seeking and cra,ing for ll!e or for the cessation of Ufo!'

ln the BlwgatJad Git.a, we read:

When 4man dwells on 1he pleasures of sense, nt1rac1ion for 1hem nrisc.• in
bun ... fiut the soul thnt moves in the world oi sense~ and yet keep, the
senses in harmony, free of 011.ractlon and aversion, finds rest in
quictnc5s .. The man who therefore in rccollccllon withdraws his .cnsc,
from the pleasures of sense, Ws is a serene wisdom ... f'or the man who
forsakes all desires and abandons all pride of possession nml of self reac hes
the goal of peace supreme.''

The same insight i~ to oo found in the writings of the Christian mystics

such as St John or the Cross.

In order to :trrivc 01 having pleasure at everything

Desire pleasure in nothing.
In order to arrive at possessing c,·cryrhin~.
Desi.Cc co possess 1101htng ...
\\'hen the mind dwells upon onythin~.
Thou 4rt ec:ising to cn.~1 thyself upon Ll11.: .\JI
for, in order to pru,.,, from the all to the All,
Thou hast to deny 1hyself wholl)' in all -'-
It is found in the writings of 11uslim mystics i;uch as Farid ::ii-Din 'Attar:
Until vour hcort
I!, free of owncrsWp you cannot ,rnrL
Since we must leave this prison and its pains
Detach your.eli irom 11IJ that ,r comoins:"
??fl C:O~CEl'TII \I ASl'F.C"TS Of R~.Lll,IO'i

( :mu,0-1.,~m

m
OlffACmlE'iT
And a ndcr ll<kcd horn ·t """' T,'flvhu, "lt.11 ,l,1111 I 1ln 111
Inherit ct..-nul Iii,··,· J.-11, .._,1,1 lo him, 'One 1l11n.t \'IJU
Mill l"ck &-11 nil 1l1;111·110 h111c ,on.I '1Mr1hutc tu 1h,· I""''• 1111d
yuu \\ill hu\c 1tc~1,urc 111 lu.:,t\t:-U anJ 4..·onh!, rulln'A nu:' Uut
,,lt«.!11 ht: hc..arJ tin,, he hcc..um.: "1d , lor h~ v.:,l~ \\:S"\. n~h
,11:,u, l<K1kinj\ 01 him -.uJ, ll11>1 h<inl II "tor 1111,-.· who ha<c
F1to~1 Till' T111:-:cs riclu.1~ tu enter uuo th~ kinAdnm of ( rf~I' •or u '" \:.t,1c:r torn
camel 10 ,I\<> 1hro11Ah the """ of n n,,-dl, than for a nd1 man
Of nu:; \VoRLD lu enter 11110 the klnj\<lom 1Jf C.oJ · 1/.uk, I'- I~ . .?:?- ~)

lstA)I
Woe unto c,·cl')' h"ck-h111n11 ,Jnndcrcr """ hmh ,it;ith,rcd up
«cnlLh and countcth it lie r.-cko11c1h 1hnt hi, 1<c:thh will
mttkc him Immortal Nn,\ he sbttll ,urcly be thri,«n ,mo the
cnosh,nl! torment. (Qurirn 10-1 l--1)
ll\1~\'J FAITII
U Son of Being• Bu.y 001 thysclh,lth th!,, "orlJ. tor with hr~
\\'e l"-"t the gold, and with ~olJ \\'e te,t Our .,.;rvant~
0 ::ion oi Man! Thou d05t wish for llOld and I d""1re thv
frec<lnm from it Thon 1hinkes1 thy<.cl( rich in it< po~<c<-son ,
nnd I rc~"Ognizc thy wealth In thy sanctity therefrom By \ly
llfc' Tim ls My knowledgl.', and that I~ thy fancy, ho\\ can M)
wny 3C<-'()rd wltl, thine? (Baha'u'Uah, Jiu/den lfoM, .\r.ih1<=.
55--6)
TAOISM
Frum, or lnt.,grlty· which more Important'
l!.
Money or happlne$S. which Is more valuable?
Success or failure: which is more desrrueti\'C:'
II you look to others for fu!Jlllmeot, you .-11J newr truly be
fulfilled.
If your happiness depends on money, you ";11 nc\'cr be hoppy
with yourse11
Be content with what you ha,·e; rejoice tn the "''"' thinAs are
\\'him you realize there is nothln,i! lackin,il, the whole world
belongs 10 you
{Too Te Chu,g UJ
Bt!Dl>tnSl.t
Wealth destrmys t.h e fool \\ ho ~eeks not the Beyond 13<,cau.,e
of gtc<.-d for "cal th tl1c fool destroys blmsdf as If ill'"""' hi,
own enemy. (Dluumnapada 355)

and in the writings of Boha'u'lbh:

They that n-cod the path of faith, they that thirM for the wine of c.in-irudc,
must cleanse themselves of oil Lh:tt Is eanhly - their <.-ars frum idle talk.
t.heir minds from vain imllJlinmgs, their hearts from worldly affecrloru.,
their crcs from that which pcrl~hcth. ·
 I) sun ERLNU. SACRLFICI,; .\NL) S.\LV.\TIO'I 12')

The end of this p:11h, the Jos., or absence of seltl1ood, is expressed somewhat
J,ffcn.-ntly In t11e ,·:trlous rel~ons. ln the \\'(.>stem rdigious c.rm.litions, le Is
tllouJtt11 of a~ o scote to be achieved or a ~oal co be reolized. In rhe Eastern
rc!ig,ons, it is thought of as a discovery of the re.1.1 St.'lte of affairs. In Themvada
Buddhism. for example. the ab$cnce of trny reality to t11c concept of self
(a,wua). is a central doctrine. In Mah:1yona Buddhism, thL~ is associated \\im
the id~, of Emptlnes,, (Shunyata) as the reality underlying tltc cosmo:,,.
•\nod1er aspect of the idea of sacrifice is found in the coucept thac the
.s.u:rifice mndc by the individunl i.hould be not be Just ior his or her
pc_r,,orutl spiritual progress: ralb(;)r it must be for the advantage of hunumity
a.~ a whole. This idea is co be found in Mahayana Buddhism. Here, ilic
prcoccupntion \\itb the ,mainrnenc of :Nirvana for the individual, which is
the arhac ideal i.n Thera,·ada Buddhism, is displaced in importance. It is
replaced hy the bodhisattva ideal. In this, the one who is close to Nirvana
puLS oif final am1inmem to c.bac goal In order to help ochers co achle\'e It.
Similarly, in cheBJuv!m.,ad Gira we read: 'Even as me unwise work seliisWy
in the bondage of selfish works, let the wise man work unselfishly for the
/lOOd oi all the world.' -"
In Christi:mity. ilie spiriwal life has always been seen as linked to
compassion for fellow hun1an being.'!:

,\nJ therefore tho most inward man lh·c, hi~ life in these two way~;
namd)•, In work :rnd in rest .. ..\nd he dwell~ in God, and yec ~oes forth
towards all creatures in unh·ersal love, in \'irtue, in justice (Blessed John
of Ruy~hrocck) "'

In the writings of Baha'u'llah, the same concept occurs in man)' places,

That one is indeed a man who, today, dcdicateth himself co the scn;cc of
the entire human mce The Gr""' Being saith: Illess"d nnd happy is he th:1c
aciseth co promote the best Interests of the peoples and kindred,, of the
eflrth "

This theme Is further expressed in me

concept of individual suiieriug as the
source of sah·ation for all. This is expressed, for example, in rhc Book of
l'!aiah, where dle figure of the suffering servant represent:,, all the Israelites
who had suffered in exile in Bahylon:

Surdy he hru. borne our ~nefs, and camo:d our sorrows: yet we e,ceemcd
him stricken. iamitcen of God, and afl1ieced Bue he was wounded for our
transgression~, he wru, bruised for our lrnqulues; upon him wos the
chastisement that made u.~ whole; and with his stripes we are healed :'·

The theme of sacrifice as beinl\ expiatory abo appean; iil dle Baba'L
writin~s Baba 'u'llab stated that be had 'consented to be bound \\ith chains
iliac mankind may be released from its bondage, and hath accepted to be
J,10 CO~Cf.l'Tl'.\I, ,\SPEC.TS or Rf.l.(GION

mad-, a pri~oncr wlLhin thl<; most mll!,h() !:itmnl!hoh.l LhJL 1hc \\hule work!
may atwin umo true lihctty •

1 L\KTYRDU~l

The ult111U1tc m i,;icrific.-e is martyrdom in which a ix,rsun :-acnflcv, h,, or

her own hfo its.!h tor the rd1e,ion. Thi,; tl1cme Is parucularh· lmp<>nant In
Chrhtinnity and Shi'i blam In thcsi.> rt?li~ion,. tht.: killinl!, oi n major rchl!inlL'-
f,gurc In the rche,ion (Jesus Christ and th-, Imam Husayn rcsix,cuvd} J
or
l>ecomes the sacrifice that redeems the srns humankind The ,ufforin!l c,f
these major figure., gh·es them dm ri$t to intcrccd1: \\ith God on behalf 0 1
tho!.e "ho follow them and ha,·e fruch in them ThlS interce~ion ,~ thuul!,ht
of :is occurring particu larly on rhe Day of Judgement
In Chrbt.ianity, Christ is rel!ardcd ru. hann~ ,,uifcred crucU'uJun In
order ro sa,·e alt humankind. uirtinl!, from the concept that all human
bcine,i. are lllinccd by original <in (see p . :?IS) or that all humans do Mn"
and that Gocl'i. ju~tice demand.-, that a penalty be paid, the doctrine of
subi.titutionnry :noncmcnt St.'ltC" that Christ oonM.'Tlte<l to die on the cro,,
ill> a ranwm for human ;.in, thu,, en;.urin~ ,,ah-ation for all t.ho,,c "ho belie'<!
in Chrisr.

lnde.:d. under the law almost ""erythinl( •• puru11,d "1th hlood. snJ
\\;1ha u1 the sheddin~ nf hlood 1here is no fnrgh·ene'-< af '<ins Far Chri<t

,,i·
Tn£ ~L PT" kf<•II or Tilt: I.\L\.14 ll1 Tih,, picture , utkeo tn !:iluraz, 1,·an , ,how, s pal11tln~
nn 8 la~ hanneT Ji,pictin~ \':lnOIL~ <C(;(le,. trom the Ille 01 the Imam IIUSS\-n, Ull' uurJ
Imam of Shi'i lsl,m Th<- <<'t:n<"- includ,: th<- Imam ,ta~;n~ an ~nem) ( <-enrn,), the lm.,m
..-uh hi• J~;nj!"'°' !top left nnd t<>I' c·cntrc}, nml "<lme ol thl "'-~Ol-S chat <><.'<.'\unJ nf1<r
lhc m•nrrJom uf cbc lm.un "b"n bi,; hcml 11nJ the ""f'IUrcJ """"" of the holy 1.1mlly
....,, broul\lll buoro: the l'mun-aJ auJ.boriU<:>
 9 SU~ n:iu:-m. S,\CRI FWE A!'tD SAl, \',\TION 23 I

h,1s ..,nter<....t, not Into u sanc.-tu.try nrndc with h:inch hut into hcn,·en
itself, 110\\ to appear 111 the prc.cncc of Clod on our behalf ... But as at is.
1,,.. hns nppenr..-d on~'\! ior nil nt the end of rite n~c w put own)' sin by the
sncnfl.,., of hhnsdf . . so Christ, b,wtng been offered once LO bear tbc slus
of many, ";11 nppc:ir n S<.'COnd time ,.

.\!though there are traditions in Sunm 1-Slam concerning the merits of one
who i~ martyred in th e cou rse oi holy " -ar Qih(td ), 11 it is in Shi'i Islam rhnt
the theme of sacrifice and redemption becomes a major factor in the
religion. The martyrdom of the lmam Husayn at Karbala is considered
r<.'Clemprory or c:1.-piutory; the Imam allowed himself to be killed in o rde r to
pu~e the Muslim world of Its s1ns.'" The Shl'a regard all twel\'e of their
Imams (the twelve leaders of the religion after the Prophet Muhamm:id) as
hm ing been marcyred by their enemies.,., Thus martyrdom bas become
part of che ethos of the religion. It is commemorated throughout the year
on the anniversaries of the deaths oi the fm:.ims, through recital-., passion
plays and mourning processions. It also plays a major role in the literature
and art of the Shi'i world.
In Baha'i history, the supreme act o f martyrdom wru; that of the Bab,
the forerunner of Baha'ullah. Baha'u'llah stated that all the great sacrifices
in religious history, .\brahnm's inte nded sacrifice of his son, Jesus'
cruclfLX.ion, and che martyrdoms of llusayn and the Bah occurred 'as a
ransom for the sins and iniquities of all the peoples of the earth ' 10
Th~ theme of sncriiiee and martyrdom stands uncomfortably in t0day's
~ecular, hedonistic world. ~lost of the mainscream orthodoxies, in the
Christian world at least, nppear embarrassed by it nnd do their best to
minimize its place In the religion. llowever, ic appears to be a resilient
theme and continually re-emerges unexpectedly, especially among the
young. In the Iranian Revolution of I 979, youths were prepared to die ln
order to ensure the success of Islam, ,,·llile in the followi~ years, young
Baha'is were prepared to face torture a nd deal11 in Iran's prisons rather
than recant their faftb. In some ne"· religlow, movements, i.ucb as the
L'nitication Church. there is a strong emphasis on self-sacrifice :md arduous
work to advance the cause." Perhaps its appeals to youth lies 1n the
commitment. intensity and idealii.rn that it demands, which contrastS with
their bland, cocooned existence.

CO~CEPTS OF LIBERATION AND SALVATION

B EFORE AND AFTER DE ATH

In considering what differing religions have to say :1bout salvation or

liberation from l11e sufferings of l11is world, we mu~t bear in mind that we
are lookin~ :it three different issues:
BA11,,1 WOMEN ~L\RTYRS or SHIR.u., IAA.s: These seven young women were arr-,~ted for
engaging in Babo' I communol octh•Ies •W:h as teaching cbtldrcn. After being gi,cn a
chance to save their lives by recan!lng their faith, they were executed on 18 June 1963

One day ln 1868, nineteen boys commiucJ riluru suicide on

llmorlyama, n hlU 011 the cJgc of Wnluuruusu City, the capltnl
of their lord's doma.in. The boy& "ere members of the
Byakkouu (White Tiger Brigade), a corps oi young samurnl m
the service of the Alzu dnimyo. The,· were sixteen and
seventeen years of al!c hy Japanese coum - mcanin,I! thn1 in
JAPANESE RITUAL. We,1em term,, some may ha,·e hoon a, youn~ a.< iuunccn
Engaged in o IMt-ditch clfon u> dclund their do111Ai11. the
Su!CIOE (SEPPVKO, boys lntcndl!tl 10 follu\\ lhclr lonl 10 hi!! dcJUh \\ hen they ""'"
smoke in the distance and mistak.mly ldcnuil.:d ll u a Rre
HARA-KIRJ) destroylr\ll T.surull,ljou, the daimyo's castle The "ar was 1,,s1
nnd the castle wM eventually destm)'eJ, hut the da,m,•o
himself l,vcd well imo old 11Jle
Thu Bynkkuu,t ,uicldl! captured 1hc lmll.l!mftlion oi th<:
people of AJzu, and tl1c nlnt~'<!ll boy:, - plu., a 1w.,11tlc1h whu
rcmolned alhe lQ teU their ,1ory - arc ili!lcbr<11L-J ...., b.,rok
 'I sunt:R llli!,, SACRl~' l<:E ANO SALVATION 233

c.«tmplan of bush1do, the samurai c.~c tltot enjoyed lo)•nlty

and absolute sacrliice for one's lord.
Bushido wns codified hy the s;1m11mi ln1i,llect11nl Yama11,,
Sokou, n nntl\·c of Aizu who had n,ns ed 10 ~:do as n child. The
1.-'<Xll.' took principles of loyn lty nml obedience 10 ,-upcriors
from Confuclnn ethic,, nnJ con1bln1.'<l them with n Zcn-hn.c-d
.ioll-bm tn tlu, fa1.-c of dcntl1 .
Educ"t111,d a t ctu, Ni:,;;hmkan, thl! Confuciru, ,.c,hool of thti
Alzu domain, the Byakkorni youths bad lea rned well the
principles or hu~hido One can view thei r mn:,;; suicide O.'! the
pinnnclu of snmumi loyalty One can also ,·iew it as o troAic
cxo111ple - similnr In :sonH! way" lO tbu Ch ildr..,n's Cn,snde of
medie\'al Europe - of how "ar wn,tcs the lives of the yowt~-
(Janet Goodwin, ·nu:.hldo and lhc Byakkotnl' on lmemet site:
http://c,;.ucla.edu/-Jan/ah/byakkotai.hcml)

• escape from suffering while still aJive in this world

• escape from suffering after death
• millcnninl escape from suffering at the end of time or end of the cycle.

The first of u1ese is dealt with wholly in this chapter. The second is created
partJy in this chapter and partl y in chapter 10. The third is ueatcd wholly
in chanter 10, The communal actions that enable salvation to he achie\'ed,
the pathways to sah•ation, are discussed in chapter 5.
All the major religions appear co agree that it is possible, while sUU all\'e
in this world, to achieve a state in whi ch the ills of the world no longer
affecc one - usually in the sense of no longer causing one sufferilig. This
~late of salvation or liberation while still in this world is usually strongly
linked ,\;th what occurs after death, which is, however, nn area in which
religions vary greatly. The major religions that we are looking ac in this
hook all a~ree that there is something beyond this life, but the similarity
ends there. Probably no :irea in religious studies offers more intrnctnble
problems for those who look for an underlying unity in the reli~ons of the
world.
Some aspects of what occurs after death are described similarly in all
religions. Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism all have descriptions
of places of delight after death , which are variously called paradise or
hea,·en. tlere there is no suffering, grief o r evil. The following description,
which is taken from a Mahayana Buddhisl source, could apply to any of the
other religions:

.\nd thal world system, $ ukha\'ati llhe Western Pnradise o { Aroimbho

Buddha I, Ananda, emits mnny fragrant odours, It Is rich Inn grc:,,u variety
of flowe r!. and fruits, adorned wilh jewel ue~,. which are frequented by
flocks of ,•arious birds with sweet voices, which lhe T.11.h:igata's mirJculous
powers ba"e <.-onjureJ up. Aud t.husc jewel tree:,, Ananda, ba,·<1 various
colours ... Such jewel trees, and clusters of banana trees and rows o f palm
!.'I CONCPPTITA!. ,\SPf.CTS CW RELIGION

tr1.-c~. ull mll<lc or 1>r1.-clou, dJlnj\s, j\ro" ~--·crp, lu.:r" ht thh UuJ<lbu·
field ,\n<l mnny kind, llf rln.:rs no" allln4111 thf, \\otld "·Mcm ,\nJ
"ll thc,c river,. Otm along l'nlmly. their \\,ttcr h fro.~ru111 wtth mnnifol,l
Rllf'-'tt:tblc oovur.1 Anti C\'cryonc hcnr~ the pl,m., nrtl ,ounJ he wl,hc, to
hcnr ..:

Oppos1ce to hc:ivcn is hell (Ind. (l~ain. the descriptions or th1, arc H:I')
similrir in the different r1.1li~ions. Tht! following b from th1: Th(;rnvu<l.1
Buddhisi scripLurc;, but i1, not very diiforcm from medieval Cltn,uan or
Muslim dc.scriprioni; of hell:

To hci,n ,...-11h, the wardens of hell s-uhjcct Lhc sinner to the n,·dolJ
trussing. They drive r1.-dhot iron M.ak~-s first through o n~ hand, then
d1rou~ tbe other, and then through his two foet and his c hest .\ftcr tbar
they carry him nlong to be trimmed wirh hntcheLs Then, h,md do\\11w,1rd~.
they tri1n him with rnzors. Then they harness him to II chariot, and make
him pull it to and fro ncro~ a fiery expanse blazi~ with fire The names
lt!ap anti surge riAltt across. andl fill 11 throughout "

There are, howc,·er, major differences hecwcen the ,·icwpoints of the

EasLern and Western rnligions. Perbopl> the most ob,·ious fundamcmol
difference is between chose religions, predominantly of the Ease, that
helieve in reincarnation or rebirth (rhe belief that we return 10 this wor(J

A m0<.lcm lllndu Jc:picclon u( ch1: r<11cc.-.s ul rclncamilllun . l'cu1>lc 1.e111cr ,Jc.11h her.
rcprc,-cntcd o,, • rt,.,r mul emerge from thc other >tdc dtht.:r .b ,1tl1cr J'<-'OJ'lc or L•
anlmili.
 <1 SUFFERING, S.\t:RJf'H.;E AJ\0 S.\l.V.\TIO~ 235

after death). :md thoiie rcli)tions, prcdominandy of the West, that believe in
some fom1 oi Olhcr-worldly future e:>.istencc. Therefore, the hca\'en (or
hdl) of the \\'estern religions is eternal while that of the Eastern religions
1s n tempor,1ry nbodc which is then left for a further rebirth in this world.
For the Huddhlst and I llndu, ll1c eventual ,!loal k. ooyond heaven; it is
described as N'in·:mn ('Niblxma' in Pall) i111 Buddhism nnd the srnte of union
with Brahman, sat-chit-aruwdu (exi:.tc11cc-1.'0nsciousncs;,,bliss) in Advaita
llindu1sm. Tbe;,e terms and the differences between the reUllions are
described in greater detail below.
There h also a difforence in emphasis. The \\'ei,tern, theistic reli_~ions
emphasize salvation after death nnd their teachiJ11ls concentrate on what
the 1ndh'idunl mu:;t do co achieve this. Salvation in this world receives
comparati\'ely less attention, except among mystics. In the Eastern, non-
theistic religions, the emphasis is on lihemcion in this world, which will
ensure saln1tion after death. Therefore It ls easier to consider beliefi. in
s:1lvarion after death and in this world together, for theistic, relachistic and
non-theistic religions

The1scic Rell~ion
The goal of salvation
\\'1t\T <lCCl'.J\S AF"l'ER DEATH?
after death ill the theistic religions is variously
named heaven. pan1d.lse, or the gar.den of
delights. This is conceptualized as a realm
wherein there is contentment without an;y more
sufforln,I\. h Is anained after death by one who
has achie,·ed salvation during this life. For those
who han! not achieved salvation, ti1ere is the
imcmal world. hell. The description of hell 1s me
exact opposite of heaven: torment and suffering.
Thei.e two Mates are usually described as
permanent. in the sense rhat once a person
enters one or the other, this will endure for e\'er.
In Roman Cathollcism and amon_~ some woups
of :.luslims. there is, however, a concept of
purgatory or bur::;ak/1 , where those who hm·e
narrowly failed co be admitted to hem·en suffer
torment to punish chem for their sins. They arc
then admlued 10 hea\'en. The toitl of human
beinl\5 durin~ this life, then, is co achie,·e the Pt.iRC1ATOR'f l),mt\!\. ,·istnn ti(
~tate of ~ah•ation so that they will, after death. go Purg:u oJ") b. tt mountain thnt mu~t
to hem·en rather th:in hell. bt: """'11,k.J wilh l\re:11 effon llnu
• uffcrlnit Th,~ painting, by chc
fift<·c.nth•c,mmry nnl,1 flom,ni CQ J,
Tb" pamdtsc pro01Jscd to tb1.: rlghtcou:,. is as a Mlchdlnl, bhcm~ O.uuc at 1hc l'ot1t uf
l'l1'1!omry Fwm the Church uf l',.anca
place beneath which rivers tlow. and the fruits \ l,uls dt!I Fittrc. Flun.·nl't.:
thcn..'Of are eternal, os is iL, shade. This is the
?.l<, CONCFl'Tl ',\I . .\SPF.CTS OF Rt; LJGION

rc<..'<l1t1pcusc o( the GoJ- fcn.rin,I!, "lute tJw r1.-compc11.;.: elf tltc unhdic1crs 1,
hell-fire (Qur'mt I"

The AreakSt differences in the \\'cbtCm rch~lom, have, often, not been
between the diffcrcm rnll~ions hut rmhcr between those ,n the same
rch,:tion who take the words of their 1,uripturci. w represent u hternl
physical m,th 11ml rhobc who consider that the dc:;crlptions should be
taken mernphoricully nnd spiritunlly. There arc Lhu, ,c, 1.:ml d1ffl:rcnt
versions of the C.:bristian view of the sequence o( tventi. aitcr death :,omt:
emphasize thot after death there is an other-worldly, sriritual, crcmnl ltf.:
in heavc11 or hell (occor<lin!l to one':, merit:,), other:, empha:,izc lltal after
death , one lies in the comb umil the day of resurrection , "hen one will ht,
raised ur as u physical body and then given either eternal earthly hf1. or
destruction, according co one's merit or accordin!l to God\ de<.:rec
The Islamic views arc similAr co those of Christionity In 1he Qur<m
there a.re mnny descriptions of both heaven and hell, as well ru, n
rromise of resurrection. These have been taken literally and physicaliy,
or S)•mholically and sririlunlly by diffcrem groups of Muslims ovt?r the
years.

SALV.\TIOS L'I THIS WORLD. Many of those who follow UleiSliC religions also
recognize a state ia which a person who has achieved sah·atlon can be 'in
heaven' or partakin_g oi the 'Kingdom of God' while still on earth 'F'or
behold the IU11gdom of God ii. wilhin you' (Sc Luke) L< The concepc of thi~
state has heen taken in ,·arious ways by che different iiroups in Christiamtv
The evangclic:ils' confidcncc of being saved through the grace of God b
clearly very different co the Unicdve Life of che mystics:

Those mystics . . . often see in the Unltfre Llfe a foreLOSce of the 8e:tttfic
\'ision: an enrrnnce here and now 111m that ahsolute life within the Di'1ne
Being, wlticb shall be lived by nil perfect l>pirits when tbey hn"e cru.t off the
llmitatlons of the nesb and re-entered the eternal order for which the~·
were mnde For them, in fact, lhc deillcd mnn has run ahead of history·
and auained a form of con,ciousoess whlob uther men "ill only f..110\\
when ennhly life is past ..

In Islam, an cquivalenc of this theme of salvation while sull on e-anh is

found in the Sufi concepts of the state or Jana (obliteration or the sell in
God. the journey to God) and lhc subsequent state of baqu (continun.nce oi
the journey in God). Islamic mystics and philosophers are divided into two
schools. One ~chool, which can be considcrL'd co be aligned to thci,m,
rnalntajns that the states or/ana, bciqa and the uruon will1 Uod rcpre:,c111
an ethical annihilation of chc cgoi~tical self. a suhme~ence of the
individunl's wiU in the wLU of Goo. The monistic school, on the other hand,
regards these states as being ex..istential such that the self 1s anmhtloced
completely in God. In Islamic mysticism, the state of wa/.a:i'Ct (u:,ually
 CJ. S UHtRING SACRltlCK MIIJ SAL\'J\TION 2.17

1ransbreJ :is 's:1imhoocl', the highest myMical state) can be oon~iclcrcd as

the cqui\ .1lcn1 o( the :,ttllc of salvuti!ln while ,-till on cunh.

Rd11c1~is11c Rc,,/1.llion
With re~ard rn salvation. the Balrn'i writing~ do not differentit1tc greatl}•
t><Jtwccn tlus liie nm! what comes ufwr. Soh-atllln is not ~o much 11 statt: as
a process char the imU,-idual is engaged upon conrinually. In thii: world. llw
B.1ha'I point or view is that thti highest smre or sa.lvorion cannot be gained
;,oldy through the m<l1v!dua1's own efforts. Salvation is best gajned through
n comhin:irion of individual spiritual ende,wour (prayer, fosring. meditation
und th.! acquisition of spiritual qualities) and efforts to help others In
~ooiet,· Indeed die purpose of religion itself is said to be hoch the salvation
of tlte individual and socinJ salvation for humanity os a whole. A third
elemem is also necessary to acble,•e salvarlon, and tllls is U1e grace of God.
The Baha'i view of salvation after death is that the classic pictures of
hc:l\'cn and hell are merely metaphors for the condition of a person after
death Baha'u'llah reaffirmed the reality of a salvation after death but the
religion holds that iliere is no way of knowing what this condirion is like.
Uuman beings can only accept the words of the founder5 of the wor ld
religions. Their knowledge, however, can only be framed in the words o(
human beings and within the cosmology of their societi~. This resul!l> in
word-pictures that may appear conrradictory, a conflict which is, however,
a result of differences in linguistic :ind cosmological predeterminants rather
than necessarily In what ls being described.
An analogy that is often used in the Baha'i writing..., (because there can be
no direct description) is th:it of the embryo in the womb, developing ,•arious
organs such as anns or eyes which do not really benefit it there. Once the
ooby b born, it can use and appreciate wlint it has developed. If it has not
dewloped these, It suffers greatly. Baha'is believe tbat the human being in thls
world is charged by the founders of the world religions co de,·elop certain
charnoteristics in preparation for what occurs after death, although humans
can have no more idea of exactly how this will work than an embryo has of
the workings of this world. For Baha'is, the meaning of hell is that, if we do not
uy to put tl1esc teachings into effect. we will suffer alter death; conven;ely, jf
we lh·e our lives according to these teachings, t:he result is heiwen.
Another concept in the Baha'i writings:, which Is, ln some ways, a bridge
between Western Ideas of an ocher-worldly existence after death and
Eastern ideas of reincarnation, is the concept of return. Altho~h
individuals do not, accordlng to the Baha'i teachings, return to the world
after dealh, their personality types do return. Thus the coming of each of
lhe major founders of a religion is, in this sense, the return of the founder
oi the pre,·lous reh~on; his followers are the return of the followers of the
previous founder; his opponents, the rerurn of the opponents of the
previous founder. In this way, the whoie cosmic struggle between the
founder and his opponents is replayed in each reli~ous cycle. There is
 2;l'l cnNCt'.l'Tl ' AI. \!WP.( TS OP IH l.lGlON

Tnl>lc 9. 1 \\'orJs v~cJ for 8,1h ation in Thi:. Lif.: nml ,\ftcr

T111s l,ttt, i\111.K l)t \Ill

IIISlll'JSM Jl'l.'tllll111Jkl1 llmhm~u :S1nann

nwkslw. sm•d111•m11mdi,

Nirvana f'fJn n1 n,t(cft<l

(soixullusheslui-n 1:r-t.'(1PI«) (1uri11>«dll1.,/1es/uJ.mn."<tnaJ

ht'11\·c.n. "dnHtUII

Sullsm u:olc~vo, ',:umhoo<l ' hcovcn

ccrtiludc. lu.,avcn, parmli,c, God's fovour

some similarity hetween Lhis view ond Lhe BudJhu.t concept that 11 hat
returns to this worlJ is not the Atman or soul of the \ndh·idual but the
collection of skcmdhas (sec below).

Non-Theiscic Religio11
WUAT OCCURS Al''TER OE.\TII? Hinduism holds that human
bein~ po$$cSs an inner reality called Atman. This inner
reality is eternn.1. After the end of a lifetime, the Atman, after
perhaps spending some time in one of the Hindu heaven., or
hells (according to its merit), return~ to thi;, world and is
reinc.'fil'llated in a difierem hotly. This cycle of Jealh and
rehirlh continues infinitely in the cycle of Somsarn unless
moksht, (relca.~c or liberation from thi~ cycle) is ochlc,·t-d
The Buddhist view appean, superficially sjmil.'lr to thc
llindu, in that it :ilso spe:iks o( rebirth. There is, howe,cr,
one Important difference beca~c of the Buddhist doctrine of
anamwn (Pali: cmacca). This doctrine states that 1111
Th~ ,1/wkro (wh,:cl), individunl hu.s no ctcrnnl, indepcndcm. cl,SC11Li:il seU' calk-d
symbol of smnst,m, Atman or soul. That which people have attached themsch:c~
the llintlu ,ymool of
the cycle of blnb,
to and call a self is nothing but o collection of sk11ndl1t1.~
death and rehin h (klw.nclhas, a~regutes tllat c.'<lnstitutc the person: Ult! bo<lv.
sensmion, perception, mental tendencies, c<>n~ciousnesq

In the Ad,·aita \'edanrn of llinduism, the pen.on

LLBERATION L'I 1·111s \\'ORLll
who lrns :itwined lihemtion (mokslw or m11kri) is, "hilc still alive. calh.-d
Jiixmmukci. In Buddlusm a distinction b made between the ,tatc of
Nirvana, which can tie achieved while still on earth (i:o,xu/11is/ie/Jw-
niroan« ) , ond Parinirv:mn (or 11inipadhishci:lm-111roww) , ,1hich can be
achieved only after death
 {f 1/rt.·1-c ,s no Nl'M1«l :i,uul, wit.at J's 11 tlu1t JXlS.'jCS on/ro,n mu:
11/. to the n.:.,.-1 m 1l1c procc:s,1 qf rcb1rtl1?' Tim, tlt(Jieult
qucsmm u,as cxplrmwd b.v chc ~root /Juddlusc monk
.V«,it1scnt1 co KiriA M1l111da t/m,-,
The kine nsked: ' When someone is reborn , \'cn,mabh,
THE Bl'DDHIST Vn;;w Ns~aseno, is he the .same llS th" one who J11-t died, or is he
:mother?'
Of' REBIRTH The F.lder (Nug;isennl replied, '111! i• neither the same nor
another.'
'GI\ c nw on UluSlntliou.'
'Wha t do you dtlnk, great klng. when you were o Lin)•
infant, newly born am! quite soit, w.:rc you then the same a.•
the one who is now grown up?'
"No. th:at infant \\":'lS one, J. n O\\ grown up, :tm tanother.'
'Ii thnt is so, then , treat king, you hm·c had no morhcr, no
fothcr, no tcnchln.C, and no sehoolin.C! Do we then Lnkc it thot
there b one mod11,r for the embryo In the first Sl3!\e. another
for the o,cc.'Ontl stage. another for the dtlrJ, another for the
fourth , another lor the baby, another lor the gro1rn-up nian ·~
Is the schoolboy one person, and the one who hns finished
school another" Ooc:s one commit o crime, hut the hands and
foet o f ,mother are cut off'(
'Certainly not! But whnt would you S!IY Rc,·erend Sir, to nU
that?'
The Elder replied ' I was neither the tiny infont. ne" ly
born and quite soft, nor am I now the 11ro,vn-up man: but
1111 the.<e are comprised in one unit dependin!l on th,s very
body '
'Give me o simile"
'II n 1111111 were to li.!l)"u a lump, could ll gi ..c llglu
thmu/ll•Oul the whol.c nlP,ht ?
'Ye,, It could.'
'ls now the flame which hurns In the 11rst watch of the
nitht the some as the one which bum, in thi, se<-ontl?'
'It is not rhc cinmc.'
'Do ,w then tnkc IL thm there "one 1111111> in the firsl part
of tbe nlght anti another IJ1 the s<.-conll?'
·i-.o, It 1$ hecaLLw of jLL~Lthat one lamp that the light shl m,s
throu,l\hout the night.'
'Even so muse we understand d1c collacion of a series of
,ucc.,s,ive dham1ns At rehi rrh , on" dhnrma ari,e, while
nnothc.r slOf'Si but the two procc..~ses t.akt.! pl:.tQC.• nlmm,t
.simult..:ml.!uw,,ly ( It!. thc~.y ntc oonunuow;). Thcrl.!forc lite flNtt
net o( <.-01i,,clou,11css In the Ile\\ cxlstco<.'C Is 11<:ltlu,r the ,nmc
ns the last act or coll.Sciou,na,i;s lo the prc,1ous t•xlsu,nc.; nor
b II anod1er ' (Milindaprulha. In Conze, Budd/11.~c &·raptures.
PJl H '1-SCJ.)

lo \'edantist Hinduism, ~uffcrlog arises, as has been mentioned above,

from i~oraoce (m:idya) and illusion (mc:t.)'<1). Once knowled_!le (vie/ya) of
1his srntc of :iffairs is ntl:lincd, wisdom (iiimw) is achie\'cd, :ind the srntc of
liberation (mokslla ) can be auaincd. J\fokslw occurs when at:idya
 ?IO C:O'ICF.f'Tll,\I ASPRCTS Of Kt;LIOIOS

(i~nor:mce) vnnbhcs nnd the ~Ullc uf itlcm1f1c1111un

wlch 1hc Rcnl h 'rcoll1ec.l' (ch:11 1:-, owe.le incn a
conscious reality). The 4ualitlc" of HrnhrnaJl, 1hc
Absolulc, which nrc rcvcalcc.1 In the ,ww of 11wk.,ho :ire
dcscrihccl as sc1r-cl11t•cmrrncl11 (cxistcncc-
eonsclou;,nc:.s-hllss).
In Buddhism. the :.talc of libcrn11nn In this hie I,
called Nirvnnn (Niblmnn), Tho~c in 1hi, Mntc:

do not 111kc clcligh1 in the ~cn•c,. :ind their 11hJccts,

uru not hnprc»,scd by them, nrc not ,much<:J to tho:m.
and In consequence their cravlnl! cca<cs: th~
cc:.~:ition of cra,~ng l~ads su,-<.'Cs,i,cly to 1hut of
l',n,t!.1scnn, :, Buddhist j\rnspin!l, or hecomln~. of b,rth, of old~ und dc:uh,
monk "ho, accordint of gricF, lnmentotion , pain, sadness, nnd ck,pn,r -
to tmdlllon. li"ed In the thnt i~ to say to the cc,,sation of all dus mas" of 111 II
(in.t ccmury c£ and whose is thus 1h.Jl ce~s.itlon is Nirvana '
di scours.; w11h I he Creek-
Bactnrui kt1l,I\ Milinda
(Mennnoor) resuhed in the Nirvana is not a state of annlhllalion, ru, il. ofum thou~ht,
well-known text, the b,1t rather a state in which all desire and cmving has heen
Milirulupwllia. A Tibctan 'blown oul' (lhe Literal meaning of 'Ni rvana'). The i.tatc of
Uuddhl,t block print. a person who has achieved Nirvana cannoc, howe, er, be
described, for the realm of Nirvana is nvyakata - lncffohle
or inexpres~ible. One can no more say anything ahout
tl1is srote than one can say anything abouc the direction in which rhe fiame
of a condlc goes when it is blown out. IL can only be described in ncgau,·c
terms, by stating what it is noc.
\\'e have seen ahove how the whole mass of duhkha, ~uffering, arises
through a process of prutitya-sa111ucpada, co-dependent origmation (~cc p.
194 ), All the elements in the chain of the arising of duhkho support each
other. This then suggests bow the whole chain can be collapsed.
summarized in the Buddha's saying: 'Thac arisin~, this comes into bein~.
that ceasing to be, this ceases to be.'" In this ,,·ay the whole chnin
described on p. 19-t can be broken. 'From the stopping of ignorance l~ rhc
stopping of karma-formations; from che stopping of karma-formation~ i!. ch1.:
stopping of consciousness .. .''''If the chnjn c:in hll broken, it ceases to he.
The person who has succeecled In collapsing this illusory charn, who hru,
e:<caped from craving and ignorance, is said to h:l\'e reached 11:irvnn:i
There is, however, as mentioned abo\'e, a concept In .\lllluyana
Buddhism of a higher ideal while still on earth than just lhc achievement oi
Nirvana; t.hat of the bodhisatroa, who voluarnrily puts off achicvin~ Nirvana
to help others along the path. In ot.bcr words, the highc:.t ~l:llc is one where
one's thoul\hts are turned away from one's own salvation and toward, the
s.tlvoc.ion or others
 11 SL'HERJ:IIU , S,\CRlflCJ:: .\J\U SALVATJ0'-1 2-ll

J.WR\f.Y TO ~IRV,\..'1,\:a).\ ninth-nrury smne mnndala in llorobdur, .lava Its layout (b)
n:prcsent< lc, cl, of ulstcnc,,, 'The trnveler ent<!rs through n door and begins to clrcl"
th, m<>numcnt. undcrswnding thut the Joumcy through the monument Is o replica of the
JOllfflC)' through life. Cal'\ cd rcUcfs nlong the walls Wustrucc the lower levels of existence,
ln "hlch one is unaware of one's •plritwtl nacu,., and lled only 10 du, physical realm.
f'i~v. whUe on chis level, the tra,·eler can ooJy see directly ahead, the vie\\ upward
and outward is blocked by hii;h walls . At t.his point the squared path rums 10 thnt of
• circle .\., the ,~sitor ascends. the way bC'Comcs fr~'Cd from closed. tunnel-like
p.~'-<n~cw•r~ and one's ,·ision now expands to •vc omwnrds to the land,eape . and
u11wnnls to • sk)' At thl! summit of the monument, there are .culpu,n_,s of hundreds of
hlddl'n Butldh~- Finally, at the apex or the monum,m ,. the Joumey eulmtnates in a
~-.,otral lmate, the \'airooana Buddha, the Suprc--mc Buddha.' (Badlee, An EanJily
Pamd,se, pp 65-9)

f l"RTHER READING

for a general account of suffering in the world reliwons, see Bowker,

Problems of S1,jfering in cite Religions of the World. For a general account
of Christian thcodicy. see lllck, &iii and the God of L<Yoe, and S. T. Davis,
Encouncerin!J &!ii. On theodicy in Process Theolog_v, see GriJAn. God,
Power and E~il. On Islamic theodicy, sec Ormsby, TheodiC)• in lslcimic
Tlwu,~lu. On the Buddhist ,1ew of suffering, see Pruett, The Meaning an.d
End of Sllftering. On salvation, see Brandon, The &roiot1r Cod.
 TUE PRO~HSE OF' A FUTURE S.\VIOUR

llt, IU:.IJl,IONS 0~ TIit; WOIU,11 AIU:: \lcR, llltH:.IU,1' r Ill wnm, oi lhc1r
mcwphysics nnd philosophy, cultural h:ic!<Arouml, :ind lhc circumst.rnt.·.:,
of their evolution over time. Despilc thc:.1: dlffcrcnei:s, It b a ,cry :.lrikinl!
f:ict ch:n almost :ill of the major religions h:we remork:1hly :;imilar at.'<..'Ount~
of o fu1ure promised Golden Age mid the advent of a sa\'iour The texts in
each religion describe the dc>truded condiuon oi the \\0rld bclore hh,
com in~. his arrival and vict0ry 0\'er opposition, nnd the Golden ,\j\e that he
will inaugurate. These at.'Counts all resemble each other remarkably
Indeed, they are so !limilar that, as will be shown in lhis chapter. many ol
the eschacological texts of one religion could even b., transferred to another
without occasionin~ much feeling of being out of place. For the sake of
completeness the second half of this chapter will examine some of the
social t.-oru.equenccs of the promise of a S:l\'iour, although such mnuer:.
more properly belong in Pan IV of this book.
It would be useful at this stage to re,·iew sc,'Cn:il terms. The docrrim, of
the future ath'ent of a Golden Age Is variously named mlllennial1,,111
millenarianism and chiliasm. The expecmtion of a saviour whn will u~her
in thi~· Golden Age (or may come at the culmination of the Golden Age) 1s
termed messianism. Eschacoloty refers to the srudy both of ,vhat occur,
after death and of what ";n occur at the end of time or the end of the~
Soceriology is the study of pathways co and doctrine.:. of sah·atlon (whether
referring to salvarion in chis world - with the coming of the millennium -
nr after death). Some aspects of sotcriology and ei,chatology arc dealt ,nth
in chapter 9.

O~:SCRIPT IOt-S OF TIIE CO~ll:-/G OF TIIE \\'ORLD S,\\'JOUR

,\11 the scriprures of the mnjor religion~ nppcar to ~n·e che promise oi a
world saviour who b to come. For the \\'cMern rcli~ion~, hi" comin~ \\ould
si~al the end of the world The Eastern reliition~ consider thnt his comlnit
signals the end oi nn era (see Tnhlc Hl l)

2-12
 10 TII£ PRO.MISE or A Fl1TURE SAVIOUR 2-IJ

Tublc 10.1 Compamuvc EschaLOlogy

-..Ulf W1u. ENLI WII.L l'lillER IN

H"'lll1S.\\ Kalk, ,\vatar f\.111 JU~ Krtc.1 (Golden) f\J!e

(The ,\i:e of Decay)
T10l$\I Hou Sheng Evil T'al P'in~
( Coming Stig.:) (Great Peocc)
Bl'llDlll!.\f ~laitrey3 Buddha Period of the Revival of religion;
clisappcnruocc of all rcappcamooe of
si4ns ,of true rcllgiun urlwcs
Zol\O,\li TRJ.\.,1SM llushldar Period of .\hrimnn's F ro.,Jikart
Bahr:im Varjovand reil!n on eanh (rehabilitation of
Saoshynm the world)
.lro.11,ll ~lessfoh Pc!'l'ecution, Re-establishment
humiliation and and recognition
dlsperslon of lsr:tel of lsmers placo: in
the world
C.:IIRISTL"\.'IITY Return of Pt:nod of Satan's Ki.r11\(lom of God
Christ rule over the eanh on eanh
bl-\.\1 .Mahdi (For Shi'is, Period of injustice Establishment of
Hidden lmom justice ond the ru le
Mahdi} and of God's law
return of Ghrist
8.llt\'t f .\lTU Future Pr1:se11L dispensation ~ew divin<:
~lruufestauon teach inll,s

The Corrdinon o.f the \Vorld Prior co che Adve1u of rhe Saviour
The scripturei, of the dlfferenc religions are unanimous in describing che
degraded srote of the world prior co the coming of the saviour. The physical
~tace of cbe world \\ill have decayed or become unstable, ,,1th numerou~
natural catasTTophes. Droughts and fai lures of crops are frequently
menuom...J. ru. weU a:. can.hquak.c:,. fire:. and tlStronomlcal phenomena i.uch
ru; the sun bem~ darkened. More emphasis is placed, however. in these
prophecies on the deterioration of che moral nnd spiritual state of
humanity. Public and private morality will have fallen to a poi nl where
e,·erythioA chat is rejlarded as ahominahle occurs: there will be dishonesty
and theft. greed and eovecousncl;s will rule people's lives, sexual immor:ility
and perver,ity will become commonplace and the ~ov.:mment \l' ill be in the
hands of persons who ahuse it In parriculor, rh e soci:11 structures chnt
maintain the scnbility of society, such as filial piety and the caste system (in
Hinduism). are predicted co hecome destabilized. Interestingly. some of the
fe:ttures of modem society which we reg,.,rd a., improvements are predicted
 21-l !'.ll'\<:t.PTll.\l .\Sl't,L'l:-. OP IU 1,1<:IO~
The t'our Ilorscmcn of 1hc
J\pocalypse, a fr1equcnt lm:w,
in depictions of 1he O~v of
.lu~cmcm (based on Rc,.1,i,/atim1
'l: l I 1'I) Albrecht DUNr,
, lpoca.lyp.w, 1'uremb.irg, 149~.
1'm, Co:..'U1r1ox o,
TIIE WORLD PRIOR
TO TI u,; AovE:-.'T OF'
TIIE SAVIOUR
In th~M: prophc(Jics as sl~11s uf th,• dc1:rndcJ
,rntc of humanltv. for i..x:unplc, a ~n:.11,·r
cqunlity hctwt:cn the clnM,e~ or eri-11:, in ">Cicl~
nn<l a ;itrentcr Mleinl role fur wom1.:11.
t'\oi ,-urprbirutly, numcrm1' rclil!inu, stroup,
throut:;hout history b:J\t.; looked Ul llteir rl\\ n uJ!c
nnd wondered \\ hcthcr the prohh.:m, t111d
disturbances that nfnict 1hcm mnv nOI he ,11:ns
of the ujlc of the prom bed Mt\ lour Such
speculation has been pan1cularly nfc 111 umci. 01
u11preccc.lcntcd disnstcrs (i,ueh a, 1h1. Hinck
Oeath In Europe) 1,r at i,u!.niflc:1m d:m,, (~uch as
the end of n millennium).
The mal11 difference between title \\e:.tern
reli~ions and the Eastern relij!ion~ rela1e<. to
their co ncepts or time 111 the Easu.:rn rclition,,
rhe pattern of the world is c~·chcal and therefore
hoth rhe evil sc:11e of the world hefore chc
saviour's coming and the Golde11 .\gc 11fterw11rd/.
are an inherem unalcerablc pare of ch,:. c.:~•clical
patcern In the Western religions, however, the
emphasis Is on the fact chat It Is the advent ol'
the sa,riour rhac causes the end of che Jl{!riod oi
darkness nnd the ]~ginning of the Golden ,\~c.
IIJNOl'ISM
In lhc Kall aj!e . people wlll be !!reedy, cake to ",eked
beha\'iOur. "ill be merciless, ,odul)le in hostihues without
any cause. uniortunat0. extremely co,·etous ior wealth and
women ,
When dc-ccil, fnlschood lelhnrgy, sfe.,plnc.s, , tolcncc,
tlcspondcn<.-y, grief, tlclusioo, foar, pon,rty pre1,iU, tbnt" th.:
KaU Age ... mortal beings become dull--.1u,oJ. unluck,·,
voracious, desti1u1e of 1walth yer voluptuou.,, and wo,n.,n.
wanton and unchaste Countries \\ill be r.wnl!cd hy rnhbcrs
and miscrennts; the Vedas will be condemned by hcrcri<..-..
king.. "ill exploit 1hc subj<.-c1s, nntl twk...~l>orns like Brnhm'1111L'
"ill be gi, c n to the grat!ncntl1m of their se.tunl dcslr.-,. and
otho:r appetites ... Petty-nuotleJ J1<.vple wtU o:onduct hu,,ln..,_,
r:r-.msncllons and mcrchanL, will be fraudulcm.
In the Kali •Ae. men \\ill ah:lnckm 1hl'ir ron.,ms, broth1:r<
friends, ond rclath1."< nnd cMahlL,h 1h<cir frkndline1,., nn "~xunl
bnsls. People will hnvc thl.llr mind., \\Ci~h,-J UO\\,l \\ith <Y>~UUll
anx.lct>" and fear, due 10 J._"·ru.tatln_l\ fanunc, and hwvy
1ax.1Llon. (B.lwgoruu, Purruw l:?,J.24--S, JO-:?. J5. J7, .W1
'flltflAV,'J>A fk't>llUL,"
Aruoug ,ucb human,. th" ten murul cuur..c, uJ' <-onJucl "Ill
d,snppear, UH! ten Inunorul o:our,c, oi acllun will 0uunsb
 l(J. ·rm: PllOM ISt (W .\ FUTU!tt: S.\\'H)l'll 245

excl!~swely. then: \\i ill be no word for mornl ftmon~ such

humons - for ks..!( BO)' murnl 5gcnt. .\ mung such humnns,
brclhrco. Lb">'" ho l.1cl< fiUul u.nd rclij\,ous picly, nnd show no
resJ><.>cl for 1.hl! hcnd of lhe cbn - It is 1hcy 10 "born ltomOJ!c
aml prnisc will be l\h·en, ju.st as tod11y pr:ili,,e and hom:i,ite are
,i1h-en ro the filial-minded, 10 the pious nnd co 1hcm who
re,,pec1 the heads oi their clans • 1'he world will foll 1nm
promis,:uity, like g<>n1s nnd shC'-'P· fowls and J\\inc, dog.< nnd
J,1ck.1I• . Among i,i,ch hum:,m,, brethren. ke:en mutu:11
cnmit) wlll become lhc ruk. k~'<!n 111-wlll, been anlmosl1y,
passionat.i tholJ/,!btS even o( killio,t!. In a mother towards her
child, in n child rowards ilS morhcr. ,o a father 1owards his
child nnd n child 1ownrds itS fnther, in brother 10 brQCher, in
brother la sister, m slMer ro brother (The 8uddhn's nddrcs.s
it! lhc Cukkaeatti-Si/u,1i«dt1 Suttwui, Dig/u, Nilwyu J:i0-2,
In Rhy• l>a,111$, Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. .3, pp. 70- 1)
8t:IJOIUS11
}l\lL\YA.'1.\
And In that latter w.rmJn:tl ag.,. when d11, Buddba-Jhonna I~
..,xtinguished, when woe1,0me teachings are oo lhe uscendam.
in a time such as ch,s disasters will incrcasini!ly arise. In that
fun,re ai,te in Jambuch~p• (the southern continent on which
humnn• li,·e), a ,icncmtion or sentient hcinil,~ who •re
unfor1 unatc twd lacking In wi.dom "Ill Increasingly engage In
woesome aots . .. The wu,ds and rains wtll not re\'olve (,n
their proper s.iasonal order], and woe,;ome SIMS "ill cause
transmutations Contention and battle amonj\ tlevas. humans
nnd asurus will increru,;ngJy nrise (Scrip111re T I !SSA, quoted
in Birnbaum, Sntdfe.« im tl,e Myst cric.• ri{Mt111jusri, p. lJ)
ZOROASTRtASIS\I
Anti nt 1hnt time, 0 Znrntu,t the Spitnman l all men ";II
become d~>eclver., ,great irl<'nds "ill hccomc of different
portlc,,. and rcspc:.-ct. affocliun, hope. nnJ regard for lhc soul
will depart from the world, :u1d the affection of father "ill
depan irom the son; and dun of th,; brother from hit, brother:
the son-in-law will become a hcM,tr from his father-in-law,
and the mother will he parted nnd u,trang.td from the
Jnu!thter the <'Urtb oi SpQndorm/JJ b more barren and
iuller oi hlgJ1wuyme.n, and the crop will not yield 1h11 . ~ .
and ,,egernlion, trees and ,hrubs will dlmln!l.b . ,\nd men
are born smaller, und their skJll and ,trenll,th arc i"l>,; tht!)
hecome more deceitful a nd more given 10 Vile prnctices .
!lifts ore few amon,i their deeds, and duties and j!ooo work.<
proceed bu1 little from their hands . They rc.:mml Jorgcl)
about duties and good works, nn<l pursue Yo1ck~..J.nos. 11Dd L11c
road 10 hdl; and through Lite llllqult)', caJOlcry, anti crnvml!, of
wrath :llld a\'arlce tbey rush to hell . and !he helples• and
i!lnoblc wi.11 come l(> the foremost place and ad,·nnccment.
(&,hman lhst 2·30, Jl J2. JJ. J5. J9, in \\'est, Pah/m,i
Te.WR, pnrt I, pp 20J-l, 2()5)
JCD.\ISM
1\nd the people will oppress one another, every man his fellow
nnd every mun his nci!thbour. tho youlh will be insolent to the
21(, c:o~CFl'Tl',\I. ASl't;(:'fs Of' R .. , 1(,10!\

cltkr nml th,· '"'"' ldhm tn lhl' horu,ur11hl,· tor .l,n,.,tl,·m

h," ,iumhlcd, an.f .lu,loh ha., f,,llcn (/i,o,rJ1 ., I,!\, •o
l:llklMl.\l<tT\
Tell Lil,, \\hen will This hsc und \\ hat w,11 I~ 1hc "~ ul ynur
ton1i11"1 ttnd ot lh'-'. do:--t.· nf 1h'-' tt~l~~....\n<l .lt:~n-. nn,~..,n.,J ""J
~ai<I um-, du..:m ,\nJ you will ht;or ()( \\:l" •llh.l n,mnur" ot
\\tlf") for nation w,ll ri't! n~illlTh-1 nntlt,n, aud l11u,l,t,111
11~011 l!>I k.in.l!<lum. und thcre ,nll hl' fannnc, and carth11unkc•
m var101.ll, plalX:> And then man,· '"II fall :\\\,JV, AnJ
betray one onmhcr, and hme one anmhcr . .\nd ht.-<:nu...,
wickedness ,s mul11pl1t,I. mosi men·, lmc ",II ,trn\\ <--olJ
For 1hcn there \\'111 be 11rc111 trihulnti1111 ,uch"" ha.c not h<,11
Crom the lx:ll,lnnlng u( the world unul no" . 110. and 1k,-cr "ill
be. (i\follflL...,, '.?-4.J, •I, C,, 7, 10, )2, '.?I)
Sl"-'SI IBI.All
Amon!l the ~IA/" of the lu.t hour will be the rcm<1\ul d
koo\\ledge, the abundance o/ 1¢nornnee Lite ptL'\Oknce of
fomicatlon, che prevalent-c of wlnt--drinkn\lt. the \mnJI
number of men and the la$ number of women (Trad1ti<>n,
trnn,mined hv Bukhari :1nJ Ahu Mu,lim , in al-Bail)l,1w,,
Mi.,/rkat uJ.,1fo,mb1/r .l: l 1.l7)
When the hooey is taken in tum (and not <hared nut amo~
the needy; r,ce Qur'nn $9· 7) . prcip<:rt)' !lJv-=n m trust 1, tn:~u.,J
11.• spoll. wkat lrelit,lou., t.'1() I~ lookl!tl
on ,i.,"
fin.:, leamlnj\"'
ucqwrcd for other tbnn u rcU!l,lou, pufJ)O!,C; a tUan ob.:y;, lfu
wife and b unflllal towards hb motlier. bnn4> ht,, lrknd n«ar
and dri\'eS bis Cather off; voices are raised m tbc IDO&lUts, the
mo~t wicked member o( o tribe becomes ,L,
nilcr; the most
worthlc,;s member o( n people become,; it~ lender; u mun is
honoured through four of the evil he may do. sm!llnt,girls and
>tringed lnstrwUenl.'! make lhc,r appearance; '"""" :ire drunk;
and lhe las1 members of lhi, people cun;e the fir.1 ones. look
at that urne for o ,iolent wlnd, an earthquake, bei~
swallowed up by the enrth, mecamorphos,s, pelnOA rum, ond
sii1Jls following one onothcr like hits c,( a n~-ckln~ fnlTinl!, on._.
after the other ,vbcn Its \trlng is cut (Troditlon trnn•mittcd hy
nnnidhJ, in nJ,Baghnwl, MW,/uu uJ.Mw;ab-i/1 .l l L.l'l)
811n ls1.u1
,,r
I do no1 kno" wh«n ii {the cnmln!l the ~fahdll "ill I><: an}'
more Lha.n you du but sunu, signs and conditions will folio-.
on~ 11notl1er. and tlw sign. are these· \\'hen the ~-oplt: ollo"
the sa)in!l o( prayers to die nut; and thev d~trO)' trust; .ind
they re~ard lyln!l as perm1'1Slhle; and they take u.<unou,
intere,u 11.nd th")' sell rellllion in exchani\(; for the world anJ
they "mploy fools nnd th1:y follo\\' their lusts. and they
Ull<" th" ~pLllln!,! ol blood 111\htl)•, und their d1sccrnms11.1 i5
\\ct1.k. a.nd tyra.nny !><.-comes a bOUrcc of pride; ,nd the leilikr,
become protllJl;iw. the ounistcr,, opprc,,,ot'!,, lh<· 'ulama
faithless and the p(>Or depraved. and false ,.;mess is m:klc,
immornlitv, he<. crime. and rer~1on :in, earned out
opcmly and " omc.n assist their hush,mt.b in trade <>ut c,f
 \0; TIIE PROMISE OF,\ FUTURE SAVIOUR 2-17

g.rced for the Lhiu[!II of this world; und slnncn< MC extolled and
IIMent!-d to, ,u,d rne lcatkr of du, people Is thu most
dc&pli!:!ble oi diem mid be Is wary of the llbcrtlnti, fearing his
C\'tl, and be gives crcdcnoo to the Uar unJ hru, faith ln the
trnll()r. (.-\1-7.:injnnl, Aqa'id al-Shi'c,, quoted In Momen,
f11trod11ctio11 w Shi'i {slam, PJl 167-8)

The Di:Jappcartrnc:e of T'rue Rdi,giou

.\long with the general decline in the state of the world, the accounts in
different reli_i!.1ons ngree drnt rellgion itseti' will also be in decline. The
rcllgiou.~ professionals (monks. priests, gurus and so on) will become
corrupt and degraded. and Instead of l,!h ing rrue guidance, they \\ill lead the
people towards error The scriptures of the religion, or rather the true
meaning of the scriptures. will be lost.
Jc is not surprising, in view of these prophecies of the decllne of
religion, that those thnt ore seeking to reform or revitalize a religion often
have a millenarian clement or ethos to their teaching. Some of these reforrn
movements then develop into fully fledged messianic mo,·ements. Indeed,
figures such as Jesus, Muhammad :ind the Bab can be seen to have followed
such a course them1,elves. At the beginning of their mlniStries they appear
as reformers of the established religion and only later and gradually are the
full fc\·olutiOllill'Y Implications of their teachlfl~ lli'IVeiled (see pp. 308-11).

llJl'Dl:lll.\l
People il!nornnt oi religion, will occupy hiAh seats (and
pulpits) and ";IJ (pretend 10) prench reli~on . (BhaJlm:ata
{>urann 1.?:3;38)
\\1,enever there l• a decline in ri/thteou.sness, 0 Bharat, and
THE 01S..\PPEARANC& Lhe rise of irreliitjon, il i$ then that I send forth ~h· spirit.
(Bhn}!M:acl Gita 4·7-8)
OF TRUE RELIGION
TTCEI\.WAIJA Bc DOJIJS.\J
Buddha: After my decease, first will occur the five
disaprcarances. And what arc the a,·e disappearances? The
disappcaronce of attninmcnt.• [to Nin'anal, the disaprcnr:mcc
of the method finnhilit)• to pmcrisc wtsdom ins;ght nnd the
four purities of moral hobill, the Jisnppcnmnce of learning
llos.s of men "ho follow the Dhonna aml ror#tt.ing Of the
Ptu.ilw.s ru,d od1er sonptures) , the disappeamnce of the
S}'mbols )du, loss oi the outward forms. lhe robe,, nod
pracuces of monkhoodl, the disappearance of 1he re lics fof
the Buddha). CAna~ara~mm;a, ad.1pred from lrunSl3tton in
Warren, Buddhism i11 Tra11slatio11.• , pp. 4S2ff. und Conze.
BudtlM,u Tu.~£s, pp. -17- 50)
MAHAY.\M Bl'DllHISM
But there will be disturhance.s nmo!Ul che monks nt the lasl
time. There "~II not alwars lhen bu ,\rhot.~ thu.5 in every
place (Emmerick, &,ok QfZamba.sra 22:102, p .•105)
211, C:ClM 'f.l'Tl'1\I, \Sl'H, IS 01· IU,1.11 ,II)\

li lllt>.WOU,\.\I ~)I
I Ir In tho-.c l<L,t llm.:,, it ix..,,,u,c, nll,m~hl.- 111 f'<:rtum1 "
ccrcmon,;.il \\ilh two m(.'11 ,o thtu chh t\:hS,?1r1n ma\" rlhl \.111m,
"'nnthittl\ MJ collur,.e:, 1h,rc "ill he <111lv on,• In., humlrul
ht u thm1,nruJ in i, m~·rttJ \\Ito ht:fh:,1.·, In thl, rt.:h~itlll .1ntl
c\!t.:U It-.: Jck.::-,., 11nthln~ of II thou4!)t ll he ., Jutv .\nJ rJk\
pr-.tCIIS1.:. th4..; AJ)JlOIIJtCJ fc-.1,t!\ u( thctr iJ~Ut.:c~ltlf:oti, tJ1~
pro1JltloL,011 <>I nnf!cl,, 111\J the prd,·1.:r, ,ind cctcruo111.:, c,[ thl
season fc~ll\"31s auJ l!uunlhm ,ptrl~. In urinu, plJ.1.:.:, '"'
thnt ,d1Jcl, thcv practis(: thcv Ju 11n1 he:lic\l' 111
uohcsltotinl!h'; they Jo not j\ivc l"(;Wttr<l.s lil\,lutlv. a.nJ h(,,,.,.,
no ,tlit'rs nnJ .nlms, ond """" tho,c I1h1:v h,,-to" J tlt,y r<·ruat
of ni!Jlln. 1\1111 c,cu thn,c men of the .i,x>J l"(;liClon 01 th,
~fo,d.1vn;,nl111ts pro<.'\:cJ In cunfum1111 \\Jtb tbose "DYS ruul
cuswnts, ruu! du not bclic\'C thclr " " tt rclr~lon U.1<1.lw,u11 )i,.,1
.? 37. -15, -lo, 111 \\..,st. l',J1lu<.'I Texts. ran 1. l'P .?01,, .?O!.-'IJ
C11Rt:ni.,~1n·
And mony false proph.:ts .. 111 orlsc 11.nd lc1tJ n1.;m~
astray . Then If o.ny <>ne san to ,·ou, 'Lo. here ,,. Cbn.,1•·,
or 'There be is!' do not hebe,.., il t'or false t.hrlMs attJ ial-c
prophets wUI o.ri•c and show iircat sil!n• and " ·ondcn., <n a< to
lead astray, iif pos~iblc, even the clec1 (,\tc,r,J,"'"' 2 "1 1, .?-1-1)
St-:-1:-1 ls1..\lo1
1\na• reponcd God's m"sscnl!er f,\luhammoJf as sa,111.1! "Thc
lost hour will not come rlU the err "Goo, ,.,,d" l• not urtcrcd
in the eorth.' (1'rndidon 1rnnsmiucd by Ahu Mt~<lim in ,1-
Bngho"i, Misltko.t ol•Mll"'-•'•ih J. Ul,J)
:Sutt ISi.Mi
The ,\postfo of Cod f~luhammad] sold 'There will come n time
ior my people when there wiU rcmoin nothlnl\ of r.hc Qur'an
c.x:c,,.-pt its OUt\Wtrd form :ind nothing of 1~110 c.t0epc it,s mime and
they will c-.J!I llMni.etvo;is by thJs orunc ev<:n Lbough I.It~· art cJii,
people funhe:st from 11. Their mosques wtll bc full of. p,,opl~ hut
they will be emplV of rig.ht ~utd._mce. The rcli~ leadc~ of that
day will be d1c m~l C\'il rclig;tous leader< under the heawns
sedition ond dissension will /!Pout from them and to th~'nt w1ll 11
return.' (fbo Bnl>uya, Tliau'<d> (l/.,\'nu.,I, qu(l(cd in Momm ,
lntrotluctitm llJ S/11·i ls/om, p. l<>S)

The Appearance of the Future Saviour

Jusc ac 1he point when the affairs of the world have re:,ched their lowe,t
point, religion has become a dead kuer, and oil hope is gone, the promised
saviour will arise und proclaim ltii, mission. Then! arc mu.ny prophccic!> in
the \'lHious religions ahout miraculous sil!ns and portents 1ha1 "'ill p rc?cede
and a<.'<.'Ompany the coming of the smiour. Some religions prophesy ju.,c one
future saviour, while some prophesy more than one oommJ! ac different unu.-s
in 1hc future Zoroastri:mism, in partici1lar, seems 10 cxr,.-ct a scri1,,,;, of s.1Viour
figure~, I lu:,hldar, llusWdar-Mah, Bah.r-'JJn \'arjavand and Saoshyant. The
following prophecy mentions two or these
 10 TII£ PROMISI:. 0~ i\ HJTUIU, S,\VIOl'R 2 19

,\uharma:ul ,poke thus O ZarnttL,t the Spit:11111111 1 \\hen the

demon ,, Ith dishevelled hair o( the race oi Wrath comes iuto
nottce in the en.stem qu(lrter, ilrst a hlack token hecomes
muulfo,t, cutd llushidnr son or ZarotLL~t is born on Lake
Frazd.~n
11 is when he comes to hi> conforence with me,
.\ubarmazd, 0 Zarntu>L the Spltaman! 1.hm In tbc dlrcellon
oi Ku11srnn is born a prince; .. his rather, a prince or the
Kayan rucc, nppronchcs the women, 11ml a religious prlnc,c is
born co him; he caJls his name \'ahram the Vartavand
[Hnhram \'arjovandj . That a sij\n may come 10 the earth, the
night when lhat prince is born, 11 >tar foils from th" sky; when K.\LKJ A\'ATAI!:The
that prince is born the stu shows the signal.' messian ic 01\urc In
llinduisrn lo usually
pictured ridin,I! on
1n Hinduism, the series of a,•acars (incaniations) of Vishnu horscbnck ond often
includes Krishna and Ramn. In one well-known list, the wielding a sword.
Buddha is the ninth avatar and he is to be followed by the Atx.-orcllng to tltc
~:,,pectecJ KalkJ a,·atar. oonnnon~st reckoning,
he is the tenth a\'atar
or Vishnu. Ile will
\\'hen ,·cdlc reUgion and the dharma of the lawbooks h,wc defco1 Yamn ( ,tod of
uoderJ!One rornl confusion and reversal and the Kali A,iae is den1h) nnd overcome
:tlmos1 cxhnusted, then n part of the creator of the entire evil anti darkness
unl\erse. o( the guru o( aU that moves and Is still, without
be~nning. middle nr end, "·ho is made of Brahma and has the form of the
soul, the blessed lord \'abudcva (\'ishnu) - he will become incarnate here
in the uni\'erse in the fom1 of Kalkin.'

In Theravada Buddhist scriptures, th~ Buddha refers to three former

buddhas; he himself is the fourth huddha in chis chain and there L,
prophecy of a future huddhn, the Maitreyo (Mettayya) Buddh a:

At that period, brethren, there will arise in the world an Ex:,lted One named
Mettayya l~1altreynj. Arahruu, Fully Awakened, abow1ding in wisdom and
~ness, bapp)', with knowled~e of the worlds, unsurpassed as a ~uide to
morwls willing co be led. a teacher for ,gods and men, an Exalted One, n
Buddha, even as I run now. lie, by hlmsetf, will tboroug)lly know and see, as
it were face co face. this universe, with its worlds of the spirits. its Brahmas
and its Mnras. and its world of rcclusc.<i nntl brohmins, of princes nnd
pt;<>ples. e,·-en us 1 now, by myself, lboroughly know l!lld see them. '

In !11nhayan., Buddbil,m, the cmphtl.Sis is on the many other-worldly saviours

(among them Manjushri, Amlrabha, and Avaloklceshvara), buc Mahayana
o;criprures also contain promises of the coming of an earthly buddha, l\foicrey:i.

When for the sake of being.~ ~faitreya re,·eals hi~ b irth here, be will surpass
Brnhmn in appcnrance. lie will bnvc the thirty-two lakscrnns
 .?~0 CO~Ct'PTl'AI ,\Sf'f.CTS OF RF.1.11110\J

(J1s1111~u1shin~ mark;. (. 1''<:vcr before ha., one ,ecn th,;;r.:

a hc111j! ,uch in nrpcamnce t\t 1h01 tim<. lw \\Ill ,hint,,
~learn'"') pun: ju,1 like the rl,it~ MIii

There is :111 CXJX'Cl.ltion in Judmsm oi dK 00111111~ oi thc

!lk,,siuh. !J1 Jcwi,,h hJMt>I') , u 11UJ111.lt.-r ot 1111J1, u.lu:.1L, hmc
claimed to be th~ Me,-,.lah hut the llcneralicy of chc .le,,, ha\'c
rcj<.'CU..>J lh<.-sc cl:,imant.., nn<l t..'Omjnuc to cx~-.:t the \fc;,,,1.1h

The rcoplc who walk<.'tl in tlorknc,~ hnn, ,1..,n 11 )\r<-'llt

light, those who Jwclt in a tmJ of d,;;cp dorknc-,. on
them hos light ~hined ror io u, a chtlJ Is born. tn u,
11 son t,. given· m1J th" ~'Ovcrrunem will he uroo hi~
bhoulder: and his oame will he called Woodcriul
Counsellor. Migh1y God, F.,·erln.iinA Fnthcr J>nnc., of
Pc:1cc.' Of the Increase of ltis government and of peace
M.\JTIU.I.\ 8uDOUA. The there will be no end, upon the throne of David, and o,,1r
nlc~~f:tntc f'i~urc- 111
Buddhism, expected by his kingdom tO esrnhlt~h it, and 10 uphold 11 ,.1th justice
ho1h Thera\'ada and and with rlglueousnei.s Crom this time forth anJ for
Mahay1U1a 8i1ddhists, the evermore.•
tUt h o nd lase of 1hc
corthly buddhns In thi,, Jesus prophesied his own crucifixion co his disciples but
world cycle. ,\$ in tbi,
Cluncsc stone statue. be promised them that he would come again, glorii'y hi~
is the only buddha who is followers and overcome all those who oppoi.e ltlm.
commonly depicted scnted
in the EuropcllO nt11nner. And thc,o will 11pp.c11r c.lw »lt,n of the Son of man in hc11vru1.
and then all th<! rribes of the eanh ";It mourn, and they will
see the &m of m,10 coming on the cloudq o( heaven with powcT nnd Atcat
glory; and he will send out his angels \\iut a loud trumpet call. and they will
AatheT his elect from the four winds. from one end of hea\'cn to the otheT ·

ln Jslam, there are no explicit prophecies In the Qura11 ahout the advent
of a sa,;our, but there are numerous statements about the od,·ent of the
Mahdi and che return of .Jesus in the lradltlons anributc<l to the prophet
Muhammad, such as the following from the Sunni Traditions:

li only one day of tWs world r.:malned. God would li:ogthen that da> tUI I le
raised up in it a man who helonl!;S 10 me [or, com)' fom,lyl . who will fill
the e:trth with equity and Justkt:.'

In Shi'i tradition, the Mahdi Is rhe rwclfrh Shi'i Imam, whe> went Imo hiding
in 87 4 CE and "hoi.e llfe has been mtrncuJoui.ly prolonged by God until lht!
time when he will reappear.

He (the Imam ~laildil will come with a new Cause- just ru, \luhammad. at
the bCJtinning of Islam, summoned the people rn o new C'.ou.~c - and ";,ha
 10 TIIF. PtlO"IISt: Ot' A fllTl'RE SAVIOUR 251

nc\\ hook 11ml :1 n.:w rcli;lious luw, "hich will be o severe

IO!SI for the An1h,

.\lthou/;\h the Baha'i falLl1 claims Lluit Baha'u'IJah is

th.: fulfilment of the proph1;.-cies of the other religions
.,bout the coming or a sn,·lour, L11e Baba'! scripturo.,s arc
atso empharic that d1is is not the end of the process,
,llld thnt another holy figure will arise in the future
"ho will ace as tbe imermediary of God.

,\., to th<' mcanlnJl of the quotutiou, 'My feun. are for

Him \\'ho \\ill be sent down unto you after Me'. this
rdcrs 10 the Manlfoswllon \\'ho i.,; to com1: after a
thousand or more years. Who Uke u1l previous
~lc11Scn~crs of Gcxl will Ix: subjected to persecutions, but
\\ill c,•enrwilly triumph over them. J,'or men of Ul-wlll
hove h<.-en and \\ill always continue to be ia this world,
unlcs, mankind rc.-,u:hcs o btnte of complete and Part of the Christian vi~ion
nhout the [)ay of Judgement
ahsolutc perfection - a t.-ondttion \\ hich is not only
Is th:lt on the Jay, &!An will
improbahlc hut actually impossible tO attain ." be defeated and ehruned up
(Rewlmion 20:2).
Prophecies of d1e military eAl)loits of the saviour are a
particular feature of the Western religions. lie
t:onquers those who ha\'e oppressed hls people and have brought injustice
to the land. Io Shi'i Islam, the su,;our is the Hidden Imam Mahdi who
returns to defeat the enemies of the Shi'a. In Christianity, Lllere are
expectations of a Bartle of Armageddon which will result in a defeat of dle
forces of evil. The Jews rejected Jesus as lhc Messiah figure precise)}'
because be did 001 fulfil this military expectation and free I.hem from
Roman rule.

Tlte Golden Age

ln some traditions, mainly the ,vescern religions, che saviour benefics only
those who are of his own religious community. Those who nre the enemies
of the Mtviour are, ns mentioned abo\•e, defeated In battle and ellmiruued.
The Golden ,\ge that characterizes the rule of the furure saviour is,
however, described very similarly in the traditions of all religions, althou_gh
tbere are, of course, differences that relate t0 the culture and geograpny of
the area from which the scripture origilrnced. In brief, all the problems that
chllracterized the period before the coming of tbe saviour arc resolved. The
physical earth becomes a paradise wid1 pleaceous crops and resources
sufficient for all. The saviour elevmes the moral and spiritual condition of
the people. The governmcnc becomes just and beneficent.
252 COJ.;t;t,f•TUAL ASl'f,;C.:1 S tlf IU,LIWO\

I hXlll fl SM
Th..- muuL, nr thu J>l'fllllC \\Ill h<.'<.'flnlC r11r.• "' O;l\\k.,., c11,i:1I ,
nnd they will I~ rl."1 ,r ~'Aflk\'ll\.!J nt lhv '-~,oclo,1110 ,,( :t ill~IH
.\11<1 1h,-,.c men the ro.:,l<luc or m.1nk111J , ",II thu• f,-
1rn11,fum1cJ Ami 1ho.:-c ufhrrlnA "ill folio.- the "a)• uf the
Krt.1 1\j\c (I 'i~/mu /'urwru I .:?~ .?5- ''· <juut,..S In lH1.1hcrl) ,
Tm, Gou,1-..N ,\< :t. l/1111lu Myths. pp . .?J<,-..7 &.'C alw IJ/,uJ.'a0:11U l'urwu, I.?.:? 161
TllFRA\',111,\ lll1>DIIISM
TIIAT Wll,L The truth )the norm, the [)hnmmn) IO\d)' 111 It• orll\)n, l,,,dy
In 1L, r,rogr..-._,, lmdy ,n IL, ,'On,urnmatlon. \\Ill hc f\l,utrc~a
Fol.LOW rm: L\ud,lhnl proclnlm , hoth in tl1c •plrll rmtl In tl1c lcllcr, th"
h,J:hllr Ure w,ll be nuke kno\\n, lo ull lb fullnc..- ru,J 1n llll 1c,
COMI:-<, OF TIIE purity, i,ven n.~ I Ju now lie will he l«!<.'OmJ'JnicJ by 11
S1\\10l'R
uongr,·~,111011 ur.OIIIC t11uusand., ui brcmrcn. C\Cll I UJII a.,
llO\\ (lc,,on,panlL'tl by a con~rc~m.lon of wmc hunJrL'<h 01
brethren. (Th~ Buddha'• addn,ss In the C:11kkm:.,m-
S1/umadn Su.ttwu,. f>ii!lw .Vikfn'<l 3,71>, m Rh>·, U3\'llb ,
DialuitucsoftheJJruldlw \'OI 3, p i4 )
MAll,\\'.\N,\ Ill fl)IHll~\l
,\t rhm lime 1hc ,wathcr "ill b" milt.I At nll llmt!l>, un.l th-, four
,,.,.,wns will regularly ,u1;1..'Ct..-d each other !':one or tl1c p<:<,plc
will suffer runy or tl1e one hundred and ciJ~bl ~Itllcrloru,. Lu,r,
anger and idiocy .,,UJ r:ircly take pince. Tile p.:oplc will all led
c,1ual, and will be of one mind, mmually cxprcssu1g pleasure
upon ruccdn~ !.heir fellows ... And ,n these clmcs In I.be \"cn-
fou lreJ!ions of lhe Eas1I lhe earth shall or li.,,cl( produce .,Jrnc
polished rice having no husks, of a mosl deleclllhlc
11avour And as for iiold And silver, precinus ,cone,.
omnmcnrs of jade and 1X>melian, :iml>er and Jlearls 1he)I "ill
nll oo ,cn,tter~,J on 1he ground, nnd no nne will nnrice ,,r
gather them up (Fo-shuo Mi,/o hsia,.sh<'nJ! chin/I (Mairn,>1 •
ti:iukarmw). wt Indian Mohnyana Mitro. craru.ln1ctl from
Sanskri1 into Chinese by Dhnrmnrakso (266-.30/, r.q, quorcd
in Chon, 'Tine \\'lure Lo1uo,Mai1rcyn L>u<:trlnc', p 212)
ZoROASTRlA.VINM
And ~ardin~ thot Vahram the \'nrg.w:md ir i~ declared that
he comes fonh in full 4Jory, restrnin., a curhed 1cmper, nntl is
entrusted with the sca1 ni mohadship l)f tl,e mt>h:tJs lthc
supreme hill,h-pricsthouclf , and the ,cut of 1ruc cxpln,ution of
the rclh\ion, he restores again these oounrrics of Iran "bi<:h
I, Auhommzd, areutc~ and he drive, uwor from the "'orld
covctousnc......~, want, hatred, wrnth. lu~L. ltnvy. o.nJ
wickedne,,.. ,\nJ 1.lle wolf pcrlo<l g<>c.., 8\\3) , and tl1c ,.beep
period L'Om"1; on . ru1d th" "'fokL-d .,,-ii
spirit bccumcs
L'Onfounded and wwo1t.sclous, wllh I.be dcmoru. and lhc
proi?.;ny uf ~nom. (Balt1111111 Yust .3 .'.\9-10. ln \\'csi. f'altl<lfJI
Te.\·t.• par1 I, pp. 229-30 usin~ aliemouvc translation
suJW,s1ed ,n the foo1no1eJ
J,ll,\JSM
I le ,baU Judge bc1w<.-cn tl1e n:1111111,, and 6h;11l J,..,iJc fur mt1n)
p;,oples; umi the) ,boll bca1 1helr ,.,ord., Into pluu¢h,hurc~
m1d tbclr sp,cars into prunln,i hook,, nnllun ,h:ill uut W:1 up
sword og;tlnst 1111l100, neither shall they ll'arn "'or on,· more
Tb..- 11·01f shall d"ell "1th lhe lao,b. 1111<.I th" JooparJ shall Uc
down with the kid, and the calf and tlh, lion rutd lhc fodlnl\
t<>gether. and n liule child ,hall le;1tl tlu,m The) •hl1ll not
 Ill· TI i t,; Pltll\11:!f.. Of i\ Hl'fl11U.: $.\\ IO UR 253

hurt <>r dco1r1>y ,n ;111 my holy mnuntnln; for 1hc earth shull he
full ui the krum lcdg,- 11111,c 1..ord us the wntcr,, c,w,•r the'""
(/,'l<IIU/l ] .4 ] I :6, 1))

( :nKISTI "'n-
Then I •:iw a new hem"t>n nn<l n new earth, for the first heaven
:ind 1hc flr,t "'"'h hn<l ,,.,_,cd
nwny nnd I hcnrd o loud
vok-.. from the thmm, ,nyinj\. 'Behold the <lwcllinll <>r C'.<ld is
\\ilh men llc will Jwcll with them, :aml lhcy ,hnll he his
i"'Orlc, tmd God himself "ill h,, with them, and h,, will \\ire
.t\\11Y every 1car from 1hcir c,·cs: un<l Jcmh shnU he no more.
neither ,-h.-tll then• bu mourning nor crying nor pau1 nny
more, ior th" fornwr thin¢! ha,•c pas,-cd awuy · And lw "ho
sot upon the throm, srud, 'Behold, I nmkc nU things new.'
(&>Ok u/ Rct,-clucwn 21. l-5)
St~'<I lSl. \,\1
He "ill IHI the earth with equity und justice ns it httd t,..-.,n
iille<l with nppr~'S$ion nn<l tyrnnny, Those wh,, dwell in
hc<1'"t>n anti thos<' who dwell on earth will be pleased with
1,lm The sky will not cease to llivc uny of Its rain, but will
pour it forth copiously. and the earth will not cc<isc to
produce any of its pl=ts, hut wiU bring them forth so that the
lh'i11~ wiU wbh the dcnd were alive. [TraditJon tmnsmlttc<l hr
al,11.aklm. In al,B3'\h.ll\\i, .11,~hkat al-.\lasnbih 3. 1141 )
8111'1 l~I.A)I
\',,'hen the Q;,'im arises, he will rnlc "ith justico ond \\ill
remove injusdL'C m 'his tla)'l!. The roods \\i ll be "3fe and th<.-
carth will sho\\ fonl1 its bounties. E1•cry1hin~ due will be
returned to its rightful owner ,\11d no people of rclig1on \\ill
remain who do not ~how forth ,ubmlsslon (Islam) nnd
acknowledge bcllef (/man), . ,\nd he will ju~<., i,monii the
P<-'OPI" wltJ1 tJ1c judtcment of David smJ ~luhammud . . ..\t
U1M llme men will not find nnywherc to gh·e their alms or to
be generous ix-<,au.'I<! rlch..-s will encompass all. (Sha> kh aJ.
~lufld, Kiu,b a/.Jrshc,d, pp. J-IJ-1. quoted In Momen,
Introduction to Shi', Islam. p. 169)
8,\IIA'I fAITII
Nntionn1 rh·11lrk3, hatre.<l. nnJ inLrigu~ will t."'t:a~c, und rac.i..'U
rutlmoslty and prejudice will Ii<: rcplae<:d hy racial :unity,
undennandlnll lllld oooperatlon, The ca.u,c, of religious strife
will be permanently removed, eco11omic barriers ond
restrictions \\ill Ii<: complctdy nbolisbctl, and the lnor<l1nntc
dlstlnedon bet\\'ccn c lasses will be obUtermeJ, De.stlrudoo on
the ooe band, and gros, ac.:cumuladon or ownership on the
other, will disnpptar. Tb" enort11ous energy dlsslpated and
wasted on war, whether economic or polltlcal, will be
consecrated to suc:h ends as will e:uend the range of human
inventions and 1echoica.t development. to me increase of the
producthit)' of mankind, ti> the e.,uirminrttion of disease, 10
the extension of sc,entific research, to the raisin.I\ of the
standard of physical heahh, to 1he sbarpcninJ! ond
refinement of the human hrnln, ro 1he exploitation of the
unus.,d and uns,~qpectcd re$Ource.• of the rlanet. to the
rrolon~ati1>n of human life, and to the furthemnoo of nny
ctther agcncr rh:it oon stimulnre rhe lmellecrunl, the moral,
and •piritual life of the entire human mce (SbOl\hi Effendi,
Ouidanccfor Today and Tomorrou; pp 168-9)
2:'11 CONCEPTUAL ANl'f'.C:Hl OF R.fLl<HOS

The End of 1/ic World

The prophecies of 1hc Wesu:rn rcllAions. in ponicul:1r w,ur1ll> implv rho1
th.., nclvent of the s,wiour &hortly precede., thl' end of the world Th1.:,c
prupheclci. include such cvei1L~ os the rc:-urrcction of the dead, ' the IJay 01
,Judgement," and the physical clcstrucciun of the world " Th..,rn nn:
numerous different versions of the ~cqucncc of cnmt;< nnd much
elahomtion of them In popular reliAion and reliAiou~ art. Ea,1cm n:llgion,
uiso prophesy the cvemunl destruction of the world, but, bcem1'c ol the
cyclic nature of time, that is only- a preliminary lo the eventual rchinh of 11
new world.

A TYPOLOGY Of F UTURE 8,\\' IOURS AXD

MILLEN NL\LfST ~(O\'EMEXTS

As we have seen, an esch:uoloAical tension exists in all che mt1jor rell)l1ons

A sa\'iour or messianic 0gurc is, as il were. waiting m I.he wing.,, ohout w
make no appearance. Noc unnaturally. ~uch a l'iAure become:.. a major ioeu~
of popular attention. The pluce wbcre this messianic figure no\\ is before
bis coming to tbe earth bt!oomes a subject for Lhe elaboration of lc~nd:..
and depiction in (lrt. Fo r the Buddhist, the next buddha, Ma1creva (or
Mcttaya), is living in the Tushit.a heaven. For Shi'i l\lu~Lim:., the Iliddeo
Imam Mahdi is livinA in the fabulous cities of Jabulsa and Jabulqa. l:'or
Christi:tns, Christ sits at the right hand of the Throne of God. in all these
depictions. I.he place \\here the me:.:.lan.ic fi~urc now i!, becomes it.i,clf 11Ucd
with ~ory and light due co its contact with this fi~ure.
The time of I.he coming of the saviour has, not !,Urprii,i.J1~y, become :1
major source of reliAious speculation and writiflA in most rch~on~ ~lost
religions do 1101 specify a precise time, which means that every a~e
becomes potentially the 'promised time'. Even in rel.Wons that do appear
to have a more specific time desitnated, chis may not lead 10 a ce~sation of
specul:llion about the time of the coming of the saviour. in Buddhism, ior
example, Lhere is a fairly clear statement that the next buddha, ~laicre\'a
(~lettaya) Buddha, wlll not oppcar umil fi,·e thousand years or more have
elap!>cd from tbc Lime of Siddhardia Buddha. This hru. not prt•,·cmcd many
)!roups from the sixth century CE onwards (from about one chotL~and year,
after the time of the Buddha) speculating that the coming of Maitrcrn was
at hand, or even that it had occurred. These !>peculation!> b.!came
particularly incense t'rom the middle of the nineteenth century, lx.'cause 1t
wab claimed by some that th<! durn1io11 of tbe Buddha'., ceachin,!!, \\Ould be
cut by half. lo 2,500 years."
Much of the hope of o rdinary people for ~:tl\':nion from their pon:rty,
mbery and dbtn.:i.s focusc!> on the com int of th.., fi!!,urc "hQ \\ ill bri11!!, a
Golden A~e. It is not surprisinA, therefore, ro 0nd that thi~ particular :ispt,'<.'t
of religion hos had o great deal of i.ocini impuot over thti ccmurics und h:"
 to Tlll' PROMISE or ,\ f'UTUR~: SAVIOUR 255

been adapted In various ways to achieve different socio! aims. In adc.lition

to the main manifestmion of this ospect of religion, there are several
\',1ri11tions on the theme, which we should cx:iminc The concept of ,m
cxpootcd s:wiour or mcsslunic figure occurs In four different ways in the
major religions of the world. depending on whether it is believed thut the
meeting \\ith the fuuirc saviour will occur here 011 earlh or in heaven, in
the near Cuture or at some unspecified later dace."

/lcrc/Latcr
This type of eschatology expects die coming of the s:l\·iour figure to occur
on earth at some urn,pecified furure time. Although th:u time could
theorctic:illr be duri~ the lifetime of the present generarion, there is no
urgent perception o{ that nearness. This is by far the most common form of
esehatological expectation in most religions. It represents the orthodox
m::tJoriry position and is also the type in closest accord with the scriptural
tc.\t:. of most religions. It is rcprcscnLCd ill the quotations gh•en on pp.
2+4-5J. Because the saviour is expected in the disrnnt future. there is no
prospccl of meeting him In chis world. Therefore Lhc emphasis is on lea<llng
a '~d' life reli~ously (chat is, cthicaUy and ritually good) so that one can
be bom again (in rebirth or reincarnation) or raised up (in resurrection) in
the time of the saviour. Tbc emphasis ls thus on individual action and there
is no social impon co this type of eschacolo&,v other than 1hac of a qulctist
attitude implicitly supporting the srncus quo.
One psycho-social interpretation for some occurrences of this type of
eschatology is that it may be emphasized by those recent!)' expelled from
power. This occurs particularly when the ,•ictors arc ethnioaUy and
religiously different. Through this mech~nlsm, the losers reinforce their
threatened identity (by identifying the iuture victorious saviour in national
or elhnlc terms) and justify their lack of power with their assenion 1..hat th.is
is a necessary precondjtion for the advent of the saviour. The Messiah thus
becomes a spiritualization of fallen historical kingship.••

Here/Now
This type of eschatolollv expectS the comln,lt of the saviour to occur on
eanh in the immediate future. There is a great sense of urgency and
immetliacy in tbe,.e movements. The first (here/lacer) type described above
oiten spills over into chis type if there is any crisis or cause for distress in
society, for in a i,itu:ttion of fear and suffering, people turn to the promise
of a saviour and a Golden Age. They intensify their longin~ for this and
begin to interpret their social situation in terms of the evil situation in Lhe
world immetliately before the advent (sec pp. 243-8).
This here/no" type of millennialism manjfests itself in very different
ways. Part of this difference is due to the division between pre-
millennialism (the imminent arrival of the saviour after wWch there will be
256 CUNCl::f'Tll,\I, \M't.< TS Ot 1t~:1 l<,IOS

an earthly or he11venly (:olden .\j!e for rhe dect) and po,1-n11llcnn1alhm

(lhe hclicf 1hnt the snviour will c..'<.>mc after the 1<1nrt of the Colden \gcJ It
has hct!n MtPJ!cbted, however, lttaL the lerm~ 'pre- and Pl"l-mlllennlah,111'
nre w some extent unsmisfaocory. Althou~h the belief in che ad"cnt of a
Mtviour i~ a ,trung ienture of the prc-millc1111ial1'l group,,, thh ,~ nut
neces~arily n feature of the pos1-m1llen1m1hscs One sul!J,,>estcd n,ph1ccment
fur these terms is 'catm,trophic ond progrcs,ivc millenninlhm' ~Ince thew
1cm1s lx:tccr describe the main M.1cial fcuture, of the,11 mo\'erncnl!.. Hoth
groups pr<:dicr n ch:inge in the i.oclal order, 1he main difference hl:twccn
them beinl\ ,, hcchcr it ii. cxpeot'-'d tJwt tht.: chanA<,, will occur ,,uddcnly,
cArnstrnphically and through divine intervention (catn,troph1c
millennialism ), or whether it will occur wadually and thmu_i!h human dion
ns well as divine as:,istance (progr<C$Sivc rnillcnmali:.m).1

The pos1-mllJen11ialbt or
PosT-)Ul.ll.',NIAf.Jll..'J LlR PllOCRES:SJVE MILLE.'l:Nl,\l.lJ;.\J
pro~ressh·e millennialist l!roups look towan.ls a ht:tter futurt! thac ,,;U ht:
broul!ht in Aradur,lly. \'cry often there is the ccnclcncy to belic"c that human
belog.s can act in ways to 1.-ontrlbuLC to and focilitalt! tJ1e onset of Utt: Golden
,\Ae, Therefore these groups tend to ad,·ocate proArammes of social reform
There is an clcmcnc of thL~ type of millennialism in BuddhL,m in that some
of me prophecies conceminl! ).1aicreya indicate that the Golden Al,e w,11
commence before his coming, and that he will appear at its peak Shi'ism
bad almost exclusively pre-mil.lennialist beliefs prior to tht 1979 lraman
re,·olution, wh.ich introduced th.e concept thac it is the cask o( all Shi'is CQ
work for a better society prior co che ndvenc of thi! l mam Mahdi.

Mn.t.f:NNIA!.15'1, This manifests itself in

PRE-Mll, J,EN:<JAJ.l:-.'ll OR C,\TASTROPl!IC
cwo differem ways, or rather In tv.·o phases, the firsc before the :,avlour ,s
believed to have arrived and the second afcer.

1. SEPARATIST Sl,;(.'TS. If me savioull' is not vet considered co have arril ed.,

many apocalyptic sects are typically so focused on t:he imminent advent
urn1 they lose interest ln other socfa.l activltie.,. So overwbclmlng dOL>s
ulis central factor in their Lives become chat noc infrequent!~- t:he) e,·en
\\ithdraw completely from sociery, counting thcmsch·cs ns the elect,
awaJtinlt Ult! ad,•enl. Tht! MilJ<!rlteb and other !>irnilar group!> m rnld-
nineteenrn-ccntury .\IJlerica and Europe wenr up inro the hills to awmc
UH! coming of the Lord. German pietist groupb mi~ratcd Lo Ru~ia and
Pale1,line. In Brazil. many w-oups have :,risen whose leader~ take che,r
followers off on a trek in scare h of :1 Promised Land " Even chose that
do not withdraw from ,ociety do not play any aCll\'e role lu 1t The
nineteemh century saw a .ttreac proli(eracion of Christian m,llenmalht
groups such Ob the Millerites and Seventh Day .\dl"cntiM.s, the .lchol"ah·b
Witnesses, the Mormons and tJ1e Uhnstadelphians.
2. CoNtRONTATJONJST SECTS. If, howe\'t:r, these group, come to believe Utat
the sa,·iour has arrived, their attitude to society becomes mnrke;.11>·
7

lO TIii:: PRO~IIS~- OF,\ ~UTl' Rf i>.\\'10l1R .?57

diiicrcm. Frequently the lender~ of these prc-

m1llennlalisc ~roup~ claim to he either the promised
:o:J\iour him,clf or hi~ rcpre!.cnwciv,c: :111d, therefore,
cmpo1H!rc<l to ti,.ltcr in the new a~e, These ~roup~
typically luwe ri 1·ision oi o new social o rder that Is nhout
to llil\\ n aml that ,u1Dds in marked contrast to the
present e1il st11te of chc world. The heightened tension
mherem in this situation often results in miliwnc
poUt!cal :action! The dnun:1 of tlic situation ca.~tS all In
hlack a.nd \\ hire tcnns for che followers of the group .
•\ny opposJliOn to tl1cm from the secular or rcligiou,
nuthonties is interpreted a.'! beillJ! the work of the De1il
,\II on?r rhe world, rhe saviour figure has been used
in dtb. 11 ay This ii. particularly so wltl1 the figure of }!DSLI.\CIC MO\'EMI.liT;
.\l::titreya Buddha in the Buddhist world. Claims to be Shahhecai T2e1·i
the .\l:litrcya Buddha h:ivc been at the centre of m:my proclm med himself the
Mcssinh hr ,mplication
Chinese revolts among ~lahayana Buddhists from the In about 16-15 and
seventh century onwardst as well as a movemem openly In ll>b.5, lie
among Mahayana Buddhists Ul Vietnam. the Buu Son *1ined many
Ky lluon ,3 and among Theravada Buddhisci;; rhe Saya followers runon/\ the
S:m movement in Burma and the Karen Telakhon Jews of Eurore. the
~fiddle FA.a ond Korth
and ocber movements in Thailand,., A similar
Airl!:.1, Oa hls nrrcst
re\'olutionary use has been made in !slam of the theme in Istanbul in
of the 11ahdi as presa~lng an overcbrow of the current 1666. how..,·er,
order. Kumerous Shi'i revolts during the first tllree he con,·cncd 10
hundred years of JslamJc history were based on a claim l•lnm in order 10
$ll,·e hi~ life, :md
by the leader of the revolt to be the ~iahdi, the one mmt oi h l~ iollo"ing
who \\'Ould fill tllc earth with justice;" the Safo,~d foll O\\lly .
conquest of lmn from 1500 to 1510 was also ba&cd on
an initial claim by Shah lsma'il to be- the M:ihdi " The
Babi movement in Iran, the ninc1een1h-cen1ury precursor of the Baha'i
Frueh, wa.,; based on a claJm to be the .\1ahd1 and resulted in a series of
upheavals-" The lllahdist movement aga,insc Anglo-Egyptian domination
in the Sudrul In the 1880s belongs 10 the realm of Sunni Islam.
Ch ristianity has also seen many millennialist mo\'ements: the
Joachirnite movement in Piedmont that arose in anticipation of tlle stan
of a new a~c In 1260; cbc role of John Ball and hJ1o follower:. in the
English peasanc.,;' revolt of 1J81 ; the Taborires in the Ilussitc re\'olc in
Bohemia in 1419-21; Thomas ~luntzer and his ·League of the Elect' in
cbe German peasantS' revolt of 1525; and cbe Anabaptists and their
attempt to set up a :-few Jerusalem during the revolts in Germany in
lSJ-1-5.'' In Judaism the last wcat Me:.sianlc movement centred on the
claim of Shabbecai Tze,i (162frl676) in Turkey co be tlle Messiah.
Many of the millcnnialist movements that arise among tribal peoples
are also of this type. They arise out of the despair caused by seeing
one's culture de~raded and overwhelmed hy an alien cultu re chat
:?:1'1 CCl~CF.PTl'AI, ASPECTS OF llt:Ll<aClS

appears LO hold to the \'cry op1,ositc of many of one's own cultural

values; out of the frustration ond dcmorolizncion eous,..-d hy colonial"m:
nnd out of cm y :ind ~recd for tlrn matcrlul ad\.Jntll~c~ of the alh,n
culture. Such faclOrs arc considered LO n:l\'c Ileen behind ,uch
phenomena nN the 'cargo cuhs' in \lcl:rnci.la (scu Pl1 I,<;. .())

S T,\TF:-St·rroRTED ,\111.t.£.'-'NI \LIS\I A comparauvcly rare manifc~lllt1on of th,,

here/now type of eschatology is it,. u:,c by the ruling clcmcnL', in 11 1:,t1C1c1y
to hurtrei:s their authority. By claimin~ to he che expected sanour (or some
close associate of him), the rulers lcgitimi1tc their ru le. F.xnmph::s of thi"
social expression of eschatoloA)• luvc occurred in the hlstory of blam. Th1.
1\hhasid caliphs of Baghdnd used the theme of the Mahe.Ii to huttre!ls their
regime when they first came to power The third of rhcir c:aliph,. wa, \!Ven
named al-Mahdi. Sinularlv, the Falimicl caliphs ol' E~·pt made extensive u~e
of the cheme of the Mnhdi in their stute propaganda. The founder of their
dynasty called himself ' Ubaydu 'Uah the Mah(h. The Safo\·ids who
esrnhlished Twelver Shi'ism in lrnn also used the theme of the Mahdi (111
this case the Hidden 1\\·clfch Imam who is. for 1\\'chrcr Shl'ib, the Imam
~lahdi) to give legitimacy to their dynasty. The first of their line claimed to
he the Imam Mahdi." Several Buddhist rulers have claimed to he the
Maltreya Buddha: in China, the Northern Wei dynasty (J66-5J-t LL), tl1c
Empress Wu (ruled 683-705 ) and some amoll.!l the kinl!s of Khotan ''
There arc also Se\'ernl example~ of those claiming to be the
representacive or close ally of the ;promised sa\'lour, ratht!r than tho: i,aviour
himself. Although the flrst of the SafavicL~. as mentioned abtl\'c, claimed to
be the Ilidden lmrun Mabdi, the later Safavids reduet!d this claim to that of
being the deputy of the Hidden Imam ,., Se\·eral ki111\5 of Burma, inoludin~
Tabin Shwehti (1531-50) and .\laungpaya (1752-60), proclaimed
themselves to he the Cakkavattl ( Chakravartin), the world conqueror who
is to pave the way for the ~laitreya Buddha.'" Similar claims were made by
Kirti-Nissanka-ilalla (c.1192) and other Sri Lankan kings.''
In many of these examples, eschatology was used in a situation when
there hnd heen a recent ch=ge in the line of m.lers The nc,, rulin~ line
(which was ofccn religiously or racially <liifercnt to the prcnous dyna~!))
wanted to buttress their political authority They therefore u~ed th,:
revolutionary fervour of the prc-millcnniali1,t outlook to underline ond
explain the revolutionary nature of what had occurr1.'<l. But the auempt to
use this as the basis of the new order once the revolution hos been achicv1.-d
hru; frequently not been particularly su1.-cei.sful, the prc-millcnniallst \ !;,ion
hein~ inherently dcstabllizml! And so, once esrnblishcd. rulers hm·e had to
switch to a differl:nl basis for their uuthority In other won.ls, \\hilc prc-
cru.llcnnlalist rcvoluuonary fervour may lit' 1,ueee!il>fully I.IM!d to on:rtl1ro\\ th,:
existing order, it rarely net.,; as a succe~sful hasis ior cs1nhlish111~ a new order
All thc~c mlllcnniali.J.t group~, the prc-mJUennl,d.u,t In particular tend
towards pictism; these ~roups often preach that only those that ore
religiously pure one.I dc\'our will he ahle co take pnrt in the millennium
 10 Ttl& l'RO~IISE Of,\ n·ru1tb S.\\'IOllR 259

.\11Liclpmion of chu coming of the sa,·iour is a powerful impetus to 'purify'

one's life and 'recllfy° one's L11ou#lls. This tendency eventually leads tO
iundamemalism Brirlsh nnd Americ:.m millennrianism of the nineteenth
century. for example, developed into tbc fundamentalism of the early
cwencictb cenmry."

The coming of the saviour t"igure is relegated to

an um,pecified time in the future m most
orthodoxies. :-levertheless, he represents the
hope and promise of snlvallon. lie is a living
ii~ure, °\\'aicing In che wings' as it were.
Therefore, in most religions a minor tradition
ha~ de\'eloped chm mainc::ilns that it is possible
co meec him in visionary experience even
before he appears on earth. Such visions are
not for e\'eryone, only for those who strive In
their reli~ious duties or who have exceptional
falt.h. Such contacl with Lite .\laltre)•a Buddha is
considered to have inspired many of the
scriptural works of the Chinese Yogacara
1>Chool. Christlan mystics have reported many
,isionary e1q,eriences of meeting with Christ.
The bcst-kno\\ n of these i;, St Paul's con,•crsion
on L11e road co Damascus.'' In the Sbaykhi
school oi Shi'i Islam, it is considered p0ssible to
attain the pre:.ence of Lite llidden lmam in tlte
,1sionary world of Murq:1Jya " ME£TC<G THE MESSIAH: A vislonnry
Socially, this cype of eschatology is oi little encounter with the expected
messianic .tigure is o commoo
imporronce. It has always been a minority theme in mnny reli)lions. The
interest among mystics and mysti c- depiccion here is of the most
philosophers. lt hai. thus had little social famous of the Chrlstlun cpbodcs.
Impact unless someone who claims co be in St Paul'~ vision on the road
immediate direct cont:lct with the saviour tO L>amascus that led to bis
con,..ersion to Christianity
figure Jn this way begins LO atLract follower~ (Ac1.q of the AP<JStle,; 9;1-18)
and excite a here/now type of eschatological
forvour. This is the sort of change that occurred
\\bl:!n Lite Bab pul forward hi~ claims co members of the Shaykhi school in
nincteenth-cencury Iran;"

There/Later
Thu. ~-~ of eschntolog_v concentrate:, on a life after den1.h in a hca,·cn.
usually in the presence of a saviour fi~ure. Lt is often a corollary to die
official here/later position. J\icer death, the believer joins the saviour in
u.o co:--cF.PTl .•\L .\Sl'EGTS o• llt:l ,1(;101'

~lahayana Buddhi!,m is rich ln other-worldly buddha., and bodl11w1roa.~. Thi~ picture,,

of tl1e central part of a Japanese Gharhadhatu mandala belon,iiing io the Shm~n ~
The centrnl fi~ure is \'airocona. a.• the Adi-Buddha, tht." primordial ,upre,me huJJha.
personifying the Dhnrmakayn. .\round him ore the other four Oh,·.1111-Buddh.i.,
(u·aosccndent meditation butldbo,,), the bottom one b.:infl Amltahha, left .\b,,hobhy.1.
right Amogha,,!ddhl, the top Ral4J'\Jl.-;an,bru!\'a. Bct11L-en them arc four oodhu,ru_l't'W
wilh Maltreya ln top left, A,•aloloteshvara bottom ldt, ManJu.hri bottom nAht and
Samantabbadra top right

heaven (for Christians and Muslims); or the Tushica heaven oi .\lahreya

Buddha (for Thera\'ada and some Mahaynn:i Buddhists). Later, at the cnJ
or lime or the end of the age, the beLever wiU be re~urrecteJ on earth (for
Chrisci:ins and Mu~lims) to enjoy the millennium. or will l>e rel>om on
earth (for Buddblsts) In th!.! time of ~1altreya Uutldha co hwr the Dharma
preached by him and thus achic,·c Nirvana .
.\lnhnyana Buddhism is particularly rich in chi£ type of religious
thou~l1t. Aparc from the ~laitreya Buddha memioned above chere ii, a
plethora of other-worldly saviour fi~ures, bodhisam:as Each 01 chc-:e
occupies a parLicul:u buddhn-la.nd. Mall}' SL'CU. have been fom1ed oroun<l
 IO TIIE PROMISE 0~ A FUTURE 81\VIOUR 2(,1

J,:,·ouon lO one or ocher of these bodhisntN:lis. These arc

not s:l\,ours "'ho :,re necessarily e..xpecled to appear on
earth Rnchcr, they con he called upon as interc.,ssors for
hclp on the path 10 liberation. Their followers hol)t! ardendy
to be bom in their buddha-1:md after death (thus being
gua.rantccJ progress to Ninnna). Perhap,, 1.hc most widely
revered oi these 11.gures is Amit'.l)'l.lS or AJnitabha or Amida
Buddha (the Buddhn o( Infinite Light), who inhnhits the
Pure Lnml or \\'estern Paradise (Sukhavati}. Ile is the object
of Je\'orion of many sects in China and Japan:,. Other
important figures ore Manjushri, who is identjfied with
\\lSdom. lie was Important in China ln medieval times but
\HIS replaced to a large extent by Amitahha, although he
mnintains some importance in Central Asia and Tihet;" and
.\,·aloklteshvara ( d1e Regarder of the Cries of the Wo rld )
who is important as a personification or mercy in China
(Kuan-yin, usually represented as a female figure; see p. Some relil!ious itroups
-t:-0). nr~ immune to
There are however, some religious groups that are mlllcnnialist
Inherently unlikely LO he susceptible LO millennialist exp;..'014tlon sln~-c they
belle,·e tha1 they
intluence. These are, in particular, those who feel chat they
already have ae<--ess
are already ln direct rcc.::ipt of divine or other-wo rldly 10 dMne guidance.
j\uidance from their leader. Such groups have therefore no llis Hig)m,,;;s Prin(l(!
need of the advent of a saviour figure to restore the ideal K..'U'im, ,~n Khan f\', is
s1mation of having an infallihle source of guidance. The A~a- the 49lh In 1hc Um,
of tsma'ill Imam,,. I le
l<lmni lsma'ilis are a group of Shi'i Muslims who helie\•e that
\\':IS hom In 19J7 :ind
their llmders, the successi\'e Aga Khaus, arc living Imams, in became Imam in 1957,
direct receipt of divine guidance. This ls distinct from che ,n succes_sion to his
m:ijority Twel\'er Shi'! position, which maintnins that the grandfather lsma1lis
Imam i,, w hiiling and will reappear one day as the Mahdi. believe tha1 he Is
dMndy guld.:J.
Similarly, Tibetan Buddhists believe the successive Dalai
Lamas to be the incarnation of the bodhisaccva
..\.valokiteshvara (called Chcrucsi in Tibetan).
Hinduism has a tradition of a saviour ro come, the Knlki Avarnr. This
Hgurc plays an important part in the populi1r religion in lndfa. One
u:wxplained phenomenon is that no major millenarian movements or
apocalyptic sects appear to bnve emerged in that country.'' However, some
degr<.-e of mlllennlal t.hou~bt can be found in India. There are, £or example,
the statements by Swami Vivekananda concerning the 'deep dismal night'
that has hefollen the land of lndin. Ile clenrly indicates that he considers
that this is che prelude co the appearance of an avatar whom he ldenliltes
";th Ramakrishna, without, however, naming the latter as the Kalki
,\vator."
2<,2 <;ONCt.. l'Tl 1AI, ,\ Sl'ECTS OF 11.t:1,1r.10~

ES C: 111\TOLOOY .\ND TIIE NE\\' H~: Ll(;!Ol'S ~ln\· J: \11:!liTS

~Jany o{ the large numbcr nf new reli~io u~ movement, that haH nrt,1:n in
the last o ne hundred yeurs h:I\ e :i ~tron~ mille n11iall,1 cl1:1111.:nt ill them
Thcv treat eschatolo/t)' 111 two distinctive wav,. Onc troup of 1hcs"' r1c11
religions proclaims 1he ncnrnc:ss of the ·c~chaton" (the comin~ of the
c:-.pcctcJ mc!,;lianlc figure). Th~y udmu11bh people to prepare tlu:m:.ch "'
for this, and even suMest that tho~e who become memher. or , heir '"'C' will
he among 'the elect' wh o will bc sm•ed In Chri~llunity. example:. include
the Jehovah's \\'ILnesses, Lhc Sc,·enl11 Dav ,\dventiMs nnd Lhc mor1; n.'Cent
Childre n of God Many of those wh o demonstr:lled in lrnn in 1971> for the
return of A~·atoUoh Khomeini were ccnal11 thnt hb return 1,~ l11 ~omc I\OY
!Inked to l11e recurn of the Imam ~lahdi. "' A common ,lo~an c honu..'<l in th1;
years aiter tho Re,·olution was: 'O God! Prc~cn·c ou r lender IKhomdniJ
until Lhe coming of che Imam l~fahdi J.' Then, were abo s uch l!roup!i amon~
Buddhists in China and Burma in the nineceenth centuT}·. :mticipocin~ the
ndvcnc of Lhc Alnicrcya Buddha."
The second group, on the olther hand, oonsidcrs that the 'cschaton has
alre:idy arrived and thac we 11re living ' in the lasL days' :is prophesied The-.~
claim Lhat Lhe founder of Lheir reU!!loo b a fulfilment or prophecy a11J lhat
a new age has dawned. The Church of .Jesus Christ of che Latter-Dav Saint~
(the Mormons) hos features of such a group. !Jl I.slam, the .\hmadiyya clmm
that their founder, Ghulam-Ahrnad, was the Mahdi. Amonat Chine,e
Buddhists in the eighteenth and nine teenth centuries similar groups riro!ie,
the founders of which claimed that they were the incnmatioru, or Maitreva
Buddha 12
Among the second group, the Baha'i FaiLh is perhaps the mosc
interesting, in that it claims that the similarity between the eschatoloi1ca1
accounts in the different reliwo ns is no accident. It claims that IL~ founde r,
Baha'u'llab, Is ln fact the fulfilment of all the esehacologJea1 propht.>c1cs of
all the religions - che ' Promised Day' has come for oJJ religions, the
prophetic cycle has ended. This Juvolves a pre-miUenniaJjst (caLa:.trophic)
expectation, in the Baha'i scriptures, of an overturninl! of the pre1>eot world
order, although Ba.ha'is are forbidden to act so as to bring about iL• downfall
There is also o post-millennialist (progressive) tendency In the fact tbat thl:
Baha'is see themselves as working to build the new o rder ('the Kinatdom of
God on earth'). In addition, there is on eschmologicnl expectation projected
into the distant future. Baha'u'llah writes of a 'Manifestation of God' ot ,ome
fucure rime at least one thousand years from the date of hi~ own minisoy
(sec p. 251).

D1sc oNrIR..\'1ED PROPHECY

Not infrequently, leaders of movements oi the her{'/now type !>Ct an c.Mtcl

date for rne advent of tbe promised sa\;our or for the end uf t11e world.
 10· TIit: l'RO~tlSE OF .\ t'l'l'URE S.\VIOl' R ?t,.1

Sociologists and psychologists lrnve been 1m

particularly interc~ted in whot happens when

the nppoimcd time comes and 1hese prophecies
llJ:JIIMONS, -
... l •! (I' • ... ... " ' ' • • " ..
fail w be fulfiUed.
There are many historical examples of
THE MILLERITES,
di~co11firmed prophecies. ~lonrnnus was a
st:e0nJ-ccntur)' Christian who swnmoned the ----·
I' ITlltlt ltllM:K ,I \ 0 UI~ Hlll:TIIRf.\.
p,..'Oplc 10 a site nenr modem Ankam, in Turkey,
"here he sold th:tt the return of Christ would THE IIG TINT AT NEWAii,
occur. The failure oi his prophecy did not cause
the religion to die out, but mther reYita.lizcd and Tkt II"" • Ill ., Dell rtJed In l~ll.
uansformed it Imo a religion of the t!lite. who
t>ehe,·ed themselves to be directly guided by the l)r. :eroWJll;"e,s Se,rmon,
lloly Spirit. Another example occu rred in
nineteenth-century America, where \VWfam
.
i, IEUY TO f .l?Htl l(ILLD,

~filler predicted that the return of

Christ would occur in 18-tJ-:I. \\'hen the first Po-stcr advcnl,Ing a Mllkr!te
date did not lead to the expected event, a meeting. W!Uiam Miller
second elate was set, and there was rcncwt.'<l (17112-1849) be)!an in lbJl 10
preach thar Chrls1 would return to
forvour. It was only when a third and fourth earth in 1843 When this did
date :liso faiJed that the followers of J.liller no, occur, he revised Lhc date 10
began to be di;,Wusion<:d and fall away. 1&14. After the 'Great
,\s well as these historical examples of Dlsappolnunent' ol Hl-14 , some
of Miller's followers founded
disconfirmed prophecies, there are a, few the Seventh Day Adventist
stuo.lies by sociologists or contemporary groups Churoh,
where prophecy has failed. The classical srudy
is that or Leon Festiager, who describt!d a
group cent.r ed on a ~ln, Keech, who had prophesied, on the ba.~ls of a
communication from another planer. char there would be a cataclysmic
flood across North America on a particular date. \Yhen the ilood did not
happen, Mrs Keech announced thac God had saved the country because of
the faith of the small band of disciples gathered around her. Those of her
foUowers that were gathered around her that night received tbls
announcement with great enthusiasm and began proselycizin~ again. Most
of those who were not present fcU away from their bclici."
A psychological analysis of such episod~ identifies the problem as
being one of cognitive dis~onance: two things are believed by an indi,idual
or group th11t are contradictory co each other Human beings, gcncrnlly, Lr)'
lO live in a psychological world thac is co~nitively consistent (where
everything 'makes sense'). When a person has a firm rcli~ous conviction,
which has been publically announced. for which :.:Jerifices have been mad.:,
and where the con\'ictlon is soci:lily supported within a chtht.ly knit group,
then there is n strong resiswnee to changing that religious conviction
\\'hen a religious conviction, such as a prophecy, is disconfirmed, cognitive
dis.~om1nce occu rs. for a numhcr (espeC<iallr chose who are isol:1ted from
the main group and thus not supported socially) the d1sson:111cc may be
 r1:~uhcd lw a Josi. of hcllcf, hut tlll.! rcM employ :1 numhcr uf ,trntl.'l!lc~ ,.,
reducc this COAnitl\'e dii,snnoncc The fin,l ,.., o rn11onn l11111!,\
rcitncrpret.itltm ur the c\'Cllt Ml .ii, lO make il make '""'"' Th,·
announccme111 th:11 C11)d hud s:wed the 1:oun1n• from the pro1,h.:~1..,I 11,,.,.1
bccnuw of the foilh of ~Ir, Keech\ folltJ\ll'O. is an exnmplc o( ,u._.h ,1
ralionoliltllion. " The Micond b an ,mthu:.la,tic n:nfiin11,1t1un ui the iullh
111111 C\'Cll a c:irupai~n nf prosclvrizatinn 111 order 1<1 'tlro",1 out' and di111111ish
the effect of the co~nillvc tlib~omu1ce hy reinforcln!t tlll.' clcmcm in the
eo~1111ive d1sson:111ce thm is least ahlt.: to chun~c.

C.\l1 SF.S OF' ~[ILLE:N:--1.\LIST ~10\'E~IE~TS

Rc,l\ardintt the types of future saviour, it is 1he confro111:11ioni,t type <>f prc-
mUlcnoialisru or Cal.U!,Lrophlc otillcnnialii.ru that tcnw. tu catll>c 1..hc ~rc.1tc.,t
and most evident ~ociaJ Impact. l L is not :,urpri:,int.i, th1:refore, thal it i, this
group that hru. been studied most, by social scientist~ at lca,-1 ~luch work
hab ~one into postu lalin~ wby such mo\•cmcnu, ari:.c Moi.t ,uch
explanations 1cnd tow:1rds n reducrion to economic and socinl foctor, ,\
typlcul explanatlo11 would run somewhat ulo11g the folJO\, Ing llncs ...

1 ,\ group within a sociNy perceives itself to be db:td\'nmagetl

cconomlcally or db1a:ufranohi1,cd poUtlcally. This ~roup hru; \'alues and
aspirations but it finds i~elf in a position in which ii ha.~ no rcali~tic
chance of fulfilling LhOl>c aspirations: no chance of social redemption, u.,
it were. A typical example would be a native population that fi11cb it:.eH
economically, politically and culmrally overwhelmed by the superiorirv
of a colonial power. Alternatively, natural disasters, cconomlc
dislocation or the prei.sures of modernity may induce a sense of social
crisis.
2. There is discontent and :ilienation in the group but no clea r idea about
hoy. to recLliy the situation, since direct political action b barred (by the
oven vhelming superiority of 'the colonial power, for example). In this
state of :iffoirs, the group falls back on itS trnditional sources for
mcanill,g, for an explanation of ic:, i.ltuadoo. These Lraditional sourcci. by
themselves, however, give no clear Auidance" The traditional cacegonc~
of undersmnding arc unable t o make the i.Jtuation intelliAiblc lx•causc
the religious culture of the gToup, at least as iraditionally lmerpreted.
did not envisage it. The only way ot' interpreting this bleak predicam1:m
Is In tcnns of the dark s iwauou that wUJ occur for humanity Just before
the expected coming of the sa viour
J. Then, there arises a prophet or teacher who i~ ablt:: rn ruimerpret the
troditions in order ro give meaning lo the new siru:nion. lie can recreate
the traditions in a way that gives them a new lifo in the nc,1 <Jmntion
He can exrract ~uidance from them. This person thus acls to create a
 10 THE PR0.1.llSF. CW ,\ Fl1TlHU; S,\\' IOL'R 2M

bridge bccwccn the old aud lhe new. 11c clninJs to he either the expected
i.:wiour or his rcprci.cntarive. 1'he usu:il pattern will be for the leader to
i11~ist ac first on an exccssi\'cly rigid mlhercncc to rhe religious law. ]le
may cJ1en, at a later swgc. move into :111 antinomian phase In which the
law is dispensed wirh.
~ ,\n enthusiastic ,l!roup gathers around the new teacher and ~~erly
accept$ c,·erything th:Jt he says. His teaching seems to present a
j'IO:.sible way out of a seemin~ly hopeless situation. lie has created a new
world for them to live in, a 'new Jerusalem', a promise of a more fulfilled
life.
S The new teachings will, however, usuolly have re,·olutionary
implic:uions for sociery. Aud so the new teacher is opposed, especially
by chose groups who have the most co lose by the overthrow of the status
quo. These usually i11cludc, at the very least, the leaders of the
escahlished religion. Conflict and e,•en violence may arise. There is
sometimes an element of migration involved. The leader takes his
faithful followers co a new land where they can seL up the new world,
free of che enwnglemems and stulcifying structures of the old order.
6. li the new leader is successful in overcoming, endu~ or side-stepping
Lhe opposition (by migraLion, for example) and con mould his following
inLO an organized ~roup, a new sect will have emerged.

Such sociological cxplanalions are attractive but they can only be panial,
ior not C\'ery disadvantaged or disenfranchised group throws up a
millcnninlist movement. lndced, we ma}• ask whether there has ever been
n society in which some element does not feel relalivel)• disadv1111C!lged
economically or politically; and yet millennialist movemems are nor chat
common. Other factors must also be at work. Moreover, mnoy such
reductionist evaluations may be shown to be very $ubjecdve. One person
may describe a millennialist movement in materialistic terms as the result
of greed and envy eau.~ing the poor and diRpossessed co revolt so as to gain
a share in the wealth or society, while another may describe the same
movement in moral terms. as a struggle to bring about a more Just and
equirnble society.
Despite the unsatisfoctory nature of much of the theory that surrounds
thi~ phenomenon. millcnni:tllsm in eacb of itS forms is of great imj'IOrtancc
to the study of religion because, whecher at che level of che individual or ac
the level of society, millenninii~t ncti,•ity is one of the keys to undersrnnding
how radical reU~ous change occurs. Change ls cJ1e principal resulc of
millennialism: personal change in the form of moral regeneration or
religious rededication; and socieutl change in the form of an effort to bring
about an amelioration of social conditions Through stud)'ing millenni:ilist
movements we can see how a traditional religious worldview can he
overturnL-<l and a new vision can cake its place, a 'new heaven and n new
earth'
:?M, CO~ C l:.t''rl "I\I. \Sl'U! TS Cl~ 10:1.H,lt>~

\lm.i of Lhc founder:- of the world rellAion, . .lc,u,, \luhamm(ld , thc

Buddha, would in the cnrly sttt~c~ of their t•tm.:cr, han.: lx:cn l"<)ll<.id1.:rcc.l to
be millcn11ialb1 leader,- (Mic al~o chapter L! in which tht. hn,, u( th<:,l'
fl~urc:- nrc rC\'iC\\'C<l) Their ' new w:1chinl!s' , 1heir, is1on of rt nc" order, w:i,
what attracted u l'ullt,I\\ Int LO them :utd l!avc lite cnrl) ,rnj\ce, uf the-.:
reh,!ions tJ1e1r vi~our and ,•iialily. But the rnaj\111tudc of the eh:rnee 11woht.·d
when ,1 prcviou" worltkic" is ovcrthrt:m n :rnd a ne\\ 0111: takl" it., pla1.-..,
should not ))I.! umlerc,.um:.ttcd. h ts very ~rcat 1n<l,:cd - after all, the So,let
and En,tem ~:11ropcan ~ovemmcnt.~ tried to brinj\ about cxacllv ~uch a
ch.utl!c in the world vie" of their cilitcn,. for ,1 numlx:r of dt:c:idc,-, ,, 1lh all
the powtir and resource_~ of a modem !.L:lte behind them, all lO ,cry little
avail. .\nd yet a Buddha or u /.h1h:immad showed that ju!-t ,uch a chnn,l!I.'
was possible. Millennirilism is thlLs one of the facton., ,r not the mo~t
importrtnt l'r1cLor, 111 hrinAing :thout rcliAious chnniie.
Finally, \\e mtll.l look at the point raised at the lx:ginnin~ of th,~
chapter. \\'hy is it that the idea of a futurt, saviour 1s ~o univer..ar, .\nd "hy
is it that the accounts of the end of the aj\e, the coming of the saviour, and
tJ1c Golden iV,c Lhat he will usher in, arc all so very simllur across soch
widely dh·ersc rchwons·t There are no universally acceprnhle answers to
this c1uestlon. There arc, howev~r, several proffered explanation\. First, a
sociolo~ical explanation would maJmain that the millenarian movement;,
are the result of certain socio! stresses \\ithin :1 society Second, Junll nnd
Ella.de suMest a psychological explunation: Lhe hero-saviour i!> an
archetypal figure who, accordin~ co Jun,1;, is seated deep within humanity',;
collective unconi,cious (sec chapter 11). And so, in a sense il is :1lmm,1
inevitable that the figure of a future saviour will emer,1;e within each
religious tradition in the same way that, given the right circumstances, an
oak tree will emerge from an acor n, because it is, potentially.\\ ,thin il. from
che start. Third, a religious explanation found in a few relij!ious movement.~
such as the Ahmadi)rya in Islam and the B::1ha'i Faith is that the cradltlons
of these diffcrio~ rcli~ioos are w very similar because they ,lre In facl
referring forward co the same event and the i.ame person. the com1nA of the
founder of the movement.

F URTHER R~;A0ING

~lost of the books on chis subject deaJ W'itb millennialism nnd eschacolo~·
from the viewpoint of only one religion See collections of e..~s:iys in Thmpp,
A1illennial Dreams iu Accio11, and Brandon, The Swoiour God (not all the
essays in the latter are relevant). Individual works include for Huddhbr.
millennialism: Sponbcrg and Hardacre, Maicr~:ra, The F'urure Buddha,
Chan, 'The \\'hitc Lotus-Mru.lreya Doctrine', ~fondelsohn, 'A Mcssi:mic
Buddhist .\ssoci:nion'; Overmyer, Folk 811ddlus1 Religion. Tai,
Mi/lenaricmism and Pcasam Politics in l'icmam. For Jewish and Christi:1n
millennialism see: Cohn, TIie Pursuir <!l rite Mtl/ennium, Hanson, Tiu.
 to· TIii:. l'ROMlSt~ OF' ,\ Ft··ru RI:. ~,\\'lOl'R 2<,7

/)o«-n of .\p<x:alyµrfr-: Barkun, C,-ucible of rlw Millennium. ror l$lnmic

milhmn1,tlism see. Sachcdinn, /s/wnlc .\/essicmism, \\'au, 'The Muslim
Yearn~ for :1 S,l\iOur' Burrid#, ]\'cw I-leaven. J\'ew l:.'<rrth, nnd .\das,
Prophets of Rebellion, however. do attempt an nno1)•si!, ncross several
cultllres. althou,_~h dealiolt mainly with apocalyptic and millennialist cults
:unong rrih:,I peoples, the first from nn nnrhropological nnd 1hc second from
a social historian's perspective. A th1.-oretical analysis b atu:mptcd in
Shepp1a?rson. 'The Comparative Study of Millenarian ~lovements',
 ARCIIETYPE, N[ YTH ANO TII~; 8.\CRED

httrnc.ls in contradL,cinction LO the pro(:1111:

IIE S..\ CREll A.'ILJ 1u,.t1m0t·:1
amt sec:ular.' IL mak1;:s l~ appearance in the world ln 111:wy ,·ariec.l ,, a~ 1-.
Indeed. it has been said that almost anythin~ can and ha:. in ,omc
culture bcc11 oonsic.lcrc<l ns ,-acrcd. Thi;, chapter look;, at the ways In
which the sacred appears in the world - how archetypes :md mych,
generate a sense of the holy or sacred, thus influencing the c.lc\"clopmcnt
of religiou:, symbols. ritual,-, tradition,, and 1n,.tl1utlon,-. \\'c ,-hall abo t.cc
tbac archetypes and myths have had o powerful influence on religious
history
One methodology, among the many that can be employed in cryin~
to understanding the sacred, is the mytl1ological approach employed by
such scholars as Carl Jung, ~llrcea El!ade and Joseph Cnmpbell. Thi:. il,
based on the understanding that, if one studies the common themes in
the different mythologies of the world, one can fu1d the basic rhythms by
which all human bein~s live. Myth explores the deepest inner question~
and problems that have troubled humankind. Among the commonest
themes uncovered by such studies arc chose which relate elosely co
religion: for e.""tample, the themes of crearion, transformation, de..'\th and
resurrection.
We must define several terms at this point, because some word.., are
used here noc in their usual convers:nional sense but rather in a
specialized, tcchnica.l sense. An thropolog.iblS hove found that there are
some figures and concepcs that occur almosr universally among human
beings. One explanation is that this indic:.ttci. that such c.-onccpt., must
ha,·e roots golog back to the earhe~t days of the human race and thu;, ~
part of rhe stmcrure oF human rhoughc.' Thev are therefore called
archetype:., examplt:.S lllclude the sky god or the earth mother ' .\ myth b
an archetype m narrative form; for example, a creation mrtb mav tell o(
how chc world came inco being through the action of the sky ¢otl.' ,\ :-ymhol
is something which brio~ to mind or recalls an archetype or a s:1cred
mythological event The term "leA,end'. or a legendary accrerion co the h.1~ic
facts of the history of a religion, refer~ to a ~traightforward cx~erntion imd
A)orificatioo in the course of the ireteltin~ of a story.
 11 ARCIIETYPE, MYTII ,\"ITI TIIP. SAl'RF.fl 269

So~tE l{EL1(110US i\RCIIETYPES A!-JD ~1\'Tlll-l

~Lircea Eliatlc has written of a con~t:lllll lntcrrdatfom,hip, a dialcc1Jcal

mm·cment, between the universal nrchctypc and its local, particular
111a11ifesu1tio11. The archcty1xe is coosuu1tly becoming mnnifci,1 in u new
local obJecl or Cl'Cnt. Conn:rsely, each local manifestation of the sacred Is
ce>nstnntly in the proocss of discn~riging
1tl>df from its hbtoriual :rnd parochial
setting :111d moving t0wards identity with
1t., rimelcs~. uni\'cr~nl archetype. Eli:tdc
spcnks of the

tcndcnc~· of e,·cry 'blstorlcul form' to

approxlnrnte as nl'arly as pol>Sihli, to I~
archetype, e,·cn when it has been realised
tU a sc<..-ondary o r lnsitnlflcaot le, cL tlm
can he ,·erified everywhere in rhe relWous
histo ry of humanity. Any locnl goddess a
rends ro b...>COm" I.he Grear Goddess: any
,illm\c anywhere is rhe ·Cemre of the
World' '

The Supreme Bein,¢ as Sun God or

Sky Goel
Across the world, many, if not most, tribal
peoples ha..-e a notion of a Supreme Bei11g.
In some places. chjs is a sky god, in others a
sun god, these two being, in general human
experience, the ultimate symbols of
b
transcendence and omnipotence. Antliro-
pologists have. however, found among tribal
peoples that there is a tendency for the
Supreme Being not to be the focus of
worship and rlcuals. It is as though this deity
is too austere and remote. It is replnced in
the affections of people by the more
1mmedia1e and down-to-earth concerns
represented by fertility, vegetation and
suchlike gods as well as by ancestor worship,
animism, channs, amulecs and so on •
There is evidence in the Bible that the
God of the Hebrews wru. originally
conceptualized as a sky god.' However, the
Jew~ appear to ha,·e been no exception to
this desire for a more immediate, pr~matic
SACRED Tl\££: o) A sacred tree in Buryatln,
Siberia, hllt\ll with ribbons and piece, of
paper on which p<--ople ha,., wrlucn th<!lr
wishes. The sacredness of this tree
probably dares back co the shamanist. pre-
Ruddhi~t past ol this aren b) Shrines
created niter the dcnrh of Princes.< Diana,
1997, nround trc.), oui,,idc Ki!n"1nJl1011
Palace, bcr Loodoo residence. They
r~'Crcate. In concrete fomt the ancient myth
tluu 'human life must be completely U,·ed
out if ltis ro exhaust all its rotentinlitles
of creation and expression, if it is
imcrrupred suddenl~·. hr violent denth, It
\\'ill u:nd 10 1:xwnd Itscl( In 110m1: olhcr
lonn: plnnr, fruit, Hower', (Eli•d~, Ptllrcnis
Ul C:t.imparatioe Reli{!k>n. pp. 301- 2)
:?70 cosr:~:l'Tlf.\l, ASPF.CTS Ot Rl'.l. l1olON

The nl,;.cm.-c or cull - :ml.I above ~II the ab<.cn~-.: ,,r ,im·

OJ
Tm; SKY Gou 1\li
cohmllar oi ;.e:i.•onal rite, - J;. churnc1cn-llc c,f m,.,, nf rh,• ,ky
~od,
f"-"'"'"'
\\lrh rnr>Sf 11( 1lw ,\frcc•:111 the (,rc,11 C<k.l co(
lfca,cn the Su1ircmc llctnt, Crc.ctur omnlpoknt, r,fi), •
qultt, ln,lgnJik-3.111 pan Ill the rdU\lU~ life u( the ttlhc. Ifs•I>
too dist.nil or too /l(Xxl to nct?J \\ntshlp pni~rlv ,., c.1llcJ
Sl'l'Rnn: DF:ITY ond Ihe)' Invoke him onl)' In cases of extreme need
The llcrcm,, 11 Brum, ('<;Opie from Smnh-\\'c,t -''"""· cull
their supreme l\flJ Ndynmbl \\'llhdta\\TI ituo lh1: •kY, he hn,
uhru,Joncd ruunkind lo th<: l1mcr Jhinlli"' For lluu ,.,,,,.mi
he cs not o.Jurcd '\Vb) !.houlcl we MtCrir.c., to lum'; l>-Ucl o
nuuw. ' \\'e do not need to tear lum for he d~ not do u, w,·
hann, as do che spiriis or our dcad 1<"1«kun, I · ( ~.!Jade
Pa11en1.• in C:ompam«« Rdr,¢mn, pp. I(~)

god to wor.hip. \Ve see in the Bible the conswnt struggle het\\eCn Ynhweh
and the rertilicy and vegetation gods and goddesses of Canaan, such as Baal
and Astarte (,\shtorech)." \Ve can even perhaps see somechinl! of thi<
tendency in the cmpha;.is gh·cn w in\'OCntion and worship of J.lury (ai. the
exprei,sion of the fertiliry goddess) and other saints. particularl)• those
associated with people's immediate concerns - health, safety, the
productivity of their labours and so on - In 1.hc Roman Ca1.bolic Church.

The Solar Hero

There are strong parallels hetween the received biographies ol' che prophet-
founders of the great religions und a number of archetypal and mythic
figures . In particular, one finds the archerype of the ,·egeiation j\od and 1.hc
sun god, or, more particularly, the solar hero, the manifestation of the ~un
~od on earth." This archetype relatt!S to the cycle of the sun and 1.hc
associated cycle of agricultural fertility.
The myLh of Lhe :,.o)ar hero typically bc~ns ,vitb a Golden .\gc Then
the affairs of the solar hero and his family or nation go into decline: he
appears co be defeated and even to die (as docs the sun and the fertility of
the earth in winter). AL 1.his point, the hero Is separated from his people In
some \'er.ions. he descends into an underworld where he srruwes a~ainst
the forces of darkness. lie \\'ins a great vict0ry and acquires the means for
savin~ humanity. And so, just when e\•erythln,i! seems hopeless a.nd the
world is full of darkness ond the earth barren, the hem returns to 's:we' the
world. Ile brings a new era of Justice and hope, a nc\\ order; a nc11 Gul<l.cn
Al,e dawns (as the sun returns in spring and revh·es the fertility of the
earth).''' Tbh bm,lc pattern of s1.ory Is so powerful that we can ~cc II retold
in countlc::.s le~ends and 1-cories from e\'ery part of the world .\;. exan1ples
one might cite, among the mrths of antiquity, the Rahylonia.n and
Sumerian god Tarnmuz and the E~yptia.u Ja\ud Osiris who undergo <lea.th and
resurrection;" amon~ folk lc,l!cnds, the repeated panern of the heroes m
 11 ,\RCIIP'n ' J>f: MYTII ANO Tiff S,\(:Ri:n 271

II
CJ CJ

Uu:u>rE PIL\M: OF TH£ SOLAR l!EIIO; Depiction of a scene Crom the Ramayana showtnjt the
banishment of Rama. at.-c.-ompanied by his wile, Sita, and hiS hall-brother, Lakshmana,
from the coun of his falher, King Dasharatba, after the schcmi~ of the latter's second
"ife in £avour o( her own !!On, Bhar:11. This scene marks the low point ( note the eclipsed
sun) in the story of the solnr hem. Painting hy Choitu (early nineteenth century)

Jranfan epic literature;11 even the westerns, spy thrillers and crime stories
on films and television reflect these themes. ln most of these stories the
hero at first appears ovenvhelmed by the forces of evil and a carnstrophc
looms, but e,·entually he triumphs, emerging to defeat his enemies."
The theme of the sun god or vegetation tod exii;ts in reli~ioml not only
In their conceptualization of the past but also in their expecwtions of the
future. \\'e can see the figure of the promised saviour who will come at the
end of lime to banish all e\til, institute justice, and renew the earth (see
chapter 10) as an expression of thh, arc-hetypc.
Religious history cannot escape from the strong tendency to recast it in
these archetypal forms. Indeed, the more important the story to the
followers of the religion. the stronger will be the impulse to recast It Into
mythic form . The story of Christ, overwhelmed and crucified by the forces
of darkness, eventually to rise from the dead, rescmblci. the myth of
Tammuz, die Babylonian "egecation god." Similarly, in India we find that
the legends of both Krishna and Rama, two avatars (incarnations,
mamfestations) of the ~od Vishnu. replay this theme. Tbe central figure is
o"erwhelmed by the forces of evil and is forced to retire co the woods in
21! CONCt l'Tl\\L .\l;Pf<:n, o• IU:IIGI0:0-
r
T111:. rrn ri'i1>f.R ot ., Rt:1.u,ros AS S1•1•t.1tN.\L Su~ .,:-11 t;:,,;in.1t-;.,1 H1ruR

The follower, of m~t rcll4'01L• hn,·c sc<.:n tlic foumfor 1of their rdll\lon " thc ,out<'<l ,,I
,plrltual ll~ht It I, nut surprl>lnil, thcrcfurc that the) ha• c hlcmlfic-J him \\Ith <he MIR,
tin, source oi phy•tcal IJl\hl, ,111<1 with ccrrnln .olar ,leuic, thlll pn>ccJ1.'ll the rcll~on lh~
life of the founder I> frequently seen to ramllcl tlut ol the ,nlar her11 Sinulnrh he 1,
fn·•111cntlv d,•ptctc,I ,.,, the llnivcn-.1 1 Ruler

This tradaional form of icon i, known ns

Christ l'omocrncor (Chnst the Unlveml
&werci¢nJ. It n:prc~nt.s Christ as Lord The Buddhn depicted a, an ani<.-onie
and Jud/!e of the world_ Ills right hand I• ,ymhol. Th,s ,ymbol utu1 b.., "'""" ""
roLsed in hle,;sin~ while in the left he h1>ld.s rcprc,cnung the \\' heel of Uh,trmu
the :.clipture, the \V1>rd of God. Thi, fonn (<llwmw eltakru) but ah.o a, the
18 derived /rom the nncicn t Greek pose of Supem9I Sun O\'er th!! clrculnr S}mhol is
the bearded phiL..ophcr with th<: right hand the umbreUa (charm) which depicts the
In thc teuchlng ge,,mre and the left hand Chakr:m1rtin (Uni\•cr,,11 Ruler)
hol~ a book, denotinl! kno\\ llldgc and
"i,dom The solar imm\cry can be seen in
the rays emnnatin)! from th" image From
the Karly" Museum, lsumhul

Po_rualt of Zoroaster •Hth dear

Tins rcprescmmion of the Sup;,mnl Sun
motif 16 rlnCl!d over the door of the ,brin" of
Bnha'u'llah 01.-ar Akka. In the centre of the
motif are t he words: Ya Ha/u,'u ·1-.\'bha
(0 Glory of the Most G-lorious).
solar S)mbollsm - ,uch Jepicuort~
of Zoroaster are comparad,d)'
modem, darmj\ in nll probab1l11,·
from nhout .?00 yc~r.. ogq In lnd,a
The,· nrc mucth lnOucnc..'ll hv the
trnilltional blwlw ludun po~nut.\,
~ucb ai. tho.c of Kn,hM ,
 11 .\RC1H1':T\'PE, MYTII AND TIit: S.\CR£l) 27.)

In Islamic 11n, im.,~, nrc forbidden, slnt.-.;

un) ,magc nught become a focus for
wo rship m,d henc<; 1ntrodtK>t< Idolatry. The
Oavlne ca,rnol he oompared IO anydung at
:iU Even with the lhnil3tions impo.sed hy
d1is rrohihlti<m , however. <>ymhols can
com-cy spiritual tni,hs In d1c centre of this
p,c.,., of ualllgrnphy nrc the words:
' Muhr1111m.icl. the friend of God '.
latcm,lned around It nre the "ords. 'There
,s no ~od hut (;od' and 'No disuncllon do we
make hecween any of His Ap<>sdes' (Ottr'an
2 · 2115). Then there are two further
concentric circle!<.-, in the outer o( which on:
the names oi prophet.s mcntion~<l In the
Qur'an nnd in the inner, the designations
which have been tradlllon:illy 3pplied 10
them in Islam (e.~. Jesus, the Spirit of God:
Moses. the lnterlPCumr with God) The
outer ring is the repctitiYC inscription of
'There is no god but God'. The four circles
in e.1c,h corner cont1tln lhc names or tht! fuur a.rchang<:ls. The cop lli.1c hns the Trndltion.:
'111: who soys "Then, is no go.I bul Got!" e,uers Pnmdise' 3nd rwo ~hort phwM)s. The
bouom line reads: 'O people! \'cnly \\' C have created you male and !cmalc and made ~·ou
11110 pt!<>Jlles and tribes in order 1ha1 you ma~· know each mher Verily, che grenies1 of you
in honour is rhe most Clod-feorin~ of you In cnnh. (;od is the All-Kno"int the ,\JI·
Informed ' (Qur·on 49·1 I) The whole can he thought of ns representing the 60lnr motif
\\itb my, ..,mnnnting from lhe n:m11, of Aluhamm:id.

disguise. Eventually, however, he returns with b.is companions, triumphs

ll\'er hiq enemies and re-esrahlii,hes the nilc of ju~tice over the land. The
:,tOry of the Buddha recounts his :.cparation from humimit)' as he sat under
the Bo tree, his s ~ e with Mara, his suhsequent enligh tenment and his

AmonJ! the Sumcrin:n-Bnhylonian gocls were Tnmmuz ( Damu-

zl), the vcgctntlon god, ond Ishtar (l1111loi), the mother-
goddess ossoolowd with the planet Venus. Trunruuz dkd nod,
aooonilng 10 one version of lhe myih, 1Shl3r was d,e sister
and lover oi Tammuz who caused bis dealh. OiStraughc at bis
death, Ishtar descended into the underworld where she
DEATll ANU
chnllen,!led her sister, Ercshkignl, who mlcd there She hnd 10
RESURRECTION undcrio mnny triols in the underworld (:md nccording 10 one
1·cl'$lon of 1hc lc.l!<,lmd, anothor god had to be despatched to
rcscu1: her), bul c,·cmu.,Jly she succeeded om! returned to
the world with Tam!!lm2.
In another l'er:.ion of the myth, Ishtar was Tammuz's
moi.bcr who wcpf profusely at his death la 311)' case, the
myth of Ishtar ond Tammuz spread \\idely 1hroui!h the
Middle Ea;t, co:il~soing with other loc:il myths In this way ll
reappeared as lhe myt.hs of 8dili and Mt1rduk ln ,\.ssyri11, of
Aphrodite ond Adonis ln Phoenicia. of l~I;, 1111tl Osiris ltt Egypt
and of Cybele! aml Atlls ln Gr.,.,t.'C,
:?74 ('fJS( 1-.l'Tll,\l. ASPH:TS 0~ IU.I IC,ION

n b

C d
TIIF POSllrJU:S or TIit Bl '!)OIL\ -~\'I) Tlfl:lk SIG-"l>IC.\.\CE· Pictures and SC.lUCS 01 the Buddh, (ond OI
lndion !lO<l• ond l!oddcs,cs} aclopl typical :J'.l(»turcs, "8ch of" h,cb b» u p<1rtiou!M sl~lf100JICI.'
The word mucln, refers to th<!M' pos.rur~ nod more rortk-ularly to the bane.I gc,1un: Tht:M! ar\:
four of the most t.--ommon poM.tlit!.S of t.hu Buddha ul Dll)'tini mudn, (i!C~tur~ or rocd1tat1uu l
Thb show, the Bu(ldba u1 mcdllatltm &mctu11cs 1ht:re IS • mulu-hcnJ,.-d ,nake ovcr .uul
behind the fll\utc o( tlu, Uuddho. This snot« protected 1he lluddtu durin~ h.s mcd11auon,. pnor
to aohie,;n~ enh.U,tenment hJ 8hum1spr;rr.shtt mudm (cr:1l1int cht' eanh to ,.,me"' ro•curel
Thi, is n posl\lrc recalling 1hc occasion when Moro the demon ntt1ckcd the Ru,ldh• a, he ..-.,
mc<ll1atlng under the Ile> tn.'C MMo ~o.<t Jouh1 un the OuJdh,i's 4u 1lificotinn for Ou,ldh.1hooJ
"h~rt:uJ"H:n1 Lhv Buddha touc,hcd th\: c:inh, l':illln~ up,ou 1t us \\'ltnc,, for the J4..,-J., ttl thi:
BudJJ1a lu pMl lhcs. c) \'t;.__rodu 1mulru tcalllng bt!.tH.:..11 w wane.,.) g...:..,tur-.1) Thi.;, b a ~"'Lu..t.;:
of l\<umlnA wt-he• di /)/,un11u-d1ukra mullru lturnlnl\ cltt \\heel of llhamu l,">ture) Thi- b
a ~esrur" of t-,achlnl\ the Dhanna, rccallln~ tn parcicular the llu<IJhn', IIN ,cnn1>n ai1,r hh
enh.U,tcnmcn1
 I I · ARt:ll~>T\'PE, M\'TH ANll TIIE SACREO 275

c\'entual conti.ng fonh lmo the world to tench his messnge. This is very similar
to the st0ry of Christ's goi~ ouc into the wtl<lcmess, his struggle lhere with
Satan who tempted him. his victory over Snwn and his return to che people to
lx,gln to teach his message. Some more detailed examples of mylh operating
in rel~ious history are given later ln thi.s c hapter (see also chapte r L2).
It is not only in religious history that we see this pattern of the solar
hero repeated. It also forn1s t.he basis of much religious ritual (see below).

The lord of rhe Tu:o Worlds

~lyths portray in story form the fundamcmal theol~ical and spiritual
truths of a religion. Among the important spiritual truths that need to be
com·eyed about the founde r of a religion is that he is the lord of both the
physical and the spiritu.-u worlds. It is not surprising, therefore , to find that
myths grow about the founders of religions to indicate their mastery over
both worlds. One example in Christianity would be the story of the
transfiguration, which happened towards the end of Christ's ministry. In
this episode, Jesus, who to outward seeming was just a poor, illiterate,
Itinerant p reacher, stood revealed to his disciples in his true stature as the
Divlne Lord. 'And he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like
the sun, and his garments became white as light.' The prophets Moses and
Elijah appearcd to the disciples and a voice from the cloud said, 'This i.s my
beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to hlm.'"
In the BlwaatJad Gita , Krishna who is acting as Arjuna's charioteer, is
tronstigured and appears before Arjuna as the Lord of thc Universe.

When the great Lord of Yoga [Krishna) bad spoken thus, be re,·ealed to
Arjuna his divine universal form. Arjuna saw hlm with man)' mouths, and
many C)'es and many wondrous other sights, with many celesciol
omrunenl.S, amt many heavenl)• weapons . lle wore cele~tial garlands and
garmems, was anointed with heavenly perfumes. He faced al l s,des,
wonderful, resplendent, all-pcrvndlng. If the light of u thousand suns were
to arise In the sky, th.it would be like the eITulgences of r.hat ~Lighty Lord.
In that fom1, Arjuna saw the whole universe, with its many divisions, all
gathered into one Conn at one time."

The cpisode of the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascent to

I leaven ser"es a similar function for Muslim.'>, although there were no direct
witnesses of this event. It took place during one of the darkest periods of
~luhammad's mini!,try. At that time, wl1en it seemed that :ill hod turned
a~amst him and were \.ictorious against him, God gave him a vision of the
power chat was his. I-le wns carried, o ne night, miraculously from Mecca to
the Masjid al-Aqsa ( the furthest mosque. Jerusalem). From there, he
ascended to heaven , where he met with al l of the prophets of the past an<l
saw-hoth heaven :ind hell Travelling furtl1er he:wenwards, he came in close
proximit}' to Go<l, to that point beyond which there Is no passing."
 2i6 <:Ot-CF.PTl'AI. \M'ECTS Ot Rhl.ll,10\
Luw Modo1111a by Leonardo
lb \'incl, in which ~fat)• ls
depicted as symbol of
mntcmicy nnd fertility
is dcclnrcd to be the soil; the man is declared to be the seed, the production
of aU corporeal being_~ (takes placel through the union of soil and seed'
TILE FEMALE
i\RCUETYPE
The FcmCllt ,\ rclwcyp,;
Mo:.1 rcli~ion:. ha,c tlc,clorcd an archcLypal female
fiiture, for example thi: \'ir~1n ~fary 10 Chn,11:11111y or
F'a1im:1 in Shi'i )q)am, who represents the E,1nh
~lotJ1cr 11rchctypc Thb fi,llun; cpitomitc~ tJ1c fcmak,
ideal in the reli~ion. She ii1ves hinh 10 the m:ile
nsJX.'Cl of the religion (Chri~t 111 ChrbLfonlty untl 1h~·
line of Imams in Shi'i Islam ) anti tvpifies the quahttci.
of nurturin~ um) lo,'ing. (8cc chapter l i )
The fertility of thc female ~ also clo,cl}
1:,onnected in the mythological mind with the fortility
or the earth. In ull! Qur'un , \\C rcud: 'Your \\i\:C~ aro:
as a field to he cJllcd for you; ~o ~'Orne to your t i113.l\c
as you please' (2:223). In llindu mythology, the min
god, Parjanya, induce:. fonllity in born the ilcldi, and
women. Although a male, he has udders full o( milk
( the rain). T he Rig Veda states that the 'mother [i.c
Earthl receives the milk of the Cather
[Parj:mya) ... and wiili it the son (crearures of the
earth I thrives'.'" Similarly, the lllndu text, tJ1e Lutts
of Manu, states: 'By the sacred tradition the woman
CHRISTIANITI': THE V1RCIN M ARY
llail Mary, full of gmcc. The Lord is \\ith thrt 8lei.M.-d an
thou ,m1011~1 women, ru,J bl.,;,scd b the fruit oi thy womb,
Jesus. I loly Mary, ~lother of God, pray for U> >lllllC11>. no\\ auJ
Ill the hour of our death. Amen. ( Roman Cadwhc pnl)'Cr
based on Luke I :28)
C1:1.11c RELIG!OS: Tl!£ TKll'L£ ~JomtR Ool!O~
Trlphsm l!sl a basic phenomenon of Ccluc rt:~on • The
mother-goddess is perhaps the commonest rype or Ccldc
divinity trcAtcd in chis way and the triadic form oppenrs 10 have
played an important role in h<'r worship Md cul1-c'qlression
The lh.ree mothers or Dt:ut! .\latn:s, M they an, frllquenth
calk-d In Inscriptions, were known also as Jfum,nac . .
It l~ 4ulLe clear from the aurlbutcs of the Mothers thru
they repres,em primarily fertilil')' and 11eoeral pro~pem~
whether in the directly ma1cmal m:mncr of infant·
1is~ocintion or through ponmynls of lhc earth'• focundil)·
In 11c:1rly, all cases I.hi.' matcmnl rn1hcr than lhl' ,cxuol
ru.pc<:i.s of the fomJIIC lmng.., ore prujl.'<ltcd - Indeed
the ~oddeSl> 1s 1nvariAbl)· clothed - the !>e~ual J)Al'ti ol thl'
hod)' are not emph3s1~00. Instead, the ima.c,,, rely for
their &Vmbolic power on accomran)•l n,1! aurihutc,
including animal~ (a fll'l""CTful fcrtiliiy/noturc wmhoi In
 11. t\RCIIETYl'I,,, MYTII i\NU TIii,; SACREO :?77

thcm:<t!lvc, .) and. sometimes, un the power of LripU,m or

plurality. Perhaps of most lntcrc,t b tbat the cult oppcoled
not onlv to women but to soldiers, merchanlS and even
Roman •ofi'lclals Esseminlly maternal charnc,erisdcs were
employed to visualise nnd worship a deity whose sphere
duvclopcd from that of simple l'crtillty to protection and well-
bcin~ in all a.,pecu, of life. (M. Grec.:n, Th., Gods of tlte Celts,
pp. i8. 82, 10:?)

S .\CRED PLACE AND SACRED TIME

.\ sacwd place, o church, temple, shrine, or mosque, is nol jusl a place

where one bas contacl with God or Ultimate Reality, a fixed point of contact
with reality In the orderless chaos of the profane world. Rather, by virtue of
being the location of the sacred world, these are places where ordinary
profane ~eography does not apply, No matter how remote and isolated, the
sacred place becomes the centre of the universe, the place where heaven
and earth meet, the focal point of origination of the cosmos. Sacred
geography, being different to profane geography, allows for a muldplicicy of
places each to be the cenlre of the universe:'•
The boundary of the sacred place is also of great significance. It marks
off the sacred place from the profane world. ln religious communities, this
boundary marks d1e poim at which different Jaws and rules apply. On the
one hand, it signifies danger, for beyond this point human beings arc in
particular danger of offending the deity if they do not perform the ritual~
correctly and in a proper state of purity. On the other hand, it signifies
safely, for many societies hold sacred places to be places of sanctuary
where the temporal authorities have no power to act. Many ohurches,
mosques and shrines were considered places of s,mctuary until rcccndy.
Broadly speak.Ing, the more in1ponam the shrine or church, the more
serious the crime or offence for which one could seek sanctuary there. In
recent times, we have witnessed the Golden Temple at Amritsar being used
as a place of sanctuary by Sikh rebels. Even in a non-religious society such
as Britain, chere have been cases of people who wore about to be expelled
from the country seeking sanctuary in churches; although tl1e concept of
sanctuary has no legal standing, the police hesitated about acting againsc
them.
Similar ro sacred space Is sacred time. The occurrence of an event of
profound reliwous significnnce (for example, the crucifiition and
resurrection of Christ or the martyrdom of the Imam liusnyn) changes tl1ac
period of time into sacred time. The siwiificance of sacred time is that it
forms an eternal 'now'. The event c.nn he endlessly recreated. This
repccltlon can be lengthy, as occurs dwrlng Holy Week In every Christian
church (or even more elaborately in the Passion Plays at Oberammagau) or
lhe recitations of the cvenlS surrounding the martyrdom of the lmam
 C:O\C ~.l'Tl'AI MH'H TS Of' kl 1.U ,IO\'

., h
Pu GRl'IM:f ,\ sacred pince u.~unlly hecun1es o centre oi 1>ill\rin1~e ThcSI: two rictun."
~ho\\ two c,·nt.rcs oi pihtrimo~, Jcru."i:tlcm and Ilcnnn..-s, "hich m,1,· Ix- c.mnMJi.;r\..-d ., ..
formlng ., ,parltual a.\b for UH: 1<orlJ, In thal, IX:1,...-cn tlicm. the~· ,.._,u!Aln lll.l.lor boh
plnL'<l• for sl\ rd,~1111,. a) Bcnnr"s tV11ron,L,tl/S<1mruh llcn:tnc,. 011 th, hank,, c,( tlic
Gange~, Is the 11111,or holy place for Hindujsm Un the lcit Is a ,rupa hullt hy Kini! .\.,h,,ka
Mone c,f 1he iour n1os1 holy rtaces for Ruddhi:-is, ti,.,
iradluon:d site 1,( 1he HudJh.1', first
sermon or Snmnth t fsipatona) on rhc ourskirrs of Benn res On the ril\ht I~ the shrine 01
P11rsll\'11muhn, the :?3rd Tinh1111k11ro ("11111) of1heJ11in, . h) .JcruMlcm holy city forJ~"'•
Chrutlon., and Mwdlm,. Thb photog.raph sh,,w, the \\'c..,u:m (\\'allm~/ \\all (K<>td
Muurutii), the remain• of the """"nJ Temple, tl1c buU..,.t plaL-.: for Jc"> BcbtnJ u, the
dome of the ~lO,"'!ut: of ()m~r (Dome o f the Rock). J.,ru.wem L< the tltlrd bulJtst ult)· In
the world for Muslims and dus mosque marks the traditional sne ol Abron:,m's intended
sacrifice of his son Also in Jen,salem ls the Church of the Holy Sepulchre oonrnrnm¢
the traditional sites o( thu crucifixion :md tomb of ,lcsus

llusayn (rawdih-khani); or it may be needng, :i.~ when a Chru,tian cros:.t!!>

himself or a Shi'i Mu.~lim calls upon llu.sayn when in <lifficulcy. In :ill these
cases, :m e,·em that occurred many centuries ago in profone time ii., once
cransfom1ed into sacred rime, e,•er In the present. le can be recalled and
recreated hy che belie,·er in all or i;ome of its intensity :u anv moment
Sometimes the events translated into ~acred time are from a ddinilc
point in profane time (ior example che crucifixion of Christ o r the
enlightenment of the Buddha). ln ocher cases, the event is loc:1tcd in sacred
time by a phrose s uch as ' In the beginning .. .', \\rucb docs not specif,; a
particular location in profane rime. These l:iner arc usually mythi. about
the origin of the world or the o ri~in oi humanity.

RELIGJ OL'S SYMBOLS

The rehgious symbol h, a link to the world of tl1e sacred. M>mcthu11! physical
which hrin~s 10 mind th:u world .\ cross for Christians o r a linll,1m for
Shaivile llindui, is looked at nnc.1 cv,m cnrri..:d around because tt can
 11: ,\RCll>: T\'l'E. MYTH AND TUE SACRED 27'.I

insmntly creMe a link to lhe sacred. The cross recalls, for a Christian,
Christ's suficrlng and crucifixion, rund the resulting atonement and
redemption. A person who looks at and is affected by the symbol is in
Immediate conrnct with the sacred; the spot on which he or she stands has
tx..--cn crnnsformed Lnto sacred place; and he or she has entered sacred time
and chere experienced death and resurrection (death 10 the profane world
and rebirth into the sacred). Through 1.hc religious symbol, the human
situation ls translated Imo cosmological terms; the human being is put into
contact with transcendent reality, the source of the cosmos. llence,
through frequent and intimate contact with religious symbols, humanity
does not feel alone and isolated in the cosmos.

RITUAL

To perform a ritual is to repeat the cosmic events portrayed in a myth. It

puLS human beings Imo the position of performing 1.he actions of the divine.
Such a human action, though it may appear trivial and inconsequential, is
glvc11 profound signJficancc and linked co the meaning of the universe Itself.
By partaking of the Eucharist, all Christians are present a1. the Last Supper

Tlll rl,\JJ, TIT£ ISL.U11C Rln,.\L PILGRIMAO& TO MECC.V This picture shows the pih\rirns
g;,thercd In the Ma.<jid al-llnram (the Sucred ~fosque). At the far end is the holiest site
In the Islamic "orld. the Kn'bn, "luch is the oquru-c buildiJlll covcrc-d in black cloth
.\ccordlllg 10 t.lamlc tr:ulillon, the foundallon.s for this building wen., lold by Abraham .
It orlglnallr ho~ed pll$ln idols. but Muhammad cau,;ed lhe~ w be destroyed. lc:wini!
Just the Black Stone The black c loth covcnrn! of the building is renewed each year.
?fotO CO:-l C' t.PTLIAI. ASl'hCTS Ot IH.Ll(,10~

\\Jlh Chrbt, parrnkmj\ or bread or life and the WIile nr Lill ,pirlt. By
Ull
pcrfom1inl! the Ila.LI (pill\rimnitc LO Mecca), all ~lu,llm, :ire there \\Ith
~luhamnwd durinl\ his pil,!ri11111j!e, pnn:1kinl! of the "'hation that wa, on
offer \\ hen Muhammad wa~ on eanh. Many ritual, arc, In ,0111e ,cnM,. the
re-enactment or the ere.Ilion of the world, 11 death ( return to primal ch:m,J
followed by resurrection (the emergence or a ncl\ crenllon). The ,implc act
or ln1111er~ion in water (baptbm in ChnMianlty) h<:e(lmc:, linked to ,pintual
renewa l, 10 God's purpose for the wnTld, to life, dc::nh and re,urrcction ,
Throul\h ritual, hunrnn beings c~c:apc from cbrouolol!ical tlmc and cmer
'sacred time' The indhtidual expcriencm/;! haptism the Euchan,t. or thc
Lia.LI hns stepped out of the profa11c world of'bt.-coming' and into 1he eternal
now of the sacred world of 'bein!f. That indil·idual is e!-captnj\ from
fr:igmenwtion and nlienation and reinccgrnring his or her life within the
f:rnmcwork of the uni\'crse.
The religious person tries co spend as much rime as ros.qible re-
enacting mythical models. \Ybal human beings do on their own lnill:.lu,e
without a mythic model belongs to the profane world and i& therefore a vain
and illusory activity; it is ultimately unreal What they do following a
mythic modd belongs to tJJe sacred world and Is tJJcreforc slwiiilcanc am!
real. The more religious a person is. the more mythical, paradi~otic
models there are to follow, and the more the whole of his or her life
becomes, in this sense, a ritual." (See also the description of ritual on pp.
l 0-1-5.)

The Hajj Is performed durint! Lhe eleventh Muslim lunar

month (Dhu'i-Hijjab) All pil~ms should lime their 1oumev
10 a rrive In \lecca before the 8th of thi< momh, as that is the
first fom1nl day of the pilgrimage On the 13.'II Slllgt: of the
joum~y !16 the~· oppro:u:h \!<.-<.-ca, there is a point :IL which the
pilgrims take off their normal clothe,. put on two ph.-..'C~ of
THE STAGES
plain cloth called the 1hrom and recite a ritual prayer callt:d
OF TJJE the calbiyyah . This marks the ionnal scan of their ptll\nm,lllt>
and from this: p0in1 on 1here nre cen.~in lh1nll,• forbidden ro
MUSLI\I Pl!,GRl~L\GE the pilgrims such as swcarin!l, wearin!l perfume and w,uol
lntero-ourse. !.·lost pilgrims orrh·c in Mecca o fc" cfay, bdoJrc
(£LuJ) the b,,ginnlng of the llalJ, "h1ch enables them to ca~- uut
the minor pUgrtm,tge, the ·t:mrah (which may abo be don" ot
any ot.her time of the year). For chis. they wear the ihmm,
perfonn their ablutions, ofren m the Sacred Mosque (\lnsj1J
al-Hamm) of Mecca, ki•s the 81:ick Stone thnt ,s sci in the
Kn·bo (the square building in the centre of th~ mOM.jUe),
circu111nmhul11w the Ka·bo ><!lcn tlmcs, and pcrfonn the ><(Y
(going back and forth sewn tlm~ between the ma.rkct-plac<-1>
of Safa and M,m·eh in Mecca in <.-ommemorawn o( llajsr's
desperate ~ea rch for water afler hcln,t left t,,· 1\brabam l
On the first doy of the lfajj iL~elf (fl Ohu'l-llajJ:i.hl, the
pilgrim~ p111 <m the iltmm, rcc,1c the talbi_\:,'<lh nml JI<• to
Minn, to the cast of Mccc4, when: the~· '">' prnyl!r& :tnd ,1nv
1hc nl~hL
 11 ARC11£T\'1'£. Ml' Tll AND TIIE SACREO 2&1

On the ,~·c(md dny, the pilgrims go 10 Amfab nnd spend

the day I.here 111 pruycr and st1ppUet1tlon (thl, acuvity I•
called u,uqtJ). At sunsec they proceed from ,\mfah to the
place where they will spend the nij\ht. Muzdalifoh, which is
on the woy back 10 Minn. Here they collect stones for the next
doy.
The clinuu: of th1: 11:ijj occurs on t.hc third doy ( IO Dhu'l-
llljjah). Jusc after sunrise the pl]£rims go on 10 Mina \\here
the) cast ;evc:o stones nt one of three pillars c alled Jamrnh
(the ncth°il)' Ls call rami and symbolizes Abraham's rejection
or the temptation$ of the de,11) &ich pil4rim then sacrifices
Rn nnimnl (sheep, goaLs and cnnle arc the commonest
animals) in memory or Abrahrun's imendcd sacrifice or hi~
.on. Thi,. day ls cnlled 'Id nl-t\dho (the festival of sacrifice)
and 1$ commemorated throughout the M~llm world.
This marks the em.I or the formal pilgrimage and the
pi4\rims shave or clip their hair, pare their nails and take off
the ihmm . Custom dicuues, however, thnt pilgrim;. remain in
the area of Mecca for o further lhree dnys. Durln~ these lhree
days, !hey circuruumbulnte the l<i,'bn s,wen times. f)«rform
the so'.),, th.row seven stones, lhl~ time ut each or !he three
pillars In Mina, and drink the waccr or the well of Zamzam.
Many pi!Arims chen ~ on to Medina, where they Vislc the
Mosque of the Prophc,.

R ITES OF P ASSAGE

Perhaps the most enduring of all aspects of religion are the rites of passage
(ritc.s commemorating the passing from one phase of life to another, most
notably birth, adolescence, marriage and death). Even in the secularized
societies of Europe, people who never go to church under any other
clrcuJlll>tances continue to feel a need lO mark these ~nwcant e\•ents in
cheir lives by a religious ceremony.
Scholar.i who have studied rites of passage ha\•e noted the similarity
becween these rites, the recurrent pattern of dying to one mode of
eJtistence and being reborn in another, and the phases of the solar hero
mylh (see pp. 270-5):

l A STAGE OF SF.PARATJOX. This marks the separation of the participants

from the profane world and tbelr entry into the sacred. This
corresponds to the stage in the story of the solar hero or separation from
the common world (often by death or a forced exile) and the descent
lnco the supernatural world.
2 TUE STAGE OF TRA.'ISITION OR L!M!N,\LITY. Victor Turner has emphasized this
phase as the critical phase in which there is a chanj!e. Lf onlr one
individual is involved that person is changed; if there is a group of
participants, they are bonded together and a sense o( community is
 (:()~Cl!PTI' \I A~l't'.('T:, Of IH.Llmui-

a b

d
flll<F.IIAL !UTE.~, a) Corpse on II platfom1, Papua New Guinea, b) Cremation """· Frcnl'h
Guinna, c) Jcwbh Cuncrol rites Since there ls a prolublllon on IL.:rh'ln!t nny bcndit (rum
the dead ln Jewish lloh· La\\, Jewish communltle; ha\'e formed communal burial
soc1eti~ (Hewah Kadis/10) This picture shows such n society makJII/! a <hmut!. l'rnstuc,
c 171l0; d) Nineteenth-centu11· picture de1l1c1in4 the trnnsporr of corpse.< b, ~hi'I
Muslims, S<lmetimes for Icing di~-i~n=, w that they c11n l>c huried 111 Lllc •hrinc <>f arw nf
the Imams The fttnmrilc she Is the shrine ohhc Imam llu..,..yn In Karhnln t><.-cau,c ll ,.
f)(Jflcvcd th;1t the IU'1Jcn lmnm Mahdi II UJ oppcur there shortly ~fore 1.hc Oa~ u(
lle,,urrccllorL
 1 1 i\RCIIETYl'E, ~IYTII ,\ND TIIE SACRED 2SJ

Tlic mocstuurc ,,/ 1/ac senior dri<:f (Ku,u,1~ct~hu) 1m111,,a tl,c

.Vdcmbu of ,wrr/1wc;;t Zuml11u 11/ttstrt,1.:s tli< three sttt,lles of
u rm, q1· l)uM(ij!C - 111 t1us <'(&M! p(IS~<' Jmm be111g an
ortltrta,;,• f><'rS(111 ro />el•lJl " drttj,
Th" lintinnl component n( such rites begins with th<t
.-\ RITE Of' P.\SS.\GE: <.'011,tructlon of II sruall shelter o( leave, about n rulfo awa)' lroru
1.hc CJJ"h.al ,·11L1cc. Thb hut b known a,, Juifu or Ju.Ju,/. a term
TH£ IN\'ESTITIIR£ OF N1.l.!mbu dcrh·c from ku--fu,a. 'w Ji.:,' for II is hcrte 1.hm the
cb.icf-<.1l~ct di~ trom hi& C<)mmoner Slate. lm~er)' o( death
.\X AFRICA." CHTF:F uhounds ln Ndemhu liminalily The c-hief-e.lect. clad In
nothi1,A hut a ra~ waisr..:-lmh, and 3 ritual \\>i(e, who is
ci1h11r his senior \\ifc (mu.•,u/yi) or a slave woman, known ns
lukanu (:iCter the royal bm<.,clct) for rhc o<,cnsion, simil:irly
clad, nre cnll<.-<l hy Knfounn fa senior hcn<lmru1 of un ns,ocintcd
1.rlbc] to umcr the l«ifu shelter just nftcr sundown ... Tht
couple nrc led I.here as Lh()ugb they 1n.:rc Infirm. There they sil
crouched In a po,1.11.rte of ,hame (n&in_)!i) or mode:.ty, "hU.,
the) are washed "ith medicines ...
Next hegins the rite of Kumukindyilti , which means
Uterall)' 'to speak evil or insultin)t words ru\ain.<t him"; we
mi~ht cnll 1.hi< rite 'The Reviling of the Chief-Elect: It bc)\ins
when Knfwann makc:s n cut o n the undcr.<idc of the chicrs left
am, ... prcs>e> medicine lllto the lnolslon, and prc..cs n mat
on the upper side of the urm. The chief Md bis wife aru 1.hcn
forced rather ro~hly to sh on the mat ... Kafa,ma DO\\
breaks Imo a homil)•. as follow,:
1k silcml \"()u arc n nwnn nnd selfish fool one \\ ho is
bad-tcmper<.'<i! You do 1101. love your follows, you ore
ooly ongry with diem! }lentlllc» and theft arc all you
b:iv"I Ye1. here "" hn1·e c:,lled you anti we say Lbnl }'OU
must succeed LO llle chleftainship. Put awav meanness,
put aside an,!er, ;!\Ive up adulterous tmcrcouri;e, ,!Ive
them up immediately' .
After Lhl~ harangue, an)' pcn,on who 1.'()11,Jden, I.hut he h,.,,
been wronllCd hy the ohlef-e.lect In the past is e ntitled to re,11e
him and mosc tully express bis resentment. /!<>inA into as
much deroil ns he desires The chief-elect. durinj! all this. hns
10 •ii ~ilently with do\\'J1C:1$t hend, 'the pauem of all patience·
nnd humility M:iny informnnts ho,·c mid inc th,n 'n chicl'r,
jlL,t lik<: n sbvc ( ndm11f11) on 1.hc night before he sucL-c<.-ds '
Th~ phfi.SC o( n.'lll!!ln,'lltllion lo this cnsc comprts,:s the public
,n,1.3llatltm uf Lh<' l\:mongesh.i1 wld1 all pomp and
<.'Cn:mony . .. (W)hen dte l-ldeml:iu chh.-f-elect emefl!CS from
seclusion, one oi his subcWcis - who plays a priestly role at the
ia.,tal!atlon rites - makes a rinsal [enc(; around tl1e new chiefs
dwell!~, and prays ns foUows co the shades of former cbie&,
bclorc the people who have assembled ro \\itness the lnsl3llmion·
l,lsten, nil you people. Kanonitesha has come to be
born Imo the cbldtaiosbip today ... I ha,·e enthroned
you, 0 chief \'ou O people must ,tjve fonh sounds or
praise The chiefminshlp has appeared.

(Turner, The Rieu.al Procc.'<S. pp. 100-1 , 10:?, 105)

 ?k l COKCEPTl'AI, ,\Sl'ECT:; OF RF'Lltaos

c~tabU,,hcd. This corresponds to the stage in the story of the ,obr hero
of his descent inrn the world or darkness. his ~lntAAlc there. and the
evcnntaJ \'ictory
.) "ST.\GF: OF E\IF.RC.ENCE OR Rf.\f',GRf.G.\T(O'I In th,s ~toitc. the tran,ltion '"
c..-omplcwd, the parlicipanL.~ c merge and arc rcim..-urpor:11cd 1r1to tJ1c
community m their chan~ed scams. This corresponds to the return of
the ~ol:tr hero with the power to transforn1 hi:,, society n

There ore many examples of rite.,; nr pat-<;:1~

dcmonstratJn~. to ,·aryin~ extent:., th,.-
threefold pattern. They oc..-cur in the major
world religions and abo among variOU!, trih.,l
peoples. Binh ritei. ofren ln\'olve \0me
separation of the woman before the birth,
various cere,uonial :Jets during luhour and,
often, somethln,t done to the infant to mark
him or her as a member of 1hc community
(circumcision. for c."l'.ampl<!). Rites or puberty
among tribal peoples will often include some
separation of the young people, a trial or
ordeal and then a ceremony in which they an:
welcomed a.~ full members of the community
A Christian gra,·e in Tonga, South (see p. 49). Elements of tlus paul!m can be
Pacific. Elahorate and lenilthy seen in the Je\\ish bar mitrvah, the Hindu
ccrcmonic< arc hdd at the grove~dc ttpanayaru:, ceremoniell and e,•en in the
and the g111w iis;,lf is much .imb.!llish,:d
and orruu11cn tcd
Chrlstian rite of confirmation. ln many tribal
cultures restrictions applr to the girls and
women during menstruation, and riru.al.;; are
conducted afterwards to restore them to a state of ritual puricy ~larrtage
customs in many societies involve a period of separation of the bride and
groom, a ceremony, and then an emergence of the couple imo the community
in their new scacc. The rices surrounding death arc tJ1e mosc elaborate or all in
many societies. Ofcen the spouse or dder son \\ill spend some time separau:d
from society until the rites are comple1ed when chey rejoin the community
Mob! societies also have rites associated with certain evenL~ in the
calendar such ai. i.owin,t or harvest, with :,ickness, or to c..-omml!monue
important religious events. Many of these also have a symbolism of death
and rebirth - especially the rices ossocinted with the agricuJiuraJ cycle.

T HE FUNCTIO:-1 OF 11YTH ,\ND Sr~IBOL

To retell a myth brings about an irruption of the sacred world lnto the
profane. It answers the questions or how and why thin~ are the way thl!y
are and ii helps human beings co come imo contact \\ith the reality behind
the world It should 001 be im~ined, however, that the pauem is one or a
 IL .\RClllTYf't:. MYTH ANU TIit: SACJU:D 21>5

Scn, in.11 t:tke; phtci! ht th" On,t \\ct!k o( Jtwc Biter tbu
moru.oon. On IIO au.plclou~ dny. r.,,,:d hy tl,e prie,t, thll
w"1o~ tukes plac.-e. Early tn che mornln~ on that day, th.:
male Koya Dom ~es 10 the l'lekl "ith a lx•~ker filled with
Jonna 11ceds, and also, the nniclc., of worship fncluding n fowl.
fin.t, "Hh tl1e help o( the priest. the Koyn Dom won.hips the
SF.ASONAI. hill d~lty (Kodama Dc,·aui) unJ brcllks a coconut nnd
ACRICl't.TllRAI.
spnnkl...s the coconut wn1er over the l'leld. Next he offers a
fowl 10 the deity and the blood of the sacnt'lced victim Is
RITUALS AMO~G :tllowed 10 drip in the llcld and also on the seeds By
pcrfonnin~ this ritual, the Koyn Dorn.• beliC\'e that the hill
TRIBAi. PEOPLES IN deity would protect I.be crop from various types oi tnfcctlous
,U~ases. The sacrlnced victim is thro"n 1ownrds the hill
lNDL\ side.•·\It.er the rituru is o, er, the men SO\\ the ~ed.,, both on
the hill s lopes and also on the plains The same ceremony is
repented for the sowing in different seasons.
Thi; only tnboo wl th regard 10 this so"ing Is thnt the male
i$ not pennlued to attend the ceremony or work on the Ocld,
11 bis wife J;. In mcosus or <.'<mfinemenL (~iunby, Religic,11
a11d Sociezy. p. 113)

flow of profane time with periodic interruptions of sacred time. Rather lhe
two c:in be said lo be in parallel, with profane time flowing in a stream and
sacred time an eternal, ever-present 'no w'. It is human beings who dart
b::tckwarcls nnd forwards between the two. Therefore, alrhough I have
de~cribed a ritual as being a repetition of :a cosmic event, in fact there is no
separation between the cwo in sacred time - the ritual is the cosmic event.
le Is not that the bread and wine of the Eucharist represent the body and
blood of Christ (or even that they repeac symbolically Christ's turning of
the bread and wine into his body and blood), but rather they are the body
and blood of Christ. The participant in the ritual ls present at the Last
Supper.
£very myth is, in one sense, creative, because it creates a new world
and becomes a paradi~ for all time.'-' Thus, for example, the story of Adam
and Eve, because it is a myth about the lfirst man and woman, becomes a
paradigm for every man and woman. Through the telling and retelling of
myth, every action that a human being takes can become the repetition of
the actions of the gods and thus become an occurrence i.n sacred time. In
this way, all human actions can become in some sense a repetition of a
myth or archetype and the coca! life of a human bcinl! can be transformed
out of the meanin,glc»soe~ of profaot:: time lnlo sacred time, out of history
and into a ·paradise' where every acrion is filled with me11ning and
slgniflcance.'' In this way, bit by bit, the whole profane world can be rebuilt
as the sacred world by the retelling of various myths_ And in this sense,
those telling these myths and those hearing them are present at and
participating In the creation of the cosmos.
Thus, religious experience in its various forms consists of a breaking
down of space and rime so that every Individual can be ot that placeless
286 CONCEPTlJ.\I ASP~:CTS OF' RFLl(llON

place. the ccmrc of the universe, in thm umclesi, tirnc, hcforc lhc \\Otld
hcAan, und may 1here experience. throuAh ritual, the crc.111011 of the \\orld
This experience is n1riously culled resurrection, snlvtllion, or llbcmuon
This is how 1.hc «)nlrnl e;,.pcriencc of religion (!,CC chaptcr 4) can lw
concepmaJized and spoken ahout in myiholo)ticol tcnns
Religious symbols and myths do 1101 follow the p:uhs of rallonal
thouAh1. They are no1 linked in ways that necessarily make any lc,fl1cal
sense, for myths und symbols reveal new perspcctivci, and inLCgrntc dh·crR
realities that appear to ha,·e no connection In the world of the rnuonal
mind The symbol of the moon can connect several disparate strnnds· d:w
and nJght Lu nature, death and resurrection, creation and d!!!>Lruction. the
potential and 1he ,1ctual, and so on. All 1he members of a AJven community
will share a similar interpretation or their !>ymbols and myths. There is no
need for verbal explanation or discussion of these symbols because the~· are
:m inherent part of the culture. They are not fonnally taught hue rncher
imbibed non-verbally by the children of 1.har culture as 1.hey grow.

MYTH AND R ELIGIOUS HISTORY

It is a natural and inseparable pare or piety to wish co glorify and ma~ify

the object of one's adoration, T herefore it is not surprising chm every
re ligion has witnessed to some extent the creation of myths and legend~
around its central figures. In the telling and retelling of the stories
surrounding them, some degree of exaggerated praise and glorification wm.
bound to slip in. The longer the stories were perpetuated by word of mouth
rather thtm in written form, the more mythic and legendary clements crept
lnto 1hem lb.rough lhe natural piety of tbe storytellers.

The Resurrection of Christ

In religious hi:.toriei, we sec the trend referred lo above, whereby the story
of a religiously signific11nc indi\idual has, over the centuries, been ~iven
archetypal form . The cxac1 sto.ges of this transformation nrc usunlly
impossible to detect because lhey have been obliienued. The belie,·er
considers the mythological history 10 he the 'real' history nnd therefore
there is no need to retain curlier verslons. Careful research by ,cholurs can.
however, re,·cal this process h1 some cases. 1\vo example,- \\ill no"
be considered. Both a.re taken from Christian history, not because
Christianity has been in any way more liable to mythic tn1J1sformation of
it_~ history, but rather because it has heen subject m more intcnsi\·c
scholarly scn1tlny.
As mentioned above, the tradlition:il l.Wry of 1he death and re~urrcction
o( Chri~L is a rypical cnActment of the sun god mrth. Through the effort.~ oi
biblical ;,cholar~, it i;, now pos;,ible to reconi:,truc1 iu, ~volutlo11 from a
historical event to a mythic recastin~ o( that event
 1 l Alll!llETYl'E, M\'Tll ,\NU THE SAGR.t-:D 287

Depiction ol ,h.- resurrection of Chrisl. An clcvcnch-cenrury mosaic from the monastery

of llo~ios Loukas, ne.1r Livndio, Clre<,ce.

Jesus was crucified in ahoul lhe year 3J CF.. 1'he earliest references co
the resurrection occur in the Pauline letters_1'hc fln,t epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians. for example. is probably a genuine leuer from Paul wriuen in
ahou1 55-6 ct. In che most extensive reference to che cruciriltion in chis
work (15:4-9), there is no mention of on empty tomb or a physical
re.surrecrion. St Paul liscs se\·eral occasions on which Christ has appeared
co n1rious of l1is disciples after his onrcifixioo, including Christ's
nppearance to Paul himself. Since this appearance co Paul. on the road to
Damascus (Acc.q 9:1-7), occurred after che episode of the Ascension and is
clearly a visionary event, it would appear that Paul understood the other
appearances of Chrisr in the same way. :-1owhere in che Pauline leccers.
which are chc earliest Christian documents chnc we have, is there any
reference to rut empcy tomb. These e:trly Christians appear to have been
\CS!U)ing to a spiritual meetin~ with Chll'ist as a )j\·inA sahific force in their
lives, not to the hiMorical event of a physicuJ rei.urrection. We can trace I.be
de,·elopmem of the resurrection myth over the next century in the
canonical and apocryphal Gospels.:?S

1. PAt."ill.'E LETTERS (J~SS CE). Th1:sc testify to the experience of a living Christ;
the testimony appears to he a creedal formula reforrint to o mecaphoricol
(although existentially real) event mther than an empirical, historical ooc.

For I deli1•ereJ to you as of first importance what I also received, thot

Christ died for our sillll in acoordnnce with the scriptures. that he was
Zf.8 CONCEPTll,\I, ASP~,CTIS O~ REl, l(lllll',.

burlc<l, li!at he was raisc<l on the third dn> ln nucordnncc with the
soripmrc.~, nnd thnt he 11ppcnred 10 (;cpha,, then 10 th;, 1wch•c Then hc
nppcnrcd LO mo re Lluui fh·c hundred brethren n1. one time, mos1 <>i whom
rtrc still all\'c, L11ou/lh some huvc fnUcn asleep Then he n11f>eMcd to Jantt.....
then 10 nil t he op0M l l'S, l,ast of nl l, r\.~ IO one unumcly born he upfX':lr~-d
ru"o 10 me.

2. ST ~IARK's GosrF.L 16: l ""''l (70 CF.) Three women enter the wmh A roun~
man In a white robe telb them that Jc~us Is not here hut ha:, risen. ThCJ
women flee, full of fear, and cell no one. (Most schola.-... a~ree that che
authcncio Gospel of St Mark cn<ls at this point).

And when the snhhntlt wns p11st, Mary Mogdnlene, nnd Mary the rnolilcr 11f
James, and Salome. boughc spices, so thai tl1cy might go and anouu lum.
1\nd very ea rly on Lile first day of the week they wem to the tomb when
the sun had risen. And they were s:1ylng 10 one anoth.,r, 'Who will roll own~·
the stone for us from chc door of the tomb-,' And looking up, they &a" that
the scone rolled back - it was very large. And entering the tomb. they ~a"
a young man sittlag on the right side, dressed In a white robe, and they
were amazed And he said to them, ·l)o not be amazed; you seek Je~us of
Nazareth, who was crucified. lie has dscn, be is 0 0 1 here: s~>e the pince
where they laid him. Uut go, 1eU hls disciples and Peter that he is goio~
before you to Galilee: there you \\ill see him, as he told you.' .\nd they
went out, and fled from the tomb; for trtmbling and :lblQnishment bad
come upon chem; aad they said aotlttng to anyone. for Liley were afraid ·

3. ST MAITHF.\V's GosPEI. 28:1-20 (75-90 CE). Two women come to the

tomb. An angel descends from heaven , rolls back the stone and declares
that Jesus is no t there but has risen. They depart in foar and Joy and run co
gl\·e the news c<> the disciples. Jesus appears to the disciples twice, but some
hove doubts.

Now ofcer the snbba1h, coward the dawn of the fi111t day of the week. Mary
Magdalene and the other Mary wcm to st.-c the sepulchre. And, behold,
there was a great earthquake; for an an~cl of the Lord descended from
heaven and came and rolled hnck the ~tone, and sat upon it. I lis
appearance wa" like li~hcnlng, and his raiment wWt.: as sao". And for 1enr
of him tho guards 1rcmblcd and became like dc:id men. But the onitel ~id
to tbc women, 'Do not b<: afraid, for l know that you "eek Jesus who was
cruCtfied. He is not here; for he has risen. as he said Come, see the place
where be lay. Then go quickly and tell his disciples that he hru; risen from
the dead, and, behold, he ls going before you Imo Galilee; lilcrc you will
see him . Lo, I ha,•e 10ld you ' So the~· departed quickh• from the tomb witlt
fear and great joy, and ran to tell his dlsclplcs. And hchold, .Jc.,u~ m"t them
aod said, 'Hail!' And me~· came up and took hold of his feet and
worshipped him
 IL ARCIIETYll'E:, }l\'TII .\NO Tm; 8AORE:D 2b\l

lfow 1ht- clc,·cn disciple~ went co Galilee, to the mount.nin to which

Jc,w, hod dircccctl them ,\nd when th.:y ,-ow bim they wor•hlppcd him ;
hut some doulued

4. Sr Ll'K£'s Gosri,;1, 24.1-53 (!s0-90 GE). Several women come co che comb
and find the ~cone rolled back, 1\vo men in shin inti 11arments cell them thac
Jesus is noc here but has risen. They leave and telJ this co lhe other
disciples. ,,ho Jo not believe d1em, but Peter runs co the comb and also
finds it empt)•." Jesus :ippears co the disciples on cwo occ:isions and
reprov<.!io them for their doubts.

Bui on the first dny of the week, nt erorly down, they went 10 the tomb,
takln,11 the spices which they had prepared. And they found the scone rolled
awnr from the 1omh. h111 when rbey wem in 1bey did not 11nd the body
\\'bile they perplexed about Lhis, behold, two men stood by them LO
danling apparel; and as they were frigbuened and bowed down their £aces
to the ground, the men srud Lo them, 'Why do you seek the living among
the dead? Rem~mber how he told you while he was still in Golllee, that L11e
Son of man must be delh·ered into the hands of sinful men, and be
cruclflcd, and the third day rise.' And they remembered his words, and
returning from tbe tomb, chey told all this 10 the eleven. and co all the rest.
Now it wlls Mary Mngdnlene and Joann{l and Mary the mother o( James,
and the other women with tl,em who told th.b to the npobdes; but these
words seemed to them in idle tale, and they did not helieve them.
Thnt \'Cry day two of them were going to a village ca lled
Emmaus . . While they were talki~ ... Jesus himself drew near and went
with them. But their eyes were kept fro m recognising him , \\11en he
was at table with them, he took the bretod and blessed. and broke 1t, and
gil\'e to 1hem. And their eyes opened and they recognised him; and he
vanished out of their sight ..
And they rose up th:n same hour aod returned to Jerusalem; and they
found the eleven garhercd together, and those who were with them Then
they told what had happened on the ro ad •.. As they ,verc s:1ying this,
Jesus hlmscli stood among chem. But they were startled and frightened ,
ond supposed thnt they saw a spirit. And he said to them , 'Why arc you
troubled ... See my hands and my feet, that It Is I myself, handle me. aod
see; for a ~pirit has not flesh and bones, as you sec that I have' ..
Then he led them out as fur as LO Bethany, and lifting up his hand.•. he
bles;ed them. While he blessed them, he parted from them, and carried up
inw hen\·en "'

5. Sr JOHN':, GoSPI-.J. 20:1-25 (100-50 C£). Mary Ma/ldaleoe comes to the

comb and, finding lhe scone already rolled back, goes and fetches Peter and
John. Two angels appear to Mary. Jesl.lli appears to the disciples twice in a
locked room and tives firm evidence to the doubting Thomas. Jesus
appears to the disciples in Tiberias as well.
290 CONCEPTUAi, ASt•ECTS Ot' Rf.l,IGIO"I

Now 011 the first tiny of the week Mary Mal\dJlcne cnnie tu lho, tomh 1.c.irly,
,1 hile It w its ,till dark, :ind saw 1h:11 thl' stone hud been u1kcn nway fn,m
the tomb. So ,he mn, and wem no Simon Peter nnd the other dbclplc, the
one whom Jcb'US lovL'<l , and b:tld tot.hem, 'They ha,e t.nkcn the LorJ uut of
t.he 1omh. and we do nol know where they ha,·c l31d them '
Petcr then cnmc out with the o ther dlsciplc , uud l11c)· \\Cnl LO\\tUd tbc
tnmh :.i nd stooplnA LO look in s1,w the lmcn clothes lym~
t.here nml believed. For as }'Cl they knew not the scrlpwrc, ll1ut hL
lll<lbt rise al!aiu from th.: dead. Then the Jiselplc1, wcm oway n,ealn unto
their own ho me.
But Mory ,woJ ""cplng outside the wrnb, nnd us she wept. 1,bc otoopcd
to look into the tomb; and she saw two an~I< in white, sltttnlt where the
body o f Jesu1, had lain . . They said to her, 'W'o mnn , why urc you
weeping?' She said to them, ' Because they have taken nway my Lord, and
I do not know where they h:.we lnid him.' S:1)1n/l this, she turned round and
saw Jes,is standing, but she did not know tbot it was Jesus. Jesus suit! LO
he r, 'Woman, why are you weeping? Whom do you seek?' Supposing him
LO be the gnrdencr, she snid, 'Sir, if you hove 011rried him awny, tell me
"here you h:we laid him . .' Jesus said to her. 'Mary.' She turned and srud
to him in Hebrew, 'Rab-bo'ni' (,vhich means Teacher) .
On Lhe even.Ing of that day . . the d oor;, belfl/l shut where the disciple.,
were, for fear of the Jews, Jesus came and stood amonl! them
Eight days lotcr, h is disciples were agnin in the house, and 'fhomns wa.<
with. them . The doors were shut, buc Jesus came and blood runon/l
them .
After this Jesus revealed hunsclf again to the disciple!> by the Sea of
1iberias."

6. TIIE APOCRYPHAL C'tOSPF.L Of PETER (150 CE). Th.is Gospel ~<>el, much further
than the earlier accounL-i and describes the resurrection event itselr Two
gigantic angelic figures, with heads that reach rhe heavens, come down tu
the comb and return with a giganu-ic Jesus.

And early in 1.he morning as the Sabbath dawrwtl, there ~'filllc a multilUdc
from Jcn,salem and the re,!ion roundabout to sec the ~epulehrc that had
been sen led. Now In the nlght \\hereon the Lord's day ua\\ n~,J, as the
soldiers were keepin~ guard two by two in eniry watch there came a j\r<:at
sound in the hea,·cn, and they sow the heavens opened nnd two men
de;,ctend cht:ncc. bhinlng 111th (IIL havlnit) a great UghL and Jru\\LO~ neur
unto the sepulchre. And chat smnc which had been set on the door rolled
away of Itself nnd went back to the ..idc, nod the ,cpulchn: wru. o pened nnd
both of the youn,t!, men entered 111 \\'hen therdore tho.c soldum, ,aw chat.
they wak<.-d up the centurion and the cider, (for thC)' also were there
kccp111~ 1>atch); and while they were ycc tcllln,t them th.: thin~ which they
had seen, the~· saw a!lain three men come out of the ,epulchrc, and two of
thtm1 SLLSUllnint the o ther (lit. th,: une), nnd u cros., folluwinla, 1lftcr 1hcm
 11. .\RCIIETYl'll, MYTII ANI> Tilt: SACREI> .?91

,\ml or the two they saw thac 1heir heads reached unto heaven, buc of him
chat ,..as led by Lhcm Lbat le O\'crpns.cd Lhc hca\'eos. And they beard u
,•oice ouc of 1he he11\'ens sayin!i: Host thou (or Thou hast) preached unto
tbcm Lhnt sle<!p? And nn an,-"cr was hea.rd from Lhc cro.-.,,, s11ying, Yea."

Thus the resurreccion story developed over the period of about one
hundred years, from the early disciples testifying to their faith in the
continuing, lh'in~ spiritual presence of Jesus, co a scory of an empty tomb
as e,'idence for a living Jesus, to an actual description of a resurrection of
Jesus from the dead. We must, o[ course, view all of this in the context of
the religious milieu oi the Meditcrr:menn world. As the earliest Christians
took their religion out into the wider wo.rld during the fi.rst hundred years
afcer Christ's crucifixion, they came into contact with Greek, Roman and
Egyptian religions. These included many myths of gods and other leg1mdary
figures such as Atcls, Osiris and Orpheus who died, descended co the
underworld and returned in triumph. By casting the story of Christ in this
way. the Christians were able tO attract che adherents of the many mystery
cults and gnostic sect.~ rhac abounded in Roman Europe. Thus there were
~crong intlucnces, both external (in terms of competing religions) and
internal (the inner compulsion co tum a personal experience into a
universal myth), on the early Christians. These influences constrained
chem to recast their faith in Jesus as a living saviour into a myth of death
and resurrection. This process of turning, faith into mrth is one that can be
seen to pen•ade the whole religious world.

The Growch of che Culc of Mary

.\ second example of the growth of a myth can he given, agajn from
Christian history: the developmenc ot the cultic status of Mary, the mother
of Jesus."" The earliest Neu: Testamem materials that we have are the
Jetcers of St Paul. In these, there is no mention of the virgin birth and no
direct naming of 1lary. There is only a passing reference co the fact that
Jesus was 'born of womnn':''
The next oldest .reference co Mary occu.rs ln SI J\:lcirk 's Gospel (about
70 CE). Thu. account is e,·en more surprisi~. It appears to show Jesus
11cring in a disrespectful and disparaging m:umer towards Mary in ordt:r to
demonstrate a point to his followers. Mary and J~us· brothers came ro
\\'here Jesus was preaching and sent for him. When they told Jcsu.~ thnr his
mother and brothen, were seeking him, be replied: '\\'ho arc my mother
and my brochers"i'' And chen, indicacint his followers gathered around him,
he said; 'Herc are my mother and my brothers!''; This passage may even
indicaw that ~lary was noc a believer In Christ. at lenst at this p0int. There
is no other reference co ~fa:ry in chis, the earliesc of the four Gospels. nor is
there nny reference LO a virgin birth.
It is only when we comt! to rhc next Gospels to be writcen, Mau/Jew and
Luke, .. thnt we find the origins of che story of the virgin birth. It is clear th:1r
 .?'.12 CONCt,l'TU.\I A:H'~;crs Ot IU.1, 1(,1()"1

I.he main conccn1 of tl1c uulhor of the (Josµ.:/

qf S1 M1wlw111 ( 75-9(1 n) wu$ 1t, prc:.cnt Jc,w,
as the fulfilment oi Old T<•s111mt·111 propht.-.:ic,
Many h:wc, therefore, postulau,d chm the
~tory of the virj\m birth onl!)nmcs in the dcMn:
to s<.>c Chril,L as the fulfilmcm of the propht.-c,
in fswah: "Behold a viritm (or youn~ woman)
shall oom:civc and hear u ,on ' ' The c:0.,111:l ,,f
St Lukt' (80--90 u:) providc:, the ba.-.L, of the
later Arowth of the cult of the Virgin Mar\' in
it:, de!>crlplioas of tl1e Annundtllion :md the
Visiwcion, but it is only,, hen we come to the
:tpocryphnl ccxrs of the second century n that
Ocplc lion of the Annunciation , th~ we have stories that form the basis for tht
allJIOWICCmcnt LO Mary by Lbe Angel
Gabriel that i.hc wa, to be the mother later Church doctrines of che Immaculate
of Je;,-us Painting by l'iero della Conception (the doctrine thut 11:lr)• hen.elf
f'rnncesca (c 1,~20-92) was concei\'ed free of original sin) and ~lary\
Assumption into he:l\'en.
!J1 the Roman Catholic Church, l1111
adorncion of Mary has wown with the passim! of time. A number of
doctrines lhaL exalt Mary have b<.>come official church dogma O\'cr tl1e
course of the centuries. Of tl,ese, only tJ,ac of divine motherhood, the
doctrine u1at Mary was the mother of Jesus, ha~ unequi"ocal backing in th1,;
New Testmmmt. Her perpetual virginity {a doctrine made offlcial in 649 ~i,;J
is put in doubt by questions oveT the translation of the word 'virgin'-" and
by reforcnces to Jesus' brothers and sisters."' The canonicul Kew Tt:.scamem
does not refer at all co rhe Immaculate Conception (made official Catholic
dogmn in 1854) and the Assumpli.ion (made official dogma in 1950).
We may postulate a nwnber of reasons for the growth of che cult of the
Virgin Mary. This has gone from mere passing references to ~fary in the
earliest Christian docwncnts to the present situation where popular
de,·odon to Mary in some places matches the de\'Otion shown towards
Christ. During the first two centuries when these canonical and apocryphal
accounts were being written, the Church was venturing into Lhe Gracco-
Roman world. In that world, there were se,·eral llOds and heroes (like
Apollo, I:lacchus and Perseus) who had human mothers who had been
impregnated by AOds. This may have influenced the thinkrng of I.he earll~t
Christians, thrusting Mary more and more into the limeli~t as enc agent of
the miraculous birth. ln later yc:1.rs, Lhe v!Jtio birl11 became a key concept
in the disputes over che nature of Ch rise. The position which triumphed m
this debate used the virgin birth co depict grophic::illy tl1c dual noture of
Christ, and, in the process, increased lite importance of Mary. But probably
the most powerful influence of all has been the less ob,ious but much
deeper need for an archetypal female flgure who exemplifies all the female
virtues: pure and virginal, yet at the same time representing motherhood in
nll its perfection (both as the mother of Christ and ~ the mother of the
 1 l ARCIJET\"PE. M\"Tll A.'110 TUE SACRED 293

Church). In iconography, ~lnry is nlso represented as Bride and Queen."

Feminist writers ha\'e po1med out the Impossible ideal thal this
combination of virginity and Ideal motherhood sets for Christian women.

Tl1t? Crcacioll and Fu11ccio11i11g of Mytli in Religious 1/iscory

The doctrine of the perpetual virginity of
\la~' reveals an imparronc paint about the
way Lhat myths come into heing and the
function that they serve. lt b paralleled by
1he Shi'i Islamic notion of f'a1ima as virgin
(although this does nol have the same high
proiile that Mary's virginity has in
Christianity) and by many examples in other
religions." The rationalist historian may
prote.~t that these statements are a gross
violation of the empirical historical facts. fAtL\L\ .\S \1RGL'1: Fatima was th<!
Mary was clearly not a perpetual virgin since, dllughu:r of the prophet ~luhammad
no matter what may have occurred at the and wlfe of che first Shi'i Imam, 'Ali.
A reference to Fatima o.~ 'the Vlrwn'
conception of Jesus, she is repaned to have appeors in the third line of the top
had other children after Jesus. Similarly, c.-olumn of this Arabic Shi'I poem
Farimn, as the mother of Imams nasan and In prol,c of Lhc Imams. Calligraphy
llusayn. was clearly not a virgin. \Vhat we In Nasta'llq ~Lyle by Dn"'UO, Iran,
have here is a local symbol straining co sevemeeoth century.
become its unh·ersal archetrJ>e. IL is aot
empirical events chat determine the
archetype but rather, for the religious person, the archetype that reveals
the way to interpret and 'see' the empi rical event. The archetype is the
reality of the local symbol. The facts are the empirical history, the
archetype is the higher truth, the meta-history. Thus. regardless of their
physical status, Mary and Fatima are in a spiritual state of perpetual
,•irginity. That is their true reality. Those who insist on bringing up the
empirical facts of their having borne chi.l dren are not so much wrong as,
from the viewpoint of the religious person, missing the point. To use the
terminology of Wittgenstein, the empirical historian and the religious
p!'rson are playing diller,mt 'language-games'.
One can say, then, that rather than these histories being a factual
account of what occurred, as a camera would have recorded It, they tend
wwards being theologlcal sratemems. In other words, Mary's and Fatima's
vir)Unity is not so much a factual a.~ a theological statement. A figure such as
Christ or the lmam llusayn (Fatima's son) could only be born of a womb that
was spatlessly pure and im.maculate. ,~trginity is a symbol or such purity. 1n
chis conteA,, the factual history is not relevant. In the same way, the many
stories of the miraculous deeds of the founder-prophets of the world religions
when they were infants and children should be seen as theological
~tatemencs. They are a way of saying that this was no ordinary child ...'
2<11 CONCbl'Tl,i\L ASn:c:n, Ot IU. I H,11)~

Ell!ll.lc mnlw:, h clear thnt hi: do.::, not n:gord cJrn, pn,~·e,-s of the
mythologizrulon of religious histol")' a~ a procc,, uf fol,ific:1t1un or
dbrnrtlon of historical irlct Racher, ii :-huukl he seen a:- uncovcnnl! the
:-pirhunl or archctypnl rcallcy, in the realm of 'sncrcJ pince· :mt.I sacred
time·. of che physic;1I event:, on eari h Hince the procc:,:, of 111ytholo~l1a11011
c:irrle~ the story hock lO its archetype, it is closer to the truth th:111 :my l,,m,
hi:,torical m.-coum In 'profane time' It rcvcab u Jeef)t!r lt,:\cl of rcalH\' On
thi~ analysis. the perpetual \'ir~inity of ~lar.• und Fnt,ma j,. 11 'h1~her· 'nmn:
real ' truth than the empirical. bismrtcal foct that cJte~· bore ehildr.m
Indeed, che obsession with reeonstructm~ emp,ncal hi,torv th:11
chamctcri1.cs 1he modern Western mind, is son1ewlwt puulintt for people
from twdtclonal cultures.
One importam point to note is that only e\·cm~ 0<.-currin~ in ~::ic~d
U.1110 had Importance for 010:,t pre-modem pi:ople and 11 ere therclore
trnn~mitced from one ~encration to the ncxl. And ~o. mnny storil.!s that
)Vere tronsmiLted \Vere aot 'history' as we now understand that term hut
rather myl11 - events occurrio~ in sacred Llrue. even Ls occurrlo~ accordtn~
to archetypal patterns For pre-modem peoples, it is much more imporrnnt
to know and undersrnnd the significance of what happened than co knO\\
its exact date and detai ls. 'l'his is cJ1e reason mac le is diflicuh to reconstruct
the empirical history of moht religions - the empirical facts lul\'e not been
preserved because they were not deemed imporcam. Qut!~tloni. chat
intrigue \\'estcm scholars, for example whether the stories ahour Jesus or
Kris'1110 acuially occurred, art.! out of any iatcrcst LO people from a
tradition:ll culture; it is the world that is evoked in che 1m:l~macion. the
reality that is revealed in the story, that is important, not its hii.toricity
1l should be borne in mind that sacred hi!.tOD' frequencJy ~h'Cl> ,,e\·i:ral
different archetypal patterns for action \Vhich one of these is utken up by
an individual wlio is Inspired by lhei,c stories wlll depend to II cert.aw
extent on social conditions. The female archet~i,e of \'lr~inity and
motherhood, de~cribed abm·e, largely reinforce~ the patriarchal ~ooial
parcern (docile women staying at home, providing sex for hu~bantls and
rearing children). 'l'his is not, however. the only female 11-rche1y-pc on offer
Sacred history also contains examples of women who have stood up and
proclaimed what was right when che men around them have foiled to do so
Examples of such women of cou rage include Dr:mpadi In the llindu epic,
the J.Juhablmraca, who stood up and challenged lhc cldcri. of llastinapur
when they had allowed shameful scenes to occur ut the court, P;nlma in the
hi.btory of Shi' i Isltun, who stood up and maJe a public appeal when the
people of Medina had ~lhered around the house of her hm.hand 'Ah aoJ
were threatening him (seep. 443); Fatima's daughter, Zaynab, who, h,l\in~
seen most of her fumiJy killed and herself taken captive, stood erect before
che governor of Kufa and Caliph Yazld and pur chem co shame; and Talunh.
in Bnbi and Baha'i history. who Stood up at a t.'Onfcrcnce of the Bahls
wlcJ10ut her veil and proclaimed the dawn of a new day and the ahrotatlon
of the Islamic di,spensation, Such :1rche~·pal patterns which nm counter 10
 11. ARt:IIETYP£, MYTII ANO Tit£ SACRl:.lJ 295

the prcvruling social nom1s ciin he aeti\l:Hcd when exceptional conditions

pre,·ail. The example of Zaynab was frequenlly Invoked by Shi'l women in
Iran durin~ the 1979 Revolution. Paradoxically, the example of her
oounterpan, Tahirih, was invoked by the Baha'i women of Iran who were
suffering persecution and even execution <luring and after the same
revolution
There arc many other examples of olternativc archetypes being
available withjn a reli~ion. 1a Sbi'i Islam, Lhe prevailI~ archetype is of the
Imams who meekly and patiently endured persecution and martyrdom at
the hands of their enemies. During the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the
alcemati"e paradjgm of the third Imam, Husa)'Tl, who rose up against liis
enemies and fought them, was invoked by tile revolutionary mobs on the
streets. Sometimes alternative archetypes exist within the same holy figure.
Jesus is usually represented as meek and forgiving of humanity's sins. Yet
iliose who wish to play a more socially active role can model themselves on
the Jesus who stood up against injustice and overturned the tables of the
money-lenders in the Temple.
The examples of the resurrection of Cl1rist and the cull of the Virgin
Mary given above have been taken from the history of Christianity. The
sru11e twin processes (Lhe accretion of legendary details due to pious
elaboration and ilie more subtle and bjdden tendency to rec-<1st Wstory into
powerful myiliic modes) have been at work in the history of other religions
also. However, less scholarship has been devoted to unravelling these
threads. We can only suggest in outline what has occurred. Many scholars,
for example, consider the figure of Krishna in llindui.s m to be a non-
historicaJ myth. Others, however, looking at the earliest accounts of the life
of Krishna, consider that he may well h,l\<e been a historical figure who cook
pan in a dynastic dispute a~ outlined In the earl)' books such as ilie
Mahabharata. The story of this figure was then elaborated and probably
also merged with other legends, until the more fully elaborated versions of
the story appear In later books. One can trace a series of more and more
elaborate renderings of the story: from the /1/ahabharn.ca (written between
the tlurd century BCE and ilie iliird century CE), to the Vishnu Purana (fiftl1
century CE), to tlle Bha~a~ata Purcina {ninth century CE).... Each
succeeding version includes more and more miraculous and fobulous
material. The birth and early years of Krishna's llfe become filled with
even cs that prove his superhuman character. His later years become replete
'"1th incidents of fighting and defeating great monsters and fiendish
enemies. The number of his wives multiplies rapidly. reachin~ ilie figure o{
16,000 in the Bhagacaca Purana."

MYTII ANO 1'f OOERNITY

One of the fcalUres of the modern world is the m:tnner in which the
advances in our knowledge of the cosmos have swept away the meaning of
29C, (;ONC; EPTl ' AI ASl'l\l"TS 0~ RF:I 111111\

much mythical 111atcru1I. The trmlitlonnl L'<>MllOs of \\cl>H,rn rche,ion for

cx11mplu, hnd rhe earth situated between hca\'cn 11bo\'C and hell l>t:ltm Thi,
111yl11ologic:1l 1,1mc111rc has little mea11111g for n world lhnt h.1~ ,ccn die
pl:111c1 eartl1 as phot0gr:.1pbed hy w1 orhlclnA i,:11ellite. Relll!,lon hu, li.:c11 011e
of rhe main ,•ictlms of this sh:1nenng o( myll1. The ~onpwrc~ of thl•
clirfcrcnt religious nre ex1,rcssecl in mythologlcml pictures thut 1H:rc \'alid for
the time when thc.~c scriptures c,m1e 111to licinJ!, h111 which no longer :.1.:em
valid Some Chrii.tinns in modem times ha\'e tried io rc~pond to thh
challenl!,c. 111 particular, Rudolf Uulunann ( 1&84- 1971>) prnpo,cd u
progmmme of 'demythologizatiQn' or reinterpretation ol the myths oi
Christianity in order to make tl1em relcvont to the pre~cnt.
Modernity has tried to dem)·lholo,l!ize life aml remove humamtv from
the realm of sacred time llowever, writers such as Jung nnd Camplicll who
focus on the significance of myth and archetype strcs~ that, uJ!imately.
such endeavours could only be partly successful Myths can he dcb11sed rmd
degraded, at great psychological cost to humankind, but chey cannot be
uprooted. All that happens is that modem myths and ritual~ rertace Lhe
traditional ones, for myths and archetypes ::ire an inherent pan of the
human psyche. 1-Juman beings appear to need a reUgJous underplnnlf\~ both
co their personal and to their social lives. At the personal level. human
being.~ need 11 mythology within which LO frame their idenlllies and lhe
meaning of their lives. Ac the social le,·el, some ideology is needed to tive
people a vision 0£ their history, their present place in the world and their
future djrectlon, to act as a focal point of unity, an agreed framework for
public poliC)' and a justification for rhe public ritual~ that affirm social
cohesion. Where formal reUgJon no longer provides this underpinning,
various alternatives ha1•e evolved. At the social level, 'pseudo-reli~10ns·
such as Marxism and nationalism have been successful panly because chey
do provide an alternacive picture- a myth of history and a diwction for the
future. (See pp. 411, 480-1 and, on the role of Ci\'i.l reli~ion, pp. -t25-6.)
At the personal level, a wide variety of alternati\'es have evolved. For
many, religion has been replaced by beUef in such thing.,. as astrology. the
occult, ghosts, and UFOs. Furthermore, if one identifics a religious acth;ty
as one which involves commiunent, a mythology and rituals, then m1111y
activities of people in che \Vest have become endowed wich 'implicit
religion· ... Some psychotherapy g roups and sdf-help organizationi. su<!l1 a~
Alcoholics Anonymous run in close parallel to the way that a reUgious
group would function (they ha\'e their doctrines, their mhoos. cheir priestly
leaders and, often, ritual elements). For a much larger group of people,
following football ceams, pop groups and gi\'ing adulation co film scars have
these clements of implicit religion. They iO\·ol\'c a commitment to nnd n
'deificalion· of the object of adulation. Both individually at home and II hen
groups of fans come together, ritunls often evol\'c which have meaninA and
significance and create small pockets of 'sacred time'. \\'hat goe~ on at a pop
concert can be compared to che spirit possession that is a feature of m(lny
rcllgtons ..,
 II. ,\ROIIET\' PE , MVTII ANI) THf: SACRED 297

In lhc modem world, men and women still act out their lives by trying
to walk in lhe foot.steps of mythological g;ods; hue these god~ are now film
swrs. rock idols :ind sports heroes. M)rchic images :ind patterns still fom,
tbc basis of people's actions and sclf-im:igcs, but these are now created in
the film and tele\iSioo studios of Hollywood, London and Bombay, rnthcr
than hy religion ..,

F L'RTHER READING

The most important author in lhe area of llhe phenomenology of the sacred
is i\lircca Eliade; see, for example, his Patterns in Co mparat:iw Religion. A
gooJ guide to the thou_ght of Eliade may be found in Dudley, Rel~ion 011
'Ina/ The theoretical foundation for the importance of archetypes was laid
by Jung; see his Psycholoey and Religion. See also Campbell, The Mttsk of
the Go<is (on mythology in general) and hls The Hero with a Thousand
Faces (on the solar hero) and Turner, The Ritual Process (on rites and
liminality). The best-known Christian writer who has looked at the
question of myth i_n Christian scripture has been Rudolf Bultmann (see
Kcrygma and Myd1) ; see nlso llick, The llfyth of God fncanmte.
R ELIGION IN S OC IETY
 I .,

COMPJ\R.ATl\'E RELI G IOUS ll lSTORY

OST or TH£ WORLD RELIOIONS EITHER have origins lost in antiquity or

bt:i?an more recently m, heterodox i,ects within older religious traditions.
For this latter, newer type oi religion, I shall. in this chapter, atrempt co
outline some features of Its development from its origins until it emerged
from ils 'parent' tradition to become an independent reli~oo.
Although the histories or the various
religions have taken very different courses
and, because they appeared lit such widely
varying places and times, they have shown ·-·
markedly different fearures, there are some a,...
commom themes. (See also the timeline on
pp. 302.)

TH E FOUNDERS OF TIIE
RELlGJONS

The history or the world's religions is usually

linked to a prophet-founder figure who hold:,
a pivotal position in the religion. In the newer
religions, the identity of the central figure is
in little doubt. In Christianity, Islam, and
Buddhism, the founder's identity - JeslllS,
Mubamm"d, and the Buddha respectively - is
clt:ar. The Baha'i Faith had two founders, the Depiction of Krishnn nnd R:idhn
Bab and Baha'u'llah, of whom the latter is the (his playmnte and lover who Willi n
more important. lo some religions, however, cow-girl), pl•)1nl! with n yoyo. In
VnJshnovite bJu<kti IUnduhm, lhe
particularly the older religions, the centiral lhcmc or the love between these two
figure is not so clear-cut. Judaism, the oldest Is no allegory for tl1e love of the
religion in the Western theistic tradition, has indMdual soul for God. Pahari
a ~tri ng of major prophets goin~ b:ick over mlnature, nineteemh cenlury.
several thousand years: Noah, Abraham,
Moses. as weU as many minor prophets. Howe,•er, of these, Moses, as the
be:u-er of the Law from God, ha.<. a special place. Hinduism, the oldest of the
lndiao rehgiom,, has scriptures goin~ back more than three thousand years
301
J02 llEl,W ION IN SOC,: l~;TY

Chronology of Religious Events in the Middle East and India

Religion in India Religion in the Middle Ea.st

1500

l'tnod "' !lit """ c. I300 01 fmtl

c.l l lO No!ti in~ uodls
- c.11 OCI Zo..au,r
1000

dOO - - cJl6 Omructiao al m1 r,..p1,: 1t1t1 of

811ddba and Naha-nra •Yfd SOO luy!Go,111 apll'tlr, of dlt Jlldnoi
som,timt 111 dril period
c.<IOO -

C-nion o11inc Asllob c.1,0 -

c.100 -
0 __., c.4 lift of Jts11s Chns1
-c.30
,100 - ----. 70 Dts1runioll GI l«l>od Ttmpl,

S00
510
- 632
7SO
0ta1h of !Ila.bra c.120

1500 IS f l 11111 ol dw ldeffllllJOO

Ou1h of Gu11 Nanalc 1139

1111 llft of Bm'o'llah

1191

2000
 I.?. COM!'.\lu\Tl\'E RELIGIOUS IIISTORY 30.1

but rhe seers or iaages who wrote these down nre nor vcnerarcd. In
\'aishm1,•i1c llinduhm, hO\\t.WCr, there is the concept of a line of a\'aLars -
mcarnallons ot' the deity - who come to earth to restore ri~hteousness.' lt
i~ prohnhle that, heh ind the mnss of myth and legend, some of these avatars
were hhLoric:tl flgurcs. The most recent of them is Krishna. ' lie is said LO
have ~iven che ceaching conc.ained in the 8/w.4c,vad Gita. one of the most
imporcant nnd inOoenti:il books in Hinduism .
•\ sur\'e}' of the li,·es of Lhe prophet-founders of Lhese religions re\'eals
se,·ernl common themes and parcerns. It is clearly easier to compare the
II\ cs of the prophets-founders of lhe more recent religions, rather than of
~uch fil!urns as Krishna who arc shrouded in le~end. and so it is on these
more recent historical fi~ures thaL I shnll concentrme.'
These figures came from a wlde ,•a.rlety of ~oclal backgrounds. The
Buddh:i was a prince; Moses had a royal uphrinA[ng; Baha'u'llah was from a
family of the nobility in !run; Muhammncl and the Bnb were from merchant
families ; .Jesus \\':JS from a humble artisan background. Even those who
came from an ele,•ated socinJ background, however, ac some stage in their

Greek Onhodox icon from Cypn1s sho"inl\ four scene.• from the life of Christ· (frc,m tnp
lcil) birth prescntntion at the temple, baptism hy SL John the Roptl~l (note the desc.,nt
c,f th<: do,·c Crom hcn,·cn), and m,nsAgunulon (while tllu diSclplcs were slc,cping)
JO-I Rf.LIC.ION IS SOCIET\'

Ufe lose th eir wealth and hecamc one of tho poor nnd desp1M:d of the world
The Buddhu left his palace and wealth and became a wandcrin~ fu-L'CllC,
Moses was forced to tlee from {I life of lllJmry in the Egyption royal family.
13ah::i'u'llah lost all of his Inherited wealth when he joined llw movcmcm of
the lkib, his predecessor
Miraculous stories :ire rclnted nboul the h1rth nnd childhood of each of
these fl11ures and here myth is i111possihlc to ::ivoid. Common feature..,
include some form of di~;nc intervention in 1he process of conception nnd
the infam ~peaking from lm,ide tht.: womb or lmmedi:Jtely after birch and
possessinll a miraculous de.llrce of prescience and wisdom It is co..y co
dismis~ these stories as pious exaggeration and myth-m:iklng hut thm
would be to miss the point. As discussed in ch::ipter 11, what the authors oi
these stories were erring to create was not an empirical record - they were
not trying to do the work that a video camera would do in our day; rathcr,
it would he closer co the m11rk to think of them as making :1 theolo~ical
statement, to escabll,h that the birth of this child wa,, oo ordinary birth. Jt
was the birth of a supra-mundane bein_l\. The only way to portray this was
to describe the event as a supra-mundane one.• Since such points hnve
already been discussed in chapter 11, l shall, In these account:., ignore
questions of the demarcation between history and myth as far as possible
Despite ll1ese stories of birth :111d infant miracles, it would nppenr that
these figures grow to adulthood leadin.l\ ordinary IJves. There 1s often a
precursor, a holy figure who rccotoizcd the prophet-founder when the

a b
Tut!. IU:C£11'T m REVl!.LATION: a) \loses and the Burning Bw.h. l),;Utll from • fre.-co •l the
Ourn-Europ0s ,ynut;o{tue (third century. Syria). Some 1Ulcien1 ")'tlll~)lucs u1>rcar 10 have
bad such deplcdoos of human beings. laler considered to be ~ainM the Jewl\h lloly Law
(see E.,:odus 20:4. Demeronom.v -1: 16-18). h) \luhamtru1d rcceh-int lhe re,·elo1ion from
the anl\ill Gabriel A minin1ure l'rom n Turki<h manuscript
 l ! COMl',\IL\Tl\' E RELIGI OUS Ill STORY J05

laucr w1Ls only a child or who prophesied to rhe people that his advent was
1mnuncnL For the Buddha, the predecci..~or wm, the monk Al,ita (Kala
l)e,·ala}; for .lesus, it w:is John the Bapuist; for Muh:unru:id, there is the
~p,soclc of B:ihira, the Christian monk who recog,nized ~luhnmmad's stntion
,,hen he was only eight years old; for tllle 13ab, It was Shaykh Ahmad al-
.\hsn'i nnd Snnid Rnzim Rashci , the leaders of lhe Shaykhi sect, which
pa\'cJ the way for the Bab; for Balrn'u'llab, it was the Bob Wmsdf.
For each of these figures, there is one parcicularly SiWJifieanc event that
appears to sign(LI the st:Lrt of his mfoisuy. It is as though bdore this
initlat0ry e\'enc, they were ordinary men and then they became religious
itioms ln the case of .Moses, it was the episode of the burning bush; in the
cai.e of tht! Buddha. it was his enlightenment under the Bo tree; for Jesus,
the deseenl of the Spine of God in the form of a dove Hghcing upon him after
his bapti,,m by John; for Muhammad, it was the appearance to him of the
An,i!el Gabriel on the side of Mount llirra; for the Bab, It was a vision of rhe
head of the Imam Husarn; in the case of Baha'u'llah, it was a Maid of
Hea\'en who appeared before him when ht: lay ill chains in a dungeon in
Tehran. (See pp. 306-8.)
Most of these figures appear, following this initiatory experience, Lo
have had doubts or to have felt the need for a period of solitude during
which they prepared themselves for their mission. The Buddha struggled
\\1th Mara, the personiflcadon of evil, before his
enlightenment. Aherwards, he spent days pondering
whether to bring the truth that had come to him tO the
people of the world. Jesus spent forty days in the desert,
I......,I ,'I: ;-,. .
...,

during which he struggled with Satan. Muhammad had 1 I 111

grave doubts about the nature of his vision and sought
reassurance from his wife. 7.oroaster is reported to have
.... ' I I
'-.!
spent time in the wilderness. Baha'u'llcth spent two y~rs
at the scan of his ministry In che mounrnins of
11 1
I ·
'Il :,....
l I:
Sulaymaniyya. much of that time on his own. 11 11 'I'
II I I I , -
following the lnitiat0ry evenL these figures did not go
out immediately and proclaim their mission co the world. I' I I' 1• '
I
R.-ithcr, they gathered :tround themselves a small group of 11 I I /
I-Ir . ..
_. ~-: ·.
disciples. Jesus gathered the twelve apostles; l>luhannnad . I
c-,lleeted around him a small group or followers, including
Khadlja, 'Ali, Abu Bakr, and 'Umar; the Buddha gathered
-
his bhikkus (monks) around him and began co teach
them; the Bab called the group of eighteen clisciples that
The room in Sbiroz in
~thered around him che Letters of the Living: while which the flab Jcclanxl
Baha'u'll:ih is reporcc.-d to have declared his mission to a his mission. This building
b-mall group of follower~ in th~ garden or Ridvan outside wns dt<l<troyed by lhe
Ba$dad. le was only at a later srage chat these prophe1- autboriti~ shortly after
the Islamic Revolution of
founder;, of new religions made o more public declaration
1979.
of their missions by the start of their public preaching.
The relationship of these figures to the established
;l{)6 RELIOlt>N l'.11 80(:11-. rY

f:od, qf the propllct.jo,mdcrs ..-x,,.--n..-11<-cs o ., uin1~vm1 •.,,,_

.,.,
wluc/1 /u, rCl!artL• a,1 tlot ~turt r1f lu.s 111111!.srf'.\'
MOOIES
Now Muses wa.• ket:r,inlt the Ouck of hi~ father-in-la" , Jethro,
chc r,ricsc of Mtdrnn; nnd h., led hl• Oock co the W<!lol.'olr.lc nf ch.:
TIIE START OF Tm: wildeme~s, nnd came to Ih1rch. th" muuntnln or Gt><I AnJ
the ongd o f the Lord nppc11rcd Ct> him In a flamen! fire nuc of
MINISTRY the mldsc of a hush , 1utd he l,,okcd, und lo the bw,h "'""
bunHn/l_, ycc It was not c.-ousumcd. .\tlll .\106t:& Mid, ' I wtll tum
nslde ond see this /l_rc3C <ijlht, why th~ bush Is 001 burnt.'
When 1he Lord saw that he turned aside to see, C'.od called IO
him ouc or the bu.•h, 'Moses, Mose,' ' And he •~Id, ' Herc nm I.'
Then he snid, 'Do not come near; put off your sho.:,, from
your feet, for the plnc.-c on which you arc stnndn,g " holy
~round.' And he sa,cl ' I am the God of vour father, the GoJ or
Abraham , the God of li;sae, and the God or Jacoh.' And Mo,,cs
hid hi$ face; for he was afraid to look :it God (£.1:odw• J I~)
Tll£ BUDDIIA
At th:tt rime the blessed Buddha dwelt ftt l' ruvcla, on the
honk nf tho river Nerang.1ra, nt thcfoot of the llodhl cree (m.-e
of wisdom) , jus, alter he httd b<,come S:imbuddha And the
bk-sscd Buddh:i snt croo;s·lcggcd 111 th<! foot of the BoJhl tr~-.:
w1lntortuplcdly during ,even Jays. cn1oylJ11! the bltss or
;,n1aocipatlon. Then the Ole,sed One (al the eod of thl!.<c
seven days) during the first w:uch of the ni4ht fixed hi~ mind
up0n the Chain of Causation. in direct and in ren:rse order:
' From Ignorance spring the srunkharns, [etc - M:c the Chain
of Mutunlly Dependent Orlginntlon , Pruw~,c,.Samutpa,/.u ,
p. l 9.J J ••• Such I,, the ce.sallon of this whole ma,,• of
suffering.' Knowing this the Blessed One then on that
occasion pronounced this solemn uuernnce: 'When the real
nature of IUlin,its becomes clear to the ardent, med1tntill)!
Bmhmann, then oil his doubts fnde oway, since he rcnh<c.
what is thnt nature and whnt i~ enusc.'
Theo tbe Blcs.cd 0110 during the mldJh.: watch of the
night iixed his mind (upon the Chain or Csusatton) . .
Knowinl( this the lllesscd One theo on that ncca~1on
pronounced chis solemn u1cerance, 'When the res! n:irure of
rhlnJt.• becomes clear 10 the ard<mt, ml'<litatint Bmbm.,na.
then all his duulus fade nw11y, ,Ince lw ha, unJcr•ttx.J th<'
cessation of causation.'
Theo the Bl&s1etl One durhll( the tlnrtl \\at..:h or the n11\11t
foxed his nund [upon tl1c Chain or C;1usutionl Know,nJ! th,,
the Blessed One then nn chnt cx-ca,ion pmnoun,-..>J thi•
solemn um, ronc-c: ·\\1-icn the nwl n:oture of thinf!', h<!comc,
clear to lhc 11rdcn1, mcditahn!l Rrnhmuna h" st.ind, ,
JJ.pdling the hosL>, of Mam, like the ~un thnt illumln,m:.., the
•k)' '
Then the l:llcss.ed One. at th1: end 0 1 th~" ....,,..,n da, ,.
arose from thnt ~rote of meditation. 11nJ \\Cnt from the foot 111'
che Bodhi tree to the .\j1.,r,aln banynn troo .\nil when he
hnd rcnchcd it, he s3t cmss-lc)!ged at th<: fnnc of 1hc ,\l?Jlr,:ila
 12: l:OMP.\ll.\Tl\'E Rt:LllllOUS IIJSTOltY 307

b11oyen crcc u11lntern.1ptedly durln)\ seven dnys, enjoying tbu

bibs o( umru1ulpatlo11. (Mu/11:&(l(,g/J<1, lu Rhys Du,·lds ttnd
OIJeoherJl, l'mtl)'CI Tu-.:ts, pnrt l, 11p. 73-'J)
JcstfS
Theu JteSu.s cwne Croan Galilee ll> the Jordan to John, to be
baptlzcd by him. Job.n would have prevented hlm, saying, 'I
need 10 be hapuzed hy you, and do you come to me?' But
Jesus answerL-d him. 'Let it be so now; for thus it is fining for
u.s 10 fulfil all righteousne.ss.' Then he consented. /\nd when
Jesus \\'US baptized, he went up immedit1tdy from the water,
and behold. tlu; hcal·o:ns were opened und he s:m the Spirit
of God de.sccndlng llke n dove. and alighting on him; and lo,
a ,·oicc from bc:wen, &1)iDg, "This is my beloved Son. with
whom I am well pleased.' (Mc,uheu,3:13-17)
Ml!lWLIIAll
He (Gabriel( came 10 me ... with a coverlet of brocude
whereon was some writinl\, and s.iid, ' Read!' I s:tid, '\\'h:11
shall I read"' he pressed me with it so tiAhtly mat I thought it
\\':L< J11nth; then h" let me go and said, 'Re:ad!' I said, ·,\'hm
,hall I reaJ'( lie preS8L'O me with It :ignln so thnt I thought It
Wlb death; then he let me go and said 'Read!' I ,aid, ' \\'bat
ohall I read'.>' I le pressed me whh It Lhtl third time oo thm I
thought It was death and said ·Read!' I said. 'What then shall
I re:id!' - and this I s:iid only 10 deliver mysell from him, le1;t
hC! should do the smnc 10 me ngtiin. lie said:
Read in the name of 1hy Lord who created, \\'ho
created mnn of blood co:\!lulatcd Read• Thy Lord is
the most bcncfic,;,m, Who rnu!lht by the pen, Taul\ht
that which they knew not un10 men. [Qur<rn 96, 1-5 ]
So 1 read ii, and he departed from me Now none o( God's
cre11tures wtis more hutcful to me 1han nn (._'CStailc) poet or 11
man pos.,o,s.~cd. I could not even look rH them l thought, \\'oc
ls me, poet or J)OSS<JSSCd -Never shnll Quraysb say this of me!
I wlU Ao 10 tl1e t0p of me mountain and throw myself down
tbat I may kiU myself and ~ rest. So I went forth to <.lo so
and then when I was midway on the moum.1in I heard n
voictl from hcrwen snying, -0 Muhnmmad' th11u an rhe
apostle, of God nnd I om Gnbrld.' I raised my hcuJ townnls
heaven to sec(\\ ho \\"Us speaking), aud lo. G11brld ln the form
of II man wlLh ftct a.,irlde the horizon, saying, 'O
Muhammad! thou arl the asp0:,LI« of Cod :ind I am Cobriel.' I
stood l13zin,t at him men I began to turn my face away
from him, hu1 1owurds whn1c,•cr reAion of 1he sky I lookc<l, I
snw him as before (lbn lshnq, Si rat Rai<ttl Allah , tmnslntcd
a.• Gulllaumc, TheLifcqfMu/1ammad, pp 106-7)
BAuA°r'LI.AII
During the day• I lay in me priwn or Tihrnn, though the
galling weight of the chnin~ and the s1enoh-filled nlr allowed
:>le but little •lcep, ,till In tho,,e lnfrequc,11 moments of
slumber I felt as I( something flowed from me crown of My
.101, RF.I.ICHO~ l'I S<WIFTY

hca,I ,wcr ~ly hrca.i. """' n, 11 n111th1y 111rrcn1 1hn1

r,rl-clr,lrnwrh h•dt 11J'l(m rhl! <·•nh from tit~ "'"'ml! nf" lofr,
mounrnin F.,cry lhnh ul \ly hody """Id ,L, " t.sull, Ix ...:t
afire ..\t su~h mor1u:11t~ \ly tu111tu~ rc"·U-.:J whm 110 rm111 cunM
lll:ar tu hcolT
\\'hllc cn!lulfod In mhula1lo11, I hcarJ a m1>,1 ,..,n,lr.,u,, ,
mo.st "'""' ,·nu:<:, mll,n!l ul~,w \ly ht:nd Tumm~ \h fa,..,, I
beheld u Mmdcn - chc cmhodnncnt nf the rcmcmhmnw o(
the n,mc of My l,orJ •u•J}l.'ndcd on LIil air hdon; ~k );.,
rcjmL~d \\"8~.hhc 111 her n.;ry ~nuJ th:1t her tJountcnam.-~ ,hone
\\Ith the onwmcm uf rhc ituotl-plcn,,urc oi t:od. and h.r
checks ,itlo"cd w1l11 Lhc br1Alu111.,,-s of Lhc .\11-Mcrctlul
Betwixt cnnh nod heaven she w:i, rats10~ (I ~.,.u which
cnroth·:ued the heart.• and minds of men Shl' wn., ,mpnrttn~
10 both ~Ir lnwnrd and rmwr heln1; tidin!l• "hkh rcJ<d<'<=<l \h
soul, nnd the i..1uls o( God's honored ... na111, Pol111111~ ,-J1h
ht:r tiugcr u.1110 My heat!, she adt!rc-.scd nil "ho or" 111 hem en
uml all who 11rc on earth. sayml(· 'By GoJ! Thi, I, the 1.k-,.1.
Reloved of I he worlds. and )'et ye comprehend nnt. Th,s h Lh-,
Benmy nf God 11mon)IM ynu, and the power .,f llh '-<)\'~reil\Jll'\"
within vou, could vc hut untkrs11111d Th,s 1, the \l,,111n nf
Cckl and Iii, Trea,.ure, the Can>c of CoJ mod lli!. gl~~ ~nro
nil who ur" In 1he kingdom, of Re, d~tlon 110d of cruollun, tf
ye be of them 1ba1 perceive." (Words of l:larut'u·nall, 4uOL"'110
Shoghi Effondi. God Posses By. pp 101-2)

religion of their times is of considerable interest. Each of them appeared

a~ainst the bac~round of a particular eswbl.ishcd religious tradJtlon and
most of those with whom they were in conroct were also from chis reli~iou..,
backgrow1d. This predetermined much of che Jan.~uagc, cosmolOJtV ru,d
mythology used by each prophet-founder He had to make hb me-.sa~e
familinr enough to be understandable; therefore, he used the samt::
cosmology and basic vocabulary as the escabllshe<l reU~ion. But at che i.amc
time, he brought a teaching th:it was sufficiencly radical nnd innovatory to
cause the ~prlnging up of a new religion. ln brief cheu, he wok the symbob,
cosmolocy and mythology of the old reli~ion and recast them ,iµvm~ them a
new meaning in order to purvey .a new message. Thus the Buddha u,ed the
hmguage and metaphysi.cal assumptions of lhndulsm; both J~u~ and
Muhammad launched thei r tcnclhing from a .fudaic base; the tc;ichm~s of
lhe Bab and Baha'u'Uah emerged from an Ii,lamic background and uM:d lhi.
symbols common l O Judaism, Chriscianlcy and Islam. lntere~tiJ'Wy, thh
cloaking of 1hc new mcssugc in d1e garb of the old mcani. thnt, for ,ome
time, outsiders looked upon it a.s just a ~ect or mo\ emcnt within the old
relition. Its potential to hecome a new religion only gmdually emer,4e<l
The full implic:ition of lhc message of the prophet-founde rs is further
concealed by the pattern in which they pre.-.ente<l their ti;acl11n¢;. Durin~
the early period in their ministries, they gh·e main!~· ethical nnd
cscl1atological ceacbing~ nml there was no lndlcatlon of any break with the
 L:! , COMPARATIVE llliLl<.:IOUS HISTORY JO'>

esrnhlished religion; they did nOt oppose its teachings or laws. h is us if e:ich
prophc1.founder wished to break lhc news of his ml~ioo lo the people
~cntly. in easy stages. \\'e coo see chis during Jesm;' preaching al"Ound
Galilee in tl1e early part of his mini:.try. Similarly, the .iarlilli,t suras of the
Qurcrn. re\'ealed during the Meccao period of Muhammad's ministry, are
on ethical and esch:itologic:il themell During the early ministry or the B:1h,
there is little imlicmion In his writings of a brcnk with ($lam. Baha'u'llah's
early "ritin,il~ :ire mostly concerned with ethics, mysticism and
explanations o( esch:itolo~·. There :ire also indic:1tions th,H the Buddha
on!~ g:1vc out ltis teaching gradually, as he felt that people were rendy for
it These 1wo faccors (the use of the symbols and terminology of the
pre,·lous established religion :ind the staged giving of the teaching) arc the
reason tliat the prophet.founder ust.Ullly appears, at first, tO be only a
refomwr of the previous religion. If one h11d come :icross Jesus preaching
111 Galilee, one might wt:11 have thou/\hl lhat b.: was just a Je1\ ish. rdormer:
~luhammad was considered by many to be prc.v.iching a monotheism similar
10 the Judaism that was familiar to th<i people of Mecc:1 and Medina;
i.imllnrly, Lhe Bab was thou~t at t1rst merely to be claimlng leadership of
the Shaykhi school of Shi'i Islam.
Enm in the early period of their mlniMrics, however, these prophet·
iounders were usually critical of the leaders of the established religious
tradition, considering them co he pen·er-ters or corruprers of the previous
n,Ugion The Budcllrn was se,·erely crilical or the Brahmlns of his time.
calling them worse than dogs in some respects.• Similarly, a whole chapter
of St .\laulu..-w ·s Oo.spcl recounts how Jesus inveighed against the .Jewish
reHl\l0\15 leaders. calling 1hem hypocrirns anti corrupters of the Jewish
religion · Tn the Qur'an, we find criticism of Jewish and Christian religious
leaders.' Both the Bab and Baha'u'llah accused rcligiou.s leaders of heing the
main cau.-.e of the people rejectlnj\ the successil·e prophets of God when
they rtppear'' (For more on this suhject, see pp -129-J 1.)
Then. at a particular point in their ministries, each of these figures
makes a decish·e break with the previous, established reiil\ion, re,·ealing
tl1eir tme natures as not juM refom1ers of the old rdigion but us rencwcrs of
reli~on itseu·. There were a nw11ber of incidencs in the life of Jesus, such ai,
hb breaki.n~ of the Sabhath of the Jewish Low by curin~ a man of his
lameness 1n Jeru,,alem. During the second year after his lli/\ht to ,\lcdlna,
~luh:immad suddenly chan,aed the direction in which prayers were said.
from bein~ towar~ Jerusalem to bcin~ towards the K.1'b:1 in Mccc:1. Thii,
!>igDalletl a delinlte break ,, 11.b the other monotheists of Medina. the Jewish
tri.bes The Bah cau$ed the fact that he wa~ to inaugurate a new dispens.1rion
.tnd aholish the Islamic one to be announced !It n conference of his followcr1>
at Badasht. at which his leading female d1sciple, Tahirih, appeared um·eiled.
At nhout the same time, he announced at his trial in Tabriz time he was the
~fahdi whom ,\luslims were expcclin,!).. Bah11'u1lah made dear to lus
followers; 1ha1 he was initfatin,il a new reli~ion when he issued a challenAe to
.\zal, announcing that he was the one foretold by the Bab
:110 ltF,l.lnl01' I'/ Stlt:IF.T\'

Table 12. 1 LI\ c" of 1hc Founder~ oi Workl Rcli~iun,,

Ill 1>011.\ Mosl, ,11'1·, \1 'll\M\L\ll Im 11.,n H\It ,c'll.\11

Fn1u Hl""ffR(hl 1\•dt:t John the llnhirn :-.huykh ,\hmad, Th, ltnh
1i11ni,1 S11n1iJ K.111m

,\uJl<,I"'
Enq Fnlf,!hlcn- The The ,·1,1011 nf \"t,1011 of
l llt.C1Jl1 T/\ r,!,4 j
1 llll:111. burulnl\ J 1!",L'Clll '''""" the huii.l the \1.uJ
111-.1,1·1,1· undt:r l3o bmh of tb" C,abrid uf Imam c,I lt~l\ en
Lrec t.lt)\'C Uu-..trn Ill "
dun~"'"
m Tchmn
(;.1THE.RJM: t'lr.,t A,1ron "l\,d\'e KhmHJa. b~lm·cn !>m,111
t)f FIRST ~roup (Ir disclplt.-., ·.\If .•\hu 1..-:ller. l\ruup or
l)ls<'.11'1 r., monks llokr o(t.b~ inllowcr-.
I.Mni: m R1d,1m
f,M1kn
PERJn11 1,r Meditated Forty Period Tuo ye.tr-
!«>f.lTl'OE over his dny,~ in of douht in hills ni
A.VO ootrlJ'r course w1ldcmt:~s SulAYlll;tn·
of ac:llon l)'YR
llRt.A~ wrru Rrcnl<inl! Chon!!e of (:<lnfcrcnce Ch:aUenAc
1'1\t.l"l<ltrS the din.--ction of Bada•ht to .\zal
Rftl<.H•N' Sabbath of prayer ohCIU,Ju:,
l>Jruruc la"
Ruu;ru; ,\.'\I) m. Pht1rnoh Pontius f.mrx,rors Shah <lf Sh11h oi Iran,
RF.Ll(JIOl.:S fothi:r. Pilntc, of Pcr.,111 I run . Sultnn nf
Lt..\lltK,I TU the king, Jt:\\iSh anJ Iranian Tutkcy,
\\'IIU\I l'CBl.ll' s nJ roliJ!.IOU.\I Byzanuum rcU~ow. ruler.. ui
IH;;CLAKATIU' many leaders leaders l,;uropc, the
IL\llF. brahmins Pupc.
other
reli~ous
lcnJcr.
PRmasE UF Mnicre,·a The Rewrn of The ~lahdl He "hum httUr<!
I turtl\E Buddha Messiah .lcsu_:-.. and rerum Go,1 shnll \1nnifo•t·
~\'IOl'R of Jt'l<tL' m3kc acion of
nu,nifost r.od
]J,.'TEILSAL L>evadatta, Maki:114 Judas lbn Ubary Oroup ot ,\za.l's
OPl'OSITIOS the tht: Iscariot and th!' three Op(lCNllOn
Ruddh1t's .ll<llden Munafiqun d1sc1plc~
cousin cnlf
Ex 1f.H-'AL Pharaoh JC\\iSh Leader~ Reh~iou,, Rdh!.tOU~
Ol1'0SITIO~ rehwou,; oi~I= k-adcn. lcai.l.:r., anJ
leaden. and Stme Sc;u~ m Iran
in lrnn .ind Turke1·
~IIC,MTIOS \\'andcrinj\ Ml,l\mtlon J<Jumc,·s MIJtrut1on lnu,nw.J l,;_'U]., 10
with 01 /;II Paul from Ma-.:a exile Ra~hJaiJ,
monk, lsmelite, and 10 Mcdlnn \\ithin f.Jirnc anJ
nm oi Peter 10 Iron .\kka
Egnn Rome
 11 CUMPAR.\Tl\'t,: REL.IGIOUS IIISTORY JU

lnterestln,gly, thi:< hreak with the established religion usually occurs

rdall\'ely late in the mi,,sion of the propluet-foundcr. Following t.hii. break
";th the pre\'lous religion, the prophet-founder be~ins to set out those
ru,pccu, of his rcllgion thm ure different from and conflict wi!h the previous
reli~on; for example, the distlnctive laws and rimal~ of his religion. The
kiter ~fodirum surns of the Qur'an are , for example, those conmining the
laws of lslnm. It is the writings of Baha'u'Llah from the period when he was
in Akka thac contain the new laws and social teachings of his religion. This
process sets the sett! on the break with the previous religion.
Thus. ll1e ceacb.h-.gs from I.he earl>· part of the miniSU')' of the prophet-
founder tend to be the easier. less confronrndonal ones and the teachings
and lll\,s from the lat(!r pan of the 011nist.ry tend to be those that are most
different from the previous reli~ion and therefore more difficult for people.
Th.is tendency mny be interpreted in various ways. While followers of a
rel:i)tioo would see this development as part of the spiritual strate~y of the
prophet-founder, demonstrating his vision :md spiritual awareness, a more
critical ~cholar miglu interpret this change as being the result of a change
in the prophet's own self-understanding or perhaps in his a5$essment of
"hat can be achicvL-d, cspcclallr after encountering opposition or success.
Most of the prophet-founders also announced their missions to tl1e
secular and religious leaders of their time: Moses to Pharaoh; the Buddha to
lus father. King Suddhod8lla, to King Bimbisara as well as to many
Brahmins and gurus; Jesus to Pontius Pilate (albeit only implicitly) and to
the Jewish ri?ligious leaders; ~luha.mmnd to the religious leaders of Mecca
and, according to some bisLOries, to the Sassanian King of Persia and the
Byznntine Emperor; the Bab to die king and the Muslim religious leaders in
lmn; Baha'u'Lla.h 10 several oriental and European monarchs, including

Two ~cene-< from the life of the Bmldhn On the left, the Buddha enleni Parinin:nn:i (the
usunl ,..a)' of rdcrring to the death of the Bmldhn ). The SL'CnC on the right mny depict nn
aucmpt made to murder the Buddha. The a;,sa.ss.ins await him behind a wall.
31:? RF.1,1(.IO;,, 11' SOCIETY

Queen \'icioriu and ~;mpcror Napoleon Ill, us well a.~ to ~lw,llm rchitiow,
lender<; and the Pope.
II is also usually at ahout this suige in ltb mb,ion that each prophet•
founder sets u1, the promise of nn csch:1tologicol ,.1viour us ,,ell a., of un
eschatological cvcnc. In \Vc.swrn rcll~ions, the cscharolog1c:1l e,·u11 "
usuall> described as the end of the world. the Day of Jud~cment. The
cschniolo!(lcal fi~urc vnries. Jud:1ism promises a Messiah, preceded hy the
return of Elins: JcstLs foretold his own return rn the world, In Islamic
trad1t1on, ~luhammad spoke of 1the comin~ of the Mal1di, accompanied hy
1hc rcwrn of Jesus. In the Enstcm religions, the eschntolo~ieal c\l.mt if> the
end of the n~c of 1.larkness. the Kall Yuga, and the sturt of n Gc1ldcn .\Jtc_
Krishna rromised the cominj! of a future avarnr, whenever there 1~ :1
'dcdlnc iu righteousness'. Gouw mo Ouddho l>pokc of the coming Clf ,1 future
Buddha, tl1c Maitrcya. Baha'u'llah refereJ co the comin~ of a further
'Manifestation of God" in one thousand years or more (For detail~ Qf these
escbatolotlcal prophesies, see chapter 10.)
The activities of each of the prophet-founders set off a reaction m the
form of internal and external opposition to them and their teachin~ The
internal opposition arose from \\ithin the ranks of the disciplt:.., and
followers and was an act of betrayal caused LL~ually hy motives of fear,
Jealousy or envy. Devadau.a, the Buddha's own cousin, sought co kill him
out of Jealousy. after failinj\ to win others over to his own reh~iou!'-
lcaJcrship. The brother of Moses, Aaron, betrayed him "hile he was away
on ~lount Sinai receivinA the Law, and caused the Goldtm Calf lo he made
as an idol "' Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus's chosen cwcl\'c disciples, hctra}·ed
him to che authorities. \\'hen Muhammad wm, in ~1edlna, a ,~roup of tho:.c
who called themselves Muslims strove bard to undermine his posirion :ind
betray him. They nrc called the Munafiqun (hypocrite,). Em•y undoubtedly
motivated their leader, 'Abdullah ibn Ubayy, as he would probably bani
heen the leading figure in Medim1 had it not been fo r Muhammad's Arrival
there. A group of Lb.tee of the &h's earliest disciples left h1111 and went o,·er
to the side of his opponent out of jealousy cowards the Bah',; leadin.~
disciple: Azal, Baha'u'llah's own half-brother, sought to betray and kill him
out of jealousy for Baha'u'llah's position of leadership. which would
othcnvise have been i\zal's.
The external opposition to thei.c prophet-founder figure!. occur1.-d
because, through their tcacbin~. they had each challengeJ the social order.
Those with the greatest vested interest in the maintenance of that order,
c.he rulers and the reli*ous leaders, opposed chem. ~lo:;es wru. uppo>t:d by
Pharaoh; Jesus by the Jewish religious leaders who eventually c:iused his
death. The Bhaga<Vad Giro and the ,\Ialwblmruta describe the great b:utlc
that Krishna had to fight to restore rt~hteousness: the Buddha and h1~
disciplch were subjected co great persecution and mi~rcprcscnt:1tiun. 11
Muhammad was opposed by the leadillA l"lj\ures in Mecca because hb fi~ht
against idol-worship threatened the main source or the tdwn·s prospenty;
d1e Bab was opposed by the religious lenders und the :.1.tttc lll Iran; while
 12 COMPAlt.\TI\'t,; RELIGIOUS lllSTOll\' JIJ

B.1ha'u'llah faced the opposition of the religious ::ind secular authorities of

both lrnn anti the Ouoman Turkish Empire.
There L~ often also an element of mi)l.ration involved in the li\•es of the
founders of the greuc religions or in the history of the religions immediately
aiter chclr deaths, largely caused by extcn1al opposition. The archet)'J)t.11
miiir:11ion in !.he Bible was that of Abraham from Chaldea to Plllestine;
Moses migrntcd with the lsrnclitcs Out of Etypt after his cl11sh with Pharaoh;
the Buddha was in a constam state of migration with his disciples. Jesus
moved the centre of his ministry from Galilee to Jerusalem but the main
mitration in the early history of Christianity occurred ttfter the crucifixion
when Paul and Peter rook the messaj\e of Christ t0 Rome and the Gentile
world aJ'wr !.he Jews had rejected it. Muhammad migrated to Medina alter
the opposition of the Mcccans; Baba'u'llah was sent by the lranian and
Onomnn ~vemments into several successive exiles from Iran, fintdly
coming to .\kka in Palest.inc. (Seu p. Jl-1.)
It is of mteresc to consider the reasons that established religious leaders
h(l\'e given for rejecting the prophets-founders. There are again grenr
similarlcies here. The Jewish religious leaders rejected Jesus because he did
not fie their idea of what the )ilessiah would do and becatL~e they believed
the law of the Torah to he unriltcrahlc. Jewish :md Ch ris1ian religious
leaders reJected Muhammad because they could not accepl that he was a
prophet of God; moreover, they did not bClic,re that there would be 11
funher le:ichint from God. SimUarly, 13::ilw'u'llah's claim to be r.he promis\:<l
~miour of all of these reli,!ions was rejected by Jewish, Christian and
Muslim religious leaders because he did not fit their idea.~ of their promised
saviour. and because of their belief tl1at their own relil!iou:. scripture:; :1n:
complete and unalterable for :ill time.
There have thus bceu two common clements in these rejections. First,
the relij\.iOLL~ leaders have had preconceived and fLxed ideas of 1.he promised
smiours of their reliitions, the next prophets to come from God \\'hen the
prophet.founder fails to conform to this picture, they nijeet him. Second,
the reli~ious leaders of each religion have ;1dop1cd the position that their
religion is che last religion from Cod, their scripture the last word from Cod;
therefor<!, no other mcs:.~c could possibly come from God. Thus when the
prophec-founder hrinii~ forward a nc,, tcachin~, they oppose him The fears
o! religious leaden. for lheir social poi.ltlon and prestige mu~t nh,o be taken
into consideration
This nnnlysis of chc lives of cl1e prophet-founders of the world religions
I!. not l.ntcn<led to pru,i, over the iact d1at there were also great difference.\.
between theiT lives. Some, for example, were able tO overcome opposirion
and ended their lives leading their communities, while others were
overwhelmed by opposition and wer.:: put to death. Yet, nevertheless,
there does appcnr to he a certain repctirive pmtcrn in their lives thm
suMesc;; that tl1Cl>c prophct·foundcrs set about theiI mls:.ions lo similar
ways:
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 I~ COMl'AKATI\'£ Kt;LIGIOUS JIIStOR\' ,H5

"
Tm. T11f'.\ff. nr J.OGR.\TIO~ L'- Tm. UFL Of TIit l"kot1IE.T·ftt->t<x11rrcs OF' iu-.1.1raoS"S-: a) Mn.. c..~ wok the
f'.hOJren of l,ruel on n roJl!fnlion from Egyp1 to Cannan The pimure shows him lcadin)l 1hc
t,rneh,~ ,hrough 1h~ Red S.,n F'rom a manus<'ripl <>I nl-N1s11buri's Qi.,.. al-,1nMsu CStoric-. p(
1hc Prophets), Turkey, seventeenth 11en1ury h) Ak1<s, the si,c of B.1h.1'u1lah's l"-'>L pince ,,r
exile Boh•u11ah wn., c,llcd succc55lvcly t<> Bmt/,dm!, P.dimc and flnnUy to Akka, in what,..,..
then the Ot101ruu, pruvincc nl S)•lin .:) \\'hen P..,™'<-'Utlon and upl'()bhion In M~""-'• rrn,·cJ
cxl!c,<lw, MuhAmmad mi!lratcd with many uf bl> followers Crom \lcc'Ca to ~kdlnu. The picture
•h010-s the ln•ide <,( the l'rophcl\ MO>QUC, "hlch been me the rcllglm,• ,u,J polltkucl tlcntrc of
Medina while Muhammad U"',d there
-
.)J(, Rl:.LIGION IN :::omi,;n·

• pickinll a small hnnd or close Jlsciplc1, hdorc announcin~ their mis,ion

to tl1c world aL lnrgc;
• lliving the parts of their tcaehinl,\ that were easier w accept flr,t, 111.:forc
,tth·inA the more contruvc~ial paints that npprn,cd tht.: L"'t:ihh,hmcm
and were hound to cause constem:1t1on nnd opposition,
• j\ivin~ :1 promise or a fur1her saviour fi,t11re to come,

3.Jld that th1s then set off a 8imiJ:Lr paw1m or responses:

• acccpwnce by an Initially small band of disciples before o more open
proclamation was made;
• internal oppo~ition from clo:.e rcl:nh·cs o r lc2dl11~ disciple~. u,ually for
reasons of jealousy;
• 1.:xc1.:rnal opposition from the secular estahlishmem and ex1,un,a
religious leaders, who held that the prophet-found1.:r could nut be tht
promised saviour and that the scriptures or the cxblinll rcliltjon could
no1 he super~eded.

\(nrAM)1Af)'$ ,,croRY U\''ER Tllf_ P£0{1LE Of ~lll "C.\ .\ftcr l11Bff\.- yl.";trlil uf oppu...itinn, the
p<.'<>plu of ~lcoc-., flnalli ,uhmlUcd tcJ Muhnmmad·, rule Thi, 1, a dq>1ct,un of
Muhammad's first action on cntcrlnl! 1kt.-ca. Uc entered the Ka bat :tnJ put ',\JI ontu hts
shouklcr-, and instructed him to J.,,,tmy the idols In the Ktrha In th,~ Shi'! lk:pictlon, th<!
fot.-e, 01 Muh:immml and 'Ali arc 001 ,drown 11.s a si4D of n,,•crem.'<!. while llamt:S of 1,r,:
fom1 a halo nround their heads
 12. UOMl'.\R,\Tl\' E ltt-:LIGIOliS IIISTOR\' Jl7

TIIE DE\'ELOP~IENT OF A Rl~I.IGION

.\ftcr the demh of the founder, the followers of n rcllgion have o great
prohlcm Much of the suoc1:ss of t.111: mov~m1:nt has usually been due to Lhe
personal qualities of the founder, qualities th:ll rue
pcr(.lt.•ived co sec the founder aparc from ordinary men.
\\'1:bcr tL~ed the tem1 'charisma' to dc...scribe this out-of-
t he-ordinary quality lie defined it thus:

The term 'clumsma' "ill be applied w a certain quality

oi nn lnt!Mdual personality by vinuc of which he ib set
apan from ordinary men and treated as endowed with
supcmamrnl, supcrhumnn, or ar least Rpccific:,lly
cxcepUonal powers or qu.~lttles. These are buoh us arc
not accessible co the ordinary person. bm are regarded
as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of
them the Lnd1vldual concerned i• treaced as a leader."

\\'ith tl11: death of the founder, the reUAion is deprived

of his charisma which had attracted new people and
kept the beUevcrs unified. The leading <lbciples face
tlle problem of how to maintain tht: cohesion and Thi: Clll!rl'li nf the llnly
<.'Ontinued expansion o( tl1e movement, which is now Sepulchre, Jerusalem, ls
at 1ts most vulnerable. Any pre-existing tensions I.he tnitllclonal ,he or I.he
among the leading disciples are likely to surface at this onicifixioo, cncombmenr.
time. leading to the formation of sects. After the death and resurrecrion of Je<u.•
Inside, it is tlh1dcd omong
of Muhammad. for example, the rift hetween Ahu Bakr ~cvcral dtffcrcnt church.:;.:
and ·Umar on the one side and 'Ali on the other came Greek Onhodox, ltonlllII
to the surface. This rift was eventually m lead to the C:1tholic, ,\rm.,nlan. and
split between Sunni and Shi'i Islam. A short time aher Coptic.
the death of Jesu.~. the rlft occurred between chose
who saw Christianity as bein~ solely a Jewish affair and chose, such as St
Paul. who wanted to rake the message to the Gentiles The sack of
JJ!rui.alem by the Romans in 70 CE led co the evenrual elimination of the
more conservative faction and so this sect no longer exists rn Christianity.
The rcsoluUon of tlle leadership crisis tends co occur in two stage;.. The
first or these involves one or more of the leadinA disciples caking on che
mantle of leaden.hip and with it some of the chari:mrntic aura of the
founder. After Jesus, the church was run by a circle of tlie disciples at
Jeru.~alem After Muhammad, his followeTS pledi:;ed their alle~ance to Ahu
Bakr.• \fcer Baba'u'llah, tlie leadership of 'i\bdu'l-.8aha wa;. mad~ secure by
a specific document of appointment from Baha'u'llah.
For perhaps one generacion, this solution works reasonably well. As
Ion~ as people perceive the leadership t.o partake of the charisma of the
founder, they remain united heh ind ic But as an increasing dismnce inseru
itself between the founder and the lcadcrsh.ip, this charisma begins co wear
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 I? . COMr,\RJ\ifl\'E RELIGIOUS HISTORY .H9

thin h 1s 111 this point chm the second sta~e of 1he process hcgins to take
~hapc. in\'Ol\ing the lm,titutionall2utio11 of the chruisma of the founder
Thb process. which \\'eber calls ·routinization of chorisma'.''
1m,tilutlo11alizei. tl1ree fnccts of the le(lcfcrship of the founder.
I Doctrines th,H fom1:1lizc the lntellcctu11I content of the beliefs of the
l!roup insututlonalize th.: ccac/1111g of the founder. .\t first, this will often
he done as a polemic exercise in dcfcndinl! the new rcli4ion from nrtacks
by ouL,ider~. Later, especially when .i professional religious clu.S!> is
established, a cheoloitical and philosophical elaboration of the doctrine
occurs which is mostly co strengthen the belief of the faithful and co
sol\'e pastoral problems.
, Symbols, myths and rituals that re-enact the
sacred moments of the group institutionalize
I.be acts of I.be founder. The Micre<l and
awesome aspect of the holy" as revealed by
the founder is prcsen•cd in a number of
symbols and rituals. These often re-cn.1ct
key moments in the life of the founder and
retell, often in mythic fom1, the story of the
life of the founder. In this way. cbey recreate
the intensity of the original experience of the
holy Lbat was the b3;,ls and foundation of !.he
Tm. CROs:; AS .\ CURl~TL\~ SrMHOI.:
group. R.iruals such as the Christian Churoh of &mt'J\ppolinarc, a
Eucharist or the Muslim annual pilgrimage to suth•1.-eotury ba,ilica. south
Ml.-cca recall events in the w-e of the founder, of R:wenna, Italy.
recreating the intense religious experience
of tl1e first group of dbcipi~ who gat11ercd
around the founder. They thus help to consolidate the unity of the
group. The cross, as a religious symbol, represents not jus1 the event of
the crucifL'Clon but the whole life of Christ, the suffering, the sacrifice
and the evemual triumph. Sucb sy1nbols come to represent the
profoundest emotional responses of tl1e group co their rcligious
experience. It is important to note that the emergence of a symbol is a
slow ori:anic process. It cannot neces~1rily be predicted. The fish was ;m
early symbol of Christianity and was only slowly replaccc.l by the cross.
J. ,\ hierarchy that organizes the group institutionalizes the mahori.t.y of
the founder. It seeks to recreate d1e leadership of the founder through
the establishment of a hicrnrchicol structure of authoriLy. h is important
to note. lo pru.si.og, chat hi;,wrically the norm has been a fusion of the
religious and political leadership of a society. The sepan1tin~ of the
spheres of religion and politics is, largely, :i phenomenon of the modcnt
\\'estem world_

Perhaps the most imporcanc :ispcet ot' (2) above is the clev:1tion of the
prophet-founder into a paradigmatic model for all followers of the religion.
.UO Rbl IC:ION 11' SOClt:TY

One c-.in ~peak of r1 myth hcin~ created of the prophet-founder that tum,
him into a role model for the key vinu1:.~ and morn! nom1s of th1: rl:li)l1un,
the hrid~e ht!twecn the lrnnsccndent nnd the 11111nd:1ne, the perfect human
beln/l. Thus, Jesus becomes the perfect Chrlstltm. ~Juhummnd, the l"'ricct
\luslim; l~auwma Buddha, the perfect Buddhhl The prophet-founder 1,
trn11sfun11cd from iJ remote historical fljlurc into :1n c, cr-pr1.:~1:nt tr~m,.
histonc:1I 1>resence in the lives of bcllcvcr...' (&c pp.•144-S )
One aspect of 1he initial period after 1he death of the found1:r i~ worth
bcarln4 In mind. It would appear that the early follo\\er, of :,omc rcli~on,
do not expect a prolon~e<l period 1n which they will hove to fend for
thcm~clves, spiritually ~peaking. 'They nrc cxp<.'Ctin~ the lmmlncm ath cnt
of o funhcr divine fi4ure "ho will lead Lhem and they tl1erdorc cm 1!-a4c
that any organizntion of the religion that they cnn-y out will he mcrl:ly n
temporary stop-Aap affu.ir, whose detaib 1.hcy may well <.'01u.1dcr Lo he of no
/!teat consequence. We can see this clearly among the disciple,- of .le~u.,
The earliest generation~ were buoyed up by the promises of Je,ui,. that their
current generation would sec the fulfilment of the prombcd Da,• oi (;od
They lived in hope of this and were not really concerned \\ith church
o~o.nuation and mibsion. Most of lhc first ~cncration of ChristL(Ul!, "1:r1.
centred on rhc group of ,\poslles who remained in Jcrusnlcm nwaitin~ the
promised day. The Qur'cm itself is not very specific about when the
ei.chatolo~cal promise:. In it will be folfille<l but It b clear that many early
Muslims were also of the opinion that the promised fi~ure of the ~lahdi wa~
to be expcctccl Imminently. During L11e first 1.hree c.-cnturics of lhc blanuc
era. there were many revolts in the name of this future who was to hrinl!
ju.~tice to the world.
Much of the ;,ubscquem coun,e of a rell~ion ·~ hisCOT)' i,, determined h}
rhe extent to which ir gains polirical power This hns been perhaps the
single ruosL Important factor in the furL11cr devclopnumt of a rdi~ion
Politic:il power both stre~thens nnd, paradoxically, oicen al~o weaken~ a
religion The strcmglhcnjng occuri, bccausu the rcli~ion now hm, accc~, IC>
considcrablc fmancial resource~. LL also has the ability to enforce
orthodoxy :md supp ress hcresr. In pre-modern time!-. poliric:il power
meant, for a rcli(/,ion, control of the education procui.s. art. btcrnturc and oil
public c.-eremony. Through thest: means, the relil!ious tmthoriues can shape
the world,·icw of people, mokin~ the rcli~ious vie\\ natural ond
un(juesdoncd.
The attoinmcm of political power, however, abo results tn a wc:ikeninl!
of religion. This occurs because of the di.-.tancc Lho1 is _4radunlly ~e1 up
between religion a~ a political power in society and the relittJous needs 01
the people. If this distance bccoml!q too ~rcac, altcmaciv<: iorms of rcli~ious
life, imtonomoub from Lhe orthodox hicrnrd1y. Mc ~cc ui, to meet these
needs. Examples of this mclud<: the cmer~cnc<: of ,4noscic seccs in med1e, .1I
Chrislian Europ<:, the rbe of 1hc Sufi order,- in bl,1111, the form111ion of Ill:\\
relil!ious mo,·ements m recent h1scorv. and the uh1qu1tous sellers oi charm~
and amulets
 12 C0~11',\K.\rt\"f; IU.LIUIOU:S 111:SlOR\' 321

This phenomenon of che gradual weakeninl! of religion·~ hold over

pL'Oplc (even" hile il may be increasing it.s temporal po,,er) has been little
studied Onl~· a few tentative suAAcstlons can be made about it. In the early
~1.11!cs of 1hc Jevelopmem of II religion, the spiricu:il consciousnc6$ is ~crong
and there ls au Intense pcr:.onal piety. \l'ith the p:'lssing of time and the
interposition of imermedinries (reli)!ious professionals such :is priests and
~urus) between the intlividu:tl 011d L1tinwtc ReruHy, chcrc is 3 weakening of
rdi~ion, manlfe:,tt-'<l as a redirection of che indl\•idual from the eternal
spirinrnl realities of which the religion is o renewal cowards the specific
historical contin_gencic.!l> of I.he religion. Pen,onol piety is gradually replaced
h,· collecth·e sentimentru1ty: a direct sp111:inml relationship with Ultimate
Reality bt!comes emotional :ncachment 10 1he miraculous. This, of course,
1~ a ~nerallzation and there arc always exceptional lndividuab who are
ahle co go :iiiJlinsc the tide.
We can $et! this redirection of religion from etema.l spiritual values
cowards specific hiscorical contin~encies mos[ clearly in the arcs. In
religious ort, the non-representational ort of the
early period of a religion is replaced by
irono~rophy. Later, this iconography becomes
ever more elahonne and showy (or :JS occurred
with Christian art atter the Renalss.u,ce, more
naturalistic) In non-represenrncion:il, aniconic
n.rt the symbol repre~ents Lhc etcnrnl spiritual
realities. Iconic arc. on che other hand. focuses
the mind on the spccif'ic historical manifestation
of the Ab,,olute. \\'hlle Iconic an remains simple
and direct, ic continues to oct in port as a
symbol, t:iking the belie,cr back to the spiritual
reruities behind the physical appearance. But ii
it then progresses co elaboration or n:ituralism,
It Increasingly distracts I.he believer from
spiritual reality, redirecting him or her lOWMds
the mirnculous :ind sentimental (see chapter
18).
This redirection is perhaps also manifested
at the social level by openness :ind tolerance in :e
.-
the early years of the rellition. when the
believers are directed towards eternal spiritual lllLIGIOlfS l~TOl.f.RA.~Ct:: i{elitlous
,·alues. Al, the religion becomes more focused on autbon11es have frequently been
its specific historical contingencies, it tends guilty o( much cruel{)' and torture
towards intolerance and fanaticism. This latter in their auempt to suppress hcrc!'lo)\
tendency is exemplified by the i.pirit of the often asslswd by the scculnr
autlmrillc,. Thi, picture shov., a
Crusades and the Inquisition in medieval Bab! being cxecut<..-J for heres)'
Europe. Psychologically. one could speculate by ha,·111~ his throat cut Iran.
that there is a paradox here. Fanaticism and nineteenth etintnrv
intolerance are the signs not of a strength of
J22 RFl,IWO'I IN SOCIETY

co1wiction but of u weukeninA /\s lonA m, the ,mHvulunl 1s turned wwnrd,

the eternal spiriu,al amt morn I v:ilue~ of rcliition, there 1... a profound
personal conviction of the spiritual truth of ,1 hclicf Thii., in tum mean,
that those bdlc\'cn, h:wc the ~clf-t.-onfidcnce lO be LOlcrant tuw:ir<b othcri.
It Is only when foith is weakened th:tl the :mention b turned toword~ the
:.pccific ltist0rlct1I contin!!cnclcs.. The outward trappin~, of ~lid ~y,11:111,
then hct.-ome more imp0rtant than inner foith, fanmlchm and 1molcr:1n<.~
an: the rc~ulting mtitm.lcs Religion consequently hct.'Omc, n mcchaniMn fur
sociul control. Jt is at ll1is point ln the c\'olulion of a reliJtio,1. "hen the
ori,l\inal spiriruol impulse has lx..-come :ittcnuatcd and diffuse, that reform
rno,·cmcms arise or a ne" religion i:, born

SCHISM AND lh:RESY

The institutionalization of ll1e ll,ree facets of the role of ll11! founder

described nbove acts as a substitute for the charisma of the founder and
ll,us as a focus for the unity of the new religion. By more sharply dcflnln~
what is within the circle of belief, however. this de,·elopmem aL,;o. by it<;
very nature. presages the occurrence of hcrCllies and :;cct<1.
The process oi lnstillltionalizarion is a difficult phase for ti ne\\ rel~ion
Different people will have been attracted co it for different reasons and fmm
different backgroundl. and each group now tries to brin~ into the proceM> of
insticutionalizacion elemencs chat emphasize what arcracted them to the
religion. These groups will want to lead the religion toward~ the different
forms of rcli_!\ious activity outlined in chapter 5. Other groupi, will hrin~ tn
element~ from their own former religious backgrounds. This proccs,; sets up
the potential for sectarian splitting or, even if formal splits do not Ot'Cur, for
fra~mentation. The Sufi ~roups in Islam, for example, are not sects of l~l:1m
in the formal sense of llrnt word, but they nre semi-autonomous groupm~s
with their own leadership, their own lncerprecaclon of the tt:Xt, and
doctrines of Islam, and their ovvn rituals. They are often in tension "ith
their fellow-Muslims. The Christian religious orders of the ~Uddlc ,\Acs
acted in much the same way.
The precipitnting factor for sect formation may he any of n tar~
number of developmencs. The underlyin~ reason muse be that :i i.uffic,cnt
number of people no longer feel that the orthodox teachin~ is a path to
salvation. They no longer encoullltcr the ccmrnl experit!ncc of rdiglun hy
followin~ this path. There arc many factors that lead to clus result oomc ot
the:-e have already been discussed the drawin~ up of cightl?I' Jdinilions of
orthodoxy 1.h:11 exclude what was previously Included; tht: rntroduction into
the religion of element.~ of doctrine or ritual from other rcli!lions from
which convert~ ha\'c come (~cc p. 158); the perception thut the rcli~lous
hierarchy has become materialistic or corrupt, and ll,e com ictton that the
religion hns strayed from its original spiritual core of inner truth~ and has
become tied up will, external obscrvru1cc1,. More specific historicnl facto"
 12: CuMrAR.\Tl\'I<: RELIGIOUS IIISTORY J2J

may, however. also be opemring: a powerful charismatic person:llity, who

may claim to have had some eAtrnordinn ry rellgiou~ e,~pericnce, mny he a
catalyst for sect fom1t1tion; person:il ambition, power, poli tics or personal
differences mny inirime n schism (as occurred at the srnrt of the Church of
En!iland, for example); or tlifforencc~ in language, race or ola:,s may e3u~e
the fracturint of a religious j!roup that wonld otherwise remnln united.
Needless 10 say, many of chose designated by the orthodox as heretics
or schismatics protest that they are. in fact, reasserting the original
message oi the founder of the religion and brin!!ing it back to its original
pure srncc. Indeed, mnuy of chose who founded sects did
noc lnteml to do this when they start their movements.
Figures such us John \Vesley, the founder of Methodist
Protesc.am Chrii,tianicy .
. ' and Shavkb Ahniad al-Absa'l '
the founder of the Shaykhi sect of Shi'i Islam, set out to
re,itnlize the religious groups of which they were a part.
Those groups. however, proved too rigid to
accommodnte them and eventually either they or their
followers were forced into creating new seccs in order LO
express their religious aspirations. The hiscorical
evidence indicates that even the founders of the more
recent historical religions, Jesus, ~luhammad. the
Buddha, and Baha'u'llah were regarded ax first as beinj\
rcfonttcts. schismatics or heretics within lhc John Wesley ( l 70J-9Jl.
established religions of their time. founder of Methodi<m

FROM PERSONAL PI ETY TO ORG.\NIZED RELIGION

In chapter S che various paths to sal\'aLion were

described. In chis section, we shall try co uncover
somerhing of che way thnt these different pathways
e\'olved 1n history. This I~ nol a straightforward task
l>eoause a natural tendency to cover che cracks of such
dew!lopmenr.s means that they can become difficult co
discern.
Reli~ous people e\'erywhere believe thar they are
following their religion as it was intended ro be followed
by the founder of the religion. It would make no sense for
any religious person to say anything else. This means that
they believe chat their religious rituals aud ocher religious
acrivides are those intended by the founder and carried
out by the early disciple~. Therefore, there ii, a natural
tendency to cover up or dismiss any developments in the Shnykh Ahmad nl-
social expressions of che religion and to try to relate all Ahsa'i (1753-lR:?6)
thest: back to the time of the founder This tendency is founder or th" Shnykhl
expressed m the sentiment chat idealizes the early school in Shl'i blrun
.U~ Rf.I IC.10:-1 I\ SO( It.TY

I\ bell John Wc,lc) (17flJ-l 7'H) nnd Ch"rlc, \\c,lc,

[] ( 1707-171..~) srnrwd tlu,ir ntm c111c:-nt to 111ktl'lfy rdli:,,u., lu,

nnd the pmctk'<' Ill prnycr m rhc 1rmlitinn nf 1hc .,,.,.,IIL,1
'rcih\ln11, 1'<><.·ic11",' the~ dul '" witlun the frn111c"11rk ,.j th,
oftlclnl C:hurch of J-:i1~ltt111l Soon huwc,cr, their
mo,cntcnt hcl\"11 tu J1vcr~ irum the oft11.!1nl chlllch In 111a11,
1:-ITER,\C:TIOI>
rcspt:ct,,, nut ,o much "tlh rc;sx...,, 10 L-.,nu:m, hut mth.:h
more with re<fl'.!"t m 1he rrnctiL'<c of C:hrhtt.,n t,cltd rh,•
Church nf F.nl!lnnd w:i~ aull mcolwJ in th-, dt.:1'1k tradn,on
REFORMER ,\.'-U of 1hc f'nliAhl<Cnm~nt I Wc,lcy, l,011\\f\cr, 1r,n,l~tcd the
ChriHion 111<:Sbd,l\c directly for 1bc <>o111mo11 man In coni.nt"'
0Lf'ICIAL Rt-.LltolON: ""II ru. In prc:tchlnA 1md prn.cllcc
Tht: rc.;,l~tant."C from lite ~Ide ,,r the Uturuh of 1:.nd,,nJ
TIIE EX.\.\ll'LE OF toward$ J W<!Slcy b cypic:11 of an of1tc1al rdu~lon Thc
A~l1can Church hud stron)! tics wnh the ~mry and th•·
JOIIN \\'l:;SLI-.Y
111iddle etas!' thus chc opposition hnJ hoth " rclij\<ms anJ
" social clmrnctcr Lcu,·in~ out the oiOclal litur~' M..,,,
Office nntl Snllrnmcms, which \\ere t.'OO>ldcrcd a.~ c,sen11.1I,
o( Ghrlstlln hfc, wns expencnc~ a;, uodenulrllIIJl, not lh1;
least because of tl1e clocltinc of ·justificaclon by latth
alone' . The local cler1;y fdt threatened by the dimim,hnu!
of their floclk., .. The corly ~tethodists cxpcricn,-..-J more Of'
(cs,- violent persecution In mnny di,1.rfoL,
Thu~ John Wc•l"Y always fou~ht mun.:• w-..•rd,
independence from the ChUICh of En~nd, It "as not be run:
176,I 1ha1 he Appoin led n c.,onference of 1()() men 10 ,l!or~m
the society of Mcthodi~ts after hi< dcnrh Tcn,inn In till'
rel:uiomhip "ith the Anglic:in Chu rch reached irs ,ummn
11hc11 the bl,ltop of London rcfu.-.cd to ord.1111 u Metlto..h,t for
po,t-rcvolutJonary America: Wcsluy bim,c({. t.hcn, ord.tlrlcJ
thret: presbyters. t'our years afti;;r 111, death c;urn: the: dcOnlk
hrcak wirb tbc Church of linl\fand ( 1795). ((.i f W Bounllu•
'Popular :md Offlcial Reli1!10n m Chmtiamt)· Thr<.._. Cu-cs 1n
l 9ch Ccntu.l"\· Europe·, in Vrijhor ru,d Wnordenbu.nt. Offic-,al
and Popular RclfAion, pp. L.39, Hl-JJ

community, the community of monks nround the Buddha, the community

of the early ChrisLlans, the Muslim community in Medina In the ume oi
Muhammad. These early com munities come co he seen as the ideal,
:trchetypal community of lhc religion. Orlhodox leader" !>CC the Institution,
of the relition as faithfully capturin.lt all of the essencial t'eatures of the early
community. Similarly, refom1ers nnd sccrnrians often see them!,clni~ llS
trying to recreate the condition~ of that community. Tht: t.amt: prOl.'t!!>S can
be seen in rhe doctrin::il development of a rcli~ion On the one hand chcre
is a similar <.."Ompulsion by the orthodox to deny that there has bcc11 any
doctrin::il evolution from the time of the founder. On the at.her hand.
reformers will say that they arc trying to mkc the religion hack rn 1h1.:
doctrinal purity of the early years.
There is a further explanation of this rendency 10 deny all de,·clopmcm
and change In a rcliglon We &hall! Mit! in chapter 16 that the M)Cial order
 IZ COlll'ARATl\'E RELIGIOUS IIISTORr J~S

enshrined in its symholic universe, presents itSelf co rhc ind ividual as a

folly d~·vcloped objcctiv;.• entity. It bas il:- own, ol'tcn mrthical, 11ccou111 of
how chinl!s came lo be the way the~· are. ln a traditional society, In
parlicular. le is co-extensive with rc:1lirr itself; any other reality would be
difficult even to imagine. let alone to lx:Ucve actually exbted. Therefore th..:
concept chac things may have been different in the past, that the relitious
world has changed and developed. i.s not one that would come easily to a
person in such a society.
Islam, as the mos, recent of the religaons that we ore considering except
for Lhc Bt1ha'i Failh - and we shall return l() th:u presently - is the best
place to srnrt ro uncover some of these traces of devclopmenc hecnuse. as
they are more recent and therefore more fully documented, tbey have been
less covered over

The D,~elopmc,ic of Islam

The mom orthodox social expression in Islam, botlt in the Sunni om.I Shi'!
forms, is l~sm. The 1-loly Law, Shari'a, is seen as the embodiment of the
pmcticc of ~luhamm:id in his daily life. ~luhamm:id being an 'excellent
example' 01 a Muslim a<.'COrdirt,g lO d1e Qur'an,' hii,, praccice in daily life ii.
considered exempl:iry for all Muslims. llence the reports of all ch:n he said
and did were relayed orally by generotions of Muslims and finally recorded in
the hooks of Tra.dirions. Each Ttadicion (Jladich) c-onlilirls a record oi rhe
n:imes of those who transmitted it lhrough successh·e g,mermions of
Muslims. This is whot orthodox Muslims coru,ider to bave bappened. ThUl>
the cencral pillar of che ~ocial expression of the orthodox religion. the Shori·a,
is referred back to the ori~im, of lhc rcliition; it is l!i\'en die stamp of authority
of Muhammad and the practice of the early ~luslim community in Medina.
Of course, ~luslims 1.hemsclves b:we always rcco~nizcd prohlems
regarding tbe authenticity of tht! lladith literature. .\cknowled~n~ that
many Traditions relocin,11 co ~luhammad were forj!cd in the early period,
1hey developed a wholt! branch of Islamic science that sought tO distinguish
hetween the true :ind the forAed Traditions. They examined lhe line of
transmitters of each Trodition and tried to ascerwin the reliability of each
person in the chain. They also examined the line as a whole sllld
<Jctermmed whether the indi\'iduals in che ch:iin of transmission could have
been in contact with t!ach otJ1cr.
Modem \\'estem :-cholarslup, however, examinin,I! critlcallr the earliest
surviving documents, has cast a much more fundamenml doubt o,·er the
Hatlil/1 literature. The first to raise questions about the traditional , .;rsion
ol the rise oi 1hc Harlith literarun? w:L, Ignaz Goldziht!r. He i;howed that up
to three centurie:. after ~luh:unmad. mon>· lm.lividu:ds, politic:u panics and
sectarian movemencs Y.ithin Islam were manufocturinl! Traditions tl:iat
supported rheir c laims :ind positions. These Tr11ditions. cl:iiming to he on
the authority of 1luhammad, ~ave each faction legitimae) aitd
authenticity. •
,126 Rll,l(,l(IN IS s0<:1t:Tr

Joseph Schacht took thi/, line of rc,careh further lie ,hfmeJ that the
schools ot' bl:11nic law thnt aro.-,e were in foct the result of dih1:rh1~ -.ct, or
cui.tomary 1011 in such tow,i, n, Met.Jinn anJ Kufa Thv,e cc11trc,
c~rnhlbhed "hoc had hccn the cui,tomary trth:il luw from pre-hlamtc umc,
111 their are:i hy incorpormin~ it inco chc lloh· La1L It w "' only nr n b11,r
date, when IL became the norm to trace 11II la\\ bacl, w the Prophet
Muhammad. chat chem c,·olvcd numerous TrmlHton, relatin~ thew
prnctic"'~ hack co him In this WO)' the customary hm of unch uf thc., c place,
became t:!llshrlncd m tilt:! !July L:l\\. the Shari'a of Islam '
We i;hould noc sec thh, pro~css of the rcrrospcctivc anrihution oi
customary practioc b:tck to Muhammad a~ the activity or' 11111hc1ou.-, forJ!,;r,,,
R.1ther, chese were the actions of sincere :1nd pious men wh o rc~ardcd their
views as the corrl!Ot lslnmic ~tnndards From 1hi, it wa~ on ly II i..hurt Mcp t<1
being Cl!rtain that the Prophe t wo uld have acted in the same way If focc<l
with the same s iruation; and chen :1nother ~hon Mep to sayin~ that the
PropheL did oct thus; and tben yet (IJ}Otber short step lo crc:llln~ a Jlculitl1
that <.'On firmed tb:n he did act thus.~·
Wilfred Ca ntwell Smith put fonnird a further hypothesis rcg:1rding lhc
dt!velopml!nt of the Shari'a, the Holy La1\, ln lslam. In the earlltesc texu,, the
wo rd that is found is not shari'a, but rather the two related words , shar'
and s/wr'i. These two latter words a re verbal nowis from a \'crh muaninit
·w prescribe a road to walk upon ', the subject of che verbal noun hetn~ Goo
In other words. they were words referring to Cod's a~~ignlng oi morul
qualities and eth ical resp<>m,ibilitles to human life. They de:.crihe an
atrirude, a feelin~ lhat God has im posed a certain moral obli~tion on us as
individuals. This usage coulinucd until as late as tl1c fouru:coth c.-cntu') u.
,\r about this time, Snuth discerns a loss in the Islamic world of the ,en~e
of Cod's immediate incervention in the wo rld and of human co~mic morn!
involvemtenc. As a result , th!! word shari'a comes inc rew.in~y into use to
deno te an ahsoluce objecti\'e reality, the Holy Law In summary rhen , rhe
shar' was at first an e thical path of conduce for cbe early Mw,lims. It on]y
hLCer became depersonalized and objectified or reifil!d , raki~ its h:.!Wistic
meaning ns 'the Holy Low', the Shari'a Similnrly. tnkl[f, which means 'lc~al
responsibiHcy' in present-day usage , orlginall~ meant 'moral
responsibility'.'' The more nbstracc term .~hari'a is more appropn:11e when
o ne's scm,e of Ult! presence of God and of one's tlin.-ct moral ohligauon~ to
Him are weak or absent. Smith sraces cbat

ii would not be lmpo,-silJlc to contend that hJ.~toriculJ~ the

rlJ.c of u <.'Onccpt
!oil law as relil!iouslr absolute may he correlated with a decline, 1f nm of
blnmlc cMlisatlon, anyway of the viflor oi lb lntdlcc tual nnd rcligiou~
life."'

,\n example cltt:!d by Smith may clarif>• thb point For the"<: e:irly MU!,Juns,
it was not that 'lies' were I\TOng. ll was not even the ·celling of lies' thnt wa~
wrong. It was the 'celling of liei.. by me' that was wrong nnd bl:uueworthy
 12. COMPAR,\Tl\' E RELIGIOUS IIISTORY J:?7

and Jed to damnation - !OT God crcntcd us rind comm:mdcd us not to lie.
llowen,r. i11 Inter Islam, the priority changes. 'Lil!s' and 'the tolling of lies'
11re contmry co the lloly Law - therefore, 'the telling of lies' ls wrong and
leads to dnmnation.
The implicution of all this is, of course!, that during the development of
lslam, the concept of lnw was not prior to and the cause of the concep1 of
moral responsibility, but the other way around. The sense of moral
responslhillry to God chronologically preceded and was d1e originatlng
impulse towards the de,·elopment of the Holy Law. Muslims did not
originnlly feel an obUgation to ace 111 a particular way because tbe Holy Law
told dlem to do so. Rather, they created the Holy Law in order to
systematize for society the way that they felt that God wanted them to
behave inc.lividually.
This de,·elopment of the Roly Law in lslam was accompanied by a
parallel de,·elopment in the socinl position of the ulema, the scholars who
defined and purveyed the Holy Law. In dle early period of Islam (up co and
including the third Islamic century), they began as an informal and
undefined group oi indi\iduals from a wide spectrum of social classes and
occupa1ions, ,Yho would sic iogecher and cheir discussion would be of a
discursive n3ture. Their knowledge depended on oral tr3nsmission of
historical material, practical experience of Life, and panicipatloo in juristic
discussion. Lacer (from ahouc the fourdl Islamic ccncury onwnrds), as che
Holy Law became n1orc defined an<l lncrcasingly occupied a central role in
sociecy. the ulema became a more hl~hly uained and socially distinct ~lite,
\\ilh increasing use of the writte11 transmission of knowledge. By this time,
trainin!l of d1C! ulcma bad e,·olved from informal discussion-circles to much
more formal institutions in which the master-pupil relationship was the
nonn. This process of the profci.sionalization 1U1d bureaucratization of the
ulema, which occurrod panly as a result of poUtical poUcy and pressure,
C<lrresponded wilh a period durin~ which the Holy Lmv became established
as the central focus of lslam, the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence
emer~ed. che 1ralnin!l of the ulema !became standardized, :ind the
audloritative texts of each school evolved and finally became fixed."'
The description above relates to the main pathway of social expression
in Islam, the Shari'a. Ilowevcr, there is !lood evidence that the other m3jor
M>Oial expression in lsl:un, Suii!,m, followed the i;umc sort of development.
lfach modern Sufi order cracei, its spiritual lineage back to Muhammad
through an unbroken chain of transmitters of it~ spiritual practice. The
claim is thus made, e.xplicitly or implicitly, that tl1e te:ichlngs and practice!;
of the order were transmitted to it from ~luhammad. It is implied that this
represcncs a secret teaching that Muhammad passed on co those who were
ready to receive it, while the other teachlnits of lslam were publicly tau#)t
to the rest of 1he Muslims. ln this way, both the mystic pmcticc and the
gnostic teachings of Sufism arc referred back to Muhammad.
ln the history or Sufism. however, 1those persons whom Sufis have
identified as the first Sufis - the earliest links in the spiritual ch3in of
,12'! REl.11:10\ IN Sl)! I ET\"

trun..,1111!,slon from Muhrunnrnd lo the prc,cnt dav were nu,rdv what um,
woulJ call piou~ indh·id11ab If un.: read, the nc1.-ount~ oi ,uch curl~ Suil
:,aims (IS llnsan ril-Basri :md Rahi':1 , one i, i111prcs1-cd hy their pietv nnJ
di:t:tchmcnt Crom nwterl,il lhm~:,. l11c,c \\ i:rc clearly (,oJ-ccntrcJ
indh•iduals. But there is nothin~ m these accounts to ,uMc,t rhAt thl'sc
lndl\'iduab p:tn.icJpated In llti: prucllcci, or follo\\Cd the t1c.1l·h111~" c,f thc
modern Sufi order:.. ' Thc:.c modern orJcr" arose in chc cwclfth and
thirteenth ccnturic,. 1:t:, when the rcli~iou~ conscinuM1c,, \\•n., 1\·cakcnin~ in
blmn. They developed their pracclce., and tcachuu~;. at thi:. t11111, aml cl1c;.c
were then rctrospccrivcly imposed upon II numher of p1ou;. im.li\'idunls from
the pa1St und traced all the wuy back to Muharnmad It \l1ll> :.11 about tin,
time. for example. that the word atlt1b , which refer, 10 the :1ppmpriatc
behaviour of the pious individual a!> derived from lhc Mered l<:Xt bcc11mc
transforn1ed in the SuO litemturc iuw ils plural fom1, iidiib. which came to
refer co the particular mies of conduce of each Sufi nrdl?r the norm\ of
conduct between master and disciple and between the di>eiplc,
tbcmsch•cs, a:. laid d0\\11 by the founder of the order.
In this way we can sec that the two main pathways to sah·ation in
lslam, lcgaJJsrn and Sufism, were both built up by a similar mechanbm :
the emerJl.ence of a practice amon~ the believers, follo\,·ed hy 1t,
authentication by retrospective attribution to Muhammad and the early
,l!eneraclon of Muslims; the cransformatlon of relij/.iOlll> inJuncclon~ that haYc
mornl and spirimal compulsion into rigid rules chat have legal or
prescriptive force.
The doctrinal development of reliJl.ion has followed rhe s.1mc coursc a,
the social i:xprcssion in camouflaging all traces of change and development,
aod for exactly the same reason. Everythin~ hai, to be seen ru. Oo"in~
unerringly from the source of the religion: the founder or the early circle of
disciples.
In Shi'i Islam, we can find evidence of a complete re,·crsal 01 many
doctrinal positions held by the early Sh.i'a. There seems little doubt that
most of these early Shl'a (before the year 900 CE) hdie\'ed In i..uch 1.'0ncept.~
as: anthropomorphism \\ith respect to God, tmnsmi~mtion of souls, th<:
descent of the divine "Pirit into human beings and altemllon In the dinnc
will, as weU as helie,•inl! that the enemies of the Shi'a had altered the text of
the Qur'an. At II later date (b)• about the year 1000 CE). the Shi'i orth0c.lo.\y
denied or held to the opposite of al l of these positions..,. The\' then
retrospectively applied their new heliefs to the earlier generations The Shi'i
orthodoxy (and the Sunnis also) shifted the re&pouslbillcy for thc
embarrassim! doctrines of the early Shi'n 01110 \'arious minor Sh.i'i swcs who
were labelled theghu.lCtt, tJ1e extremists It may, however, in focc be the ca..<e
that there were no Shl'a apart from the so-called ,!hula< in the earlv pcno<l:
many of the most eminem early Shi'a who were close!'t to the Shi'i Imam,
arc recorded as having bad vie,\ s that would identify them tll> Jl/tulut "'
 L:? COMP.\l! ,\Tl\' E RELH:tOlJS IIISTOR\' J:?'J

Baha'i Fai

1800

- LIil t,nlt ol S.h1'u'lbh

1a20 , 1119 a,rdl o1 dlt S.b

1840
114~ l1p11111g ol tht N1111111 of dlt Bab
- 1148 (oofmllCt of Badailtt b'lJ'lm•& ol Babi "l'bul'Ob
-._-... 1810 llartyrdo11 of thf S.b
IISl Arwnprtd a1W11nat1011 ol Nanr a~O,n Shah; 18aba'u'Ua11's 'ri110n of "aid of Htmn;
1860 lab't'llitl, fJlltd [I 8,gl,dad
1163 8aha'u1lah W10Unm b,. mi11H>11; S.hNt.ab ,ommooNI lo bwbul and uilNI lo Edi111t
1168 Balu'u'llah wlNI rt Akh ,n Syn,
-1172 Baha'u'Rah <tmplms 1,i1 ma,of book, th! KitJb al-Aqdas (l1ou Holy Boole~ Baba, Fahh l>bn 10 India

1880
110 llldtpeadfflct ol 1ht 8aha'i hnh 1- hlam fulllldy asm1ed in lulsiu lurlwran
foUow,oc manyrcion, of a la!ta',
- 18'2 Pmil!f ol Baha'u'llah; 'Abdul-Baba appo1nitd 1u«t110,; Baha'i hid! 1aktn 10 Nord! Amtoo
1191 lal!ao Faidl <JIJblisl!td ;,, Eon>pt (BriDin 1l>d Fr.ana); fint l'O•p of Wtsmn pilgrims arm<J in Akita
1900

1901 'Abdll'I-Balu lrttd as • mull or tht Yoong Toro ~erolcuoo • 0t1001an E.mp11t
- 1911,13 'Abdu'I-Baha's JOUIMJI to cht W11r (Tmet, 8ruadl, Umltd l111t1, Cuada, Germany. Hunga,y)
mo aw·, hnh gktft 1o Aosll1lii
1920 _ 19ll huong of 'Abdul-Baba. Sbogbl Efftndl appotnwl succtllOr. Baha'i f•lh ratn 10 Brant
- 1923 Uta,01 ol lillt N1oon>I Spin1ual Alltllbt,11
Im Wa.mit c..m "' Egypt pr0001111c11 dtt a,iu·, faith 1o bf , stpan1, 1odtptndtn1 rthg,on
(<onfil'llltd by Gnnd Kufu of Efflll 10 1939~ lnitrnarioo31 Balla', S.mu 11tlbfGhtd in Gffltr.t
' 1924 Qu"" Nan, of lu!WU btcom!!I a Bua,
1928-40 hrl!amo,n of Baba, coaiunmts III Sov,,111,m,a (1928-38~ Inn (1934-1) and Gtrmany (1937-9)
19-40 1931-M W1191Jt• to tall! dtt 8ahai Ftnll lo C.nll1l and Soudi Amtnca (e11ablo<htd tn ll at,, counm<J)
194'-S3 Wll9"&" co t1tahhsll • rt-t1tab111Ji the S.hJ"i laid! 11 counm11 ol fur09t alttt World W,.r II
- 1944 Sahi1lnttrn1u,inal Commin1ty t1talllnl1td co rtpr!stnt 1h, a.hii Fant, at dtt Unll!d Nall0111
ar 195 I Cmaoo ol l1mna1.,..i Bihao Council 1n H;arf.a
19SI-S3 c.m,aicn to tall! dtt Saha', fa,m lO a mimbtr of .Alncan countms (emblishtd 1n JS oew counm!!I)
1960 19Sl.£l f•"1t" amp,,,•io Diet lht 8aho1 Ian~ 10 lllOlt of 1h, rtmm1ni couotria of dtt world
(uDbluhtd " 130 nrw counuits ind ttmconts)
1951 Pwni of Shosht Elltndi; Muds of dlt Ca.ne bfcome 'amo<lilns' of tht Bahai hid!
1963 U!CIMIII ol llnil'ffl» Hoos, ol Jmtict a1 Mlpl't'fflt mhonty in tht Baba, lauh
19'1_. (a,.paiJn to i<qoaiiu lltads al llalf w,lh lh1 Saha, faith; King of s...,,
bmmtl • hha"i

1980

1992 MftaDOI of a 11111111ari01 of Bahl'u'lbJ,-1 Knab al-Aqda.s Nltt Etglnlt, lollowfd by echtr bng,ragti;
co..,,...a,ane111 of ctftte"")' of pm••& ol bha'u'lah
2000
:!JO llf.l.l(;IOJ\ l'I :-oc1 ~ TY

The Dcvclopnw111 of Other Ucli~wn~

The ~t1111C proccS!. bu, ulnll)M c..:rwinly <>ecurr..:d 111 lhc ollu:r n:l11ttvn,
hut the pass:1Ac of rime ht1,- obscured the stn~t·, ol th1.: prnt,;,:,~ Since the
earlier smites were not prcscrn,d in \Hillen documlcnt,. the~ ht1\'C
hccn ohhierated 011ly the ltltcr :stuttcs htl\ c ,urnvcd, tdlinl! u., ahi,ut till
earlier ,tnAe!. from their own Inter pcr.;pecti\'e. .\ c:1rdul Mndy of thl
13udd111s1 l'ali Canon, for example. mny well conclude that it ii, po,~1hle thut
the :-ame son of de,·elopment occurn:d in Budtllii<,m For rhc liuddha nn
action W:tb right or wrong for u particular indi\•idual hccau,e it led
either mwards or aW3)' from Hher:.ulon for th:u indindunl (her the y.:ar,
this has evolved into the current hclicf thar an action i~ nAln or \Hon~
bccaU!,c It ii- either in conformity with or a~alnst 1.he dicrntes of the
Dhamma (the Dharma) 1'he l)hamnrn ii, the ohjccufication nod
depcrsonnlization of the Buddho's teaching. Around this ,implc tcachln~ uf
tl1c Buddha a complex mctaphys.iC'.u framework ba.~ been hu1lt. de~p1te th"
Buddhn's own repeated nsscnion or his dislike of metaphysicnl spt-cul:11100
b.!causc it dhtractecl the individual from the ur/!elll ~k of scekin~
liberation.
The hbtory of the Bahn'i Faith shows how these prr,ccssci, can de,clop
in even the relatively short I SO-year history of this r1:ltiUon. One find, a
tendency among many Baha'is to read present B.1ha'i teachin,A,. back inro
the p.i~t, cv!.:n back to the DabJJ;., the followers of tl1e Bab 111 mmrn:enth-
century Iran The Babis are popul:irly rc1!:1rdcd by m:my B:1h:1'b a~ havin~
believed in such modern Baha'i social tcachm~ as the equality of men und
women.
There is, however, one imponnnt difference in the Bnha'i communif)·
This Is the fact thOl Baba 'Is hm•e no concept of an initial ideal phru.c of their
history. While history is important for Baha·is in providin~ inspirnrion, role
models and ju.~rific:irion, there i~ no scn~c oi trying 10 recreate the
community lllat existed around Baha'u'Uah. Baha'b are quite clear that
what the~· are workin!!, coward-, is the goal of a just ~ocictv in the fururc.
built upon plans given them by Baha'u'llah. These plans arc com,idcrc<l w
be only a framework for future developmems. Chanttes are , therefore, seen
as either working out or developing undcrst.·111ding of lhe implication~ oi
Baha'u·llah's teachintts. There Is thu:, no uompul;,ion to 1n· co project :111
modern de,·elopments hackward.<: co an ideal thac existed in the pa.~c and
thU!, lei,;, tendency lo try to co, er the track:. or 1hu paM. It may be, howc\'cr,
I.hat this difference is the result of Lhe fact rh:n I.he Baha'i Faith i~ 10 an
e:irly pl1ase of its development. There i~ evidence thnt the L·arly
~fw,lims were also looking fon\·ard to the settinj! up 01 a future ule:tl
society le may be, therefore, chat che tendency 10 look back to n (;olden
Age In the past is the rc~ult of the Jaded midtllc u~c oi a rdl/!JOn -
somewhat similar to the tendency ai11on~ individual human hc111~, to loo!,.
b:ick to a 'golden 3!\e' of youth.
 U Clnll'Alt..\Tl\°I, ltELICIOl'S IIIST{>IW JJl

J11ditiidu11I Rc:;po11sibi/icy nnr/ /11sri1utio11uli::;er/ ,\1ttlwri1y

In Aerteral then, ' <.! may say that, flt the stun of the religion. there is a
ieelini! of pcrson:1J ethical and moral responsibllitv co act in the war that
th1: foundi!r of llrn rdicion has instructed (the WO)' God wants us ro net, in
the 1hel!,dC rdl,i!ions). In otJ1er word!> whot constrains l11e believe~ to act
in a particular w:1y is rhcir belief in and love of the founder of the reliition
(or God). ,\!; time pm,!>es, however, the p:uhway of action bccomf!s
insticudonalized as the central focus of the reliAion: the Dhamma in
Thera\'adn Buddhism, the Church in Christianity, the Shari'a in Islam. ThL~
reit1ed or objectified entity then assumes the central authority in the
relicion The result is that die action of the individual is now constrained
more hy the institutionaJlzed authority ot" tJ1e central focus and less by die
feelinc of ethical and moral responsibility.
From the ,·iewpoint of the indh·idu:11 helie,·er. there does not appear to
be any itreat difference between [he two posiLions. A Buddhisc may not see
any difference hetween acting according to lhe ceachings of che Buddha and
,1ccJng nccording co lhe Dhamma: for did the Buddha not give us the
l)hamma? A Christian moy see no difference between actin~ according to
tJie teachings of Jesus and acting as the Church wisl1es us co act; for are not
tht teachings of the Church and of Jesll!, identical'~ A Muslim may see no
difference hetween acting according to che rc:ichinits or ~luhammad and
actit:Jg according to the Shari'a; for ii, not the Shari'a ba:.ctl on the actions
and teachings of Muhammad-:. However, h·om che ,•iewpoint of the historian
or ~!>Ciologist, there is every difference between tJ1e two. For the teachings
oi the ioundcTh of tJic reli~ions are purely personal macten;. They create
a relationship between the individual and Ultimate Reality. The
institutiorutl.ization of these teachln~ is a bu.man, social proocs1> tliat
enahles power srrucrures and hierarchies to come into bein~ (see chapter
16). The consequence of this institutionalization b far renching. Tho:re can
be no true access lO tJ1e Dhamma unJcs.s one submits to craulin~ from a
senior monk in a monasrcry. There can be no nccess to the Church unless
ruediawd by the prie&thood. The intricacies of the Shari'a are only
understood hy a religious scholar (a m1ifrf or mujtaflid ) who ha,; undergone
training in the subject. Thus the direct comaet that che individual helie,·er
had wiili the source of his or her religion in the early period of the religion
is removed and replaced hr a mediated and controlled contact.
This process, tJ1e im,titulionolization or the reification of the doctrines
of che reli'lion, introduces a profow1d chan~ in die course of the religion. le
sets up Its power nnd authority structures and establishes the orthodoxy
(right doctrine) or onhopraxy (ri,$t pracdce), ilie stral.$t path. All
de,;ancy from this constitutes heres)' or ritual impurity ln short. it chanltel>
what was a purely personal matter into a social concen,, "here dcviam..-e
once Led onlv to personal :.pi ritual penaJdes, now there are social sanctions.
.1J2 R£LIGI01' IN SOW~ T\'

Orw, TIIA.~ll\11:iSJO~ o~ MGKl:ll n;xr. This ih n nlneteenih-ccnlu()' tleplcuon OI an lmnlilll

Shl'I ra"--dih-khcm, one who tell~ die story or the persecullon and martynlo,n of ch.:
I,nam llusayn

THE NATURE OF TIIE lllST OR l t:AL RECORO

In most of the religions of the world, there Is a signil)cam tlbcance in tlml'

hecween che origin of the relil!ion nnd the cime ac which iu, history and
scripture arc written <lo\YO. This process of writin~ down the ll!xti. oi tht·
religion incluces a profound change in the nature of the relu(10u!. trailitlon
Prior to the writin.(\ down of the sacred 'texts' thev :ire tr:10s1111ttcd
orally, ofti;n 111 forms ;,uch as poetry, ni:iklng them easier w mt:morl.tt: :Uld
recire. I lowe,·er, on orally cransmictcd 'cexc' ls noc fixed 111 the same wa,· as
n written text. There is no particular author II' chi; 11::l'.I j., :mrihutcd to .i
,-pecific holr J'il?;ure. then this sii?;nifics that the Idem. in the text arc .e11en
on che auchoriry of char person, noc th.ar rhe wordin~ helon~~ co him or her
III fact, th<: text i;, Ouid and able to toke on the chrrn~c" in world,·icw that
any society experiences. Tht hasic core of ideas in 1he text rem.1111~
unchanged, hut the wording changes. These :storie~ nre cxprc,-.,l'd in way,
that alter subtly from one generation to tl1c ne1- 4 rcflcctin~ the i~Mle!, tl111t
are import:im to e:1ch ~enermion :ind the tradu:i l chrm~ei, in culture aml
worldvicw that occur. Each generation, and evcn each individual reciter oi
 12 COMl 1.\RATl\'t llt:LltaOUS IIISTORY 333

the tex, r;.>crcatcs the te,\'.t, Thus, in an ornl I r:idition I here can be no sense
in" hich there is :rn 'ori~innl' pristinc rnxc that onn bc unc.'O,·ered by onreful
resc:irch
In aon-lltcrntc sO<llctic, tho: ru1s1 i~ percciwd "' cntlrel)' the S<.lrv,u1t of
the needs of the present, th1nl\, arc for~>ltcn and nwth is con,tnict<.'<I tu
Justify romempornry nrmn/!(!mcms; there nrc no dictionary definitions of
"ords . . . In lthcl religion (of :i non-licemrc soou,cyl rhcrc Is no $ense of
impersonal or uniYcrs:il onl1odoxy of doctrine; lci,!itlm:itc hchcf Is as a
pnrticulor priest or cider expounds it.''

.\t some point in the evolution of a religrion, sometime• hundreds of years

aftt!r its orij!in.~. the reli_!tiou 'te>.'ts' are ,vriuen down and thus fixed. \\'hat
hnd previously bcen cbarocteri1.ed by multi-fonnicy and Ouidity now
becomes ri~d and fixed. A recording in writing of a single moment io the
e,·olvin~ oral tradition of a text now becomes the 'o~inal' text. For a time
the mo traditions, oral o.od literate, continue to exist lo parallel, but from
that time on, the other oral versions are pronounced to be deviation!> from
rhis 'original' Gradually, the literate world gains precedence and tho
t)Tanny of the 'original' text causes tbe variety of oral vcrsioru, LO be
rele!lated to the background and eventually to disappear.
Once the sacred text of a religion is writum dow11, a different set of
considerations comes Into play. The religion has acquired a ri~id and fixed
base; arguments must now be resolved by appeal to an unch:rngeable
\\Tineo authority. Religion evolve~ into .a system of rules, a code of laws,
which emanate from the Ultimate Realicy and are therefore qulte external
to the indh·idual (:md even to the priest or elder) and to which the
individual must c.'Onfonn lf he or she is to be saved. This is an important
aspect of the move from primal religion to what Weber caUs rationalized
niligion (sec chapter J , pp. 59-60).
The weater the d1srnoce In time between the events of religious history
and their being recorded in written fonn, the greater the discrepancy
between the concerns and ,·iewpoims of those who write down the tc.xcs as
compared to the oriitinal actors of the episode. Thus what we have in the
Seu: Testam<mt, for example, is not so much a description of what went on
JuTing the lifetime of Jesus and immediately afterwards as a description of
these events filtered through the conce rns :md viewpoints of those who
wrote down the accounts between 50 and 150 ycan. later. This much bas
been acknowledged by biblical scholars who, in the last hundred years,
have painstakinA(y researched many of the consequences of this process
(see chapter 11, pp. 286-93). ll is of pan.icular concern to religious history
because the cext of scripture, once written down (LOgether wilh the Implicit
viewpoints and concerns of the time of the writers), then becomes frozen
as an unalterable, divinely inspired religious text. As time goes b~·. the
world,·iew embodied in the text becomes ever more divorced from the
worldvie,1 of cootc.mporo.ry society. This is part of the source of the
fundamentalism-liberalism dichotomy (sec pp Jl:!2- 5).
JJ I Rl'LHllON I' SOClfT\"

The lollowln~ do:Sl·rlb<--. lhc 1n11t,n11"1<m or lhc '""" hl l>t

OJ
rRO~I l ~1)1,\ TO
JO"-lflhAt and S1 B:,rloom fmm lndl1 Aero" 1ht Middle F.o•t
co Europe .\Ji1hou,l\h the evid,·nt-c for the 1rn11,ml•,1on """'
nc4,,;(.•ssarll) cumc (rum \\ rlttcn IC!\tu.tl i>IUU'4..~h , the
1

lrAllMllbhlOn llscl( undoubl1.'(l]\" u.;uk pl,11.-.: ornlly , lhmu~h the

m1.,.llum or 1,111/r\lcllcl"!> The .. rllu,11 ll,Ourc~ dull \IC rely
upon n.s c\"ltlcnt.-.: mny oo <.-on,Jdcrctl lo tw 'ct1pum..i· . 1-..,1.,1,-J
momentl> In" d)1'1Anllc r,moe~, or oml crnn,mi•""" 1hn111111,,1
El 'RtWE. THE
ho,·c inkcn monv centuries 10 occur Indeed. 1hc "or'" lt•df
Furio1n· o~- ORAL prnbohly entcrl!tl 1ht· rc,itiun 111 whfc.-h " tc:tl hr,, l><:cn founJ
nrnny ye.or.-. huforc the 'c:1pcurc' o( 1he ornl tntdJtfun 1n 11
TR.\NS~USSION written fonn. Some dcmco<:< ur
the 1mnsml>•loo •lury, fot
mswncc the n,nnner ,n wluch the nrun" chon~ from
llodisaf lO Yuili1saf, if ~'Orr~-ct, du imply a 1cx1u;;,I si,ur<.lt' for
the 1ransm1..<sion Tlus cr,isnde ,llustrmcs chc p<>inl thilt chc
essential elt:n1cnn,, in the ~tory (in thi"i: C::lW, it, ltfHntual
dcplhs) hu.-c been rcmarkubly I\CII preM:T\'ctl 111 the ~-oursc of
tronsmlsslon. while chi, dc1nlls, i.uuh os the rdl!llun to whkh
th" btOI')' rclo1.,s, have under/lone o rcm.uk:,hlt, tr:10.,-
forrnnrion
The story i• told in many sourc,,s ,\ powerful Indian ruler
grkves hccousc he Is childles~. i\1 lBSt n child is bom 1<1 the
klnit n.nd is named Jusaphat. ,\ S<.-cr pr.,dicL'i thut the ch,l,.J
"ill rcnoun~-c :ill cartlily 1bln!,\S, so tl1c king buUJ., 11 city .inJ
3 palace tha1 is se1 opan to kl!<!p hJ!. son from koo\\ lcJg,, uf
or
lhe world am.I lhe trne condition of human be1n~ \\'ht'11
he ,!!rows up, Jos.~phat one day persuades his fothcr to allow
him to go uut :me.I sec chc real world .\n excursion 1,
11rmngt,d ftt1J on this Jo;,aphm s ~ for the flr,.t timc a cripple,
11 blind man rutd one who is ucar death. This tfi,,1urb.>
Jo;nphat, causllllt Wm to ,..,allz.: that all human bt,inll,, arc
subject 10 d,seosc, old a/le and death At this juncnm:, a holy
wunderinl! Christian awetic, St 8t1rlaam, opp.,,,rs in dt<i\U1>1.',
prc:ichcs LO Jo.sapbnt in pan1t>lcs snd succc,,ds in conn::rrin~
him to Christi:t111ty Josnphai', Imber oppo.ws h1, s.,m\
conversion and orgactizc, deb:11e, anti other mc:J.Jl> to ti')· to
overturn It bu1, In chc end. 1s hlmsclf t.'011\'en..,J. Jo"1phar
le3ve; his prtncely life and depart.• for the hr" of o wanJerln~
ascetic .
,\nyoml wilh c--<,n a sur,crflcial knowlcd~c of the
bill,l\rnJ,h)' (Ir 1he Huddhu "-ill rc<m!lnizc the -.mllaric~· of thb
story tu I.be Hory of the Buddh11, hut it "'"' um w1Ul the
nlnetetnth tJ.:ntury that the details uf the hb!ol')· of thl, tulc
began to be unra,elleJ from th~e researche,, ll emcn!<:J
that thi$ was indeed tbc story of the lluJJha wh,dt haJ
rrm·ellcd with Ruddhi&m into Central .\.<ill where Budtlhism
and M:,nfchu c,sm m·,•rlnppctl for mom· ••entu ries Clu,.., to
the 1muM11h~ion uf rltc otol')' can h<. found In C<.cntrnl ,\.,Jan
Buddhist ~htlmn text,,, I\ hen: the \\orJ lx,,./IIINJl~'<I tune
who u. s..-ckin,I\ to become a hmldha) Is ,honcn~.J l<I 'llodl.>af.
and ,n frn~enLs ol Manlchncan teXl> where the ,mry "'
Bodis3fs me.,rin4 \\ith n tleer1:11lt old man is 10IJ
 I.? C.:OMl'AIL\Tl\'t,: IIBLIGIOUS IIISTOR\' JJ5

Evl<lcnc'C cxl,1, tlrnl from Ccntrnl ,\,1.1 1hc Mor) spread to

Imo wid "•" LO bt.: found In Pohlav, mnnu;crlpLo Thc,-e theo
fornwd 1h" lxiots of Lhe lou,r SIOI')' of Ymlnsof ond B,lawhor in
l'crslrut. The chnn(\e in die name from Bod1saf w \'udnsrif ,s
e,·idenily u Lrnnscrip1ion error and only involves on
additional dm under the first letter The end of the stol')' in
thcsc versions, rhnL Yudn.soJ irm•ellc'<I LO Kru<hmir nnd hnndc>d
over the teaching of his nu.-s.sagc to Abod,d (; .\naudn, the
Buddha's chlcf thsclplc) ucforc dymg, wos t.hc b:tsis for 1he
le~ends surroundlne the shrine of Yuz Asai in Srin~ar. (This
Yuz .\saf wns ideodfie<l with .lcsus Christ b~· the Ahmadivya
Mu,lln1 sect and fom1s port of their claim 1hac .lesus did nm
die on 1hc cross hul survived, truvdk,J Lo India ond is buried
in LhJs ,mnnc.) From Imo, the blory i.prcad nnd 1~ found ln
. \r11hlc. Gc>()rtian, Arml!tl!nn, l,;th,oplan and lie brew form1,.
Around the year 1000 CL, the SC0'1' was cramlated Into
Greek and later Into Latin as the st0I')' of St Josaphat ( losaph
in Greek) nnd St Barla;am 1'he two snin ts were entered on the
roll of saints recognized hy the Roman Gntholio Church and
cnjO}·ed Jlrcat popula.rity i11 medieval Europe. Version~ of
!heir •tor) made tht/1:r way no far afield no kdnnd and t.he
l'hllipplacs. Sln~y or tDged1er ther were allocated the !'cast
cl:iy• of 27 November. 26 Au,¢uM and JI) Nov~mber b>· the
Roman Catholic, Greek Onhodox and Russian Orthodox
churches rcspectwely

While chc fact thm a religious text hns been written down freezes the
form of the words, IL does uoc freeze their lutcrprctaUon. Both the rdl~om,
ideas and the history contained in the reli~ious texts can be, and indeed
ha\'C been, rcimerprctcd in each generation according co the concerns nnd
viewpoint of that generation.
I ha\'c described above the tcndenC>' to read h:1ck into the -post the
issues of the present. One important point that anses from this relates to
c.he idea put forward by the philosopher of history Benedeno Croce. He
stated chat 'all trne history is contempor.ary history'."" In other words, all
\Hiring of bistor~ inescapably involves the baokwards projcclion of
comemporary concerns. Each ~eneration of British historians. for example.
has produced its own hjstory of the Roman Empire. 13y and large, the
a•·alliihle information about tbc Roman Empire ha1, chaf\gc<l very litdc: It is
the interpretation of the C\'idence chat changes These histories differ in
that they each reflect the concerns and perspectives of the generation that
produced them.
To create a past hy constructing an image of it is, in a sense, co define
the preso.:nt and thus to determine thi, course of fucure action. Each
generation oi a religious community has ilS own questions and prohlems
arising out of contemporary social and i1llellcctual concerns. One of the
way:, of dealing with these is to reconstruct the past of the community in
the li~r of the present concerns The image of the prophet-founder can oo
adjusted to pro\'ide a new model of how people should act and U\'e in tbe
J,11> RFl,IGION II\ SO('IFTY

pre~enl circum,rnnce..,. To one gcnerution, .le<>u., 1s mcck uml fol'j\1\ In~. 111
:11101hcr. he is o M1Ci:LI rev(1lution:1ry For one ~cncmtlon 01 8h1'i, 111 lmn,
the Imams cxhihil the q11nlilic:, of mcckncs:, and patu:.:nt cntlurnm.'c uf
per:-ecuticm. for the ncxc ,l!cnen1uun, they arc seen ns 1111,init rh<.:n ,11111111,1
tyr:onny nml 111juscice. Neither the Bible nor the trndicion:11 OOL'<>unc, ut Sh1'i
hh,cor} have ch:111Aed from one j.\cnerotlon to the nex1, onlr the
circumstance~ of each ,l!encr::111011 have altered Their need~ arc dillercm,
.1111.J they lrnvc erontcd a rellAcms history m suit cho:,e 11cc1b llbtury can
thus he ;.een LO be a powerful tool in the ham.ls of tho:,e \\ ho \\ hh 10 hnn~
aha11t rcli~ious ch:m~c. It i~ in:.trumcnrnl in crc:ninj\ the vi~iun of e.1ch
~ncrnuon, in <>Cttiug up the ideal!. ant.I values of that j.\enernuon rmJ thu~
che ,l!o:ils LO he pur1-ued .
.\ good example of the reconstruction of chc past in order rn justify aml
~vc mcanln~ co the present is co be found in the histol)' 01 the l'anl Kuch
pcoplt! who li\·e in northern Ren.gal Up 10 the fif1cen1h ccntul)', they wcr,.
isol:iccd from Lhu ru::unstrcnm of lnditm culture nut.I had their own social
11nd rcli~ious culture They lived in the forests, sp0ke a dhtinct l:mituagu
and were matrilincal. Their pries1s, called kolicas, ofiiclatcd at sncriflcc, co
thl! i,un. the moon, th..: stari, and various god:, associat..:tl \\-Ith local forest~.
hills and rivers. At the head of this pantheon was the supreme eod, Rishi.
who w:i..\ married 10 the goddess Jogo. They used no images of th(;1r g<><b
and itoddesses. however. One or t.he headman of the Kuch people, B1,u, puc
C<lgcchcr a eontetlerntion and declared himscl( king (rnjo) of the region in
the early :.l:ucenth century. At about that saml! Lime, Brahmlnicol lllndu
culture hegan ro have an impact upon the Kuch people. The new kinit
p;Jtronlzcd the Bmhminical culture. m, did his &on tu1d suL-ce:,:,ur. :-.:ar.1
Narny:in. The dynasty adopted ;i fictitiou~ genealo,l!y 1ha1 made the lmher
uf Bi~u and the other Kuch fomlly head~ sons of fu~ltl\·c princch of the
Llindu Kshalriya caste who had :,euled in the re~on and marrietl loc.'11
women ,\ forthcr development of chc legend had Hisu':. mmhcr
ln1prc$1atctl by rhc llindu god S!hiva, leading to Bbu's birth. In thh way an
upwardly mobile dynasty had linked itself to rhc hil\hc,t ~>chclon~ of
Brahminical Hindu culture and inwgrntctl themselves illlo the Jlintlu c.'ll.,tc
!.yMen1. The Kuch supreme deicy Rishi anti hb consurt .l~o b<.!camc
identified with Shivo and his consort Pnrvati The Kuch prie,r~ :itloptcd
Brohmln1cal rituals ru1tl e\·en the Kuch peu:.aniS were bv the nin1.:tt.:cnth
' .
cenrurv, idenofylnl! themselves as memhen, 01 the Hmdu Shudr,1 eascc ...
In addition to rhc above, the wririnA nntl rccountint; ot hi,ton• has
~cn•ctl other functlon1> in human socicty. Thc c:u)h,::,c ~un in11g accuunL, oi
the Shi'i sects in Is lam were wrinen tlurtnit the .\hhas1d period (thac is.
about two hundred years after ti,..,
C\cnt:..) ~lo1111;omery \\'att ha, propo,c.J
that these accounts were, m fact, a covert way of L'<1nducunit poht1c.il
debate in the highly restricth·c ,\hh:isid cn\'ironmem This has been .1 role
played by relJf.Uou:, d<.:bate ln many hi:,torlcal c."Ontext.). In the year<> bciorc
the Iranian Revolution o f I 979, the rcscricclons imposed by che :-hal1
prt!\Clltcd open political debmc. The opponcncs of the regime therefore had
 12· COMl'Alt;\Tl\11,. IU:t.ltHOlfS IIIS1'0RY 337

recourse to rcluting storic~ about the l!arly lcudcrs of Shi'i Islam and their
struJ!/tles against lhc ~ovcrnmcnL~ of their time. The purpon of such
Matemems was not lost on chosl! who heard them.
,\lso of rclcvm1oe In coru;lJerln~ religious blstory is Hayden White's
concept of the rhetorical nature of historical truth (sc..'C p 150). He nsserts
tl1at the acceptance of a particular account or intcrprctlltion of a historical
e\'Clll (here an e,·enc in r.tligious history) is not dependent on I.he accurate
use of bis1orict1I data or c,·cn on the strcn~rh of reasoning or logic used in
the analysis. Rtuher. it dependi. on the con~iscency. coherence and
1lluminative power or the account. This in ntrn depends on its rhetorical
,mJ poetic pcrsuasinmcss. A historicul accoun t is thus ncccptcJ at an
emotional rather than an intellectual level. After its initial acceptance,
howc,-er. nn elaborate web of evidence nntl reasoning is built up to support
this acceptance." Thi!> is an importanL observarion because it help~ ro
explain how m:,11:hic features come to he incorporated into religious history.
Thci.e mythic clem~ncs ore import:mt factors in che emotional response co
reliitiou.~ hisrory. They resonate with deep scructures within the human
mind, so enhancing the rhetorical and poetic persuasiveness of any \'ersion
of religious history that incorporates them. There 1s therefore a constant
pressure on historical accounrs, pu.~hing them to make the figure of the
founder of d1e religion (or anoci1er important religious figure) into a solar
hero or the major female fil!ure into an earth mo1her (see chapter 11).

Ft:RTUER READL'IG

For biographies of the \"arious founder-prophets, see Pye, The Buddha;

SaJdhatlssa, The Life of the BucldJUJ; the Bible; H. J. Rlchardi., The First
Christmas; l,ings, M11hammad; Balyuzi, The Bab; Balyuzi, Baha'u 'I/ah. On
the sllCiru evolution of religion, sec \\"cbcr, The Theory of Social and
Economic Organisation. pp. 329-342, and The Sociolo~r of Religion
(especiall y chapters 4 and 5 ).
 r

RELIGION AND ETHI CS

the m:'lil1$(a\" of
lflT()RICAl.1.Y, RF.~lr.1O~ ILAS ALWAYS REEN CO~Sllll'llfn 8$
public and personal morality. AB though anlhropolo).tl:.tb hm c l1knllficJ a
few cultures in which morality docs not appear co he hascd on rnliltion. it
would be true co say that for the majority of human societies, the i,th1cal
basis of a society h:is been its rcU~on. In theory, moral11y refer~ to
principles of what is ri~ht and w:ron~ in behaviour while ethic,; is the :irea
of philosophy concerned with the meanin~ and bosis of morality. In
practice, the nvo terms are us~ incerch:rngeably. 111 thrs chapter 11.: l.hali
look ac the theoretical grounds for ethics \\;thin religion and I hen go on 10
the area of social elhics, looking in particular at the ethics of enviro11mcntal
concern.
In our interactions with other people, we mny act entirely M:lfbhly or
we may tal<e chem Imo consideration. It is chis cakin~ of others into
consideration, giving them a 1·nlue, considerin~ them of some importance
that forms the root of c1hics. There arc l'rcquc11tly, ho11 ever, factors 1hat
make moral decisions more complex Mornl decisions nre often in practice
not u clear-cut, black-and-white matter. Something tbut we may consider
impermissible mi~hl, for example, become permissiule under ~ome
ci rcumstnnClls· while lying is con~idered unethical, it may he pcrrnil>Sihle in
the case of a doctor who considers it In tl1e best interests of the patient that
the full seve rity of the illness noL be rel'ealed to her or him There aTe al--o
grades in our evaluations; greater or lesser value may be plnccd on ccnain
courses of accion. A developmenc which hab oc.-curroo recently In dw
Western world (::ilthough it has long been a part of other culrun.,;;) is the
assignment of value to animals anJ tJ1e physical erwircmmt:nl and hem.!<:
ethical concern for them.
Religions hnvc based their cthicnl dimension on a numhcr 01
theoretical considerations. The first of tl1ese Is the tbcor) of natural l.111.
that there is an inherent natural ability of h11man heing~ co reco~mzc
goodness, beauty, truth nnd other l'rtlues. Thii. theory c,111 hccomc the bm,b
for a relitious approach when, for example, huma11 nature 1s considered to
be n n:Aection of the divine n:uure Since it b p:1rt of the divine nature ro
be able to recognize good, this Is also inherent U1 hum:m bcm,$,.
The second way that religions can cre:1te a hasi~ for morality i~ throu#l
the Jivlne command tlu:ory. For someone from :1 Wei.tern rcJi~ioill>

33S
 13 Rt~LIC:10:-1 MIO 1, r111c::; J39

background, we can state that morality nows from God's commands;

obc<licnoe lO the lnjunctions and lows in the sacred rnxcs is the basis for
human morality. One problem with this approach has been called tJ1e
Euthyphro dilemma (from the discussion under that name in Plato's
f)w/c,gul!S) . In brief. this puts forward cwo alternative positions that a
reli,tious person might rnke: either what God comm11nds is right simply
bc<.muse God commands it. or God commands what is right bccauS<: it is
ril!ht The first of these alternatives, what miglu be called che
fund:imentnlist position, seems to imply that God's command seL~ an
arb1tr.1ry standard which we have no moral reason for following; we may
indeed only follow it out of fear of the consequences of failing to do so. The
s1.'COnd ahernath·e is eqtrnlly troubling for the religious person. Il seems to
tmply thoc d1e divine command is irrelevant to ethics and that ethical
~tnndards ore established independent of religious considemcions It also
sets limiLl, on divine omnipotence by suggesting chat God is compelled co
nee in a cenain w::iy hecause that is what is ethical.'
One c:in sny tl1at erhics in che Eastem religions operates under vnrinnts
of the above theories. Karma in Hinduism and Buddhism and the Tao in
Taoism are cosmic laws under which all phenomena in che universe
()pl!r3te. One oppronch would he to say that human beings become moral
when chey realize rneir own identlcy wir.h Ahsoluce Realicy and hence come
into harmony with the universal law (n parallel with the natural law
theory). Anorner approach would be co say chat the scriptures of the
religion reveal the Dharma which defines che path chat human hein,gs muse
follow if they want to be in tune with the universal low and hence be moral
(a parallel with the divine command theory, without necessarily invoklng a
divinity).
Although the Greek philosophers developed the field of ethics as a part
oi philosophy, rney considered thac their ideas applied only to a \'ery small
elite. le would be correct to say that before modern times, for the majoritr
of people. it was not possible to separate religion and morality. Religlon was
the basis on which all the nom1ative actions of individual and social lire
were basl!d. Although we now separate these and call some moral actions,
some religious law, and some ritual, rney were considered as an iacegraced
whole in pre-modem society. In more recent times (in particular since the
£nlightenmem in the eighteenth ce.nwry), howe,·er, the humanist
ar4umem t.hat it ii, possible to separate ethics from its reliitious basis has
g:tined ground. One version of this argumcnc maintains that it is possible to
derive ethical principles from a purely utilitarian basis, without the aced
for o religious underpinninii It is a.~serted thac ethical principles can be
derived rationally from ~uch general principles 11S promoting the gcn.iraJ
~ood and preventing suffering." Those hostile co religion a.~serr chat religion
is merely a way of buttressing public morality by invoking a series of supra-
natural i;ll.llctions agairut immoral behaviour. They maintain that It Is only
necessary in the early scages of human social evolution and for gullible or
morally weak persons. Indeed, such writers as Freud and Marx went fun her
.1 Ill RFLIC;IO!I.' IS S<J(:l~.TY

unJ i,..ml tlwt It ls tlnn~crous to ha,e the ethic, uf a ,odc1v on rd,~11111,

once rd1~ion 's illusory 11011,re b rcvc:1led, ho1h rdi~ion ,ind muml11,·
coll:1pM!
.\ rch~loui. pcr~o11 would rcsponJ lV the hum:m1,t nrgumcnt ,ornc\\ h.11
:ilon~ 1hc followin~ line~ Whal c.~,11,1iw1c, the. ~cncrnl ~ood. which 1, w he
pronwtl'tl, rulll ,uffcri11~. ,1 hlch 1, lO he pr<Jn:ntctl. urc :,,1cmlly ,111J
cuhur:illy dcri\'ctl norms Thcv an: not independent, unl\•cr,al 1ru1h, th:11
can he tlcri\'cd frnm reaso n They tlu 11111 arise i11hcrcmly with111 hurn:111
hciu~~ If we ohi-crvc chiltlrco, for example. we ,cc that 1hi:y ha,c nu
inherent mo rality \\'i1hou1 cducanon, rhcy arL· n~re,,ive and l:mlc,, The
IUct thut we arc now ,,hie lO J1.rlvc general ly ,tc<.'l.ptcd cd1ical 1tuidcl111c, 111
our socieues 1s tJw result of centuril.!s of rdi~aous l1a1111n~ and inculcation
of rcli~iotL~ value,,.
Furthermore, the religious a rgumem concinucs. cnm ~iven chat \\ c
ha\'(l re:1c hcd thi~ sta¢e after cenruriei, or reli¢ious mom! cminin¢, thh doe,
not mean that humru1 beings can ncm dispense \\ 1th religion. We Mill n~·cd
something thac is outside anti aho,·e us to ace as the source of auchuruy tor
our ethic11I norms Otherwise our soeiolly agreed or rationolly derived
ethical i.tantlards a.rn too malleable, i.ubject to e:q)Cdicney and to our moral
weakness ..\ prime example is the way rhac llider mana¢ed to per~uadc the
German people (who prided themselves on their r:Hlonality) th.it Jc\\s and
~ypsitis wl.!rl.! not deserving of ethical c.-onsitltmuion The" ho)I.! i.tructurc oi
n nation's moral standords collapsed wichin a short cime lluman hein~~
need an absolute scanilitrd of morality chat is not subject to the vug:trit;;, of
rhetorical persuasion and parrisa n propaganda. Only rcli~ion can provide
such n standard, hccausc only religion olaimi, that its blandard dcrl\·~ from
he}rond the human world. IL is therefore lesi. subjec.:c to variauon :md
manip11la1ion. (Tho.~e amagoniscic to religion mny poim out , howc\'cr, thnc
in fact rdil!ious in1>Lilullons 1,uch as the Roman Catholic Church faded
lamencably to mount n vigorous oppoi.ition to 1-Jitlcr)
There arc SC\'Cntl further poinu. that a religious person would rnhc. The
first is that UH' ~tondanl for human behaviour dictated by thl.! humam"t
c riteria ii, rl.!nlly a very minimnl standard rrom timc to time indi\'icluah
arise whose aclions merit exceptional prabc and to whom "e as inilividuab
feel a1tracced hecause of th(.:ir 'goodness· Such persons almost aJwa>•:. ha,·c
a religious basis co their way of life. ,\ pen.on who is considered to he ·~ooc1·
In a rclitious sense (ior example a saiut or bo<lhisw.c,xi) dOO!> not JU~t 11ct
in ways that would he considered mornl hy the humanise scandartl Such n
person perfonns actloni- of generosity, charity and self-sacrlilcc that )!o well
beyond any rationalist humanist c riterion The standardi- for such a woy of
life are dictaicd by the scriptures of a religion nnd hy chc example of the
religion '1; founder anti lei. Mints. ,\ rcli~iow, pcn,on \\ ould further contend
chat rational argumenc c:.innot :inswer che more fundamental question oi
why we should heh:wc in :1 mortll way whc.:n this may c:1u~" lL' lol>s or h:1m1 .
As indicated above, most relitiious people do not really discern any
difference het:ween the moral, ritual and legal norms of their religion Thew
 IJ RELTGTO'II ,\NO lTITICS .HI

Co1.L\J'SF <>F \!ORAi, bTA><r>ARO~, By 1933, the Nazi~ were dominatlnl! political life in
(lennanr. Their persecution of Jew• hegan wiith c:impai_4n~ s·uch as the one pictured
here, cncourngln!1 Germans It) boyco11 shop, and huslnesscs ownud by fows.

are ,·iewed as an imegrated whole. Contradictory tensions may arise within

lhis framework from time to time. These are, however, occasions for
religious debate; they do not cast doubt on the validity of the imegrated
\'iew of the religious person.
It would be wrong, however, to say that the religious person always puti.
religious norms ahead of independently derived moral norms as a guide for
action. Often religious people act in a way that makes it clear that they give
priority to the latter. Indeed historically, many episodes of major religious
uphea,·:)I and change have arisen because someone has osserted that a ne,,
position b morally superior to the tradlrional position held by the orthodox
reli~ious establishment. Even some of the founders of religions can be seen
in this light. Jesus can be said to have initiated a moral revolt against the
exce~es of Jewish legalism; the Buddha and tbe Sikh gurus to have rejected
the Hindu casce system; and Baha'u'llah co have opposed che legalism and
literalism of the Islamic religious establi:shmenL

~I ORAL 0E\' ELOP1'1ENT

There have been several attempts lO describe the stages in the moral
developmem of an individual Perhaps the hesc known of these is thin
de,·eloped by Lawrence Kohlberg. Following Piogec's work on cognitive
 d.:,·dormcnt. Kohlbcrt\ d.::,cribed three lc,cl, ol mc,r:JI lh.:vclupmcnt,
divided inw a mrnl oi' :,ix stoj!c:. '1'11c fir,t level, prc-(.•onvcnt1n11:1l mornhty,
ii, typic.il of yount\ children, "ho 111:ikc dcc1,im1' h,1,cd ,olcly 011 tlw
C<ll1M!lfUcncci. for l11emwln:,. \\'hm b vle,,i.:<l :u, niorullv rit\ht ior II f>ers;<HI
within this ,1:1gc is hasc<l on the immediate (st.;1j!c I) or calcul,ttcd htllt\~· .'.?)
nwtcrial hcm:l'ils to him~clf or hcri,clf.•\( the ,,econd lc,<.1. cunvcnllon,11
mornlicv, dcc1., ions :ire hascd on the req111rcm<:nts ot socio! rnle, .,nd th<.·
cxpcetatluns uf others (stat\<: J), or on 1:1kir11t the pcr1,pccti11: of ,ocicty ,h
n whole (i,tat\c .JJ. \\'hat ts nil.ht is what b, 111 accordam:e ,,·1th soc1e1v·, rule,,
cxpccrntinns and co111·entlon,. ,\t the third lc\·cl, po,1-con,cntion.11
morallty, \\h:1t b r~ht is bni,t.:d 011 pcP,onolJy dcn,cd moraJ pnm:1plc,
These transcend and m11y :ll times trnni-l!res~ <.-on,·entirmal rulc, 11nd
reli~iou" l::m "· Then.: are multiple po:,sibiUtics In each Mtuation mul du:
indi,idual must C<>me ll) a decision based on pnnc1ples of JU!-tlcl:, t.,qualit>
:111cl human rights.>
Kohlbl:nfs Ideas ha\'C been exteushely critlc.:Jzc<l. .\mong other
criticisms is that the ~taj\es descil"ihed are .!!ender biased· there ore other
ways of approaching moral dilcmnrns that im·olvl! thinking in tcm1' of
rcl:1tionsb.ips and the nl!eds and welfare of od1t:1'8, ways that perhap~ coml!
more naturnlly to women and that many m:ty consider just as ad1·anccd as
the abstract concepts of justice that Kohlberg placos at the top of hii-
b1erarchy (see p. 435). More importantly from the 1·iewpolm of relt,ll)on,
Kohlbcrg's hierarchy can he criticized for assuming chat the highest value~
are those of \\'tistern llberaJ Procesuuu Christianity (or of the \\'estern
liberal tradition). ln foct, the whole exercise can he wnsidered circular.•\
hierarchy Is devised that puLS ,vcstern liberal Christian value;. at the
highest level, and then surveys are done which show th:ic chose from the
\Vestem libernl Protestant tr:1dition are the most highly developed mornll~ •
Certainly, chose from other rell~ious traditions would dispute che l'aJuei,
chat define the highest level in Kohlberg·s hierarch~·. M11ny would say thttt
th<! willingness to serve others and to sacrifice self arc the highest markcri,
of moraJ development from a religious viewpoinl; orher; would :,av that
ohedience to the Iloly Law is chc cnie marker of morol development and
tbat those in Kohlberg's sixth stage who consider themselves to he beyond
the lloly Law are, in fact, heinl! :irro~ant cowards God

THE FOUN0ATIOJ\'S OF RELIGIOL:S ETIIICS

While each religion hn;. it1, O\\ 111 particular h:1sis af :1uthorit}· for ch.:
lmplemenrnllon of etlucal sca.n<lards, the pracucal rcsulL~ arc to a lan~c
extenc similar. ~!any h:isic ethic:11 principles nre common to oil rcli~ions,
Lhcse may be regardc<l as pan of 1he common experience of humwuty 111
the proces~ of huildlnl! up ever j\reater social uniL~.•\JI rehl!ion~ h11n1
precepts tb:it one should refmin from killing or injuring other-., from lyinl!
and deceiving otheri., and from depr!l·tng others of their frct.'tlom or their
 1.3 1u:1.1GlON 1\.'1/U ETII ICS ;l-13

propc,rcy A srnhlc socicry c:1n scarcely

be m1aj\ined \\ithoul such principles.
Without some de~ree of application or
the ethical principle ·Thou shnlt not
ktJr. society would dissolve into chaos;
\\ithout the ethical principle 'Thou
shah not lie', no effective
communication berneen human
bcio~s is possihle. Therefore, even if
11e suppose that a religion did exist
that did noc advocate these ethical
principles, it would soon disappear in
lht: chaol> cbac it caused.'
J\s an example of the fact that
every religion has much the snme
t:tlucnl basis, one c:1n look at the
various maniiestations oi whac L~ often
calkd che 'Golden Rule' or the law of
reciprocity This may he stated as the
morn[ imperative tlrnt one's :1ctions
towards others should be such as one
would hope for from others (see
p. J+l).
Once one passes beyond this basic
le1·el, religious ethics vary to a certain
extent because of l>e1•eral fact0n,. First,
e:1ch relij\ion has its own particular
vision of humClnity's position in the
world and Its relationship to Absolute
Reality (see chapter 8). Profoundly
different, even contradictory. world-
1iews exist in the various religions of
the world. One would think that this
would lead to great ethical differences
but the differenoes on this basis are, in
fact, surprisingly small. One exrunple
of such dillenmces tbac can be seen is
in che prohibition against killing Two Jnin pnndits (top row) present to their j\um.
others. ln Judaism and Islam, it is Achn~·• \1jaynscna Suri, on edict prohibitinl\
permitted to kill in self-defence, in the slouthtcr of animals during the eight rui~·s
or the Paryusbnnn festival, lblO, that they
defence of the religion or of others. fn have ohiained from the Moghul Emperor
Christlanlcy. the New Tuscamem hints Jahaogir. Their white robes show that they are
chat it is not pem1issible to kill or of rhc Shvciaml>am school . Three ,lain nuns
injure others, even in bell-defence. dre...~ed in white may he seen in the third row
Baha'is also are not permitted to kill from the h<mom on the lclt In tJ1c bottom row
a mrut I• dancing by n11i.,lcal lnsuum...nlll
others in self-defence, but it is
.l II REI.ICIO'I/ IN SO<'ll'TY

lll\lll lS\I

[I] !lo no1hin~ lo llhl·r- which If II "Cr\! 1lt>l1C lo p,u "nu)J •-allW
you r·11n Th;, 1, 1h,• ,,wn,__. "' Ju~ ( lln/iul,lkm,ru, cJ Hoy,
.5 I 'tl_\lfJI.J,O Por,.'f,. fJruJ,U:ut·1, l'un.,, , 1517 ~J
Rll)ltHh\t
Tm Go1n1-:r- Ru.1 I( VOii R;1hul.i ,ltc '""'""' ol Jum~ h t.lcc,l "tlh 1h, lioJ),
you :,huulc.l rdl..:cl 011 thnt J..:1:1.I o• your huJy J( l uu,
I'll TIIL RF.t.lt:10'.I.S Rohul<t rdlt:ctln~ th11,, ,houlJ llnJ, 'Tlut di.:,.:J ><hn,h I 11111
or rm; \\'uRLu
J""'""" <>I Join,! "Ith th~ hlld,· L, u Jcu.l of 111, IM.Jv
th11t woulJ Lsmdt1L'C tn rhe hMm ot sch .1nJ tn the harm ul
mhcr- onJ to 1hc homi ni hmh ; du, Je.:cl of hoJ,· 1, ur,,~1ll"i
its yield h oni:uoshcJ, ii- r<:su!t "un~ui,h ' - ., d,-.,d oi lM,-1'
hkc th,s, lbhul~. rs ccrtatnh· not 1,1 111, J,mc II\ ,.,u (\\"or.I.,
o( th~ 8uddh,1 Ill Manlwnu .\'1/wyu. .i,;,!Julutc/ulw
IILJw/,,vtulu.,ullu. 1.115. 111 Th, <:oll,'t.'ftfln <// Mui.//, i..~!Jltl,
'*'·"'"~"•vol .?, p l'i'J)
ZoRu.\.~l kL~\L',)t
Thal n:11un, onh Is !lo<xJ II hen 1t ,h:ill not do untn a111>thcr
whatever 1~ nor )lond for ILS own ,cli (/)(u.11.•um-1 /)j11/lt •14 :-
in \\'cs1, Pnh/1ror T,xr., Jl3rl 1, r 271)
JrD,\bM
Wh:11 I, hn1t1ful m you dn not do m your nt1UU,hour r.h,t 1,
the whnk Tomh, while the rest is the commcntnry th"1•'<>i
( R,1hhi llillcl In the 8"1J)•fo11ro11 T.,/mu<I, ,"it•rlcr .11,A-<I.
Slu,bbut/1, L..llo)
CIIIUSTl.\~ITI'
.\rul a., you wbh t.bnt men would do to you, do so to them
(Lukc 6:Jl)
ISL\M
Xone nrnon!) you trwy bell..-,·.,,; untll he Ukcs ior h1~ lm,thu
t.boc which be love,, for hlmscU (SaJuh ,\fuslmr. book 1,
chap1er 18)
8.ut\'t farm
I.av not om any soul a lo3d \\ IUch re "ould nut ""h to ht'
laid upon you. and dw1re not for anrooe the thin~, ve \\uul<I
not de.sire for yoursehc~ This is \(,· hcst counsel unto you,
did ye hut ob,crw it (Baha'u1lah, OIL-rmi11Jl,, no f,t,,
pp. 11;-i;J.

pcnnbsible to kill In defence of ochers. In Buddh.lsm anc.l Jalm~m. the

prohihition nAninst killing is extended to .1ll scnrhmt CTCaturc,
One <>Ccond source of the variations in the ethics o( rcUgioru, ruu.cs
from differences over the c1 uestion of "ho is worth>· or ethical
considcrntion. This is the question of the hounclurics of ethical nction,
whlch b corn,ldered funher belo".
Third. there is also some def!,rce or v.iri:mon 10 Lhc comparalin:
emphasis given to differcru moral virtues. Tho.: pen.on of Lhc founder of 11
rcliJ.tion acc.,; to a. l:1r_atc extent as a role model for the follmn,r.. of that
 1.1: HELIGION AND t:TIIJCS J-15

a b
Tm. HOLE lJOl•EL L, kl:LIGIOS· a) The Buddha's cbaractcrlsllcs of serenity and calmness are
=phllslzed in Buddhism aml MC predominant h1 portrny:,Js of Lhe Buddha In Buddhbt
.ut This staruc from Wat Tr1mit in Bangkok is in the Sukhothai style and shows the
Buddha in the po.<tun, oi Bl1umis1)(irslw n1udr<r (se" p. 274), The stntue was th(i~ht 10
ht.- made of uucoo but M>mc crnck1r1 rovcnlcd that ft wns In fact made of some five nnd 3
h'11f tons of :,olld gold. b) 'Alxlu'l·&l1a, the ,on and SU(.'Ct:Ssor of 8.~ba'u'llali, Ls nlgt,rdtJ
by Baha'ls ns !he Perfect Excmplnr of !he Bnha'I teachings.

religion. This will affect the comparative emph,'lsis given to different moral
,'lnues. Jesus is viewed by his followers as primarily exhibitin~ the qu:ility
of love towards others. Therefore Christians tend to emphasize Jove as an
ellucal precept. Muslims regard Muhammad as exhibiting justice ln his
d~>alings \\ith ochers and some Muslims may emphasize this quality,
Theravada Buddhis~ consider that the Buddha showed greiit cnlmnc.'SS and
concencmenc, even under adversiry. Buddhists may therefore emphasize
thcse vinues in their social dealings. Similarly, in interpreting the principle
of :.elf.denial and selr-sacrifice, Christians have, following the example of
Jesus. interpreted this in terms of celihacy and monasticism, while Muslims
ha\'c ooen prnpared to sacrifice their li\'e!i in defence of the realm or [1,,,lam.
For Baha'is, "Abdu'I-Baha, the son of Baha'u'llah, is the 'Perfect Exemplar',
the one whose actions are the example to follow; his patience and love arc
thus emulated by Baha'is.
Lastly, it is also p0ssihle to discern thar ideas of morn.lity hove
developed and become more refined with the possing or time. This
refinemem leads to II replacement of less differentiated ideas about the
morality of an act ion with a deeper assessment of factors such as the
inwntion of the agem of the action.
,l 11• RF.1.1<:IOS I'll SOCI f.T\'

KRi.11sA ,IT W,IR. This l><l>ter from lndla ~hcl\\s Krishna ~ lhc chanotccr u f M1una ,,. tlwy
go to battle in th.: war b<:cw.:cn Lite l'aoda,•ru. lltld Lite K111m1vas. Arjuntt ls one oi tlu: li,·c
Pm1c.wva prlnc.-es

TH ~ BOUNDARIES OF ETHI CAL ACTJO>;

Tradilium,/ Formufotio11s
One of the ways in which religions differ from one another b In definin~
what one might call the boundaries of ethical ncrion. For exnmplc, n, hn,
already been indicated, all religions comaln some form of prolub1llon
against murder This prohibicion only :ipplies, however, m certain
circumst.1nces. .\lmo~t e1•err religion has to some extent authorized ,orm:
form of religious warfare. Even Buddhism, which b oflen re~arded ru, a
pacifist religion, was in fact 1he inspiration behind many of the mnrtial an,
of China and Japan, fonning lltc rcligiow, ba~c for lltc Samurai \\arrior
class.• llinduism had lrs warrior caste, the ksharriya , whose de!tliny il wa,
to fight and take life. The Mal1e1blwrc11a contains M.:1·crnl in,tancc, of
\'udhishthir and Arjuna protesting a)!aln!tl the karma uf tlteir dm,!t, w~uch
forces them to fight snd take life. C:hrisri:mity authorized the Cmsade<- ru,
a holy war ngaim,t the infidel.- In Islam, jihad, holy war, Ii, om: oi the pill.ir,
of the faith. The world is dil'ided into the Dar al-Islam {world ol Islam, the
territory controlled by Muslims) and the D:1r 111-1 lnrh (world of war, the rest
of the world, which I!. the Ocld for the jihad).• Ourin~ much oi tin: ~liddlc
J\Aes. Christianity and Islam foutltht each (llhcr in holy w:ir - jihad co the
Muslims, the Crusades to the Christians. Only in the more reccnL Baha'i
 l.l Rt.;Ll<,101' A'IIO ETIIICS .l-17

,\ban u,c,·ltablu ~Ill.I nncuml r""ult, the non\lolcnt mcs,;.1~ of

D1 lludtlh1>m \\as qu3hfioo, modlt'k'<I, or o~crhud by dut,; to clan

lord, so thnt l:luddhist warriors fou~b 1 Other Huddhi,1

~ wnrriol"' 10 the dc:1.th, it i.s cc, be presumed \\ith only minor

rwm~·~ of C.'t1no,;ci<.1n~
.. there wn, an lnhuih focwr 111 lludi.lhbrn 11,clf that
S.\~ll'R.\I RJ:.UGIOl'S \\·orkcd uga,nst the tcauhin!l UlJll nil Ufc. csp...'Clull) l1Uman
Cl1.TI'RE lifo. ls •Ocrl!d. Thi, ""~ t.hc Buddhl~t tcachlni!, of kumuc
dcSrlny For Instance. some of the warriors ponr3yt<J m the
Ht'ike ,lfonu,lltltnrf (T,lle of chi, Jll!ike) lamented che foci, at
rcOccth--c moments or when they hnd committed some
mlllt11rlly 111..-Cc"-<:lt'}' cruelty. 1h111 chc)' had 11\.-..,n horn into "
warrior famil)' and tl1us must carry on with a warrior's bloody
cart!<:r. ,\od ir~c u:, l..-n nu1y ha\'c been In ;,omc ro,pccts rrom
tltc bonds ol the Buddhist tradition, ft was not free from the
bond;, of che 1e:1chm~ of knnna.
Tn this mu..<t be added a peculiarly Japanese iactor· the
.ironj\ sense nf fomily loynl1y ond tradition, .,,p..><:ially ,n th~
upper clu~scs Reflcctin,t the Chiuc~e reverence for
unc,,:,tors. che family - nnd It> role, occupation, busin.,ss - ts
• ·sacred" lnhcrttan~-e, em:t.illnlt the son's - .:,pcclully the
eld.;st ,on's - iollowin~ In lus father's foocsceps. (On"
contemporary Shimo priest proudlr notes that he is the
rwenry-eil!,hth in the family who has occupied the he:tdship of
• partlc,ular ~hrinc.) When this i• nddcd ro, or is seen as the
l'chicfo of, k3mlic prcJctcrmlnotion, the lndMuual [q
rcquln.'<I, c, en fated, to accept the role Lrutl bas h<:cn gh•cn
him - for Instance, as• samuml \\hose deMlned duty wns LO
be a fi~cln,I!. lil'e-desrroylng 'BuddhisL' (Kini\, Zerc arcd 1/te
m,y of the St,:orcl, p 3.1)

Faith is 1.hcrc a &pccific scriptural prohjbidon on holy war as rut instrumem

ot reli,!ioui, policy.•
The point is thac altbouAh killin~ other humnn beings is forbidden in
c1·try religion, thlb prohibiHoo doc1, not cover everyone. Cenwn people are
'us' and are included in rhe prohibilion. while others nre 'them' and are not
included (or, or least, hove not been, historically). The same point could be
made wich regard co al l Lhe other ethical provisions. There Is a boundary.
The hi~hest erhical considerarions are extended towards chose within the
houndary. Thoi.e outside the boundary, howe\'er, arc '-'<>nsidered to be
ouiside the scope of these ethical laws anti moral principles." The ioUO\ving
comments refer to each religion in its classic period and fomrnlation·

• In che Hebr~-w Bible, ' w,' refers to the chosen people, the tribe of Israel
Others (even women and children) were often treated wich great
brutality, and killed en masse. This occurred, for ex:imple, dunng the
biblical conquest of the land of Israel. 1
• In llinduism, ic is the members of ehher family, clan or caste that are
·us· The higher castes did not consider themselves os bound co observe
;1 I~ Rfl.ln!OX IN 80Clf.T\'

crhicnl conMc.lernlions townrc.ls the lo\\~t caste, and ceruunly noc to

the non-caste peoples
• In 111ru1y period., of ChrisLitm hblory. 'ui.' tcnc.lcc.l to he rc,-1rlctcc.l to
onhodox mcmocrs of om/sown ,cct All mhcr, were either hcrcucs nr
Infidels, 1101 dcscrvinit of nny uhical c.·on,-idcr'tlti<m Thdr h>rt11r1: and
kllllnit 11erc e\'cn commended by lhc Church.
• The law in blum 1s more Aenerous \\1iut 111 Jmfail,m was u tribal
boundary anc.1 in Chrisrianicy hecame a sectarian hound:irv (cut1111~
across tribal boundaries) W'as now cxtcndcd to thc ~·onccpt ol the
umnw, th1: cntirc community of oolicven, (cuttin~ aeros, both tribal
and sectarian houndories). l\lmos1 all ~luslims arc n.:!l:irded us '11•.'. ,\
large degree of ethical t'<>nsidcralion can even he cxtcndcc.l to .Jew;. am!
Christians n., 'People of the Book', provided that they suhnut to the mle
of lsl:im and fulfil ceruiir, other oondicions." 1\vo c::uc~orics arc outsic.lc
the boundaries of ctJ1icnl ct)nsiderntion in blarn - polythcbu, 1,,ruch
for pr:tccieal purposes means all relil!ions ocher than .Judai~m and
Christianity)" and upostate!>. These may be killed with impunity
wherever they are found. and their property 1s foricit.
• ln the Baha'i Faith, the boundaries are drawn even more ,,,ddy, co
include all the people of the world, without regard for reli~ious and
other boundaries. Special adH111tagcs arc even gh·en, in som1.c
circumstances, to mlnorlcy groups.

The drawing of ethicar boundartes can be considered to have been 011

ad,·ancage in the past. Positive ethical attitudes wwards those within ones
society helped to incrca:1e rhe cohesiveness and therefore the strength of
society. Identifying the enemy withoU[ and direccinJ! the society's nl!j\oti, e
energy in that direction reinforced chis process and purged -;ocietv of
destructive forces that could 01hern•ise have turned inwards. Such on effect
can he seen In che Crusades, when the call co fl,t\ht the Muslim rnfidels
frequently brought a halt to the internecine wars in Christion Europe It h
only with the drawint t01;ether of the 'j!)obal villa~e· in modem times that
this identificmion of exrernal e nemies has become dis11dvant3Aeou:; and
threatening to che world as a whole.

Conremporary De'Oelopmencs
During rhis century, religions h:l\'e come under pressure from the
incrca~ingly pluralistic world in which we Jive. This has resulted in a need
to mo,·e away from the exclusi\'iSt attitudes of the trodiuonal re~ou,
ethics. As a consequence, chere h os been a relaxing of these ,·en· n~id
attitudes towards those who are not 'us' Thus. for example. calls for a jil1ac.l
a~insc infidels are now limited co exrreme focuoos amon~ ~lu$lim!.,
whereas up unLil the early part of the twentieth <.-cmury they were to he
beard from major religious leaders, and the cxclusivu,t tHUtude of the
 tJ , RELIUJOJ\ ANL> i,;TJIICS 3-l'J

The Assembly of Relljlious 11nd Spirl1unl Lenders aL the sc,cond Parllrunenc of the World's
Religions, Chicn~o. Au,~ust-SepLember I 993

Roman Catholic Church was almosr completely reversed by the Se<.'Ond

\'nrican Council (1962-5). Even so, this has not been unanimous:
1undamemallst elemencs In each reli~on keep trying to draw the
community back towards greater ri~dity. f'or every scriptural ,·crsc th.it
liberal clements find cucourng1ng a pluralist auitudc, tbe fundamentalists
can point to another ,•erse that is exclusivist in nature. In the Baha'i Faith,
however, chere is a specific scriptural injunction co 'consort \\ith the
followers of all religion~ in a spirit of friendlines~ and fellowship' and there
1s therefore lictle scope for exclusivisc interpretations."
.\ rL'CEmt nttcmpt to generate an inccr-religioLL~ ethical framework thot
could embrace all rdl~lons is a declaration approved by the General
Council of the Parliament of the \Vorld's Reliwons (held in Chicago. 28
.\ug~t to -I S1;:p1ember l 99J ), and ~lgncd by the dclegatei; auendin}!,
entitled 'Declaration toward a Global J;thic'. It affimtS the need for a global
ethic co underpin the emerging world order and for every human heint to
350 l<El,ILIOI\ l'I SOCIFT\'

be treated humanely In ll series of Auidclinc,- for human hdrnvlour. it

propose:- that hoth in<l[\'i<lu:lls nn<l #\OVcrnmcnts make comm1tn11:nh w
creat.., 11 culture of peace :incl nOlfl·\iolencc, sohdarity and II JU,t ccmwmic
order; w lernnc1: and tnuhfulncss, and cqunl ritihi.-, and portuer,hir
bc1wecn men :md women' In dcpictinii 1hc rn1<;..:,-, hy \\hich thi,
declaration wf1s fonnuloced, llans Kiin~, it, principal nrch11cut, tlcscnbc,
th.i objccliom, raised by ,·ariou~ rcliAious Aroups lO st>edf1c :.i,pcct, of the

'fhv .fo/lotdr!ll i$ p,,rt o.f tli< tll'dt1ru11tJ11 Ul!n:L,1 by tho:

tlc/,•Jlcucs q/ tlte rd1/l1t1t11< u11cn,/111J! tlk' /'11r/1ut11<1U ,if ti"'
1\hrld's Rd11/1<111s. C/1u.~1. ,\1,Rush'icpr,..,11/x..,. 199.1

\\'c men nnJ women of varlou, n:Hition• .,nJ n:i;lnn, of thi,

ct1nl1 .uJ<lrc.s, lwrc nil p,,flrlc, r...ttiiin,., am.I mm-rchiiluUa, for
Tm: P.\Rl.l,\MENT
\\C ,-hare the follO\\Lltg ~'On\1<!Uun,
OF TIIE \VoRLn's that we nil hnvc a rcspon,ibility ror a ~lltr i1Johal
<•rtlcr;
REI.IGIO)';S: thttl lrwohcmcm for the ,.J.kc of hWllllu rtgbu,
0ECl.,\RATION
freedom, JUl,tJoe. peac;, and tht' pre>l!nauon nt tb"
canh is ~casonable and necessary;
TOWARD.\ GLOB.\I. that our differ"nt rchj\iou~ 11nJ c;uhumJ tntJu,ons mu.st
nor prevcnr our common involvement in opposm~ :ill
ETHIC form, of Inhumanity ond work111~ for grs-:iter
humaneness;
that the principles expressed 10 this lleclarndon can
be afiim1ed by all human~ with ethical convictions.
rehj\iously j\rounded or not;
that wens rclil\jous women and men who lm•c our livcs
on an l'ltilll!llc Rl'allty llnd dtu" •pirltuAI po"er ,mJ
hope tbo:refrom In trust, ln pmycr or mL.Jltatlon. in
word or silence ba,·c, bowe,·cr, a , cry special
responsibility for lhe "·dfare of all human!~·
On the bruJ.s of personal life expcritot."-'• nnJ the burJcn.,0111..-
h1SlOI)' of our planet we hAve learned
that a bcucr global or,lcr canmJl l>c cr~alcd or, ln<lccJ,
enforced \\ith laws, prc:.crlpuon, and COO\coUon..
alone:
that the realizauon oi justice in our societies depends
on the insight and r-,adint:~S lO not jll\dy
thnt oclion In fovor of rights prcsumi..::-.: n 4,."('lnsc1ou,ni.:-.,
o/ duty, nnJ thm therdort. both tht1 hi;aJ nnd lu:ort of
wome.n and men mu;t be oJ<lr..sst!d;
that rights without mor:oht)' cannot l11ng t1nJure, MO
tho, there will be no bencr global order "llhout o
global ethic
In the face 01 all inhumamty our reltl\ion, •nd ethical
oon,'ictions demand that C\'CI'}' human hemt! must he 1r1,:ned
humanely•
Thnt mcnn• 1hn1 c"'-cry human ooinl! withnut d,~unction
of sex, ugc ro,-c, skin color, IJn~u:ig(', religion, pohucal Vic\\,
 1.1 RELIGION AN[) J,;TlllCS 351

or ll.lU<111:1l or Mk!lnl ur(l!m pos,.c,,,,.,, on lnullcnublc und

umoudL1blc Jll!J:Ut)' AnJ ~, cryo,tc, l11J1,·1Jw1b n, \ICU a., tb1:
~tac..-. 1~ thi:r~h>r~ qhli~ to honor thi, dn!nitv and ,:;,unnmtth!
1L• cffcchve rrotcouon
~'or (In mulu:11lic.1Jly hunrnn nllitmJc w" t:spccit1ll) call to
minJ 1h.tt (lofden ltnlc which ;, found nml has hwn
malmoi.m:J m muny rdl~lon, and cthh,ru tmd1tlun, for
thoLLs:mtls o ( ,.,ors \\11m ) OU do n<1t ,..sh done to yoLll'scl(.
Jo not do 10 other, Or pos1tl\·cf}•: \\'hat vou \\1sh done to
,•ourself. do to ochers' Th,s should he the irren>cahle
unoonJiuonal nonn for nil areas o( l,fu, for fomily and
communl£ics. for r:1ci:s . nations onJ rcllgi<>ns Sd(-
dc1cnnhuU011 nml sdf-rc1ili.tal1011 ore thurouthly lcglllm11tc -
,io Ion~ as they arc not separated from human sdf-
ro;sponsibility and ~obal-responslbility, from respom.il>illry
for follow humans a:nd nature. t;vcry form n( cj\oism.
howc, ,.,. "'"I")"
,ell-seeking. whether indhidual or t.•oUecth·c.
whctl1~r In the iom1 of cl.ii,;.< thinkln~. r:icism. n.1tionnli,m o r
scxlbm. "' 10 be rcj~c.,~-d. For the.c pn:n,01 hum.ans from
bt!ln~ llulhcnUcaUy hlllltlln . . .
!We hcue,-e thnt th,:re are] Four lrrevocable Duc,ctives·
1. To\\arJ a CulrUJ'e of Noo-vlolcncc and Rcopcct for Ll!e
2. To"ard :, Culture ni Solld:im~ and II J11:,t Eoonomlc
Order
J Toword II Cuhuro o( Tolernncl' nnd :1 l.i(1: in
Tmthfulnc~•
Townrd n Culture or
EqunJ Rl~hl$ und P<1rmersh,p
Bcc,wen Men and Women •••
,\II historical cxpcncncc dcmonstrlllcs the followin~. Our
eurlh cannot be chanil,cd unlcs, ln the 1101 too dlsumt future
an llltemtlon ln the collsclousness o( Individuals ls .achieved.
Thh has alreadv been seen in areas such as war aod p;,,1ce or
economy and ccoloey. And it is precisely for this alteration in
inner orienmtion , in the entire ment:ility, In the ·he:,rt.' th<ll
the religions b..'tlr responsibility in s .spccial way ..
,\IXl\'l' 1111, we would welcome ft Ii individu:11 reli~ions nl<o
would fonnulacc their very specific ethic: \\'bat they on the
basis of their fallh tradition have to say. for example. abou1
the me:mim\ of life and death, the enduring o( suf/..,rint and
the /or)\ivcncs.s of ~uih, about sclOc~ sncriftcc nnd the
ncccs.~it)' of nmum:ln1ion, compassion ond Joy. All the-'!: will
be c.'Omp,iUblc with n Globlll Ethic, Indeed C3Jl llccpl'll It.
tllakt: It more specific .1.nd concrete
\\'e are con,·inced th:n the new I\Jobal order will be a
l>cuer one only In a socially-beneficial and pluralise. partner-
sharinr,t anJ pea,-e-Iostering, nalllre-friendly oml ccumcnica.1
¢lobe Thcrelore on the ha,i, o( ,,ur religious com•icrlon.< w-c
c.-ommit ourwh.;., to • 00111111011 Gluhal Ethic ,utd call up,,n
all \\Om,m and men oi ,!ooJ will w make r.1:u, Ucdarauon
thclr own
J!;? RF.l,IGION 11' socrnTY

c.leclurnlion. Uuc.lc.lhlst objections. for example, hml caused all rclcrcrwc lU

Ood IO he removed from the wordinA, while the reference Ill th.- t.>t1uall1v of
men and women had challenj\cd some Mu,hm, anJ lhndu, '

ETIIJCS .\NL> 80CI.\L L ,\\\'8

While seculnr and reli~ous moral philosopher.. may ha\'e, to 11 1:ir~c extclll,
a~reed over the ethics of inc.lividual :1ction. there hos hcen no ,imilar
achievement over the ethics of socrnl 11ct1011 anc.l soclct:11 i.tmcturc:..
Startin)\ from similar ethical con~ic.lerntiuni; anc.1 u,in)\ rntion:il ar)\umlnL,,
secular philosophers have man:1ged to derive such differin)\ ,y,tcm, o,
capitalism anc.l conunw11sm and to claim moral superiorit>· for each It 1s
perhaps not surprising that suchl societal speculation should ha\'C nrhcn in
the Christian world, since there is very little In the r-.·l'w Tcsu1111e11t
concemed with social ceachin)\,<1 (and Chrisllanity, \'ery early on, curned ib
back on its heriwge ni Judaic social law). Other religions, in pnrticulnr
Judalsm, Islam. llinduism an<l the Baha'i FaiLh ha\'e much in their
scriptures on macters of social or,itanization.
There is, however, l'rcqucnLI)• a great deal of divergence hctwcen I.he
ethics of a religion as fonnulated in itS texlS and the actualitle!'> of :.oclal
incernctions. Nowhere is this more c learly seen than in attitudes mwards
women. \\'11att.?ver view diffcrcn t rcli,_~ions may bave of the :.pi ritual :.taw.,
of women, the practical effect has usually been the oppression of women
under one pretext or another (sec chapter 17). The fom1al po!>ition in
Islam, for example, is that men and women are equal hcfore God and that
in their relations with each other, therefore, they should ht: equal~. with
women being given equal ethical consideration to men. ln fact, in tJ11, world
of Islam, this ideal has been and is still rarely achieved. Islam nrl)\in:ned In
an area where women already h eld a low position in the social Mructure
and it spread into other areas wlbere the Sarni! applied, so it wai. ne\'er ahlc
fully to apply the theoretical position 11nd give women full cLhical
consideraLion. The social isolation of women, for example. Is wldl.:Spread In
the Islamic world, alchou~h little justification for this exi:.ts in the Qur'cm
or the lladirhs (Traditions).

SOCIAL AND EN\'IRONMEt\T,\L ETIIICS

Social ethics ha,•e become u key area of concern for religiom, p1:ople in the
modern world. Each rcli$on has some basis of teaching that srnru. from Lhc
Golden Rule described on p J4•t and evoh·cs it in d1e direction of cnr-in,it for
the poor and disadvantaged. Before the modern era, rcliglom, im,tltuttonl-
were the main source of assistance to the poor and sick In many p:ins of
the world, tl1is role was taken over by secular mstitutions und. especially
under sociaJ isL j\ovcrnmems, b)• the State. As the l:;tate hru, l.'OnLractcd Ill
 '-'· RllLIUION ,\;I.I) 1;.r111cs .l5J

l,L'I.\I
l~IJm \\ab more th.111 u rcligiom. mOVl!tn~,u It was {II~,, u h(.)do-
cL'Ononrn: rc,·oluuuu Lsl,uu. lltrol.U\h llu, holy Uunut. srro,t~y
prot~:i.t..xi •1$!3in..,t unJtL~I ~)etol l)tn1cture~ rmJ :--tructure~ of
orrrcsslon rrc,·alenr m Mecca the ploce of 1is ori~n - In
particulnr, nnd C\'Cl')'\\h1,rc ,n tho worlJ m llcncrnl
S<" :I.\L Ermc::. ,\Nl) To ,111y c:mdul fL'<Lllcr of the Qun,n. J11,1icc to the wc,1kcr
,c..~uons 1:.,.. quftc c.·cntrul tu it~ tenchin~ It t,mjoin:,: It.'\
StX:I \L ,\CTIO:-l
follower. to do jU>Ll~'C ,rnd lx:ncvolcncc. '\'erUy. Alloh CUJOtn>
jusuce and bt,,1e\'ole11c.,,. the Quran [ lo:90[ snvs. It ewn
j\oes further and ,ays that the nnimosiC\' with ol11cr nauons
or people sh1111ld nr,c detrnct the helievers irom do,nit
ljustice) ·o vou who believe! he <t1"1dfost in d1e cnuse of
.\ll!lh, h,,ruinit wltnc,, "Ith justice, und let not a rcoplc\
cnmlt~· Incite )'Ou to ttct otherwise thu,1 with justice. lie
al"•Y• ju,1, thnt is nearer to ri~tcou.ncss . .. IQurim 5:8[
(EnJllnecr, Islam wul Libemriou Theology. p . 50)
JI ll.\J.',\I
(ln lk-ccmbcr 19!l4f. tbc fir..L Jewish dclcgauon of Wlmc""
for l'<!at-.,, ,ponsorecl h)' Lite Xe\\' .Jewish ,\itend:i. nrri,ed in
N'icanutua . To tbe question of wby they nre riskin'1 their
lives in '<icaratua, they responded In a ~l.~temem read in
from or th" American <,mhn,sy in M:mnJtua·
Our Judaism brio¢; us w this rlace hecatL~e our
1rndition n~k, m w :;pc:tk out ag:iinM inju,~tice We, o~
a people, arc dedicated (0 Tikkun O/am, the just
,.,.iilulion and r<:pnir of the world Through our
trndiuon, \\c ba,·c accepted l11c responsibility of
pre.erving the world in our 13\\b, our text, and mo,tly,
our hearts. Forry years ago Jews learned just how
unjust people e:m oo 10 .:ach otht!r. \\'e lea med there is
no torture beyond comprehension , no reason once the
path to dc~truction Is &(jt \\'c knowt ns u ~oplc, that
th<.:rc is no ,uuh tf1lug n, 11n lnjw.Ucc happening to
someo11e tis.:; lt hupp<?ns lO us all.
(Ellis, Tut,.-ard a Jl!Wislt Theolwtv of Ltlx!rnt1011, p. 5SJ
StKIIIS\I
Sikhl,m Is l'un<lameuutlly orpose<l to inequ:1Uc,· nmong
mllllklnd and to tbc idcu of my divine Smcllon bcblnJ tbe
ethnic inequahty. and feels lmensel)' for the victim,; of it
Guru Nanak and hh $uccecJing Gurus reacted rather
.sirongly ta thi~ c,11 because they felt thnl m:in I, •
manlfosu,tlon of God One or the fu11Jan1euull Sikh
OJNaphy,;lcal <l=trlncs f.,, tbm God Is l111.: M>k power w had h,,
creat.,J tbls worlJ and all hetnll,'l lnhahlUn~ 11 out or lllb own
sci{, and that rhc same divine spark shines iortb in each
hU111311 wul In other words. all human being,~ are Iii,
children and 1hat mnn in his c<,;enlial nnture p.1rtnkes gf 1hc
divine essence Thu.,, the idea of ethnic equality ls ii.rounded
,11 the Sikh m~L1phys1cs (SlnJah . Sikh Tlico/11!1..)• of Ubcrntiou,
pp, 118)
JS I REl.lnlClN IN SOC IFT\

lll'IWIMI
h Is an nhL~'W of lnnj\uflllc tu MV thnt '"' llt111h~, c~t<·nd uny
tolcmtinn to'l\ar\l, our /'e111du:111111 (l'nt11ochAl>lc) hn,ther•
\\'<• ha,c dcitr.illcJ them ,11111 then h.l\c the .11111.tdty 111 """
.t_hclr , er) dcitrud.,uon •l\ulnsi Lhclr ,,..., ~Wilr4J
llutlcpt!nd"n..,,.,I mr mo: mc,m, frc...-dom for the mcauLc,t ul our
L'Ountl)'lllCn If the lc11 oi the /'e111d11m1e1., I, not lmpro-...1
whl!n \\C n re nll suffcnnll, 11 " nm hkdv to he hc1kr un,k r
1hc intox-icntion oi ~\\"OrnJ f( 1t i... nt."C\:,.sor" for u, tu hu,· the.:
pcac...-c \\ilh tht.i \lu!\stllmtH\S tL... n \.'onJICwn n( !SWOrnJ H '"
L-qually nttetss.,ury for tl., 10 ~he ix::•t.-c.:. 10 dw /'oncl1uma
hcfore we oon. \\Ith ony ,ho" ol Ju>Li,._.._, or ,tlf-ro.:SjA'<:t, i,1lk of
swamJ I am not Interested In lrc~ml\ lml1a m,:rclv tn>m
Enithsh yoke. I om bent upon frccinl\ India lrom nnv \'Ok<'
whntevcr . Hence for me the mn,•cmcni 01 ,waraJ Is n
nuwcmcnt or sclf-puriflontlon (Mnhntmn Cantlhl quow,I m
Jc,udu;,:m, ,I Ot,ttd/nttn T/,eololl)• tJj Llbcrrwo11 p 59)
f' IITII
B.\ff.\'J
Let there I><, no mistake• Tho, pnn<1iplt! of the Oncncn of
}lanklnd - the pivot round wblcb oU the t"'1chln~, u/
llaha'u'llah n,vol,c - Is no mer" outbur;,t ol 1~nor.,nt
emodonalism or an expression of ,·a~ue and pious hoix It,
appeal ts nm t0 he merdy 1dent1il11d with a reawnk.,mnll of
the spirit of brotherhood nnd l\ond·"'ill nmong men nur de~
it aim solely m the fostering of hnm,onlou, C<>O(lerMlon
among lndlvldual peopl.,, nnd nnllnru. It implies an
org;u1lc change iu the structurt! of pret.cnt-diy wc1t!ty, d
chan,tc such as the world has not yet experienced . It ~-all.,
for no less than the recon8truotion and the demih1nrlzatlon
of 1hc whole eiviliied world - a world of)!onically unified in
aJ] the essential OS(l<!(!U. or its [ifo, It~ puJittc:ai tlUlchnKry ILS
spiritual r~p1rntion, lts Lrade mu.l finnncc, us scnpt wuJ
lan~uage, and yet lnilnltc m the dtversit~· of the run.Jon:ll
ehnrac1erlstl~ or ttS federated nntcs. (Sboithl Uicndl,
G111dm1cc_for 1bday and Tommu!lm'. pp 174-5)

the West in the last decades of the twentieth century, rela~ious insci1ucions
hr1vc ogain begun to re~umc their role os :u.lvocotes and supponer;,, of the
poor.
Concern for oppressed minolritic~ ond the poor has led tCl che cvolurion
of various frameworks fur social cthlc,-. Liberation tl1colo1tY, ft.:mtoi:,l
theology and black theolo~)· have all emer~ed in the Chnslian world,
cluiming to give guiduncc to religious people on how they should act
&ocial.ly. In these lheologies, GoJ Is viewed m, the con:.olcr am.I liberator of
the oppressed Therefore. the Dh·ine is to be found amonit 1he oppre.~sed
This elevate!, che wonb of the opprcs,-ed Aroup, making tbern, in effect,
holy Those who wish to be actin~ in OC(.'Ordance with the d1,·ine "'ill ~hould
work with the poor ::ind oppressed. Parallel dcvelopmems :ire incrcasinlth
being seen in the other rcU,$ons. Throughout t11c worltl, religious llfOups and
 IJ RELIGION .\NO ETIIICS JS5

:issocimions of ,·arious kmd:. have hc~un

work among 1.hc poor, either in their own
country or in the poorer cowllries, as a direct
expression of their religious, cthic:11 concern
ior their fellow human beings. The social and
et.'Onomic de,·elopmem of 1.he p<>orer nations
of che world has now bc<;.-omc a mnjor area of
rcli~ous work
Ocher lines of de,·elopment for rcli~ious,
soda1 cthjcs include cont.'Crn for world peace,
for urban reAeneration. and a call for better
world economic and political structures that
will not dhadvanmge the poorer nations of
the world. Some relij\ious leaders such as the
Oalni Lruna, Re\'erend M11rtln Luther King
anti Archbishop Desmond Tum ha,·e assumed
a role as advocates of peace, as medi:11.ors for
reconclllation, and In such work as the
reseu.lemenc of refugees.
Concern for the poor U! nn area that has
been of particular concern to the liberal wing
of each religion and has even been :m area for
debate bvtwcen some rellgio11S :mu sociulisn1. lw!A'I OE\'[ I..Ol'llE.\'T l'ROJ£CT: , \ doctor
In C,'hristianity, liberation theology emerged takt.:S a skin snmplc for laborntory
a .ulysls ac. a clJnle held in the
from South America as a stacemen{ of Mangyan tribal area, Tapi-Nabiran.
Christian ethical cont.-em for the poor. Parallel Mindoro Oriental. the Philippine<. , 1987.
developments have occurred in other
religions. 1n the Muslim world some groups
have enccred Into a dialogue with socialism and have cal.led upon Muslims w
demonstrate a greater concern for the poor and oppressed as a sign of the
ju.,tice called for in Islamic waching (sec p. 128). 1n Korea, a People's
Buddhism bas paralleled a Christian People's Tbeolo,zy, which is, m tum,
modelled on liberation theology. This movement is concerned with c.ackling
such issues as the problems of urbanization, water pollution and the
promotion of organic ~arden ing.
One area that is of particular interest is what is sometimes called eco-
splrituallcy: religious concern for the physical environment. In parallel to
eco.feminism (seep. 451), those who advocate eco-spiritualicy idencify the
current ecological crisis as beii1g a result of the anthropocentric view of
humanity's place in the w1iverse, wWch sees humanity as dominatin~ and
concrolling the narural world. It is considered to hove arisen particularly in
the We~tern rcUgioru., In whlcb it has scriptural authority. 1n the Bible, for
example, we read:

And God said. Let us make man In our im~e. niter our likeness: and lee.
them have dominion O\'Cr the fish of the sen, and over the fowl of the aiT,
.1:;r, Rt:I.IC11'1N If\, :-.(11)1~'.T\'

oml mer the cntlic, nnJ """ ,111 the c.-rlh, ,,nJ o\ct c,c~ crcqun,! thml!
that .:rccpc1h lll'<lll 1lw cunh "

Currc,,porn.l111~Jy, 1hc Q11r'r,11 i,,1ys:

I It- 11 is \\'ho crca1~1et for vou nll thnt ,, on canh lldwld 1hy l.orJ ""'I
to 1bc ,med, ' I \\Ill crcntc 11 \11:e~crcnt li.c humunH,·l un c.1rth

This Lhcmc of Juminion o, i:r the carll1 hm,, it L, a!,.'<Crtcd h, the UIL-Orbb
of cco-spiritu:1L1ty, ll,.,J co a mcch~1nistic utilitarian, 1n~uumcnrnl allilmk
1ownrJs nature; an a1,s11111pt ion thrtt the natural order ca 11 he rc:irrnni;cJ In
anr way that i.ulls human bcin.¢> and tlwt nature b then! w he u,cd ;i, a
rool for human benefit without :my rcl\nr<l for narurc m,elf Thi, 111 111m,
h:L, re:.uhcd In ecological damage to ll11. canh· pollutiun of oir wutcr ,111J
Lund, desLrUct1on of the earth\ ozone larer, l\lorntl warmin~. desertiiicarion
of onet.:-l'crtilc lnnds, extinction of species resulting in reduced hlo<li\·c~it~
and depletion of non-renewable resources.
,\1.h-ocaccs of religious concern for the e1wironment point to lhe primal
rdiglons as being much more in Lune wicJ1 cm ironmcntal c.-onc.-cml> than
\\.'estern reli~ons. Human hein~s in primal socleues who ll\'e in much
closer contact wicJ1 nMurc ore therefore more in tune with ih rhythms and
less likely to carry our activities chat damage ll1c environmem. Sueb vi"""
huve, however, at times heen over-rom:inticized People in pnm:11 ,oci<.:tici.
have a relationship with namre 1hat coutllins several opposing tension:..
they both exploit and conserve their en\'ironmcm; the~· both love an<l fe:1r
nature.

This ,Jcpicllt>n of 11n l .....,,..,1, J•n<"-' ,htt\\,

""MISTI!, IUll IL '·' 1'Al'l\.'I. ,\.\U.RJC.1.~ lU,J.HSIO~:
ponlelpants ntlupllnj\ Lhc role uf a wtcm Animal
 IJ RELIGION AND t:;T!IICS JS7

Tbc \\'hhc p,..-oplc o ..vcr ciJrcd for lnnd or deer or bcnr. \\'hen
we lndfan, kill meul. "" ,:at it all up. \\'hen we ,hg roo~ we
m"k" l1tde holt!S; when we build houses, w" make lmle holes
\\'hen we bum )!rnss for )\ms.shoppers, we don't ruin thin!!:<
\\'c ,hrtkl.' down ncoms nnJ pin en uts \\\, don·, cho1> down the
ircc, We on ly u.sc dcm.l w0<><l. But thl! White people plow up
PRl~L\I RELIGION the ground, pull down the tree,. kill cverytlling. The tree
,\lffi X,\TtrRF. says, 'Oon'L I'm sore. Don't hurt me.' But they chop It down
and cul ii up. The spirit of the l3nd hates them They bins,
nu, !Tees ru,d scir it up to its depths. They saw up the trees
Thnt hurts them The Indians never hurt ,mything, but the
White people d""troy all. They bLqst ro"ks and scntccr them
on lhc ground. The rock say,. 'Don't. You are lturUog mc.' But
the White people ray no aucmloo ... llow can the spirit of
the eaTth like the White man? . E,•erywhere rhe \\'hite
man has 1011ched it, i1 is sore. (A memher of the Wimu Nntive
American people, quoted in \'e<.-sey nnd Veru1bles, ,\mL'Tic«n
Indian En,::ir01m1Prtl.."f, p 32)

People in primal soc1cues have a very practical, detailed scienLific

knowled~e of Lheir environment, which has been built up over many
thousands of years of observations. At the same time, they have a
mythopoelc view of nacure. By donnint a bcar's skin, a Native American
can become a bear; an Australian aborigine is in some mysterious way a
kang:u-oo or whate\'er is thll totem of his clan. These two ways of thinking
fuse into an integrated whole in the worldview of such people, occasioning
no feeling ot division or inconsistency.
Typical oi primal religion is the phenomenon that the nineLeenth-
eentury British anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett 'Tylor named animism·
the belief tb:u animals and Inanimate objects have a spirit associawd with
Lhcm. Therefore the whole physical world is, in this sense. on one level and
deserves equal respect. If nature is to be violated in any way, this must be
to the minimum extent and with care. If an animal has to be killed, then all
of it muse be utilized, down to the bones and skin.
There are a number of diffcrcnl strands within t.hc general movement.
of rellgiom, co,,·ards environmental e1hics. •• The t1rst stresses holism and
interconnectedness It advocates a recum to on attitude that views nature
as organic and spirilual; that sees hu111a11 beings as bein_g in a suite of
intimate interconneccedness with the natural world. Its supporters
advocate, therefore, lhal no social, cechnol<>gical or economic measures
should be taken w1tll the consequences for this delicate ecosystem are
assessed. Examples of this include those who have promoted the Gain
hypotbcSis. the concept that the earth itself may be regarded as a living
organism. These ideas have found much support amon~ those in the eco-
feminist and neo-pa_gnnisl movements.
Another strand In envlronmencal ethics focuses on concern for the
environment as part of an overall concern with issues of social ju~tice:
.l5'i Rl .l, tnlO'I IN tiOC:IF.T\'

Tu~ St~LMJT ON Rt.Ltrnoxs A.~ll CoNi.Ll\\'ATJu~. \\'1NINJJt C.1sru. 1995: Tbe ,mnnut """
sttendoo by inony or the world'b relll\.l ou, 1.,ader,. ~ ront row (i'ro,n leh 10 ~t): Mmlko
Schwerin (Baha'i). R. I~ Chanaria (Jain) . .\ladamc Rabbani (Baha'i). Xk Zon~lnfl
(Taoism}. Jnthe<for \lnnj\il Singh (Sikh). Temnki Kuwni (~l)l)nsor ), Or l. \I s,n~h,,
(Hindu), HRH the Ouke of f.dinhun!h, Rabbi ,\nhur Hcrizbcr)! (Judaism), Sri Kush~k
llnkuln (Buddhism), S\\Omi Vibudhcso T<.-crthn (llittdu), Or Robin Pelle" (\Y\YFI Bch,nJ
Prinoo l'h,llp ond to the right is Or Samuel Kobla tChri;tian). Behind Or Kohin Md to thi:
left is Prof flyJ.,r (Islam).

advoc:}cy of the rightS of tribal and native peoples. concern for the p0lluted
environment in Third World urban slums, and efforts to combat illiteracy
and increase education among the poor. These issues are raised by lih<:ral
religious groups such as the World Council of Churches on the basb of the
Aeneral ethical and religious principles of helping ochers and advocacy of
the poor and oppressed.
A third ~trand in environmental e1hics takes a more Lraditionah~1 line.
Advocates of this approach argue thal ii is humanity's departure from
trodltionaJ religion that has brought on enl'lronmcntal probh~ru., aml Lha1
therefore the only solurion is co return ro traditional reli)!ion
Some of the debate on thh issue of religious concern for 1hc
envlronmenc has been carried out within panlcubr relie,iou,. framework!-·
Buddhist, Christian or Baha'i"' for example; hut this :ire3 is o( particular
intcrest In that it lb Increasingly a focus for iuwrreligioui. disCll.',bions anc.l
the development of a common interrelie,ious platform. hmcr.Un!!. out of :1
meeting held In .\ssisi under the auspice,. of the Wt>rlc.l \\'llc.llifc fund in
1986, for example, the Alllance of Relil!.ions anc.l Coru.ervatloa \\'tll> launcbe<l
:it the Summit on Rcli!!.ions and ConscrY:ltion held in Aiami, J:ipan, and at
 I,\ Rt:t.lGION .\SU ETIIIC:S 35')

Wind~or C:1~1le in Enl!,land m 1Q95. This orl!anizmion has Buh:1'i, Buddhist,

ChriMwi, ITinJu. ~luslim. Jain, Jcwbh, Sikh nnd T:1oist 1,upp0n.

Th,· Summrr 011 Relu!1011s line/ Consercc,rion. 1995

..\t tht' Summit on ReU~ions and Cooscn·ation in 1995, nine reli~ons
!'uhmmed declamtions The following are briei extracts from those
Jcd:imtions n., set out in the ori.J\lnul 11·orkine documents oi the conference.

B.\It,'1 F.,ml
&h:i'J l>Criprun_~ teach 1ha1. a,, l.r\ll,lt.'t> oi th.: planet's ,•ru.t re.sour~ and
l:>iolOl\1e:tl d,n,n-it-\ hum:injc-· mu•1 seek to protect th11 ·herita~ lorJ future
itcnemuon,. ;.cc in natur" a rell.ictlon of lhc d.ivlne; appronch th" e:1tth,
the source 01 maten:il bounties. \\ith humility: temper its actions \\,th
moJcrntion. ,md he guJdcd by 1hc funJ11mcn1al spiritWll tn.nh of our ngc
the oneness of humanity The spct.-d nnd incU11y with which we establish a
su'-t.,inahle pattern of lifo "ill depend, in the fin:il analp,is, on the extent
to "h11:-h we~" "ill,n~ to be t.r.:ubfom1t!d. throuth the io,c of GQd and
ohcdJ,mes! to Hts Laws. into cortstructl,c for~>s In the proc,,s.< oi creadn,!
nn .:wr-ad,ancing chilisation "

8t.'DDlflSM
In his own l!fotim!! the Buddh3 cnme to undcl'!,tand thnt chc notion thnt
ono, c.XJsi,, lb an 1Mllni.-<l entity ,s an Ulusion. .\11 thinl!s arc incerrela1ed; we
ru-e in1erconnect~-d and do not hm·c autoAomous existence .
•kcordinj\ to the \'ietnamc~c monk \'cner:ible Thich Nhat
Hanb 'Amonl! the three - buman bem,l!S, society and :-iature - 1t is us
"ho he¢in 10 .:fleet eh:.tnl!,c But in order to diec1 chan,lle we must rc,•<wcr
our,,ch ""· one must be I\ hole. Since thls rcqwrcs the kind of cm rronmcnt
f;a\'ourohle 10 one's ht.>:tlin.l!. one muse seek the kind of lifost)•le truu is free
irom the Je,trucl1011 oi oue·, hwn:tnl'l,S Efior1> to change the eu,ironm.,nt
and to cban~e oneself are both necessary Bm "e know ho" difficult it is
to change the em1ronment if indi\ idunh 1h1,m.,eh·es are not m a state oi
equilibnum.'-

Cm~lSTL\.\lTY
In his Xew Y.,ru- Message. 1990. His Holiness the Pope swceJ. 'Chnsuans.
in particulor. realise thin their resJ)()nsil;,iliry ";thin crc:mon nnd cheirdury
tO\\artl., nnturc and the Creator ore an essential part of thdr faith' ...
The Onhodox Church teaches that it Is the dt.'Sdny of humanh~· to
restore the proper relationship between (',od and the world :lS it w:i,; in
&kn Through rcpcnmnec, two land,cnpe.,, - the one hl11llllll. the other
narural - can b<:come the obJects of a cannit and creau"e effort ..
The World Council of Churches, prcdonunantly Protestant. but nlso
\\Ith full Orthodox paruc,p3uon, =ucd the follo,nng 'Wte afiirm the
creauon a.~ hcloved 01 G<><I We affirm that the world. a.~ God's handiwork.
.160 REl,lr.lll1\ 1:-1 son1 T\'

h~t~ iL, O\\ n uthcrcut hnc,trh) ll111l land. wnr1.;r,. :11r, forc,t,. mount.11n"'
11ntl ,111 crc,uurc, 111ch1<hnit 1111111111111, ,1n, 'i..>tw,J " In I ;.,J\ ,,itl11 1lw
inU.'.~nt~· o( 1.•rc;ninn ha!-. ,1 ,,~1al .l'pcc.l "Jm.:h W\." n.~·\•ilniw a, llCac..·c- \\ uh
,1ic,LiL'C, un<l an cL~, lol\iCJal ,i..pcct 1>hlch \\c rL-c<>I\IH'c ,n the ,dl-rcnc" 1111!,
su,tntn:thlc chnrnctcr or" nmural c,•o,y:-.hmt,

ll1r.1w1s11
'Con-cn·c ct•olOJ1y or pcri,h' ts the• mcs-,tl\lc oi the 11/1a4<1t:,.,l <lw, - .,
<lhtl<t,!Uc_ hcrnccn Sn Kn,hna a11J ,\fJUJIU \I ltld1 i, II"""·' .,nJ f)IC(;IW l,ik
Science It ,, nnrrntcd III the ch1rd ch:iptcr u[ 1111, ,!rent work th,u a hf,
11 lthout L~11H1 ihut,un rowarJ, the prc~t.:n·:1ti1111 of ecol,~· "11 lif<: ol ,111 unJ

a lire without specific purpo;.c or u,c

1, ifo is ,u,wincJ "" dificrcnt kinds nf fooJ, rn1nfnll prnJucc, iuoJ,
tundy mo,cmcnt uf olou<l., hrin~, min~. Lo l!cl the d<>u<l., 010,1111! on tim,:
yajna, rcli~ious sacrit1ce, help<; vajna is pcrformL-d thron,:\h ntu~ls , 1ho,e
<11Jlion, which pmducc riLunls bdong only lo C,od, GoJ ls n:H,alcJ h~ the
\ 'cdas; the Vu<la.< aru prn,c·n·ed hy 1he humnn mind. and the human m1111I
,,. nourished hy food This is the cycle which helps the exi,u:ncl' nf 1111
furn" of Hie on llus glohc. One ,1ho do.:1, uot <.'OuLnbutc to th.:
ma,mcnance of chis cycle is considered 3s a descroyer t,i :111 hfo h~rc ·'

bL..\.11
Allah. in llis Wisdom , appoimcd Man , chc crcoLUre thm lie hn.s oonfcm.-J
with the fa<.'lllty of Rca,.ou nnJ wl!b Freewill. LO be llb ,'lc....,gcrcnl ou E.anb
And while Allah has mvi1ed Man to partake of the iru1ts oi the Eanh for h1,
riglllful nourlslunum nn<l cnjoymt!nt, lit! hos al!.o <llrccccd Mnn not to
wa>t<: that "hicb AJlab hru, provided for him - for lie loveth not \\lblcfl>
Funhermore, Allah has nlS() ordered Man to :,tlminis1cr hi, rc,pon,ihiliti,"
with Jw.1kc. Above 1111. ~!nu 1,houl<l 0011'-cn·c thl' b<1lancc of ,\llal1\
creation on Eanh If b1olo~i,ts hclic,·e tl101 Man b the #e:ucs! a'!ent ot
1.:ooloAicnl change on tht: l,urf110-e of the Enrth, il> ii nor ~Inn who. drawn
from the brink, wil l - for hi, o,vn J!<)o<I - abandon ~lammon anJ i1.s1cn to
the prescriptions of Clod on the conscn·ation of his environment onJ the
environment of all Lht! orenture., on (forth.,. The l,lam,o nnswer LO thl,-
question is dL-cisin,ly In Lhc aft1rmativc •

JAL-.;tSM
Human hcinj!s possess rationnlity nnd inmition ,\s a hi!lhly cwilvcJ form of
life. Lhey huvc II mom) rcsponslhilil)' in their ntulual Jculin¢, and In their
relatloru,h1p \11th the rest of the unl\'crse llcnce, Lhb t.-.mccpcion of life, In
which human being_, have nn ethical rcsponslhility, haq made 1he .Jnin
tradlllon a cradle for the crcl!tl o:f cm·lrt1nn11:nul prot-.-ctlon JJld harmony.'"

JL'll.\lSM
The cla,,ic~ Jewish altitude to nature ts a <lir"'-'l <.>on,'-'<IUeo<.-c ol the hdu:i
thnt the enti re universe is the work vf the Cre:uor Love 01 <lo<l wa., mkcn
 1J RJ::LIGION ANLl J::rtllCS 361

in the brontlcs1 •cn~c 10 include love of all llis crcurions· the inanimate,
plruu,, nnlmnl, one.I man. Nnturc in nil It;, h<!nuty is undcrst<>oJ as hnvinll
hccn crenre<l for mnn, and It is. therefore, wronll for mnn to spoil It. Mnn's
c<>nncction 10 nnturc can restore him to his original chnracrer, to" naturnl
srntc oi happmc,-s nnd joy . .
~fan'i. conirol over the world is r1,s1ricted 'For the e:1r1h is Mine' (/,eo
25 :?J) - only the Creator may he considered to enjoy ubsolu lc O\mcrship
of lib cr<!atl<>a
'Lo,-e thy neil\},bour as thyself (~, 19: Iii}, the hnsis for oil Je\\;sh
ethic,-, b applied to protection or the cnvlro11mcn1 IJ1 tbt: obUgntiou to
c.,erc1St: care 00110 harm o[hers. and parncularly ,n the obll~at.lon 10 avoid
doinlt hnrm to the community.27

SIKIIISM
SJklusm regards o co-opcratl\'c society as the only truly religious society,
ns the Sihh 1•iew or life ond society Is ~rounded lo the wortl1 of every
indMdu:11 as n microcosm of God . ,\II life is interconneotcd . ,
Life. for ,ts very exi~tencc and nurturing. depends upon a bounteous
nacure. A human beh'.\ll needs to derive sustenance from the earth; noc co
deplete, exhaust. pollute, burn or destroy it. Sikhs believe that an
a\\ areness of that sacred relaclonshlp between humans and the
e1wironmem is necessary for the health of our planet. and for our survival
,\ acw 'cnviroruncdtal cthlo' dedicated to co11scrv:1tiou ruu! w-lse use of l11e
resources provided b~· a bounurul nature can only arise from an bonesc
undcrst.1ndtng and dedicnced application of our old, tried nnd true spiritual
herlcage.

T,\OIS.\I
In the Tao Te Chin~. the baslc classic of Taoism, there Is this verse:
'Humanity followi; the fJanh, the Eanh follows Heaven, Henven follow~ the
Tao. :iml the Tuo follows what is m1tural .'
... Tnosc who have only a superficial undcrscandin~ of the
rebtion~hip between humanity nnd nntu re will recklessly exploit nnture.
Those ,vho have a deep underMandJng o f the rdntionsh1p wlll treat nature
well and learn from ic
People should cake Into full <.>onsldermion the limits or naturn's
~uscal.lling power, so that when they pursu;; their own development, they
ha,·e a correot smncla rd of success, tr anything runs counter to the
hannony and balance of nature, even if it i.., of great immediate lntc=l
and proftt. people should restratn themselves from doing il, so as co
prevent n3turc's punishment. F'urthcrmnre, insnriahlc humnn desire will
l<'lld U) the over.explo1t11tlon of natural rt;!,Our<..'Cs. So people, should
remember that to be too successful is to be on the path to defoat.,.
:l(,Z REl ,l!:IOX I'/ sor.JF:TY

FL1 RTIIER Rt.\l>IN<:

Sec Byrne. The l'/11/usopluc:t,I u11d fltcr,/o~t<.'<'I Frm11du111111., ,,, /.'1/11,·s,

(;recn, RC'/1t!int18 Rensnn and 111'0 hh article '!-.[hie,· in tli:Hk,
E11,:-,'Cln/1cdia ri/ Rd1ewn for Jl~u.,sion of the ·t1olJc11 Huie' :.cc l(oM, The
Golden Rule nnd I lick, .\11 lnrcrprcmrwn qf Udit!mn pp Jll')-1 1 I or .1
Jbeu.~sion on co111e111porary ethics and reliitinn, e,pce1ully in .t rch~iou,ly
pluralist le sctunlt, sec l:Ssays m llunzo. Etl1ws. Rclu!WII and 1/w Ci<xxl
Srx:ic~\' nnd Jlolm , /1/nhin~ M()rr1/ /kc.•t.siow, On n tlohnl ct hie wf.: Kuni!
um! Kuschel, ti Global Ethi<:. and 11 further dc,clop111o.;11l of Lh1, 1dc" 111
S1vidler, For .-\II Li/<:. On reliition nnd cnvironm,.mrnl ethics. ,ce Tucker and
Grim, ll'orldt11,-ws und Ecofol?_v and Edmonds nnd Pnlmcr, /fol_,. Gnitm,/;
st:c also Brown and Qulblicr, Erhic:. w1d •\,?cmlu ;? J. the M:clion on
'Reliltious ond Spirinml Perspecti\'cs', pp. Q7- 1lk
 FUNDAMENTALISM AND LIBERALISM

xi:. .\Si"E<..'1' 0 1 ru,;umo:-1 that ltas come to gc11t1ral atumtlon in rcc.-cut

years has heen the upsur~e of fun<lami.,ntalism . The split between
iundnmenrnlists and liberal, nppcan, to affect uJmost every rcligiou..,
community to one extent or another. in many dillcrent countries. ,\Jmost
e,·ery relil\iou.s mo,·ement, other than the moot narrow i.ects, contains
mdh·iduals who tend towards either extreme. In chis chapter, we shall
examine thb phenomenon from three perspectives: social, psycbological
ond historical
.\lany people hm·c a stereotyped vie\\ of funJameutallstb: they ta.kc the
words of cbeir holy scriptt1re literally and :ire opposed to science. This is a
vie\\ that dates back 10 the time when Christian fundamentalists were
trvi.ng to J'i.1tht the implications of Darwinian evolutionary thi;ory. Ho" ever,
as with all stereotypes, it is not a sufficiently deep undcr~tanding of the
phenomenon and it has become Jess and le!>S valid as the yean; have passed.
Fundamentalists h:ive chan,l!ed and adapted since then. They no longer
oppose science: indeed, they take great pride in the extent co which they
can advance sciemiflc proof for lhdr positions. Nor are many of them
strictly bound to a literal interpreunion of their scripcures.
lTisLOricaUy, many authorities date fundamentalism from the
publication in North America of a series of pamphletS, The Fundamenrals,
between 1910 and 1915. Althou!lh to trace che name to chis event would be
correct, to date fundamentalism irom it wou ld be a very limited view of a
phenomenon that ha~ a lonl! hismry In relil\ion. Also limited L~ the opinion
that fundamentalism is a reaction to modernity. This view would restrict
the occurrence of fundamentalism 10 modern times (although it must be
admitted that modernity has brou~ht fundamentalism very much to the
fore). ~or, indeed, should fundamentalism be limited to Christianity or
1:ven the \\'el>tem re~lons! As l propose to define fund;1mentalhm and
liberalism in this chapter, this split can be seen to have hccn operating at
many time.\! in the hiMorles of different religions In the Islamic world, for
example, we can see elemenL~ of it in the .\sh'ari-Mu' tazili disputes in rhe
.\hhasid Empire in the ninth century; in the dispute between che
philosopher-myi.clcs and the orthodox juril>tS in Safavld lrnn during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centt1rics; in the opposition to Sufiim1 and
'religious laxity' by such people as fbn T11ym1yya (d. 1328) and lhn ',\bd
.1(,4 1u:1.1rno~ l'l SOCIETY

al-\Vru1hab (d. I 71,7); as well lh 111 the uphenval, of th1. present-day

Islamic world '

Cll.\RACT~IUSTICS 01• FU:Nt>J\~lt,;~TAL.ISM A!',IJ LIBbR.\LIS~l

The 111:1111 fonturci. of fu11dumcnrnlii.n1 und hhcrnlii.m arc presented here,

show111,l where they d1Jrer. Of coum,e, In order to show up the dlltercnet,,,
i1 b necessary to depict the extrl.!mc;. of dw 1wo positi<ms Th1: :mitudc o(
most pe<Jple will fall somewhere between the two. \\'c may charaet1:r11,e the
differences :is follows (s4.le also p. .168)

The Scriptttrcs
The fw1damenl1llist looks to the h oly scrlpture1, of the rcllgion a., absolute
and unchan,ling truth. The first concern of the fund:ummrnli,t 1s to
est:iblish that the holy scripture is 'the \\'ord of God' nnd that it h
impossible, therefore, for there to be any error i11 It. .\II law~ uml
commandments in these texts are co be :ipplied innexihly and to the letter
Even in religions th:lt have no concept of a scripture revenled hy Ccx.l
Theravada Buddhism for example, a similar auicude cowards scripture can
exist. ..
As a secondary prlnc1ple. fundamentalists also favour a literal
interpret:ition of scripwre. However, the usual idea of the fundamcmalist'c;
lltcral interpretation requires some degree of elaboration. In ~omc plac":,
the text is clearly meant to be symbolio - the parables of Christ for
example. ,\lost funda111cnt:1lists would not insist th:1t these pamhles actually
occurred physically. 1n addition, then: ore also places \\here there arc
inconsistencie~ in the text. The more sophisricated fundamemali~t (the
fundamentalist scholar, for example) i:, willing to tillow much l:ititude in
interpretation in such cases. The impOrtant pOlnt, howe"cr, is that the
fundamentalist always regards the scripture as referring 10 real situations
and facts. \Vhat the scripture says corresp0n<ls to empirical reality For
example, even if heaven and hell are acknowled,led not to be physical
places abovt! and below the earth, these two words ncvenhcless do refer tu
existent realities. Barr points out itbat die importance of prescn·i~ the iir..t
principle, the incrrancy of the text, will often compel the fundnmenrnlist to
rehL~ the second principle and allow some de~rce of non-literal
interpretation.'
The prinoipal concern of the fundamcnullbt i~ to cxm1c1 an ex:ict
mean~ from the text of the scriptures. The millenniolisL, of the mid-
nineteenth century were <.-crtain th:11 rhcir calcul:uions pointed to the
return of ChriM ln 18-1.J or 16-1.4 (:,cc p. 26.3). Thcu the 'Great
Disappointment' occurred and there was no literal rutt,Lmem or their
expectations. One group that became the Seventh Day .\d\'cnti:;b rcsoh·cd
the problem by formulating on explanation that the prophecy hod been
 H fl'SllA,\IEXT,\LISM ANll LIBEll.\LIS\I 3<,S

iuh)lll,J On that cl,11c. Chri~c hnd entered che

\10~1 llol~ or Lhe heavenlv sanctuary, and
he bad work tO perfonn chcre heforc coming
to earth Thi~ i~ :i c leurly 11011-litcrnl
t>xpl:rnatlon of a prophecy ch:1c mosc cnher
Chnsc.lan dcnominotions C;'(pccc to occur
lil,m1llv and on canh. The Sc\'ent.h Day
.\dnmciscs do, nevertheless, ha,·e a fundn-
mcntnllst approach co scripture. Their
inccrprecation of che 'Grem Disap[lOincmenc'
htis the nhilicy 10 gin, nn exact meaning to
the scripture when a Uceml mean.Ing ha~
t>cen mled out in their history. Anorher
lll~lmct.ive example relates to the question of
\oah's Flood, Some Christian fundamenmlisc
scholars are ";IJing co accept that cllis may
hrt\'e been a local ilood in Mesopotamia
mther chnn n world i1ood (which the literal
cc:u \\Ould imply). This explunation is less
problemaric scientifically. But neverd,eless, The cpisnJe of Koah's Flood i> one
the story oi the Flood does, for these wbicb has occasioned a great Jc:tl or
scholars, refer co an actual physical eve nc - debate hecwee11 cho,-e II ho read th"
they rule out any non-physical, symholic or scnpturc literally and those who look
metaphorical, interpretation. for mernphnrical incerprerntlons This
r~'Prcscnl!ltion of the Flood is from the
).1uch modern Christian fundamentalist ceiling of the Sisti no Ch:ipel, p:ilntL'd by
literature is taken up witl1 detailed Mlcnclangclo bct,.cen 150& and 1512.
explanacloru, o( how cbe even ts of the Bible
can be e.xplained sciencifically. Scien cific
explanations are desirable, as they are thought to provide a guurruuee of
certainty and of exactness of interprec:uion. Another characteristic
tundamcnrnlist attitude is chm the whole of che scripture sc:rnds or folls
cog;;.,t.her. This view mahualns that since the scripcure is the Word of God
and therefore infollible, the inerrancy of every sin(\le sentence of the
scripture mu1ot be main!Ai.ned, otherwise the sli4htcst error in any smallc;,t
part cases doubt on the whole.
By contra.st, the liberal is willin(\ to a.How that die texts o( the scripcurcs
are open co more than one intcrprct.1tion; parts of the i.cripLurc are more
·rroe' - in me sense of hein!l more likely co have actually occurred
physically - than other parts. As well as truth relating to cm1>irical reality,
the liberal is prepared co see ocher types of truth - rypolo~lcal,
memphorlcal or mythological - in the scripture. Allegorical and symbolic
intt:rprctations may be used, pan.icularly of pal>S~es mac appear t0
conrradicc human reason , and social and contextual factors taken into
account For liberals, the truth lies in the signif'icanec of the statement
rather than IL~ correspondence wlrh any external actualiry: Traditional
interpret3tions may he examined for whatever useful insights they may
.1"6 R£1, IGION IN SOCll'TY

Tllf fl~ll.\>lfST.\l.hT P<>'>ITlo\

'If lie (Jes,") could he m,srnk,m on mnm·,... "hwh lk
rC)!nrdcd "-' nf the S1ric,i,,,1 rcl.·\'ntt,.., tn lu, m,n r<:r..,,n nml
mhtMry, It I, 1llfAcuh 10 ,cc e•rnctl\• h,1" or ,.h,• llc either
can or ,hould be lru,k-d 11Jl} \\h1.:rc eb, In hi- lcaduni:
Jc;u;, mt!ntlonL'tl p._,lm I IO ,.,. II ll \\ti., hy lla\id anJ 1111:
A CmusTIAN jt>Untcy or ,Jonah [JI thl' hdJy or Lhc ihh n, Ir II h,1J f\!Rlh
rL' Nl>AME),'TAtlST takt!n plaue, th1ercfore the Psalm wn, composc,l h) Jln,cJ, nnd
the ondcrwmcr joumc\' of Jonnh did ,n Incl cnke 1>l11w II
PosJTJOX J\Nll .\ thcMi tlnn~ nrc n.01 1ruc:. then nu r4Jli ..1nt."l'. (...-011 he plat."(..-J 011
anytlnn~ thut he said ahout nnythin4, he "'" h.:L'lm>' tot4II)
u11tr11,1wonJ1y. {From R. l1 \' Tru.kcr and tile f,;f!'tr 811,lc
Co1m11e111ar;y. quoted Ill Rarr. Fttndumertu.t,~-,,, , p 74 J
THE Llll~RAI. Rt.l;1•0Ni.E
This cndlte.,sly repcar,'<l or4untent sa:k,, to us<. the pt:r,onal
\ovalty of Christians toward, Jesus o, a lt,-cr to lorac them
Into fund.1mcntalist positions on historical and htcni~·
mntu,r,1, There is nP part of the fundanu,ntnli,m world \'k"
thnt shouhl lnsplro 80 much di~t:1,t<: In the m,nd 1,( other
Christians. Its distonlon or tile proJX:r proporuo~ of the
Chmuan faith is c:-.uem~ ..
On the ,l!cncral approach to the 3.l')!umcnt I cannot Jc>
heuer than ci[e n well-written pa,;sa~e hy llu,rnhle
ti ... an ab,cm-mlndcd professor tcUs me that the
rrnin for Pen2onet1 leaves \\':cierloo nt noon and I find
[hot in foct it lca.,cs Paddington half an hour heiore. I
Jn nol oonoludc thnt my informant i> n liar, nor thilt he
i-. 111-disr<>--.cd towards me. nor thnt lus rcputntiou Ma
scholar rc•t• on a fraud I tnkc him for what be Is, anJ
do not suppose that hem,! a great authority on llomcr
m(tkes him a reliable substlltHe for a ttme·
table , Jesus r.hnst c:imc into the world to be tlS
Saviour1 not nn nuthority on hiblicnJ c-rilidsm
(&rr. FundamcnuJtsm , p 74)

present but have no binding force on the presem The Hbernl look., to the
holy scripture of his or her reUgion as a source of guidance for liic,
accepting that the meaning, 1he 'tn1th', of the scripture may change os the
circumi.t.ances of the individual ttnd !>OCicty change. As a relative, rather
than an absolute, truth, therefore, the meaning of rhe scripture 1s nOl
considered fixed but must be reintcrprewd in every age, for the conet:rns
of that age.
The liberal is much more \\illing to view the holy ~cripture as a
historical clocumcnt, \Hittcu down by fallible men oncl women M>mctimcs
many years after the eve111s portrayed. Therefore. almost certainly, error~
and myth-making have crept in and tlu.-ologicn1l ideai,, current at the time
of writing, have been read back Imo tl1e pai.t; tlwre may aJso havt! been
omissions, additions or errors in the coun;e of 1rnn1-mis.~ion In contrast,
 I~ t'U1'1>,\Ml:<ITAL1SM MH> 1,IBHR.\LISM 367

1h1: fundnmentnlist, if he or she docs accept the

historical nature of the scriptures, will Jnsist
that they were di\·inely protected from
:tltcrnclon or error Ccrtninly, no cxtcrnol
factors ~uch 11s the soci;ll conditions pertainln/1
:JC tJ,e umc that rhc scripture was written down,
,m: <-'Oll,idered rdevant to the undersw111Hng of
the texts Ir 1s. therefore, :J charnctcristic
icaturc of fundamcntnll,t;, thm they con_sidcr
that tht:y can denve the mennin~ 01 tht:
scriptures directly. just by reading them. No
comcxtmtl, philological, or historical
intonnadon beyond wh:it is evident in the rc:u
b needed. Thc plo_in meaning of the texts is
their uueudl.?d mea~. 1n contrast, the libero_!
considers that the scriptures have co he read
conrcxwally. taking into consideration
hbtorical and philological information; each
mdi\·1dual must then interpret what the
scripture means for him or her lo the light of
imhvi<lual and social c,rcumsrnnccs. One could
~ay chm for fundamcntolists the meaning of the
,cnpcure is inherent in the text. It can be
&:RIJl'TUU:The Tornlt ot l'cntawuch
apprehended direct!~· wirhouc :i need for Is wrtu~n hy a Scribe on a length)'
intcrprctlllion. For the liberal. the 1,oripture is strip of vcUum or patcbmcm both
something chat must be applied to one's life and end$ e,f which are wQund around
incerpreted according to chc circumstances of wooden $loves. Pass.~~, arc read
one's life. frQm it on Monday$, Thul"'dnys,
Saturday,, ,tnd hul)' days ln thls
picture Qr a Torah Scroll (S.,pher
Reli~1011s Traditions Tomi!) tn th~ Great l:>ynag<J,!!u~
of .Jerus:tlcm, one can also see che
\\'hen we come co consider the trnditions of a 'fomh Crown IKetrr), \\hich is
rcll&i-on, we find that there are different types placed on top of the Tomh "" on
c.xprc,~lon of rc\'crcm;-e.. "hen it I&
of fuadameacalists, whom we mav define in two
put away, and th" pointer ( foci).
maJor ~roupings.• \\ hlch th., reotler lL"'-·
Some fundameacalists are conservative and
traditionalist. These regard tradition a.s an
ehm1ent in the rellgioa tl1at is as authorluu.i\'c as the scriptures th<!mscl\'cs.
In many societiCl> :such as lndia, for ex:1mplc, rell~Olll, traditionl. hav1.:
dc,·eloped over centuries ac a local or regional le\'el and arc handed down
from one generation LO the next. This, racther than the scripture, b what
religion b for most people. In Chrisdaniry. the Bible has little in it to act a~
a hasis for most Church structure and ritual. Therefore, the only source of
autJ1onty £or thJs is tradition.'" lo Islam, the conc1.:pt of the Sunna (the
deeds and words of Muh:1mmad as the perfect example ior all Mus lims to
follow) and the doctrine of ijma' (chat whatever the }lluslim world holds as
 Tub le 1.J. 1 Fund umcnrnll:,,m tmd Lihcr:tli~m
S( '1<11"1 I ltf ,\h...,lut, lnllh lncrrunl anJ uf
h111dlnj\ uutbomy To be
rn 1Jt'r.tooJ t,,.,rnlly or
uct"OrJin)l u, a mcchod uf
inrcrprcrn1inn thnt Ah·c,
1:1actn1:,• nf mcanlni\ If one
ran 11f the ,cnplU.-c f,1ll<, 11
nil folb
Aro unnltcrnhle tmd muM
be UCIJ<!pt<.'<.l In t<>lillhy
T ll\lllllO~S Mu'! he conformed \\ilh tn rhc
letter (cx<.'Cpl md,c:li
Fundaml!ntnlist,)
Tnr -..,,T\IR~ cir That which corrcs·ponds ro
tkl:Tll empirical octuallty.
.\TTlnll>t, TOW.YU\~ Suspicious ru1d host! le or
C'.I\ITl('.Al modem cnticol i,chol:orship
:,C'.llOL\RRIIIP und its implicatlons
RE1.1c1m1's The religious world must be
ut.,nc'\s TO Auardcd from incru.sions from
6UCl>.TY the secular world.
DIV~RSITY OF To be discouraAeJ since it
OPOOOX represent$ the intrusion
WJTIIIS Tllf of extemnl views ond the
CO)I.MU~1n• pos;lbilily of heresy.
Own pos!Uon tlw only true
position. Regard aU olher hue•
of opinion ";th suspicion.
OTU£ll \'tewoo only as po,-s!ble fields
R£UGJO"S for prosclrL12aUon. No dialogue
Is po.sslhle or necessary
Mu1101>-• Of lie reties and unbelievers
fkOSEU"TllLS(J should, if n ~. be
compelled to conform
AOCL"&\TIONS Liberals aro lncorporntln~ Ideas
.\GAll<ST TUE from the secular ,vorlJ and Lhus
OTIIEK pollutml\ or dilutint rdl¢ion
:md encouratmJt moml laxity
Plll.lllc.\L Tcn<b tll the ri~t; ,upJl()rt.,
.\TTITI'l)E l" trndtrionnl role for women
)IOllfR.'< TOIE.~
AlTITVIJf TU Positive, Clll'OUraging
WI..\J.Tll I~
MOllfl\l< nm;:,
Truth but t•I Ix• M.t 111 tta
hL'\Wfh.:.aJ and ~\K.'iJd CCNlh!'.\t, a
,:111,1~ tu Ille ( >ftcn require,
mctnphnm,, I ,1nJ ,ymhohc
11nJlrst11nd1nll ll1'll<rlt.-nl .m,I
tcxru,11 criltcl,m n,·,:cpr,-J
,\lav he imcrprcrc~I ffnd llJnptcJ
llL"t.-orJntl\ to the um.s
\In~· he ad,1p1ed nl'<-'Ordm~ to
ahan~in,l i,,ocial cin.111m"ta,nC(;',
Voriou, tYJ>es of troth: syml>ohc
mytholoit,cal, cmp,ncal
Welcorninll and tnes ltl nJnpr
lo modern cm,c-,,1 wholnrsh1p
Rclr)!ion must adapt to soc,ctY
ru,d remain rclcvam
To be welcomed and toler.ned
ns cncourol\in~ unh·en;ality
Own position only one oi man)'
possible.
Dialogue ant.I lntcrnctJon to
be cncourat<;d
Pt!tsuaslon ru1J ar/!uttll'Ilt
preierr.,J.
The lnile.xlbh: uttltutl-,, of tl1c
fundrun,.,malhts ore cootr.u-,·
w the tea.chm.¢; oi lo,·., In
reHi,on flnd drin: J'<")plc ~'"''
Tend, to thc left. suppnrL\
women\ sucial tmnnc1patl1>n
 ,~ ,,u,u.utt:sr,\tlli~I ,\NU LIIIBRALlliM J<,')

a t.'on~cnsu~ n1uM ht? corrccl) net a~ a

r<i,,cr(ul force for maintttirunl! traditional
nmtmlcs and positions 1r ;1ny of rhe
rdi~ion·,,. stn1cu1rcs or JocLrinc:, nrc in
t.'tmt1ict "ith society. then It ls M>Cicty th:u
must clu111~c to conform With "h:it is
p.,rcdn:d to bs: the OiviJJc. These
fumfamentallsts arc very concerned with
huilding up bodies of doc1rir1c nnd
Jo~mutic :,W.tcmcnt:.. a:, "ell u:,
dnhorarln~ the lloly l.:1w and its
pn:,,·i~ion:,. Tim, enable:, the true bclie,·cr
to be distinl!uishcd from the waverer and Got~ULOI Tl\L~l. KoMru lfAL\. 1545-6.3,
th'-' porcntinl heretic. Doctrines and This was lhc nmct,-enlh ccumerucal
,~1,mcil of the Roman C'.athollc Chun:h
Jol!mns must. like holy scripture. be and was held lo launch we C:oumcr·
unden;tood literally, while the Holy Law Rcdonnntlon h wns nl tlus council rhut
n11L~t l>e followed lO the letter the crudiuons of the Church were
The sl!Coml ~roup of fw1damcatallst:, declared Lo I,., of the same ou1honty a,,
b of the c,·anl\Clical, rnclioal, rc,·ivalist Lite scnpturc. It resulted In lhe l'rotcssion
of lhe Tridenune Faith (Tridentum wa,
type. These regard the trudJUons of the the Latin name for Trent), the
reli~ioa ru, the main obstacle to a relllrn tO definith·e ~tnlemenr of Cathnlic doctrine
tltc 'pure' original religion They consider until the Second \'mican Council.
that they can n:eonstnict this 'pure' 1%:?-5.
r:clistion from the tc.u s of the holy
:.cripturc uml would like to sec all of the
tradirional strucwres ,wept a:,ide in fa\'our of the scriptures themselves.'
R.1dicol and traditionalist fundamentalists only Jirfer in how they
dct)nc the boundary of whill they consldwr to be unaltcrabh: and inerrant.
The radicals place the houndary around the scripture it.~elf, while the
rrnditionalists ex.tend it to the trttditions oi the religion \\'hethcr
fundamentalists arc o( one type or the other appears tO depend largely on
the religious background from which they have spnmg Thu~. for example,
If a religion stressci. tradition, it produces fundamentalists mainly o( the
traditionalist kind. In the Christian world, Roman Catholicism holds thac
the traditions of the Church are of equal authority co the scripture. (This
has oocn the official Catholic posilion si nee che Council of Trent, l 56J.)
The fundamentalists among che Catholics cend to be traditionalists. At the
extreme of the fundamentalist wi11g among Roman Catholics we find the
iollowcn, of ultra-cradltlonall;,t Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre." Radical
fundamentalists in rhe Christian world are to be found rimong rhe
Protestont sects - Prowstanti;,m ooing a movement that arose as a n:action
lo the traditionalism of Catholicism. In the ~Juslim world, most
fundamentalists are traditionaliscs, ~ince Islam is :1 reli~ion in which
tradltlon plays an important parL There are, however. n Cew modem
radical groupi. - for e.,cample the followers of Rashad Khaliiau and of 'Ali
Sh:iri'oti "
.)70 Rn.1c;l()N IN SOCIET\"
r
Muowl /kcr1mi1w11011s
hmd:1menrnllsts tend 10 hlamc hhcrnls for allo\\ lnQ Imo 1hc rcliQjon
Juhious idc.?ns nnd doc1rinc1, that hnve no hlll>1, in lhc rcliQ,on 1ti-clf, hut ar~·
e11hcr a<..'t..'<llllrnod:u1ons lO the secular "·orld or unpon.;, from other culture,
nnd rcli~icms i\n exumplc of th is from the pa~t is the manner in "h1ch
rationnlii.L theoiogl::111s 111 mcdle,,:11 blam "ere accu,cd of lntroJucin~ i.nto
l~lnm ideo, from tht.: unbelieving Greek:.. An example from modern time, i,
the Christian lihcration thcol<>ll_v thut originmc<l in Latin ,\mcrico
f'unu11menta.li1,ts regard it as no more than u t>uek-<l1K>r rncthoJ ui
imroducinl\ )farxism into Christianity. Simil:Jrly, iundamcnt:11ist, u:nd to
bl:1mc lihcrnlii.111 for a general mornl liuity in :-ocicty.
A more basic critici;m Je,·elled by funclamemah~Ls at liht:rnb eonccm,
the arbitrary nature of their ,·iew of the scrip1urc~. some pans of the
scripture lihcrah regarc.l tL'> the relitioui,. co re and therefore to he prcM:ncd;
other parts are culrurally determined and therefore can he di~pensctl ,,i1h
or interpreted liberally. \\1un detcnnincs which pans ore trc11ted 111 which
of these rwo ways? To a lund:1menrnllst, che di,·idin4 line appears not to he
defined by nny discernible logieol rules, but rnchcr by whntcver hnppcn~ to
be the current social fa~hion . ln one decade , feminism i~ to Liu, fore and M>
the liberals dispense wich chose pans of the scripture th:it gi\·e :1 lo,, <;tatus
to women; the next. gay ri~hts ore fashionable and so the liberal jeltl~oru,
UHlt part of t.he scripture coo. Arc fashion and current secular scnsibilltic.,
to be the arbiters of the standpoint of foith'? If so, will the ine,·iwhlc result
not be evcnwally LO jcuhon c,·crythlng?" In tlib sense, we can sny th:1t
Fundamentalism is much more of a reaction a,~ainst modem. relati\'i.zin~.
liberal trends in religion chnn a reaction agninst modemiry itself •·
Liberals consider that che har~h, Intolerant attitude of thi:
fundamentalists is contrary to the tn1e spirit of religion and is doing reli~on
a gte:1t deal of harm in the modern world. The liberal tends to ~cc tl1e
traditions and structures of the relij!ion in relation to society. For a liberal,
the important question is: does the religious tradition and ,tructure scne
the needs of society? If any pan of reli~ous srructure or doctrine I~ not
relevant to society, then we must see how we can 3dnpt it to become
re levant. The traditionl>, Joctrine,. and dogmas of the reh!!ion , a;, \\'eU (I!, the
Holy Law, a re all guidelines for action and can be mterpreted accordin~ co
ci rcumstnnces.

Auicude co Relt,i!iou:i Diversic,, w1Lhi11 clie Reltaion

The fundamentalist is inroler:anc of a wide diver,l\eocc of rc:li~ow,
expression within his or her own religion ,\JI dh·cr~encc from the main
orthodox trodltloo Is suspect. There Is an C\'Cr-prcscnt pro~pL-ct of heresy
insidiously creeping in under v:irious secminAly innocent ~uiscs. The
religion must be protected from thi~ at oU (.'OSt;.. There hnve hccn many
episode~ in reliJ!,ious history in "hicb much ~ufierin~ and bloodshed ha.;,
 l4 Fl NDMlEKT.\LISM ANU LIBER.\l..l!,~I 371

ti.:cn c:uL,1..'tl h~ rho:.e \\ishlnA to impose :i

n:irrow incerprerncion o( 1hdr rcli~io11 on
chdr icllow-bclievcrs In Christi:rn1ty, chis
,-.is :,cen In the lnqubillon :inJ the oi.1ny
hlO<>dy ,uppr.is~ions of heresiteS.'' In bl.am,
then, hnvc hccn periodic persecuriom< of
hcmrodox ~oups as "ell as oi ~uch groups as
the Suns.
The liberal "W tolcrntc the cxisccncc
\\ithin the community of a wide variety of
,,cwpoincs. As Ion~ as n viewpoint does noc
explicitly deny the vcr:icity of the pro1>het·
iounder or the holy scripture, ic can usually
be act'Ommodmctl \\ilhin the community of
bclie\·er:.. Even if a ,;ewpomc is co11sidered
100 cxcreme co be nccepcahle, rhe preferred
mcd1od for cryin~ co counter it will be
antumenc and per~uasion rather than
cumpubion.

Auinules To{Xards Ocher Reli_i?ions

The iundamenc:ili~c sees ocher religions as PERSF.CL'TIOS Of lfF.l\rTIC'.~ Cl<'lwlnA a
being tJ1e result of error. Since thc:.c other person In hlllf c,r quar1cnng ""'' a
religions :ire in open competition \\id1 the fa,·ourile puul-.hmcnt for hucsy u,;cd In
true religion, the usual explanation is th:n mediernJ Christl,tn Europe anJ uho. ru,
deplcccd here. oj!ainsc Bab,s ond &ha'1s
the}' are die work o( 1he Devil. They muse he in (nm in the nineteench ~ntury.
strongly opposed and even persecuted if
necessary. Tl1e only possihle exceptions are
those religions lQwards which the prophet-founder himself showed respect.
These must, by definicion, he religions that preceded him. Thus, for
example., fundamentalist Christians will tolerate .Judaism but rejec1 lslam;
iundamentalist ~luslims will wlerate Judaism and Christianity but reject
lite Baba"i Failh. E\'en this wlerot1on wears thin at tlmob, ho" C\'cr. and
me~elt into persecution - as e,idenced by past persecutions of Jews by
r.hristi:ms, nntl Jews and Christians by Muslims
A related phenomenon in modern lime:. is the linking or a xenophobic
fundamenrnlism to a strident nationalism in many parts of the world. We
can see this in .\.rya Samaj llinduism in lntlia, in some fom1s of N'ichiren
Shoshu Buddhism an Japan." in the Gush Emunim movemem in Israel.'"
:ind in fundamentalist Christianity in the United States and Rouch Africa "
The:, liberal will look to ocher religions a~ representing other ways of
reiiardin~ reli~ous truth. Many liberals ,~ill ~,·e their own religion some
fonn of priority but are. nevertJiele:,M,, willing to admlt some legitimacy and
'truth' in other religions: the Catholic d1cologlan Karl Rabner (1904--8-l).
ior example, held that the truly religious persons of ocher religions ore
 :172 1\1-.LllllO'I It-. SOt:ltT\'

'am,nymuu, C:h riNtltt n, ( )1111.: r

llhcrnls arc \\ illln~ w )!o ;.:H:n funla,r
nnd rc)).:in.1 otlu.:r rdi,1U<>1lN u, hcmit nf
equal vulidity lO their O\\ n. hut 1l1111
each ,i.. p.!rhnps, mun: "1itcd in 11,
011 n cu lture .\ hhcrnl rdi~1ou~
:.ocicLy. i.uch as mcdienil \tu,ltm
Spam. :1llows the cf1lore:.cencc of
111tcllectual and urw,tlc c:wdlencc
from whatever rch)!ious qm1ru.r,
Ch ristion. Jcwii.h or ~luslim
Thc iw11Ja111cntah:.L s convic11011 ol
possessinA the tnllh leads IO a strnn~
Lendcncy to correct Lhe error:. of
unbelievers Thus the 11llcrrehitiou.,
acth•ities of the fund.11nentallsL nn:
typically e1·nngell~m und missionary
work The incerreli~iou!> acth•iric~ of
Lhc liberal, on tbe other hond. Lend
cowards ecumenism and interfaith
dinlo)!ue. f'undnmenrnlists hal'c no
Lime for such acLivitJc:.. SiJ1cc their
O\l'n reli.ition :llrcndy possesses the
absolute trutJ1, there h, no poull lt1
look.in~ elsewhere for iL.

Orthodox Jew,
fu.U\llUl'S TE.~SIONS L'I J~I\US.\LElJ: Social cwd Policica/ Dt(frrcnccs
p:1,s se,iwd cons~rvatll e Ar:ibs.
It is wilh regard co social :uid pollricnl
differences that we are treadm)! on the
most difficult ground in our enquiry. This is because there appc:uss to h:we
b.:en some <lt:Ar.:e of chuni;e in Lht! modem pt:rlod ln Lhc \\'c:.t cornpan.J . to
the characceristic features of these Aroups tn former times In the paM, there
d()(ls not appear to have been any characwri:,tic p0litic-..u sUlnt.'c from eitho.;r
rundamenralists or liberal~. If anythm~. bolh parties oium Lended to political
quietism. 8ocially most ti.mdamen wlists have tended to be isolated Some
have formed separate cornmunitJcs, such ns membcrs of tJ1c Mennonite
tradition, the Old Order Amjsh and Hutterite:l in North America Other,. hu\'e
minimized contact \\1th the rest of the sockty Ll1rou~ ru;soolatln~ a,, much
m, po:.sil>le only witJ1 follow fum.lam.:nt:ilu,t:. in. for csamplc, furnfamc.ntalbt
trade and vocation:il associations, cluhs, colle~es 1md holi<lav ccmn..-s.
[Hswrically, In nlneLCcmh-<icntuJ)• Europe and North .\mcrlc:1, pcr,onal
ascetlci~m and rejection of wealth eharactenzcd many tund:JmemalL''-"·
Liberal l'icws were, on Lhe 01hcr hnnd, ofwn found :imong 1hc wealthy.
Recently, much of thb ha:. chnn~eu itreaLly Both ~,dei, ha1c taken on
characteriscic rolitical accitudes a·nd fundamentalist.~ have left their social
 11 ~UNll,\!-I~:l\TAl, IS~I ,\NI) Ll1l£RAI.ISM J7J

isol:.111on and emered social and poliucal life in every pan of the world. In
rcccm time", fundamcnrnlist~ have 1ended 10 he found at the righ1 of che
poUucai spectrum." cncouragin'\ individual self-reliance and stress1u~
puhhc momlity and order. Some fundamenwlii;r groups h:we even reversed
their previous tendency towards asccticiM11; the~' now adopt a positive,
cncourng111g attirnde wwards the a<.-cumulalion of wealth. These groups
ha\'C become nctively invoh·ed in polilics. They ad,•ocate capitalism and a
lwssez:fuirc sooi:tl philosophy, while ralsing communism to :111 almost
mythological le\'el of e,il. The best-known example of chis is the Moral
~lojority 111\>\' emem in the l'nited Suares which contrihuccd to Ronald
Re:igtin 's electoral success.''
.\n important social and political feature of fundamentalism is the
tendency co promote a traditional role for women in society within the
sphere of home and children. rather than workinl! outside the home and
taking a politicnl role. This applies as much to Christinn fundmnentnlism in
th .. Cwtcd States (whllre thll ~loral t.lajority campaigned against the Equal

f
(
r
/

'

\In IT \." T f'O UTIC.,\L fl"m.u1t'IT.11.1s\l Milit.~nr ulirn-orthodox ,Jc"s clnsh nith police durin~
d<lmon,trntio ns 41\llinsi ~h" nmn,ng r,f puhll<> crnn,port <lurml! th~ S3bbatl, ICJ71
.l7 l RI.J,l(;IOS 11' SCll'lt.TY

Rl~lw, for Wo111e11 .\1nemlment ). a~ It Joe, to 1,lamh: aml .le\\ 1,h

fundamcnrnlbm -
Liberal~. on the other hond, tend w the pohticnl Lert In motkrn UllH;'-,
due to d1e1r (.-Onccrn wltb social issue~ Some itroup~ h:i,c c,cn en~a~cd 111
dia lo,1tucs wilh ~larxlsts. Rcliitious ccachm>t,~ such as &ho" 111,1! lo\'c 111wnnh
one's fdlo" human b<,lnw, J J1cJ M>Cinl juMlc..-c ur.,; emrhu~tted Llhcrah ha,c
also chm1~ed their prcnous tendency ond no,, incline towarcJ:.. .1,cdici'm
They hul'c II ncgntil'e attitude to1v:ird, the uccumulation of 11eulth ,lllcJ ,ire
~upporuvc of the em:mcipi>tion of wom.:n
Fund11mcn1111isrs rel\ard cxiMin~ political ~,ruc turcs with ,11,picion a,
lhc product:, of hu man thinku~ nod lli'rom, rutbcr th,m di\ iuc rel'dat11111.
The e:nreme wing of iundnmencalism would Ol'erthro\\ them m favour of a
politic~1I structure hosed on thc holy scripture Khomeini :idl'!X!atcd ~uch a
prowamme and Intended the I r:in , an Revolution of 1979 to inaul!urnlc such
a rheocracy" le should not he ch ought, however, rhnt it is only in lslnm th:it
such positions ore being udvocatcd. In Chri1,tianity, ,\mcric:m l!foups i,uch
as the <.:hristian Recons1ruc11onisu, led by Rousas .J Rushdoomy advocme
:111 01·enhrow of democrntic instirutions They want to establish 11
theocracy under biblical law. ln Israel and lndia, lhcrc are scniraJ extreme
Jewish and Hindu reli~ious p:inies that advocate a similar po~ition

CE (Cush £muniml ,;cw, the world in 1hc li~t of

redemption All pml!malie or moml considcmuons mw,t h..
JUdl\c'<.I nccor>dinl! 10 one mc~ianic criterion will the maucr
at bnod dc.:lay or ha>l<:n the procc» of <.~1mplc1c
rcdemptlon" . Awordlng to the a..,u, 1>1-bclic, er..
"~tablh,limcm or 11 ,eulemcnt In Ult: hcart of Ll1c l'nk,tmlan
JSR.\£L: POI.ITICS population, un act lntend1,d 10 promo to: anne.L1non of th<:
Temtorie.,. ;,. considered a i..icmment . .\oconlln.l! tn the
A,\'D mystical-mcssiantc CQnceruion pre,•a!linl\ In GE. n1111nn;1J
chnnl!c~ a re ooth n rcllccrion of and a mf.'an• tn c.,le-.tial
Fl:NU,\Ml,;)\'t,\l,IST chon~e.< Const.'<tucmly the mm cmt.'m', :ic11, i<m nn the
nruiQntt1 lcvd i~ on nxiir. for eo,mi.c rc\'olution ¥t.;lh uni,·c.:r:i,,.:a)
REl,IGIOS
1mpltontto11s Thi, formuln sohcs the lnhcl'\.'nt p:ir:1Jo>. ,n
CE'~ 1m:,,,:,gc, a., rctlcctcd In a doim ul R11bh1 Lcnn~cr
Sc1tlcmcnt of ,he cnrire bn<I of l<md h,· ,},, J,,.;,h
l'eorlc is" blc.,in~ for nll mankmd. includ,~t lhc .\rat>.
.J4.:wi,h M.:Uk.m1.:rH~ 10 the.: miJ.,c uf loc:aJ pnrulauon
C\!ntt.:r°l'i ur1.: nlQUVntcd hy k'i.:Un¢; r,{ ft.\f''-'(.'t .unl .,'flnt."\!r1,
for the Pnh:,tlnhun· 1uiur... Cnn~t1uc.-nth' 1( ~4' mt.N.'1 1he-
4\rnh-~ c.1-..manJ for ¥dthc.lrr1\\11). W.,: \\ill <mh· cl1\..'UUt*
thLJr Jcgt!l1Crl1llf10 \lhJ 010fd) tft.."-·)Jnt:, \\ hcrt::1, t.~fotLln(
the l!iracl.J u~1uun.al w,U on th~ .\r.afb. "111 i0&h:.r • n:h~m1.5
rt."\·h·.11 {UJ)(IIJ~ lh-.:m. l,!\t,;IJCU-~dl~ IU l,-: l.'.'4;;pft.......L.-J 10 Ch.:,r
.,,,,c.:mwncuu~ Jc..,trt to Juu1 U1 the h.~'tH1..,tn.k!UOn ol the
ThlrJ IJcwWII Tcm1•lc \l'c (the 1"1adhl UlU>I l"'Jl<lflll<
th~~~ ui cili..:s lO J~h.:.t .1nJ SJ.m11rht and <lrHt." out
~tnkc-i,, thL:.rcln for th\.! ~xi oi tht: ~\rnh.s thcm!tl'ht:~
(Gideon Arnn ·Jc,.,,h 7.ionbl Fundnmcntali,m', in \l.\rt)' nnd
,\pplcby, Furulamu11a1L,m.< Ob..,n..ctl, pp. 1<>:?, .11 1-51
 I I: t"UNll.UIENTM,ISM ,\ND Lll!le:ll,\LISM J75

Steve Bruce has pointed out chat the social manHestations or

iundmncmtalbm mid lihcmli:--m lar~cly follow on from thcir doctrinal or
ide<>lo!l1enl posillons. The run<lamemailsts' rejecrlon of all doctrinal
poi-ition:, outside their own leads to hij!hly dem:ircnted, tightly knit, highly
L-onuniued. socially isolated cornrnLHtities. Liberals, on Lite other hand,
t.,1ns1der the helief$ of rhe rest or the world sympm:hetlcally and are much
morn inccgrated into society. The great ,diversity of beliefs among them,
ho,,c,·cr, hinders the formation of t.'Oherc1u ~roups. It also reduce,- lhe
likehhood of a h,~h de~ree of commim1ent.''

TO\\',\IU)S .\ SOCL\L DEfi~ITION OF

F UNDAHENTALISM i\NIO LIBERALISM

Put succinctly. we may characterize tundamcntalists as turned inwards to

"hat they perceive to be the core of the religion (such m, the scripnirc and
doctrine~) and seckinit to protect Lhis from th!.' intrusions of lhe modem,
secuh1r world The liberal is turned outwards, seeking to expand the
border:. of rcU~on into the secular world. for lhe fundamentalist. lhe
secular world must adapt to :md come under the control of the reli,Uous
\\ orld. The liberal considers thnt it is the job of dw religious world to adapt
to and become relevant in the secular wol'id. fundamentalists are ofccn
individualists; religion is addressed to the indi~;cluai and is for individual
sahation. Libcrab arc more concerned with society as a whole; rel.Won is
for social as well as individual salvation.
The abo\'e prcsencation of the contmsts hetween fundamcntnlists and
liberals has, of uc1..-c;,sity, been wide-r~. Thls Is lx.>causc the :;:um,
phenomenon re:ippears in different ways amon~ the v:1rious religions. None
ot lhese above distinctions is sufficient by itself to identify an individual as
a fundamenuilist or a liberal. ln llinduism and Buddhism, for e.xample. the
inerrancy of scripture is noc an important issue. On the other hand, almost
all ~lw.lims believe in the inerrancy of t.hcir scripture, the Qur'cm, but this
does not make chem all fundamentalists. To differentiate between
fundament:1lists and liherals in the Tlindu, Buddhist 1111d .Mu~lim world~,
one must examine ~uch factors as social rcluclons and che anitude toward,;
modernicy and religious divel'l!iry. This may also account for the sicuation
in the nincccenth century. when a.n uncritical acceptance of the incrmncy
of the Bible was much more in the mainstream of Christianity (a similar
sicuarion to that in Islam today). Then it was possible for individuals to hold
to biblical inerrnnoy while at the siune tlme advocating liberalism.,. Our
ideas about fundamentalism and liberalism should be sufficiently flexible to
allow for such indh'iduals not to he classed as fundmncntalists. Thus the
nrgumems presented in this chapter po Inc to a position ln ,, hich
fundamentalism and liberalism are not defined in any absolute terms
Rather, the definition is multi-factorial and relative to the particular
:1711 REl, JGIOS IN ~OCll'TY

rdigio11~ aml h1i,wrical i,itu:nhm of Lh1; individual In othcr 1111r,J,,

rundnmcnrnlism nnd lihcrnhi.m must he 1dcnufit:d 1hro11~h n pr,tlcm th:u
ch:mj\c" from onc religion to unothcr (pnrtly because of tht: Jiffcrcnt
emphases within c:1ch rclil,\ion) ~:vcn within :1 p;lrticulnr rclij!wn , the
p:utcm will chan~e with rime.

TII.E SnCL\L .\Nil h ~TtLl, £CTLAL BASIS

Little research hns been done on the soewl bn,c:, of thc

fundnmenrnlist- liberal dichotomr The work that ha, heen done "11l,1\cst,
that we muM go hcyond t11c old view thm fundament11li:,111 rcprcsent,- an
anti-scientific backlash ol t11e old rural, a~ricuJcural communitie, :11,\:1111,1
urban , scientific culture. ' In the followin~ di~cussion, we shall sec th:11
fu11damemaJism is not anti-scientific ond that the evidence tent!., to
discount nny si~nifieom social differences between fundamenrnli~1s nnJ
libernls.
Because science has become !>uch :111 oven\ helmin~y important
guaramor of plausibility in the modern world, most people want to think oi'
themsclvc:, ns being In line with il. Fuudamcnt.albt "ritcn,, thcrdorc, ui1cn
go co grea1 lengrhs co show that rhelr positioos arc in accordance with
science.' 1 flowcvcr, critics would maintain th:t1 this i:, a veneer of p~eudo-
scicncc, :1pplicd in orcJer to increase the plausibility of the fundnmemaliM
worldvicw and thm fundamcmalists remain inherently oppo~cd co the
inductive approach of the scientific method." ,\Jnonl! man)• Chri:.clan
fundamentalists in the United State~. 1here remain:. a !,trong advocacy of
omi-cvolution:1ry (anti-Darwinian) positions, under the nnme oi
Cnmtionism. l:Iowevec, even this position bows to :,ciencc in that H cluun:-
to use sciendtic method to prove its c:1se Indeed, rcli~ious critic!. or
fundamentalism argue that by striving to inicrprct the Bible stories :.o that
they conform co science, fundameinallst:, are, in effect. adop1inl! 11
materialistic st:incc, they are placing science above God's \\'ore.I '' What-
ever the strengths or weaknes:.es of fundaimmtalist ;;ciem:c, mo:-t
fundamentalists no longer see themseh·es as opposed co science
inLCllcctually. Their main intellectual 11rgumcnt, nt least as it lia,; been
refommlated in recent decades, is with hlstorical and literary criticbm a,
applied to scripcure
OutMdc ilie Chrbuan \\'~t. fw1damenlilllhlll iJ. often centred on u
rnaclion to the intrusion of modernity into 1r:1ditional societies E\'en here,
however, fundamcnrnlise:, are not opposeJ 10 i-cicncc and technololl_v
tlwmseh·e~. They are quite happy to u~ t11ese. ,\yatollah Khomeini\
success in O\'erthTowing the Shah, for example, owed :1 )\real dc•:11 to the us,·
by hi!. ~upporters of such modern lnvenuons as the telephone and tht·
casseuc recorder, \\ hich were u:sed to dissemm:uc his speeches while he
wos slill in exile. The qucs1ion that t11c Iranian fundamcntalis1~ ha\'c yet u,
answer :,ati~factorily L~ bow they can im1>0rt nnd utilize science \\ i1hout
 l I. l'll'Xllt\Ml,;fl:TALIS:1.1 .\NI> LIBER,\l..lSM 377

:ibo imporring the scientific appronch. which

4ucstio11s and criLiclzcs C\'crythlng, incluuin,I!.
rcli~ion .
\\11:it (undnmcmali~t" ure 11rinrnrily ag:tins1 arc
thc:-c :1lien values :mu morals that are imported
alon_it with science and technology It is not so
much modernity itsdr Lhm they fear as the threat
thnt the accompanying libera l social and religious
Hilues pose to tmtlitional religious slnlcturcs and
1 alucs The foUow111~ quotalion from the manifesto
or Bhorntiya Jana Sangh. a llindu fundamentnlist
party. in 1951. could speak for all such reacUons to
modernization and westernization:

there Is :10 auno,-phere of disappointm~Dl and

fm<tTntion in the councry . The mling Con,llress
party In It" hru.tc to make lndlu n carbou-copy of the .\yntollah ltuholl:tb Khon1clt1l
West is undenninm~ the people's faith in the (1902-h<J) lw tht: lranlaa
nmlon:il ,•olucs :ind ideals.'' Islamic rcvoluuon of 1979 and
wn.& aiterwt1rds named :1s the
supreme lc:1dcr under the new
It should :ilso be stated thot th<lrc is no justification 1.vnst11utlor1 of Iron.
for the commonly held view thut the
fund,1111crtt:ili~t is agah1i<l logic and r:ili()rtnlity. On
the contrary, the fund:imcnwli~l mentality b much predispoi.cd to the use
of precise, logical arguments. Shi'i lslam is an interesting cxampk in this
respect . Both rhe theology (ktilmn) nnd the jurisprndcnce of Shi'i lsl:lm are
built on foundations of rationali:.ru and logic. From the ninth century
onwards. Shi'i scholars h11vc prided themselves on being able to deri\'e their
doctrine and their !ego! judgements from logic (as well as from the Qnr 'cm
and the Traditions). The study of logic fomis an important par1 of the
academic curriculum ot the reli~ious collej\ei- of Qum and Najnf. This, then,
ii, the intellectual background of such per,,ons as the Ayatollah Khomeini. "
,\lso co he questioned is the Yiew of fundamentalism as mainly a
phenomenon of poor rural areas. In foet, h<,th tundamentnlists and liberals
arc lil,ely to l.'Ome from :.imilar social and e<lucaciooal background:.. )Jany
modem h111d:1mentaliscs appear to arise from educated, middlc-cla~~
background;, - precisely the same back~round from which the nmjority of
lib.!ral~ abo <.'Orne. This bas been shown both for British funuamcntalist
groups. and ior ,\mericans. ~ Similar co111clusions h:ivc been drown obont
lhe 1Jui.lim world 11hether in £~)'Pl, Iran or We~t Afri<!<1. "
\\'e thus have two pieces of evidence chac point towards the foct that che
fundamcntrtfu.t-llberal difference is not prim:irily the re,,uh of socinl
factors. First. the face that the socially observab le ie:itures of the
phenomenon vary :icross the <liffcrcn1 rcli~ion,. Second, the foct th11t
fundamcutnli;,t:, and libcrnh, appear lo :iri:.c from much th<.: :.ainc ~ocial
strara a;, each other. h is as yec premarure co dismiss social faccors enti rely.
 )71' RF.LIGl<lN IS SOCIFTY

fbc 1.:v1dc11ce, htmcvcr, certainly doci, not 1,upf)<)rt II hlank<.l a,:;(1<,·1;11lun CJI
fnndamcnrnlism ,,;Lh on~· particnlnr soci::il catcJ,\ory or factor Thcs~
fintlln!l,, If confinncd hy further rc~earch, poim m thc llkd1hooo that thl
fundamcnwlist- liheral dlftcrencc comes r1«1l Ml much lrom ,ocial
differences :1s from tlificrcnccs in psydmlogicnl type,

'flll~ PSYCIIOLOCllCAL BASIS

Fundamcnt::tlism and libcr:11ism have been dcscrih<.-<l OOO\:c us 1110 extreme

viewpoints. Thrll is not to say th:1t everyone i~ at one e xtreme or th.: other.
There arc intem1ediate positions and an individual can, durin~ the cour,c
of a lifetime, alter his or her po.sl-tlon on the spectrum In p;.vcholoitlcal
terms we may charnctcrizc fundamcntali:;m and liberalism us two different
ways of thlnkln~. two cognitive styles. CogDIIJvc 1,tylc refon, tu thl
individual's characteris1ic and consistent manner oi or,!amzin~ and
catl!gorizing perception;, and \.'Oncepts. IL Is o value-free term, in thm
eoAoitive styles are nol jud~cd lO be #)od or bad in themselvei, . •\nv
particular sryle may, however, he more or lcs~ favourable in n ~vcn
siluatJou or for achievin..~ a given goaJ.'•
The fundamentalisl mentality is charncteristic:tlly one that sees thin~,
in tcm1s of black and wl1itc. There arc clear-cul boundarici. that determine
what is and what is not acceptable belief, who is and who 1s not m the
comrnunily. Any person , situation or ohjcct either belon,l!s \\;thin the orbit
of the 'saved' or Is outside it; there arc no lntcnncdlatc position,,. ~o m:ittcr
bow good a Life people may lead, if they are not among the ·saved', then they
must be among the 'damned'. The lines between good and evil are clearly
drawn. The Liberal is more inclined LO allow for '!~rey arl!~'. intermediate
sinmtions. .\!thou~ some people may not be believers, if their octions nrc
good lhcn they cannot be lotally bad. In thi1, way, we arc gradually cumm~
lO the point at which it is possible to see chat the fundamentaliM-lib.:ral
split is not something that affects religion alone; rather, it is one fncei oi a
much larger phenomenon in the psycho-social lift: of httn1ru11cy. 1
One of the underlyinj\ differences between fundamentalists and liberal,
is that the former arc drh·cn by a dc.,irc for ccn:linty. Richard llofi-rndtcr
called tWs the 'one-hundred per cent mentality'. Such a peri.on \\ ill
' wlcmtc no ambiguities, no equivocations, no rcscrvationi,, nnd no
criticism'." For the fw1dame11tallst, certainty b only LO ~ found an
objecti\'ity. The indecisive world ot the liberal who is wilhnit to see some
truth in all opiniuni,; the uncertain field;. ofhbtorical nnd litcmry critic1~m
where different opinions abound: these are :iU t.:llnted hy pcr>.onal op111ion,
nnd chereforc hy s11bjectivity This is deeply uns:nisiactory co 1h1:
fundamentalist p~ychc. The only way of achic\'ing ohjccuvc lruth b to toke
a standard chac lies ouu.idc huni:in subjec11vity \\11ile a liberal Christian
would he happy to accept just a stlltement of belhif in Christ from an
individual, this is not J,ufficient for a fum.lnmemali~t. It h too llnhlc to the

\
 J4 HINl).\Ml-,NT,\USM .\NU LJBER,\1,ISM .)79

whims of $uhjcctiviry and might include oll sorts of doct rinolly

ohJCCtionabll! positions. ,\cccptunL-e of the Bi!,lc as inerrant, however, Is
considered by fundamentolis ts co lead to ohjecthity, for one is noc fonnfo.~
:1 pcrsonnl , icw of che Bible but rmhor accepting the BilJlc's own view of
ir~clf. Tim. tlrn fuudamcnrnli~t considers. tivc~ one a standard of absolute
truth.'· hcm.'C objecthity and hence certainty.
Tlus desire for certainty probnbly accounts for the enthusiasric
adoption o( ~cience (or. as their critics would claim, pseudo-science) hy
fundamcmaliscs. Scientific method acts, for the modern mind, as a
~uarancor of tJ1c correctness of one's conclusions, and bcnt!C of ccrtaimy. IL
also accounrs for the fact th:n l'undameni:aliscs are ofcen very keen to build
up elaborate logical :1rguments. The mathematical certninty oi' logic appeals
to such minds. The fundamentalist favours absolutes. while the liberal
favours rcl:nivistic styles of thinking. Indeed, we may even be st.'lrting to
dhccm here a reversal of positions similar to that de:;cribed above in the
social and political spheres. Liberals are moving away from rationalise,
scientific thought thal they espoused in rhe nineleenth century towar~ a
more holisllc. lnruitJve wa}' of chinking, while fundamenrnliscs are,
simulrnneously, moving cowards che certainties of logic and scientific proof.
These ch:inges may renect changes or perception thot are (1lso happening
In i.ociecy; society has moved away from a. posirion In which scripture was
seen as che guarantor of cercainty to a position in which science is the
!\uarancor.
One difference in c~niti\'e sryle that is of particular interest regardinj\
the l'unclamentalism-Hhcralism dichotomy is called 'field.dependence
\'Crsus fleld·independtmce'. It analyses the way that an lndh•idual relates a
fi~ure in his or her perceptual field to its background. Field.dependents
lend to ~ce the figure only in relation co it~ background while a field·
Independent tends to isolate cJ1e figure anc.1 extract it from its background.<'
There seems some pro,;sional similarity here between field-clependenc.-e
and libcmli~m, m thac liberals tend to sec religion only in termt. of its
~ocial back~round Ficld-indl.lpendcnce appears to corrcl:ne with
fundamentalism, in chat fundamcntalbts tend to sec religion as an absolute
bolaced from its social bac~round.
Two further cacegorics in psychology relevanc 10 our con~ider:ttion are
convergcnc and di,·crgent thought. There ore some .simil:tritics hetween the
L"t)avergent sryle of thin kin~ and fundamenralism, while divernent thinking
corresponds \\~th liberalism. Cnnvergent thinking focuses down from the
gcn.:ral to the particular, dissecting a11d analyslllg. It priz~ rational,
deductive thought and aims towards certainty. One tends to find it amon~
certain types of scicntistS, and cn~inccrs in particular. lnicrestingly, il has
been found that \\hen scientists (especially those from th<: physical
sciences) and en~ineers become religious, they often tend cowards
fundamemrui.-,m " Dh·ergent thought, on !he ocher hand, goes from the
part1cular to the general, lnte~atint the particulars into a general picture.
It prizes inductive, intuitive thinking and aims cowards inclusivity r:1chcr
 J!IO IH 1.1()10)1 Iii iiOt.1£.T\'

thun ccn:umy One tenJ8 lo fl nd It nmon~ amsts nnJ socml -.c1cnthh

The~e two modes uf thinkln!! hnvc, In cxpcrimcnt:11 psycholu~y l,;:cn hnkc<l
10 the 1wo halvc:i of the hrnin ,1nnlytical rnt1011al thnu.ltht is a,sodatcd ,,11h
the tlomlnant (usually h.:t't l hcnm,phcrc, 111tultl\ c thoul!lll 1s :bstK:i;H<:U "Ith
the other hemisphere. (Sec r,p I 7k--9 for n fuller discussion ol tl11s tr,p1c )
IL should he notctl that coJtniti, c style is n"t dtl ,u1110.: thhtA a,
rcrsonality. Cognitlv.: ~tyle Is a much more Ocxihlc funcunn that can
ch:in~e rel::lli\'dv cns ily in II person ,\hhnul!h \\(. c,111 define
rundamenrnliMll In tcnns of o pa rtlcular co.ttnlti\'c ~tylc, there b u rruhlcm
as co which phenomenon cause.s wluch Does a particular co.ttmm·c ,c,·le
caui,e u pcrsm1 LO he unracccd to the fLu1w1n1c11tuliM \\orklvic\\ • Or d<1cs
tht< idool~y uf fundamcntalhm induct< a panlcular co~nlt1Vt< :,t\'le., rh""
probnhly a quc,tion of the chicken-and-egg vnricty to \\hich thc.:r~ is no
ruu,wer.
One consequence or this psycholowc:il view o( fundamenrali,m i, that
nny rcligiow, group will contuin people with :i ,pcctrum of eoll,nitivc i.tylc,
A small fundamentalist ~roup, for example, will ha"c a ran~l of e~n,u,·c
styles th:it is m the fundamemnlist end oi the spectrum. \\'ithin chm ron~e.
however, some will he more 'liberal' anti other~ more extreme 111 their
Fundamentalism The lar.~ er the rell~ious .ttroup, the "·ider the ran~c of
cognitive style,, that is likely 1n he within the group. All the world reli~ion~
inclutle people who havt< the ftc..11 ran.gc of opinions. from the mo~c liberal w
the most fundnmentali~t Even a religion like the 11:lha'i F':1ith (rhoc h:l,
deliberately sought to ha,•e a "idc variety of pL'Ople within itS r:mk~) will
also comain, despite its repucacion ai, 3 'liberal' reh~ion, individual, ,,1th a
range of lihernl and fundnmentnList opinions.

F IJNOA.IIIENTALlt>.111 .\ND ~fOlJER:SITY

1 ha,·e ~iven eimmpl.:s of the way that llbcmltsm and fundmnentallsm ha, c
manifested them~elves in the p~q. The contr:1st between the cwo ha,,
however, been cmphasizc;d and brought Imo scnrk relief only in nHxkm
times,•· for Lb ree reasons.
First. 111 most ui the world until the presen1 century and in 1hc \\ e~t
unlll the ci~ht.:cnlh-cenwry .\ge of Enll~hlcument. the rcli~lou, .inJ
secular worlds were not ,ha rply Jct'ined anJ scp:1ni1c;d Rclil!iou.,
metaphysical ussumplions and ethical values pervaded all nspcch 01
i.oeiety: famil} life, social more:- and custom~. urt, llccrutun,. 111tdlt<ctual
life nnd policies. Therefore, rhc secular world did not challt.:nl!e tlw
rcligiou:,. In thci.e clrcum~u1ncc:. 1L wus pn:.,;ihle for puuplc to holJ op111io1h
chm would codav be con~ldered tun<lamem:il"t. such a.s the merrnnc~ (>f
the 13ill/c, while being liheral in outlook
Sccontl. humanity tot.la, fat.-es u ma.s~ of problem;; - 1.hc nuclear thn·,11.
drug and alwhol prohlems, environmental 1hrcms. the :--onh~'><nnh d1viuc
and so on Thcst< nrc hrouf;\ht to 1hc immediate ancntion of ull thrnul!h

\
 14 . fl~IIA,\lt,NT.\LISM i\Nll Llllt,K,\LJSM .181

modem means of comm11nic:11ions. Thii; and the complexities of modem

hie bn,·c induced treat 1111ei:rtt1inty nucl n1ixicty 0111i respon,-c to tbc fear
induced hy chis ,mte ii< to relreat Imo the ~reater certaimy oifered by
iundi1ment11li;.m It prcscms o retreat from the oonni.~cd mt1cl$trom of
modcnnty
Third, relil!ions were not so :icutely ch:illcnged hy ~enuinc competition
from od1cr rcli1tions and iJcolog1cs until very recently. Therefore, the
funJiunemalbt meotallty was rarely challea~lld by 'forci~n· iatn1sions into
IC~ rclil!ious world. Then. in the ninctcemh century. the colonial powers
took Chrh,tianlry to C\'cry part of tho world. During the present century, we
ho\'e seen a 11ow in the opposite direction, both as a result oC rnil!ration and
of missionary nctivity by Hindus, Buddhists and ~luslims. Some find this
clo~e imeraccion with otlwr religious j\roupi. very lhrcalCalng and
consequently retreat into a fundamentalist position that reduces the need
for it.
Thus it has been the phenomenon of seculariZatioa and relij\ious
plumlism in the modem world that has brought the liberal-fundamentalist
split co the fore of religious life. In cowury after coumry, the arrival of
modemity has resuJted ia a polarization of the native reli~ous community.
On rhe one hand, some ha\'e met the challenge by seeking to accommodate
I.heir religion to the chan~e induced by modernity. On the other hand,
there has been a tmditionalist, fundamentalist backlash. Indeed. it seems
lo be the dcvclopo1c11t of ti llberilli21ng trend itsolf that sparks the
fundamentalist reaction. The liberaliziing tendency
seems to fundamcnailists to ler1d to an inevitable
d ...-cline in moral,, and in lhe aulhorlly of relij\ion.
In Europe. modernity be~aa to challen,l!e reli~ion
in the ninclCenth century. The liberal ideas of
thcol~ians such as SchJeiermacher were an attempt
m reach an accommod:ition with modernity. The
iundan1cntalis1 reaction to thls came with the
mo,·emenc begun after World War U by Karl Barth
(lllR6-1968). In the L'nited States, the challenge o(
moden1 science (particularly the lhcory of evolution )
and liheral theology were important faccors in the rise
of fundnmenrnlism in the early decndes of the
twentieth cenlllry. In Iran in the late nl.neceemb and
early twentieth century, the measures th.at were being
advocated by social reformen, were supported by
liberal reU~ious leaders such as Shaykh Hadi
~njmabadi. These movements w(!re opposed by the f'ricdrich Schl<>icnnncher
funclamentali~t. lraditionalil,t ulcma led by Shaykh { 1768-111.)4), o lcn<lin)l Gem1an
f'adluilah ~Uri "' Prot~stant lh~'Ologfon "bo
epitomized the ttcn<l towards
It is perhaps in India thnL we find the best example llheral theoloJ!,)' m the
of thi~ pattern. Under auack from the Christfanicy of nineteenth century
the Clllonial power and the challen~c of modernity,
 ;u,z RF1.1r.10~ 1). MWl~:n

;,cveml lil,1:ral reform muvemcuts (1m,c nmun~ lnJt.i\

Shaykh Falllull:,h .)/un,
n lc:idinJ! fundamcmali~t
cl"ri" In I hi.' I rnninn
rc\'olull<>n of 19<).1. I11
thb revoluUc111, tbc
funthunt,nL,lbt_o, l0,,1 tu
the liberal constirutlon-
nli,ts; n tt!suh chot was
reversed in the 1'!79
rc,·olution.
- 1902.'1 (See also pp. 49()-2.)
I ltndus In 1hc ntn~·tccmh century Thc,e indutl<:d th~·
Rr:1h1110 8:unnj fount.led h~ R11mmohnn Roy in II>.:!~ and
the very similar PranhJ_rma 8:u11:1J Tht.:,c 11111, 1;111c111,
odop1ed many or the ideas nr the Chrhw,n \\'c,t 11110 11
I limlu fnuucwork, 11 t.lcvclopmclll thol pro<luc1:J t\\o IYI"''
of reaction an1<>n/! lllnJui., cc1rre~pond1111! w 1111.: ti,o 1yp..:,
of t'undnm1:nt:11is111 de;.crihed :ihm c. Th~ r:1dic11l
fundamentallsi£ ;,uch a;, l)ayan:mda 8arn"1 :1tl. ,1 ho
founded the 1\rya Samnj in Hl75, fe lt that lhnduism could
hcst he revitalized hy ri,turning to iL-. \'1,.-<lic n,c,L,. Th1.:_y
opposed the lnelusl\'1s1 reform mm•cmi,ms thnt
accommodated Chrisrian, \\'cstcm idea:., hu1 they :11,o
rcjcc1cd what t h ey co11~id1:rct.l to be thl! accr<:tionl> of
ritual and lrnditio n (such 3$ ldol-wori.hip ) th:11 had l>1.>en
added to ·pure· Vo:dic lllndubm. Thero: wen. aho
tn1ditionali:1t fundamentalist!. who rcjC<.:to:d ho1h the
inolusi\lii,m or social reform movement, and 1hc
radicaJJsm of the Arya Samaj. They wan1cd to malmam
Hinduism ns it was. with all its rituals , tr:idaion~ :md
social structures such as the caste S)';,ICm. They fom1ed
themselves inco many groups (such a:. the S:mauma
Dhnrm:1 Sabha), which came unJcr nn umbrcll:i
organization, the Bhararn Dharma ?.lahamand.tla 10

A Il l STOlUCAL PERSPECT l\'E

Apart from these social ond psychological insights into the

fundamcncalism-libcra lism dichotomy, \\e may abo
develop a h istorica l explannrion for rhe phenomenon
Eocb religion appears within :i ccrrnin hli.wricnl ru1d
lwJa Rnmmohun Ruy religiou.\. context. At some M~e In the developmcnc of the
(1772-ll>JJJ, founder of
Brahmo Samaj (founded
r<:ligion, its history, doctrines and .socinl 13\\S nre \\Tittl'n
H!28) and leadinJ! IJ)!urc down. Lbus cre1111.ing the sacred text of lhe religion. (Sec
in the attempt to pp. JJ2-5 on th e oral cran~mission ol a text and the
rnotlcmizc nnd bring <:oru,cquenc<:1> of Its bdng written do\\ n ) Thi:, prot.'Ci.., uf
liberal idcris Into
wnunJ!, down " h at then become:, re~arded a~ sacred .uid
lllndulsm. lie uppos~'Cl
pol~·1heism, suttcc lllld
unalcer ublc i'> the historical crux of the
the caste s~~tem. fundaml!ntalbm-libcr;tlil>m di<:hotomy. 1\,•o problem1-
a rise from th is process.
The first ttnd le1-s imporumt prohl1:m rcl,1wi. to the
quesdon of authen1lcit:y. In mos.1 religions, a ~reat deal of ume dopsc!,
between the evem (either 1he exposition of sncred teachint.~ or rhe
enactment of sacred hbtory) and the Llme that le Is rt!eordcd in writin~; the
 H Fl1NOAMENTAL1$M AND LIBER,\L1$M 3~3

!lrc:ner the length oi time that has elapsed, the !lrcntcr the
111..elihoo<l of 1.•xtram:,ous ruatcriul entering the text durin.~
oral tran,mii:sion This much is not conrro, crsial, in that
ii is implicirly acknowledged in most religions In
l.luistianit), it was ock.110\\ le<l~e<l by the foct 1.hot It
Ix-came necessary for a canon of the more reliable
ou1tcrial ro he agreed as 1.hc text of the "l,71.-w Tescanumt.
Thi, resulted in the exclusion of other material that
became the ,\pocryplu,. 1'he process of selection went on
for !>Ollie time. \\ith considerable doubts about whether
some items should be included or not. In Islam, the text
01 d1e Qur'an is L'Onsidered to be cxacdy as transmitted
co ~luhanunad and spoken by him, ren:aling Cod's
Word., Howe,·cr. the numerous Hadith.~ (Traditions)
nd:uoo about Mu.h:unma<l, \\hicb form an impormm
source for che Holy Law, were transmiued orall~· over Swami Doynnonda
~c, ernl generations and some of them arc considered to S:unswntJ (182-hSJ),
be uordiablc. ,\ method of decidin~ !.heir relative fow1der of the Arya
authenticity is therefore incorporated into the Islamic Sarruij (founded 1875),
sciences.''' 1'hus the problem of the reliability of a radical movement
s.:eklng co return ro che
authoritati\'C texts is often ackoowle<l/!ed by the religious rclij\lon oi the Vedas
professionals in dlese religions. However, if particular
religion!> lcachings become a i.ourcc of <lifilcuJty as social
cond1tioos chante. the question oi the authenticity of die sources may be
raised by liberals \\;shing ro adapt the ccachlngs co social change.
~luch more important for our pre,eoL concern Is Lhat I.be writiot dowo
ot the teachin¢l, laws and history of :1 relii;\ion in effect freezes chem into a
particular setting. These tcxlS are written ,vithin the worl<lview -
cosmology, mythology, social concerns and incellectu.il debates - of a
pnrticular time. This does not mean chm the sacred scriprures ore
m:ce,,arily frozen in the world\'icw of the tirue of the fo1.mder of the
reliition Rather. it Is the worldview of the time when che ~criprure is written
do" n that i~ importanr, ns this is what is frozen inro the text.~.~· As we gee
further away from that time, the worldview within which the texts were
written becomes ever more alien co the contemporary worldview and the
social concerns of iliat time b(.'COme more t1.11d more removed from curretlt
concerns
This increasin~ dh·c~cnce between che worldview of che texts and the
conLcmporary world\'ic" rcbulu. in the fundameot11list-lihcral diohotomy.
Tht tun<lamemalist r~ards the cexcs as w1alcerable and d!,·ine and so
scruMJcs co mnke the concempornry worldview fir in with the worldview
embo<lied in the texu.. The liberal on the od1er hand, is striving ltl d1e
opposite clireccion. rryin!\ w make the ccxcs fit in with rhe contemporary
worldview Thi;, i" reprc~enccd pictorially in Figure 14. 1 We cnn note, in
~in,j\. iliac those reli~1ons in which the tradition has remamed lar~ely
oral up co the present time, che primal relifations, hO\•e sufiered very little
3,'1-l RF.l,IC~IO~ IJ\ :;or.IF.TY

Fi~uri: 1./.1

,._
The 8plit Rccwcc n Fund:1mcnrnlism and Lihcr:ila,m

Origin oi 1lw rdit!ion

l 0ml transmlsMon

, . Scripture wriuen down

!Tl\lE

Lihernlism

f'umlamcntalism

Traditional worldview
of rhe sacred texrs

from this fw1damenulist-liberaJ split. Such religions arc adapting LO nc\\

circumstances all the time hut chis change is gradual and withou1 o wrimm
record of the past for comparison, occasion~ no adverse comment (sec pp.
JJ2-SJ.
\\'e can now consider the situation of a reli~ion th,u is in the earlv
bl!lgcs of thb hiswrical process of divergence between fundamcnwlbm aml
liberalism. i-\lthou,!h ic was srnted ::ihove thac the Baha'i communit,·
contains people with both a liheral and n fundnmcnt:ilist mcntaliry. thh
doc::, not produce :c, many problems in th., Baha'i community a;, in olher,
older religions. Because che R11h:1'1 Faith i~ only in chc e:irly ~t:ij!c, of rhl'
hi~Loric11I de\'cloprnenl described in Figure 1-1.1, there i~. ao, yet. little or
no diver):!ence berween the social te:ichinl\,~ of the reli4io11 (which promote
i;uch causes :is world peace nnd the equnlil}" of men :ind \\omcn) nml
the needb of society. Thus tht:! fundamemalist B:iha'i Is forc<.'tl hy thl'
scripture of che religion co he whac mosc people would re~1rd a, 'liberal' 111
outlook. The liberal, on the other hnnd, need not comprombc the c1.:ntral
teachinJ;ts of the rellition in order to make che reli4inn sull the need~ of
society
In l11c \\'ci..tcrn Chri:.tlan world, the contemporary world\'ic11 wn~
broadlr in line with the worldview oi che Bibi<. nnril (lh<iut the time nf the
Rcnaiss:rncc. From thal time onwards the two \\Orld1u.:1" diH:~c.J
increasin~ly. In much of Lhe re~c oi ch1; world. the two workh·ic\\;. \\ere
co114mous until rhe middle of the ninl'lcemh or rhc hcl!inninl\ oi the
twenLietl1 century. The fact th:H l11c d,ver~cm.'C be4;111 ~o much l.1tcr in
these socicues ha~ not. however, meant 1h:1t the mconl!nicncc 1-..:t\\ccn thc
 11 FUNDAMENT.\LIS~I J\NU LIBERAl,ISM Jb5

I\\Oworlc.lvicws is any che less now, only that the concrnsts are more
,,oknt. Thh i.ubjcct I!, di~cusscc.1 further in clwpu:r 19.

F t:RTIIER R E.\Dll'iG

~·or a pre enrntion of liber:il Christl:111 thou~ht, see llick, The Re<.'<md
C/in;;tiunil)•, Kung, On Bein.fl a Chri.scian; \Viles, The Remaking of
C/Jristicm Doctrine. On fundamenrnlism, the hcst accounts a re Barr,
Fundmmmcalism (alrhou~h the author is olcarly not a sympathizer "ith
Lli..: fumlamentallst position), nm! Bruce, Finn in tlie Fait/a (a more ncu1 ral
account com..•tmtrnun~ on British fundamentalism). A comprehensive
ac.-coun1 of fundamentalism from nn insider view is difficult to find, perhaps
for tbl.! rl.!aS0LU. s~cstc.-d b>' Barr (pp. .J 10-12). llowcver, see Akhtar, 'The
,·imacs of Fundamentalism'. Sharpe, L'nderswndir1,g Re/i4ion, pp lOR-24,
COnl(llllb many important lnsigbt!>.
Fumla.mentalism and liheralism in other relh\ious traditions have not
l>ccn so well SLUdied, but the rundtLmemalism Project, based in the
l'nilcrsity of Chicago. has brou~ht out a series of volumes. the tl rst of
which, ~l:u-t:y and .\pplcby, Fundcmrenwli~ms Observed, has essays on
iundomcnta.llsm aoco..s the whole religious spectrum. Sec also the range of
liberal opinion from 1•arious religions on the question of reli,Uous pluralism
in llick and Askari, The E.'l'.pericncc of Rel1.gio11s Di\.'€rsicy. On Islamic and
Christian fuudamcnraUsm compared, see Shepard •urundomenrnlism"
Christian :ind Islamic'; and on fund:imentalism In Iran, see Arjom:.md,
'Trndilion:ilism in 1\vcnticth CcnLUry Iran'. On Jewisl1 tund:1mentolism 1 sec
Gideon Aran, 'Jewish Zionist Fundamentalism' in Marcy and Applehr,
Fundamenm/isms Obseroed, pp. 265-3-14. On fundamentalism in
Theravada Buddhism, sec Kin!!, A Tltousc111d /,iucs Away, pp. 53-7. Caplan,
Sntdies in Re/wiou.s Fundamencalism conrains papers on fund:unentulism
among Sikh~, Hindu Tnmili., and Mm,lims. in Iran, Egypt and \Vest Africa.
 OFFI CIAL R ELIGION ,\ND
POP ULAR R ELl<.ilON

n.:ligion, II grclll den! of

m:,.; ONE SUR\"t:YS Tm. SOCI.\L i..x1•RJ,;:,;.510NS OF
varimlon can be ob~erved bot.h ootween mid wlthlo religion~. One of the
most m:rrked is rhe deviation between the official, docrrinally based 1·er,;ion
of u religion a nd chc religion us It is prncliscd These cml he called ofiicml
and popular religion respectively. 'Official' is here bein~ used In the sen!>c
of the form:il orthodox religion 11~ preoched :md practised hy such religion,
professionals as che priescs In C hrisclanicy, chc ulema in Islam and t.hc
monks in Ruddhism ' Corresponding terms in more frequenc use m chc
social sciences arc ' normative' and 'operative' religion resp1.'Ct1vely I h:1vc
preferred nol co use these rwo terms, as 'nonnali1·c reh_l\ion' seems co
denme chat official reli~ion is the 'proper' reli~ion. consequently implyin~ a
<lcvaluatiou of popular reli~on. · Other parallel to,rm~ that ha1·., been ~cd
include: ·co~nirive' ;md 'affective' rcli~ion , and ·Great Tradirion' and 'l,mlc
Trm.lition·., This chapwr will examine the relationship between official
reUation and popular reli_ation anJ the way in which populur reliltlon ha~
evolved, finaJly looking in more demi! ac three examples of popufar rcli~ion
in South and Soulh-E~t Asl:1, the ~fiddle Ea~t, and South .\n11,rica.

TIIE REl, ATIONSIIIP R~: TWEEN' 0f'FlCl.\l, .\XO

POPULAR RE LIGIOJ\:

There arc two lc1•cls invoh·cd In cxpl:tining the tli1•ergence between oflkial
religi on and popular reliition. F'iirst, at che social le,·el, every religion, 111
whatever part o( tl1e world it exists, contoins clement.-, within it thm go
back w relill,ious beliefi, Lhat anredace it. Christianity Lil Eurufl<! ,~
thoroughly permeaced by• customs and trndirion~ going hack 10 its pre-
Christian past. Tibetan Bmldhism i:. greatly innucnccd by the prc-exbtln~
Bon relill,ion and in much or
Al'rico, althou~h people may profes,
Christianity or Islam, religioui. practice is much inilucnccd hy African
religion. Second, at the le\•eJ of the 1ndJvidual, people may, if asked about
their religious heliefs. feel constrained to reply in terms of the accepted
orthodoxy. In t.helr hearts, however, they may not fulJy beltt>1 c all u;,pcct;,
 IS, OHICIAL RELIGION .\NO POl'l'LAR RELIGION J&7

Elcm~nts oi' 1r111llliOMI Nliglon lrn\'I!, however, "tso

ll<lncLrutcd, ugum In th<! foco oi ,Lrong dJsnpprovru omJ
rc:~1-!',t.ance lrom c<...-cleNlaMlcal autlh)rllit:.s, Into some or the
l.hristlan rim:i.ls themselves The nublllty nlt!li for !(iris
hove become nhsolcte, buc demcncs of chem have pcncmued
intn the rite of c.-onfirmution. which now function~ as H rile of
T111-, INCORl'ORATION pnssn~c Into fomnlc :tdulthood , The troditlonol bdillf that
Of TR.\lllTIOl-,\L
the mcm,ttual Muto of \\Omen is un unck·nn one whtch Is
hi)\hly repulsh e (ukyiwa,le) and d11ngeroLL~ 10 any spiritunl
.\FRIC..\N R.Eun10:-: n~cn1 btronl\l)· persists runon,ll Cbnsuruis. Women usuallr
nhsent thcmseln,s from church seJ'\·iecs in this period.
(\'TO CIIRISTl.\l>IT\' C.,tcchis(S ond church-elders impres.• upon them that they
should ccn:ilnly not ponicipatc in the Lord's Supper
IN t111AN.\ (Euchorist) In this stmu. {J G Pl:moct, 'The i\k11r1 Bellc,·cr
:111<1 his Rdl~ium,', In \'rljhuf and Wo:irdcnburg, Official um/
J'opu/ar Rd,gw11, p. 571)

of chis 'This difference between what people

proicss to bdic,c and whal they hclic,•c in
their hearts can only be delecred by
ohserving rheir actions. ,\ communisr
go, ernmelll official mighl have profossed to
ht! an ntheist. If one observed him crossin,g
himself or kneeling hcfore on altar at Limes
of iear or distress, however, one would have
to assume chat a belief in God existed at
some Ic,·cl in his being.
The reli~ious proiessionals In each
religion will usually look down upon the
manifestations of popu lar religion. They will
Otten refer co them as a corruption of the
true religion or as e,idence of the ignorance The YanLra Is a mystical
llllmll TALJS.IL\N:
or sinfulness of the mass of the people. The di~rnm that ls both a symbol of the
truth is somewhm more complex rhan this OMnc and is also belie,·ed 10
Popular religious practices fill some of the p:1rticip:11e, in some myMicaVma~ical way,
in the power of the OMne The
needs felt by ordinary people - needs that 1',hri-Ynntrn (the Yuntro of t111, illu.sLrlou,-
the official religion ignores. Thus, for ouc), sbo\\n here. Is" ldcly rcgc1rdeJ ns
example. most varieties of official rcliitLon the most lmportruit or tl1c Hindu Y:mtrm,,
disapprove of. or even forhid, recourse to hein~ u.sed In panlcuJnr in Tantric
talismans. spells, charms and other forms of Mmduism. It consists of nine super-
imposed 1ria1,~lcs, co1wcr1linl! on chc
m~ic. They are also against necromancy, c.,ntml spoc ( biutlu ); the l,mer o-ymholizc,
astrology and other occuJt practices. Yet, in the unmanJfcstcd pou,nttall!)' of all
almo!>l every societ)', these elements can be thln)!s; the trl:mg)es symboliL.e cho,
found in popular relWon. successivo, ,u,ges of cr<!.111011.
One important point is that, despite emanating from the lnntltt
official disappro,•al. people regard theo.e
popular elemenis as an integral part of che
J'S!, RF.LIIJJON I'll sor.1PTY

1:1111111111,,,

rn
SrEl,U, .\.'Ill
Tl1c Kl1111ullu1 ,,..,,,m, (11um111J. ,,,
,,nnku, ,uul m/11.-r lmn11ft1I onmu,/-.;
Let nn toot I,·.- 1binl,\ do huri
fc1.1l
1<1
u-,,r,/ n.ff ,/,,,.._.. ,

me nor th1111l th.11 1111, hrn

Lcl no four-fouu:U t•r,:nt11r..: hurt nor thlnt \\Ith nl,Ln,· h:u

I.A!t all cr<J1Urc,-, <Ill l11in~, 1ba1 11,c Rll h<-Jnt, oi \\hilk\cl
_Imm

kind.
l,e1 ull hchokl ~ fortune. aml let none foll into''"
lnfln,te 1s the HuJdha, infin,tc the Truth, 1nlin,1< th.- Onk-r
fimtc ore c-rt.•L-ptnA tlun.4,') ~nnkl."§, \l.'Orpiun, rmtl (."'i.·ntifll"J'-',
~riclcr!l •nd liz:mls, nus nnd 1111cc
Mud<.: 1, ut)' S4fc~uJrcl, nllldc n,y Jdcn<.-.: L<:t lh 111~ tluni:,.
rctrc.at.
\\'hils1 l r,-vcre tbe Blcs-cd One, tl1c Buddhas <c,cn ,upn:mc
(l.iM.m 6:75-7 quoted m Spin>, 8111/11/11.sm 11111/ s,....,t"'•
p ;!f,/,)
H1Mll1S\I
An inrxmmnnnfmm the Ril! ,·ed:i rn hnnl) ,.'ll<"IX-<t< m!rnn,111
nw,I u·tfc·
I dig or this lmol!icl plant, the m(1M JlO"erful thmt that
i,\rows, with which one drives our the n,•a.l "ifo and ,.;n., the
hu~hanJ cntin:lr for oneself
13ru.1d-lc.wcd plant •Cnl hy the gods to hrln!l happlnc~, anJ
the p<l\\cr to triumph, blow my rirnl "uc aW:l) 110J make m~
huohnnd mine alone.
0 hi)!hesr one, l am the h.i)!hest one. hll\her than aU the
hi!lhest women, ond my n,-nl w,fe i< lower than the lov.cst
women
I »ill not c,·cn take her nnmc Into m) mouth, he take" no
plcnsure In this pen.on. 1-'nr, far into the distru1t-c we mnkc th<:
rival wife ~o.
(UIS! Veda ltl 145, pr ;?i.•1-•111)

CIIRISTL\.'IIT't
St Pacrick 's BreasrpltJtc (frelontl), ui;<1inst e-r,I 111ul
ttitch<'rq/t:
I bmJ umo tn)'self to<la,•
The sirnnl! name of the Trrnln·
By inrncation of the <ome
The Three in One nnd One m Thr,-c
A~ain,t all S.1c.·m·, ,pell, and wil.,,
,\~ain~t false words of heresy
1\g:1in,l the wt1urd\ evil crnft
,\gnlm,t the Jc.tth-wouml nnd the hu mml!.,
The chokmi: \\a,c, tlu, poisoned ,hnfL,.
l'rot<:et me Lbrl>t 1111 Thy rctumtn~.

rclitlo11 anti they arc 1.hou~ht tu derivc their po,,cr anti cflicac~ 1.hro~h th•·
spirirual for<.-es of the relill,ion • F'or example. in m1>st .\luslim counaie~
amulci,, arc worn m, a magic:tl protcctic,n a~ain,l danger Thc1,c :imulct~
 I~ Ot'l'!Cl.\L Rl>LIOI0:-1 .\NO l'Ol'Uw\lt REL!GlON 3S9

u~u.1lly conrnin verses from the Qur'cm , which is con~idered co he chc

sourt.'C of their power.' Such prncliccs pcr:,bt dcspac the prohibition
allainst chem in the officinl reli.~ion • 8im11arly, in Huddhist countries, spells
and mutlcal fonnulas arc u~ed. Their power is attributed to the Buddha
This L~ despite the formal docLrinal position that 1,ud1 thln,!l~ can have no
effect on the workin~~ of the laws of kannr1 7 Thus, prnctitioncrs of the
popufar religion sec lhcmsclvcs as loyal odhcrc11tl> of Lhat religion. They do
not rel!nrd themselves in any sense as bcin)! opposed to it or seckinll to
undem1inc it. as their dispar:utcrs \\ ill often assert. Given the universality
of such phenomena. it would appear IL ls mislcadint rn ::.cc popul:u· rell.~ion
os just a ·corrupt' fonn of the official relil!ion; rather it would he more
,wcurntc co bee it /IS entering to some oi peoplµ's deeply felt need:,, which
tl1c oftlcia1 rel-Won b not meeting; a need for answers to thc probk:ms of
life. pro1cclion against die uncerrnincies of life, and hope for a heller future.
The relationship between official and popular religion varies grcatly
across 1he world. In ~ome places the rw-0 intermin~e and there is mutual
acccpcnncc, while in others the two arc in conflict. The following four
examples will suffice co display this raDJte of relationships.

Ch risr ia-n ity

Some elements oi popular religion hnve mingled reosonahly comfortably
"uh tl1e official religion for much of the hisLOry of Christian Europe. \\'hen
Europe was Christianized, there was wholesale adoplion of much from the
earlier 'pag:in' religions. Sites of pagan temples 1vcrc nrndc into churches;
pllj\ao festivals were incorporated Imo the Christian calendar as Chrbdan
holy days; pa~an practices such as making offering.._ co holy springs were
either re-c.-..presse<l a, Christian practices or else absorbed into folk
tradition; pa~an deities were even incorporaled into lhe Christian panoply
oi saints.'
From a thcoloAical vlcwpoinc, thc resurrection of Christ at Easter lb tlic
most 'li~ific:mt rcligious iesth·al. In many Christian countries of ~uropc
nnd ,\mcriea. howcvcr. the festivities at Christmas for outdo the Easter
1.-elebracioni.. Mo::.L Christmas cusco111S .ire, in fact, based on old pal!,an
festivals, the Roman Sa1umi11iu ;;m<l the Scandina1·i;111 and Teutonic Yule.
Christians adopted lhc~e Jurin~ thc corlicst pcrfod of Church history.
Tbus che excenc and form of the Christma~ fe~civicies mav he considered a
popular religious practice. The Church. howc\'er, hns gi,·en this recognition
and incorporates It into Lhe Church year without too many misgivings.
Onlv thc more radicol fundamentalist elements in some churches protest
from time to time about tllis mixing of 'pa~nn' elements inw Lhe religion '"
Similar coouncnu, may ht: made about sc\"eral other examples of
popular Christianir)·. In Roman Catholici~m. one may cite the occurrence
of miracle!> and the fom1rnion of cult., around the \'irgin 1,lary nnd ocher
saims. ~liraclt:s as manifestations of popular relil!ion are usually stronl!,ly
resisted hy the Church nc first. l-lowcvcr, if they hccomc cstnhlishcd. and
-
J•lo Rt 1.1<;ioN Ir-. soc:1En

\\',><kn Is ousicd hy St \1ich.1d St M.1r11n .,nJ l,ucr t,, St

OJ
'lichol:~~. Thor h1• St l',;tcr hi~ anJ f n,yn t,, 111,"""I ,·,rt.111
Mnrv Comn,on trail.; or '-'tt11.tl funcunn~ form Jh..• f.."01m'"' tan,t
n1>1lrHl hoth \\'ndcn und I-it \lurth1 ,.ere 1,a...,.lou1u1c huntcno.
\\'odcu, \lcr,:u~- 1111J St Ma,h,icl ore c.>nuuct,,,... ul ""'I,. St
l'ctcr. the fL~hcnu,rn. I> Jcplct,"1 "Ith n hull'-' 1,c, o( hca,cn ,
Tm; SPIISTITlfTION
whll., Thor "ho~ out to*" w .,,,tuh the \\orlJ-wrr,cot ,
Of CIIRISTl,\N has an cnormou, o..tc or hummer, with" hlch lu, .m.1shc, 1h,·
~iant...i St Munin wH, rht! Fnmk, ..h nnto>nal "lrtan\, ( ihnrh.:!\ tht.:
Ft<11 ' RES FOR PfU,;. Crcnt hnd a stronA personal ,cncmtlon for St . 1',t<r Th,
hcath\.'n ~\Xi i., who mi,.,.,tl~· oJ'M:rntcJ ul potrl'I, In ch'-' t.:plL"
C1LR1s11,\.'I Gous IN ioao<luctlon of tbc old dmrn1>. wcrc rcpluccJ b~ wch
Christiun pajn; as Jc,u., and St. ~ta run, Jc.sus and St l'ctcr. or
Gi,;t~L\.,·Y Sc l'c1cr and Sc l':iul. (J .\ Hulsman, 'Chn,nnmty and
C':ennanic Rel,j!Jon', m Vrijhof and \\'nardcnhurJ!. n,t1k~r,/ 11nd
Popular Rcli,111011. pp. (,0...1)

once the h1ltlal enthusiasm aroWld them has mo<lemte<l. tJ1c~· are then
given some <le~ree of official recognition. Christianity ha.~ not, however,
looked favourably on all elements of popular religion. Suppo:,ed witchc~
have been persecuted and tJ1ere have been perlocb In
Christian history when ocher element,; o( popular
religion such as divination suffered - from th!c
lnquisilion, ror example.

l'Ol'll. \~ REl,IGIOl!S PRACTICE ll'
Sun l~l .\M' At Shl'I
commcmorotion.i. o( the
martyrdom of thL !mom
II usni•n, self-OogcU:auon Is
a ritual method or ,ho" ln)l
sorrow both :it the de:tlh or
1he lmnm and nlso ,u
humnnlly's foilurc 10 ~><>me
10 his nit! nt the lime of his
murtyrtlom.
Js/crm
AgrcaLCr dcgr(;.-c of di:.appro\'al is C.\.prci,:,c<l by the ofl1cial
reliJllon t0wards some of I.he popular rehit1otL~ pracuces m
Tslam. ln Shi'i Islam, for example, it ha.~ \x,cn custom:11')
for <..-emurics lO commemorate the martyrJom of one ot
the Shi'i reli~iOlL~ leaders, the Imam llusayn, in 6Ml CT
These ,·ery emotive ritual., include public oruuou~.
p.'lssion plays, beacin~ or" 1he ches1 and self-flagellallon
The auitude of the Shi'i religious leaders. the ukmn,
towards chese rltmlb is umhi\'alenc. Their fonnal po,,11iun
is thm rhe ricunls :ire exces_~i,·e and 10 be discou~I \et
ne,·enheless, some of the ulema muy be found
participatin~ in them anti, a fe" y11:i.n. ~o. "hen the
ulema in !run felt chrcmencd hy the Shah, they were even
glad of them as expreSl>ions of Shi'i ;.olit.L.uitv anJ 100(.,, for
cqven propal!ancl1 a,ll;linst the Shah ~hi'i popular reli~on
also includes much in the way oi tali,m1m,-. and amulet,
Sometime:, tJ1e:,e may re mat.le hr mlnor ltlciLI member..
of the religious clas.ses, while the hil!,hcr-rnnking ulcma
arc disdainful of ;.uch praccic.-c;,
 I!\ Ot"t'IUI.\I. KEl, IOIO:S \Nil l'OPlll,,\l( 1u:1,1010N ;w1

Butidlrism
Third, we come 1.0 1.hc differences between the officio! doc1rin:1I posi1ion of
Thcra,·,JClu Buddhism nnd 1he popular religion in countries such as Sri
L..111k;1, Burma and Thailand \\ here ThernvaJn HuddJriMll predominates.
llcre one st.-cs a very iire:it divergence between the oft'icial rcliwon :is
.:,pounded by 1hc senior monks and Lhc populnr religion of the people. The
foci that such II wide di\·er!!ence t!XisL~. however. does not seem to be met
by :Illy grcol disappro,·al. It is !1lmos1 :is if there is :, cognitive dissonnncc
amon~ the r:1nks of the more senior monks with regard 1.0 what. is
h,1ppcnin~ among the people Since d1e example of Theravada BuddJ1ism
rt:prc:.i!nlS the extreme of the difference bcrween t.he official and popular
rcliition, l shall examine it. in more detail lmer in this chapter.

Bcrhu ·, Faith
,\ comparat.h'ely modem religion ~uch :as tht: Baha'i Faith shows little
c,idcnce. yet, of a dissonance hetween ofl'icial and populnr rcliwon. It has,
bo,,t:ver. ln recent yeius, spread to traditional societies in many parts of
the world and ir will therefore be interestin~ ro see to what extent the
trnditional prnctices of these societies :ire incorporated imo the workin~~ of
Lbc rcl~~on.
There is room in che official religion of the Baha'i Faith for a certain
amount of 111corporntion of local practices and customs, since the
obU48rnry ofilcial content of most Baha'i ritual occasions is minimal. The
only ohligacory pare of the Baha'i m:irriagc ceremony, for example. consists
oi the repeating of a slmpl<: 011c-scnten<-'C VO\\ before witnesses. Tile couple
and their family add ocher parts 1.0 the ceremony according co cheir own
\\ishes. This ob\'iously le:l\'cs much scope for the introduction of local
customs.

THE EVOLUTIOX Of Poru1,,\R R ELIGION

In historical terms, there has prohnhly 'been a great deal of interaction

b.:tween the official and popular forms of the world religions, but this m:iy
be difficult to pro"e, as the official records would not want to admit to any
influence from popular religion From th-e available evidence, however, ii
has been possible to postulate that the twin processes of univcrsallzatioo
and parochialiiacion ha,·e occurred (a similar process occurs wirh rcliJtious
symbols)." Parochializatioo rcfen, tot.he arrival oft.lie festivals and rituals
oi the official religion in a particular place and their superimpo$ition on
loc:il religious practices. This gives rise to variations based on these pre-
ex~tln~ local cults and cusLoms. In the Christian world, for example, there
are many local variants in the celebration of Easter and Christmas. Most of
these must have arisen from an adm.Lx1urc oi Christian and pre-CJ1risti:m
 C

Ru 11.1,,.-s PR•l<:1;;s.s1oss ,\.< well a.• heinl! an 11<.-ca.slnn for populnr participation mo relii:,oui,
ooon,ion, pmcc's<ion< are ol,,o :1 puhli" ,len,un•tmtl,1n vi the power of 3 r,:li~on ,,.._..,
chapter 11>). ll) Chlttcsc rdig1011 'ilm.:lL-.:nlh..,cntury tlcplctlon o( n rtt~'<:..-lun for the fcn•l
of LantcnL, lo Sinl\llJ><Jrc b) BuJJlmm Pnll."-sslon uf monk, In Koren c) (.;iirutwnlt) .
e111h0Hc prV<.'t:;,.,tOO In which 3 S!AlUC ol M.iry L, cruTh..-J tbroul\lt lhl.' ,tn.'\:I.>, llr:,zd
 15: OH'ICl,\L Rl,LIGION .\l\D POPL'L.\R RELIGION J•JJ

r,1~an pr.icticcs In the villaites o( India, the Arel.II gods. itoddesses and
fc~livals of llindubm huvc hccomc trnnsformcd into u myriad local forms,
often at ,l\reat vurionce to the original. Universalizmion refers io the
opposite proccs~. whereh)' u local religious practice is taken up and adopted
into the official religion. Thu~. for example. when Buddhi!>m :irrivcd in Sri
l.:mka, It adopted the locnl oelief in evil splriis into hs cosmoloity Local
ideas nnd cusmms can even be spread 1111 this way to new are:is where they
arc not part of the local tradition. ~l:any c ustoms now i1ssocltued with
Christmas Wl.'rl.', ns mentioned abo,·e, local pagan practices associated with
thl Yule fosthitlus of Northern Europe and the Satumnlla of Rome. Thcs..-
llilve now spre:1d to most of the Christian "orld. even 1houiU, chey have
nothinl\ to do with Chrisr's birth."
It mi1y e\'en be desirable to po~tulace that more than just the popular
and official fonns of some relijlions exli<t side by side. .Melford F.. Spiro has
identified three fonns of Ther:t\·ado Ruddhism in 8um111: tl1e nibhanic
rd11~1on - the official religion with :-libbana (Nirvana) as Its goal for
salvation; the kammic reli~ion - in which rhe main concern is ro improve
one's position according to the laws of kcmirna (luimta) and which is the
mode of thinking of rhe ma.sses; and what he renns che apocropaic reli~ion
- the protection from e\'il and the curing of illness through magical and
occult means, "hich Is the practice of the masses. '' In Islam, we may
discin!\uish the official religion, which is based on following the lfoly l,aw
and is pronmlgmcd by the ulemu; the IX"IPLtlnr religion. which Is concerned
\\ith emotive public rituals and with magical charms and amuleu. and Is the
religion of the masses; nnd the mystical religion of the Sufi orders, where
the emphasis is on rituals and practice,. that result in an altered State of
consciousness. These different forms of Islam do not correspond to
1,cctarinn differences, in th:u they occur in hoth the major divisions of
1,,1am, Sunnlsm and Shl'ism.
These parallel forms of religion overlap and incerplay with each other
to :I considerable extent. Popular rcligi on u"cs the tcrtTL, aJ1d concept" ot'

The hclid In _vnk/1/,a,i IJ<1t1tm~I ,int! nihcr Jcmonic 1,-:ing.,

cxbtc-tl nltcmly lit Sri Lnnktt l><:forc the ofllcl.,I urrlml of
Butldbi,m One of 1hc £trst .,.,1,., uf ~l.1hit1d:1 I\ hen he .i.11m,d
lu,, prt!achlng on tbl! isl.and """ to make u L'<lnn"clloo
liccwccn the cxlsclnit hcllds and the Buddha"s 1em:hi11~ &,
duTin~ one ,,( h1!j ti~t ,ennon:-. acc..·onlin~ to 1rndnion. he
Tfil .\ool'TIO:- Ot' recited the l'ctn- nnd \'imnnn,·nnhn cnnonlcal ,cxts
Loc.\L 13El.l£rs 1:-.:ro conccmlnl( the•<: lower <urcrnaturol lx-inl,!s. .\ntl he
'convened' the Slnholc-sc )llkkllm; to Butklhi,m w1d g;i,c
SRJ LA,'\h.-\.\ them a place within the pwithcon. a pruccduw which ts 1101
,n all upp1~,ed IO ButldhL<I tc:,chin,I! :mu \\hich h:,s b<!t.:11 m.t:J
Bu>utllhll many times m die <-'"Oun,e of lluJdh1St m1ss1ona1y ocnvlcy. (bl
A. G T Kloppcnboor~. 'l:>Qmc Rcilcxlons on the Scudr of
S,nhnlesc Buddhism in \"rijhot and \YMrtlcnhu<I!. (!{t)ciul
and /'r:rpular R,l1t:!i<J<1. pp 50(1-1)
3'>1 lttl.lWON 11' :-:till t. I\'

oiflcinl rcliition, olhcir ofcen wach a ,h,ft in 111ca111nit as in Alro•Amcncan

rdh\io11 111 HrnLil, for cx,1111plc ("'"'c Pl' JI/') HJ3) .\ml official ro.liition "
inOucnccd h~· popular rdtition w a laritcr c:l.tclll than It woulJ like tu udmtt
1111hc Romnn Cmlmlic Church, for example, it h otccn populnr r11:cl111m that
prondc~ the 111ilial 1mpctu,- hcl1iml the move, ti> :ickt10\\ lcd~e u ~alnl or
Jcclarc an event 10 have heen a mir:iclc.•\;. IUch:1r<l l:omhrich ha, p<11111cd
out, it \\oul<l he n miMakc LO rc,itarJ popular rell,aiion a:. merely 11 <-'<)rnip1
fum1 of oft1cial rcli~io11. In almo,1 every rcliitinn, there;, ~no<l ev1denee that
popul:tr rcUgiou, pr:icLit.-ci. hnvc exiMcd from the corlie" d;iy, nl the
rcliitlon. '
One finnl f:ictor to be con~ldcrcd is the w:ty In \\ hich the houndan·
lll'I\\Cen oft1cinl religion :ind popular reli~ion hns wc11kem:d dunn~ the
1wcntlc1h ccmury There has hl:cn :1gc11eral \\Cakenln~ in the outhority of
official religion and consequently. some lihcrnl reli_i!ious thinker, h:ivc
,ought to lncrem,c Lhc appeal of religion by lnLruducing clements from
popular culture, such as pop music-. Much more Important ha1- hCi;!n the fact
th:te, wherem; previously il was religion chat 1,ct moral ,wndards th:11 c.hc
reM of ~oulety sou~ht 10 emulate, religion is now, l!l;peclaU~ ll1 the \\'c~t.
followin~ the le3d of the popular culture. Many arens that at the l,c~inmn~
of Lhc Lwcmil!tJ1 t.'C11tury were clearly del1ne<l In each rl!li)tio~ uat.lttion.
such as the pemtissibility of homosexuality or the social role of women
have now been thrown open. Prc~1,ure from popul:lr culture has forcctl :1
rethink ll1 official religion, to the extent that it may ll<! :,ai<l lhat \\c an.:
increasingly enterin~ an era in which popular culture leadi. and official
religion follows; indeed, ll<!catL,c of this the plausibility of maintaining :rn
official rclij\ion has been seriously undermined.

TnREE EXA~IPLES OF POP ULAR R ELIGIO:-1

We sh(lll now consider in more demi! three from amon~ the numerous
pos:.iblc examplci,, of thl! lnterpl11 y between officio! religion an<l popular
reh)tion: Thcrav3da Buddhism in South and Sourh-East Asia, Islam in che
~fiddle Ease and ,\fro-Amcricnn religion in South .\merica. These three
example., have been chosen because Lhey dbplav more clearly than other:,
some of the key features of this phenomenon Theravnda Buddhism and
blam demonstrate how populrtr rc:ligion can directly contrac.hct numy of the
k_cv tcachin,l!s ot the oificiaJ reli~ion and yet still he <!Spoused h~· p<.-•opJ.:" ho
consider themselves devout follow11rs of the officio! rcliition There arc
m:,ny other 111,tnnce:. ol the same phenomenon. The example of the
1merph1r between the officinl reli~ion of the Romon Catholic Church and
Afro-American religious practleei, and cu lt,- in Brazil 1,ho\\,- hO\\ popuh1r
reli~ioui. fonru, which int.'(ll"porote the praetic~ ot lhC l!.1 rli c r rl!li~ion of a
people e:in surYi,·c c,·en 3~:Jinst fiorcc opposition and pcrsccuuon onir
<!CI!lurles. There nre many other lm,tanceb of this. lnclud111~ p:u~an
practices that have sun;\'ed in Ch rn,tlon Europe
 I 5: Ol'PlCl,\l, REl, IOJO:,,( ,\Nil POrlll, AR Rf:l,l(llON 39;;

Tlu:rtn:ada Buddhism ancl Populnr Reli,lion i11 Sri Ltrnka, Burmc,

1111d Thai/c,ncl

The doctrines of Them,•ada Buddhism arc rather (tusterc. It teaches 3

radical rejection of this world ns a sou rec of hnppincss or salvation; the
world and t11e desire for :myuun~ in it must be rcno1mccd, for iliey are the
sou rt.'<' of sufferin~. leading to continued rebirth into this world of sufierin~
Part of the sourt.-c of desire, and thcrnforc of <.-ontinued cxhtcnce in this
world. is Lhe erroneous notion that human bei111\5 have an individual sell" or
soul (the docrrine of nnotta); the goal of hum:m lite is extinction (Nibb:ma.
:'slrvana)."
Those who have researched what ordinary Buddhists actually belie,·e,
howe,·er, have found n wide deviation from these doctrinal positions. Spiro
iound that when he asked Burmese Buddhist ,·illagers what lhey aspired to
after death, the majority said Nibb:u1a. 1• But he found that this was, in fact,
just u fom1al responbc. Whe11, ns an anthropologi~t, he observed their liYes
more closely and asked chem more indirectly. he found that. in face, they
did not desire the extinction of Nibbana. Most wanted the merits that they
accrued in this life to re.,,ult In their rebirth into more favourable
circumstances. This meant being reborn wealthy, in the case of men; or as
o man, in the c:ise of women." Regarding the doctrine of anatta (no sell),
most Burmese understood il dilferentl)• from its onhodox interpretation. ln
practice, they rejected it for the univers.11 Burmese belief that eoch person
hos an individual 'butterfly spirii' (leikpy<i) - a pre-Buddhist Burmese
belief" The same phenomenon is found among Thai villagers, who believe
in the k/1'!..."<lri, an individualized soul that leaves the body after death.••
Similarly, regarding the BuddbJst doctrine of wiicca (anitya, the
impermanence of all thin,¢; in the universe),
most Buddhists assent to mis as a formal
exposition of their beliefs In their actioni,.
however, they show chat they do not, in facr,
believe IL Indeed. thousandl> of Burmese,
many of iliem monks, spend a great deal of
time and money attempting to prolong their
live:, through magical spells and charms. This
is an activity scarcelr compatible with a , ,:;
belief In the impermanence of the world :md
the need lO reject all forms of auachmenc to
it.
In Sri Lnnka, Gombrich found much the l'Ol'll.\R RELIGIOI:~ l'Jl.~CTICt; IS & ruo1US)J:
~ame The ideal of the official relill,ion is the BuddhlsL, In Thailnnd ~ive aim, irnd
arlmt, rejecting the world and meditating, i<»d w monl,s l<> noquire merit anJ
stri\'lng ior extinction (Nibb:uia). This b, thus n better rchinh The mon:,st,c
rules In Bu<;ldhism d<.-.:n,.: 1hn1 monk.,
however. in practice almost ne,·cr found, mu~I obtain i.hl.'lr daily fooJ by
even amo11g the monks. lndeed, the monk.,, lx·!)gtng. Lay P'-"Pk thcrdor<: c:1.rn
for the most part. have the ~me aim~ as lay merit by prO\'idinl!. du, food.
J'X. IU.1,1(,IO!'I I~ SllClt; n

Tal;II: J sI rnrrcrcncc~ lktwccn Official nnJ PopuJ:Jr l<clt~iOII In

Thcra\'mla lluddl11sm

lllfk Ill lhU<,li1'- SRI L.\\U Ill ~II I 11 \ll.\-'ll

· ''""'" (no ,etn Com'CS'U

.. uf u 4.'ttnlinuily 7:? ",.,,1
.,1· the ,elf n,,yunJ Jcu1l1
,\tt11uJc or rc_twtlnn l 1,,._. of nhl)tiu ~pell;, 11) 1-:? J.\ bi
IO\l'nnb the wnrlJ sln1.-c and mcrit-mnkinj\ rm:·
th1: worlcl "m11et•o nn 1mport,1nw
Mlflf"<'SC
llmpcrm1111cn1) n11nc:hln~ to the \\Clrld
,,ml the dcMtc for ,, A<•<>tl
rebirth

llc<lrc is l he rout or t'ru;,tnilion "' J~slre i, t..7, 7.1

suiforln)l· .:•rnncunn o(
dl''"ilrt.: fill' mean.~ to
,nh-arion
SuffcnllA (duhkha) is
en us.,J th roueh lhc
opcmtion of the Jaw of
kanna I e . u 1s the
1
n.-,u'1 0 1 previous had
ncl ion~ nnd c..~• n not b\!
nhcrcd or inJlucnccd
root of suficnn,i! and 1Ls ;5
iulnlmcnt" th" Jl(ml 71-l-1)
or sol\'at ion
Suffutng IS CIIWll C:lu.wd 155 JI:?
b)· I\ itches. 1;nl sr,mts,
nnd adl'crsc .astrolo,l!tc-al
1111l11ences nnd can lw
nlk"·io1cd hy spell<
Olltl lU]f8nJOJ1 >

Us1al in thL, lit1: ii, Goal o[ ll1e 1R rebirth ;?82-J. 5J

NH•oona (Nir\':1nn ) ,., hQta\'en or into n ,126
hctccr condirion on e11rth

Pm h uiw:1 rd, the goal l'ath towar,.b thc llt><ll 9.)

Un·c,l\'t:.!-1 :,clI•tC~lt.J..IJll in1 i;h·~ m~rlt-maldnl\
and 111c.JUati1;,n tbrou)lh alm»-Jli1•btl! and
morality

ltlcal ctl11,• cmphn,11.c, ldc,11 ethic ,:mrha,izc, .lZO-..l

,df.rc""t mint .uuJ •~ Ion.: an<l l"'I
\\urlJ•dcuym~ world-aifirml.nJ.\

lluJJlu no l'lU~"' CXISIS lludJha is al,n, :ind can 1-l'PI

nnd therefore can he hod1 With ~a)n.lllOll
{l'\'.ltiSl
of no ducc.:t n..,,,,rnm..·c ond with pro1cc111>n
1uwnrd.., ,.1kntion ur :1~ n ,1~;1it1?\l ca.Ion 11t~·
protcl'tor

~OIL p:11.:,c nurnllt!:1' in riAht-hand column~ rch.:!r to

Sn L.1nka· R IL {.iomhrich. Pn·(·qJI ,m,/ Pm,·n,·i:
Runna Spero, Rucl.-lhism nnd St"'~k.,y
Thailand Tnmh1ah /Jw/,l/1i;,m u111/ th,· 81,mt <:ults
 15 OFFlCl \I, R~ 1.1(,10'1 ,\)Ill 1'0l'l 'l,A lt Kf:Ll<HON 397

Buddhist.:. 111 strh'ing for o better rebirth throul!h malonf! merit. llcncc, they
arc cntal\ed 111 worki~ In the world rather th(tn being dcrncln:d from it. "
This din:rgcncc between official an<l populnr rclil\ion in Theravada
Buddhism can be laid om l11 1ahular form (sec Table 15.1 ).
Finally, it should he noted t hnt, ulthouth I have distinguished hctwccn
an ·offidal" aud :1 'popular' roli_ition ln Buddhism, this Is not ho,\ Buddhists
thcm~eh-e!' i.-ee the reli~ion. To ordinary Buddhii.ts in Sri Lanka, Bunn:1 or
Thailand, there arc no p:tmdoxcs or inconsistencies. They live within a
umfled and lntetrnced reli~ous system. All divisions into 'pure' Buddhbw
ttnd ·corrupt' Buddhism, the 'origina I" religion :md 'later' :iccretions,
'norm arh c' a.ml 'operntlve' modes of religion and so on. whlch are the
mcerpretations made by scholars to accoum for their observations, do not
cohere with the reality of the religion ns ordinary Buddhists experience it.
Thi» point is particularly important in Buddhist scudies. The first
generation of \Vestem scholars of Buddhism were keen to make Buddhism
a religion compatible with the age or reason and a conLrast to Chnstlanlty.
They thus presented ic as an atheistic, rationalist and individualist religion.
Any e\Cldence that contradicted this view, such a.~ the Buddhist belief in
gods, supemncural beings, heavens and hells, and the use of astrology and
cham1s, were ascrihed to Hindu :md :mi mist influences that h3d found their
way Imo the religion. They were regarded as corruptions of the original
pure teachings of the Buddha, despite llhe existence or much evidence in
the Poli canon itself that many of these elements were pa.rt of Buddhism

Rt:l'IU.l<~7'.\TlON or Bt.1,u1rn,1' st'l'£k.'<,1TL'RAL BE(!.c;s: Yctkshas at W11r .\run, ll:1111\kok. Ynkshas

are supernatural bem,il,, 01e0Uonf!<J In the Pall c:tnon (Yakkas}. Tht,:, are usually
dcscnbed as demonic b.!m~ who dtstract humans from foUowm~ chc path of Dharma
.W'> IU,LllllOS tr-. M>t.ll1 Y

c1 en tlurin,\ rhc lifo11mc o( the Buddha <:omhrich a,-,erts 1h:n "hru ,.,
callccJ 'popular religion' i~. in fact. the rcl1~011 ,1;, prncuscJ hy ,111 11h1lt.: the
ofhei:11 rcl11t1on 1:. merely the rcli,ition a;, preached. Tiu: ·populor n,hitmn'
1h11, rcpre~cncs no t•Mrupti1m. di:.tonion or dihuion fur th1: rcliitlun ha,
alwuv, hccn prneu;,cd thus t:0111hrieh ud1•oncc!> ciwmplc,- from the carhc,t
Huddhlst chronicle, co dcmonstr:rllc that the offictal rcl11tion n.-pn.-,<:ms
uni\. 11 theoretic.ii ideal. 11 hlch has ne,•cr c:1Jstcd in th~ phnical
. 11orld c1 cu
111110111! the monk,- '

/s/11111 uml f't1pri/1t1· Rc/1~i1rn in tile Midtllc t:ttst

In isl:im. cite offici:tl relil\ion oi the rdi~iou!, ;,eholan, nnd of the tn("'-lue
fro11 n, upon m::iny popular rchj\illlL~ pracut:es. The hi:..torical e1·idcnec
inclic:1tcs th:n early Islam wa~ an nustcre ond simple reli~ion that im·oll"ed
the kecpin!l of certain laws si_!\11iiying the din.-ct rclauon,hip between the
hclicver :ind a rr::in~cendent God As l~l:1111 hecame esrnhlished and ~pre11cJ
into new nre:,s, 1he :11.1stcrity o( the religion wa.s tempered hy the cl'olulion
of new rnli!liou~ practice~, :,ome of which were derived from the reliat10Ul,
practices o( rhc rcli~ion~ that h:1d existed in those a.re:is prior to Islam
.\u ex.ample of a popular religious bcllef that pre-d:acs the ,1rrh·1ll of
Islam is helief in the existence of the e1·il eye. The fact chac II can be found
throughout Europe, the i\ liddle E:iM, North Afric:1 and India b evidence (If
the auti4uity of thi~ supcrstition. tt b believed tbat, me.rely by loukin~ at 11
person o r 1hin~, cenain individuals have che ahiliry to hrin~ mi~fortune,
although ~ucb a person may not lmcnd any evil and may not Cl'Cn know
that he or she has this power. Lu particular. the Cl'iJ eye mav be cast if envy,
jealousy or covetousness is aroused Great prccuution!> ore therefore taken
co protect against 1t. Children, who arc considered to be al special rl~k. mav
he surrounded by amulets and talismnns, often contoinin~ ven,el> o( the
Qur'cm. \\'hen someone, especially n child is praised, the words 11w sfw'
Allah (wh:1t God II llls"') arc unerec.1 to prevent c.he praise attractin~ the enl
eye. Failure to add this phrase to one's rcmnrks will lead to one heln~
blamed for any Ollsfortune that subscqmmtly arl!.es. There a.re many otho.:r
pracrices .such as divininl!, the makin~ of talismans. spells and ma_itic which
arc disapproved of by the official religion but which occur nonclhclcs.~ in
many Islamic cullures.
The Q11r'a11 emphnsizcs the great gap hccwcl'n human hcings :ind God.
Enm ~luhammad is depleted in the Qur·u11 as bcin~ merely a human bem!l
who has been entrusted with a mc.«s:u\e from <.kid.·' Any aucmpr co ~,·e any
human being on ckvat\/d statm, ha~ always been met by gn::11 suspicion
from the offlc,al reli~JOn; it is considered dan~1:rously close co shirk
(assoc.iatin~ anythinl! else with God as sharing in God's dh·iniryl
~cverthdcss, in popular rcli~lon the cult oi i,aints hus been \·cry popular m
all parts of the MuJ,Jim world. l'anicular pious ind1v1duals, heads or Sufi
orders, or secwri::m lenders have hccn called soilll& (singular wal1 pluml
uwliya) and ma.uy miraculous ha ppcnin~s ha,·c hcen actributcd to them.
 IS· OH' lt'.1.\1.. IU:l l(.;101' MW l'OPl LAI( RbLIGI0:0- 39'>

Knowlcdl\e o( what ii. in a person's mind,

I.no" lcd~c of future e,·ems, Lhe abilily to cure
illness and j\rant wealth, the ability lo ch:mg1:
,hapc and to appear in tlifforem pliwcs at once,
h:ive all tit ,·anous rimes been arrributed to such
indi,iduali., dc.'i.pite the fact that the Qur'an
mdic.'tltl.!i. that kno" ledge of 1.he future. for
c'l:ampll:, was noc even granted to the Prophet
~luhammad.~' \1~iling (pilgrimage IO) 1.hc wmbi.
of S.'l1ats has become a marked feature of
populnr rc.ligion in Islam Such ,·isits are made
lll the hope of receiv!L1g blei,i,rng (barc,ka ), good l'Ol'l"L.\R RELIGIOL'l> J'RA<.'1"1CE IS bL\.\!.
fortune or a cure for illness. They can even. in Muslims making plll!rimaJ\t, to the
che popular estimation. be considered tomb of a Muslim saint This early
photoJ!roph ~hows O /lroup of pilj\rlms
equJ,·alenc LO lhe pilgrimage to Mecca. In Shi'! out.•,,Jtle 11 shrine- ru,..'-OCi~ucd \\ith
Islam, the equivalent practice, visiting the 1he pmphct Jonoh In K.'\!lfor. on
tombs oi the Shl'i Imams or their famillei., has the Euphrates in Iraq
be..'Ome part of the official religion.
Wltile they are not given any official
appro,·al. the condemnauon of lhei.e popular religious pracricei, by most of
the ulema has been fairly mild. From time to time. however, indh,dual
scholari., cspccialJy from the Hanball school of law, ha,·c denounced them
,cron~y as reli~ous innovation (bid'c,). Jt is probably lbu Taymiyya Cd.
13.::!b) who is best remembered for his attacks upon popular religious
practic~, especially the veneration of "3inls. 1n bh writings he put forward
,rron~ arguments from the Qur'cm and the Hcu:lichs (Traditions) against
lhese practices. Some 450 years Inter in .\robin, the \\'ahhabi movement
ioundcd by lbn 'Abd aJ.\\'ahhab (1703-92) anti led by lbn Sa'ud pm into
pracrice chc purilanical me:isi.1res ridvocmed hy llm Tnymiyya. de1'troyina
many tombs and shrines of i,alnts and holy mcm.

Roman Cucholicism and A.fro-American Reli~ion in Bra.zit

Throu~houc South America. Roman Catholic Christianity is the
predominant official religion. h W:1$ brought to this continent hy the
colonial ruler,, t.be Spanish and Portu~uese. The majorlcy (ninety per cent)
of the population re,l!ard themseh·es os Cacholics.•\long.side this ofticinl
religion. there are nrnny manifestations of popuhtr rcligiol1 based on various
admixtures of native Amencan lndfaa r!:1.1.~ioa. African reli~ion and
spiricism (especially that founded on the ccachin¢; of the Frenchman Alan
Kare.lee. l/,0+-69). Tht.: :.amc p.:oplt.: who may be found de\'outly kucclln~
and prayin~ before an Image of che Virgin Mary one da>' are participmin~
lhe next day in o frenzied dance ending in II state of trnnce, honouring :i
deity Lb.al is reco~nizably an African ~ - For bcalinj\, man}· will )lo to a
recogni1ed doctor, hut just a.s man)' ,viii ~o 10 a spirit healer or cult
plicMess. In this survey. I shall concentrate on the African rclt~ou, bclicls
 nml rmcliccs 1hn1 nrc Jv.!n ol th~
ropulur rcli~lon 111 Br:1111
From the ,ixtc1:nch <.'t:ntury t"
the miJ-ntneteenth L't:ntury, ;,en·rnl
million hlach ,\fric:111, \\er1. hruu1th1
m Hro1il 1n work n, ,l:l\'es. inlttnlh·
on the hi~ plantations and lau,r 1n
the minin,tt oper:nions in chat
country. The tmunw oi ;,lan,r~ 111111
tram,ltlCutic,n, thL hreakin~ ur uf
families, :mJ thl· fact that m ,iny one
locullt,• llu:rc would be individuab
.\t'lllU'<•.\W kl<:.\!< kl Llt,IOS IS llkAZIL. lnluutlon of from a wide n1rictv of trih:11
a nc" fcm.1lc mcmhcr (/illw ,le ;;,,nw)
hncl<ground!> , led nc first to a
e<>mplcte dbruption or tradittonal
Afric:111 reli~ous practices which were srron,ttly o(ls<.-d on trihc and lamilv
While the ;,ocial structures of African tribal life were irretriev::tbl~ lo,t in
this process, the symbols and values of .\frican cuhure and reh~ion did not
die out. They merely sought out am.I e,·oh·cd new \\:tys of exprc-.-ini;
themselves. The myll1s :Ulll ~ods lin,d on ill the colh.:ctlve memory uml l11e
rirnals nnd dunces were re-enacted in ~ecret. (lt ni~ht, when the m:istcl"
had Aonc to s leep. Keeping alh'c these c:thnic mcmoric,- became a way for
the 1,la,·es to protest their social sirnation and th.ese reh~lous and cultural
remnants. were a ls.o often a focus. in sla,•e protests and revolt~ Thl: hi,tor\"
of ,\fro-Brazill::m reli!l)on thus became, in one sense, a stn1!!glc to create
new ~ooial strnctures co replnce the losr African ones (Ind to )live foTm to
these reli~ous impulses.
A number ol factors councered llle disruptions. caused by sla\'e~ :mJ
hrou~ht to,i\cther 'nntions' of common Afric:in 1rih:1l dcsccnr These factor;,
included the tread w,,ardi. large plantations requirin~ l:tr~c numl>cri. of
slaves thu<, incrcasin~ the chances of indh·iduals trom the S(lmc trihal
hnck~round coruin~ together The nineteenth-ccntu~· .(\rowth of urhm1
centres with lar,i\l) aumbt!rs of hlack and mixed ra<.'t! p<.-'Opl~ a~aiu hrouitill
to~cther individuals from the s:imc trihr1I bockground. Thc~c ·nations' ol'tcn
cvohc<l un elaborate social structure with lJ114->, queens, courl1er:, :111J
amhassadon.. They were identified hv African names denmin~ 1bcir ori~1m,
s.uch :is ~lnlc , Yornh:i, D:ihoman, Con~o. ,\n,i\ol:i, mul \lc11.muhi411e Th~
,i\on:mment lO some eMent fo,tcred thi1, procet.S b~· c.rn<.-oural!,inl\ the l(ro" th
of ·n:1tions' nmon~ ,\tro-Brnzilians hec:m~c inter-ethnic ri":ilries amona:!
thcsc 'nations' precluded l11c chrn11.-cs of a succcsslul cencml re\ ult of the
hl:ick population The Jto\'emment would :1lso, however, c,·en :after thL end
oi sla\'cry, frcquentlr pcn,ccute and t~· lo cra<lic:11e .111~· mnnifcsrntions ,,I
Airic;1n rel.il!,ion.
From the ~ixteemh cem111y omrnrd,, the Roman Catholic Church.
"'hich dominated the rcligiou~ culture ni Or:11.1I. tricc.J nu1m:rou~ w:1}, oi
cowuerin~ lhe survi\'ab of .\frican relition in the rorul:itiun <>n~ mcthoJ
 IS· 01-'l'ICI \I, Rf:LH:10). ,\Nil l'(ll'lll.AR 1{1-;LICJl()N 101

\\as to cncoumgc pcrsccuclon of chc;,c re ligious manifestations. Another

mc1ho<l. which \,as both an allcmpl lO Christianize the Afro-American
tr:iditton und n way of kccpinA blacks and whites ~ciarcJ.:ntcd. was the
cr..:ation of rdigious frnccrnltlcs for blacks, centred t1n particular saints.
While such measure~ had some success in m[lkin~ European Uhristianity
more palarnblc for native American Indians and black slaves, [llld so helped
to Chrl~tianlze the population, they also uowlttln#>' helped to perpetuate
the .\fricun religious tradition ,\fncan beliefs that ancestor~ could act :is
mtcrmediarics to pr<!sent an indhiduals' requests lo thti gods were easily
translated mto the idea of Cliristian saints as intercessors. Rituals and
tlmwcs that hnd been performed to African gods were pcrpetu11ted within
these fnuernitles. which also acted lo c.-ousolic.late the Afro-American
nations' By sej!regatint congregations and maJlin~ black C.:acholicism \'ery
much a second-dass affair, moreover, the Roman Catholic Church
enc.'O~ed black Brazilians to go back co their own cultural roots to seek
out a religiou.~ expression that they could feel was authentically theirs.
Some aspects of African re11gious practices survived throughout the
perio<l of slavery. The importance that the African reli~ons had l!i\'en co
burial rituals was continued in Brazi[ and merely transposed into a
Christian mode. African maj\ic and mcdJcine also survived among the Afro-
Br:izili:ins. ,\ccounts frorn Brazil record that the hl:1ck slaves. on the few
OC\.--asions that they were given Lime off 'by their masters, used to Mlcriflce
animals. perfom1 dances and go into trance states.
There was also, of cou r8c, at least until rhe ea rly nineteenth century, a
continuous infu~ion of n,;;\\ slave& from Africa who rcstored memories of
relil!ious pr:ictices that had hecn e radicated b)• the slave emironment. In

Zacharias Waj\ner, who lil'ed in Durch 8r.12il from 163~ to

1641, (wrote. in dcscrihinl\ a picnirc he h:od drnwn) , ·\\~1cn
the slnves h:l\<: worked hard for n whole week, they ore ghcn
Sumluy oJ'i. They u.su.,Uy u""cmblc in spcclully <lcsi,!lnatctl
placei, an<l ,p,,.nd the day In "il<l <lanclnl! co the sound o(
llute;. and drum, - men and wom,;n. children and old people
TrrE PERSISTEI\CE Of alike. Thls is accompanied by frequent libations often
.\FRJC:..\.'- RELIGIO~ until lh"Y ure 100 dcufened ond drunk 10 recogni,e one
nnolhcr' 13ut, a• Rene Ribeiro rlghlly comments. ·anyone
IN BR.\ZIL fnmlllor with 1hc Afro-Bm,disn cuhs of Rcoife will n.,cognm:
ol o glauw thut thh b o x«ngr, (M Afro-liruztlJM cult J lhc
cyplcol nnj\ of dancer,; moving to the left In c ho reo,!raphic
attitudes, the 1yp1c:il ()OSILiOn of the o~an-i/11 ldrummcrl
hcaanl! two drums of a type commonly found all over Wes1
Afrlca and nn <',l!Ol!o Ihell I: the Jar of .cara1>a In dn nk I beside
the musicinn•: the ,yrical po~icion nnd pose o( the priest
They fo iled to rccc>Anize oac nnochcr not ~o muoh bcc:11.1.Su
they '""" "deafoned ond drunk" but l><.'Cl!UM! they were
possessed by tho!ir go<I.!, • a psycholO!lieal state ol "hich the
art1st oi course knc" nothing.' ( llastldc. The African
Reli,lltOM o.f Bnu;il, p . l.l-1)
 I02 Kt.I IC:tO~ 1, SOC:11'.:T\

rhc lni.c yenr:. of ,lav<cry ,,ml 11f1cr ii finally ended in IMl,'l, thcru \\;l', :i -<k!lal
vaeu11m for .\fro-Brazilians. The oltl M/Ctal s1ruclltrc ecnltcJ on ,lu, ,:.
uwninit familic, wa, no more 01111 then~ wns no ,oeial ,trnNLlrl' 1,1 r1.·i,lac1.•
iL In 1hb ~ilunllon. ,,u1 of the 'no1ions' antl frttlernitics 1h111 ho<l 1..,i,1cJ
dunn~ 1hc ,lnvl.' pcrintl, rcli,!iou, cult, hi1,ctl on African rch~1ou, ,ul"wols
umcrAc\l rn Ai\'I: MlnHl degree of soci:il cohesion nnJ i-ohdoril~ 10 c.\-,l:1n,,
The rcli~1ou, cuhi. chac cmcrAcd in the ninctccmh eemurv uppcur a1
itn-110 hrwe reOt•cced crHml oriitin, In time, hnwe,·cr, :1' 1hc numhcr or flllrc
Afrieon, dcercoi.cJ ontl moM people l>econw of
mixed ori,itlns, the dufcrcnccs bcl\\ccn 1hcw
'n:llions' hccnmc only c11ilic diffcn.:nco.:, In rh1.
nonh of Lhe couDLry, the rcliAioui. cu!L, tlrnL
de,·eloi,ed, culled Catimho. Cuchimho or
Encnncmlos, were strongly inOucnt-cd hy nath e
Americnn In dian rcli~ion. In th.: rc:.l of th.:
country, in time, the ~d~. ritu,11 forms and priestly
hierarchy Lhm bcc:unc prctlorrnnruu over othcr
l:.,s1•>MHLL: .\ female inlLlnLc forms were chose of the Yoruba (from Kr~na). The
(fllJu, de l«ffiLO) hn.~ OOCODK hnsic dcrnils of these cults nru very simil:tr There
Lhc Onsh:i O,hum (Oxuml. is n supreme god who •~ called Olorun ll1 Yoruhn;
,i!Oddcss of fountnins and Ix-out)', there are then n series of lesser gods called Orhhas
"'ho ,-c; repres~nted as heml,t voi n {Orixus), :.uch as O~hula {Oxnl:i, the god of the :,ky
nml alwn,·s look111~ in • mirror
and of procreation), Shango {Xango. the thunder
god) und Yemanja (the sea goddess), who arc the
deifled :ince;,tors, heroes and kin!}S of chc tribc ond who interct'<ie "11h
Olonm for human heinits; chere is a priestly caste which is sometimes
femalc; the rituals usuolly consist oi an animal sacriJlce a11d <lnnoin~
leading to crance.
During the years of slavery and afterwards, when there was lc.it,.-il
persecution of these cul!l., ll w~ nccc~ary to hide these Africnn beliefs and
rinmls heh ind a mnsk of Christian icy. Tho Orishas were therefore idencrficd
with Catholic saint.,. The cxnct identification c.lifforcd from one arco oi
Brazil co another and from one cult to another. Typically, O:.hala. a male
>!,od of procreation and harvest, for instance, was identified with Jesu.~ or
the Iloly Spirit, Yemanja, goddess of the sea, was os:,ocinLcd "ith Our LJJ}
of lhe Immaculate Conceprion; and 0,lun. the warner ~xi. became St
George. ,\lion; for these African deities had picturcS of 1hc approprinrc.:
Chn:.uan saint placed ln front. gshu (l!;;m). the god of \en~eance, became
rhe Devil
African rcllitiun has i.un·h·cd in i!l. purest form 111 1he north-coi.t. from
Pemamhuco ti> Bahia, where the numher of 1hose of relnti\'el~· i,urc African
tlesccnl is higheM. In thcl-e cults, there i:, o oonsciou~ separation between
the African clcmeot and the Catholic elemeoL The naimnit of lhc:,c cults 1n
Brazil is \•ery nuid bur they are rn,ually called C:andomhle. Further ~ouch,
around the citie:, o( ruu de Jnnci~o and Sao Paulo. ,\frtcan religion became
ince_4rau,d into popul:ir Ca1holicism in a more homogenized manner Thi-
 1:- OHICl.\1, lll,.l,l<HO~ .\NI) l'OPl l,,\lt ltt-:1.llllOl\ 40:l

mixcJ \\'ilh .\mcrican ln<llan anJ splritbt bclids nnJ practices and evoln:d
Into the ~ltlcumha cults. In the prcscn, ccnLUI')', the Umhanda cults
l'\oh·cd, \\ith even ~tronAcr spiritisr and O()culcis1 elements. In j!cnerol, the
more these rcllftions have lllOl'cJ away from the purer forms of ,\frican
rel11!ion, chc Areater the white particip3tion in 1he111, nnd the Areater the
focus on mngic for helpint;\ the indi\•idual rather than on group solid:uity
aml <.'Qn1111w1ttl panicipallon. In recent yen rs. there has been a mo, emcnt
to lift these popular rcli~ious mol'cmcnts 10 the status of official relistions
(sc.: p 50~). \\1tile prc,ioui.ly they \\ere popular religious fom1s with
Roman Catl1olic1sm :1s the official rcli~oll. the trend now is to set these
rdigions up as official religions in opposition ro the C11tholic Church. (For
a hnd suney of .Vrican rd~~on in otlua:r pans of thoa: .\.mcricas. sec pp.
50i-1,. l

FCRTIIER R.E.\DING

The separation oi official religion from popular religion is parallel to several

od1er dichotomJes: the concept of the Great Tradition and the Linle
Tradition (see such hooks as Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture, pp.
67-104); the conccpl of cognitive and :iffcctivc religion (R. F Gombrich,
/>rccepc and Praccice, pp. 4-7, 318-<J; see noce J of this chapter); Towler
describes official and common religion (Towler, Homo Re/iJ!iostcs, pp.
145--02). \\'bile the official aspect of each religion can generally he found by
consulting the works of specialist.<, in that reli~ion, for popular reli.~ion, it is
usunlly necessary to use the works of amhropologisL~: for lshun, sec E.
\\'estermark. Rima/ and Beli~l in ,\fo1·occo and GiL~enat1, Recognizin~
Islam; for lndjan religion, see MarTiott, 'Little Communities in an
Indigenous Civilisation'. \'rijhof and Waardcnburg, Q{ficial and Popular
Rdi~ion, contains papers on the popular form In several religions, including
historical studies of Christianity. The paper by Frijhoff in this ,·olume
contains a discussion of the methodological problems of this subject. For
lhe analysis of Theravada Buddhism presented here, use has been made of
the works of three :;mthropologists, R. F. Gombriuh (Precepc and Practi<:c),
Spiro (Buddhism and Society). and Tambiah (Buddhism and the Spirit
Cu/rs) for Sri Lanka. Burma and Thailand respectively. On Brazilian .\fro-
American religion, sec Bas tide, The .1\fric«n Reli~ions of Brm:il.
 l{ELIGION, PO\VER AND (}O\'ERN~ I E~T

the cemrnl experience of rcliition 1;, inl1;ni,c

T W.\s :-.orrn IN t.llAJ"lER -1 TIIAT
hut aL~o ,·ery personal The c,,c_pcncnce of lhe hol\' ln\'okcl. :t fech114 ol awe
and drend, the mysH..,;um u-cmcndum deserihc<l hy Otto hcc p. bl,,) This
feeling ls the b:1,is of thti power and authority of the holy. Power may be
dcfi11ed as the capacity of an atcnt to carry out lti- will and to pr<>dul.lc
ouicome:., in other words, 10 moke a difference in lhe world. lluman bct111li,
expt:rience tl1c power of tbe holy hotl1 ru. a coercln: powcr (u power
over them that compels their ohcdience) and an enabling power (a power
wl thJ n t.hnt cnablci, them to do what they would othcrwbc nut do)
i-\nthropologiscs have studied the role of power. They see it :u, the ke,· co
undcrsumding :i variety of phenomena in primal religion such as rnooo,
mana, totemism and shamanism. People will do things for the sake of
religion that they would not do ior any other cause. Buddhist:, lea,•e their
families and enter monasteries; Hindus leave home to rnkl> up the life of a
waoderin!l ascetic; Muslims and Christians perform arduous pilj\rimal\e,-.
Baha'is have been willing to leave the comfort of their homes and face nn
uncertain life In other parts of the world co spread their faJtl1; inulviduab of
all these religions have at times even heen willing ro give up their li\·e., for
their religious belief,,. This chapt<!r looks nt the rol!! of rl>ligion 111
legitimatin4 che social order, the rela1lon~h1p between rehlUon and chi.!
state, and the question ot' the power structures within n religion
\Vc hm·e Sl!l!n In chapter 5 how Lite central experlE:ace of rel!l\lon can
be channelled into ,·arious forms of social religious expre.~sion. It should
not surprise w. tbnt this procc.% also actl> as a w:iy of controlling nnJ
channt.Jllinl\ the power Inherent 1n the central experience ot reltl\ion Tho.,~e
,·arious social expressions of relig,ion arc, in effect, way" of transferring the
ft:ell111\ of awe, \\ blch b a fea!Urc of the central exreriencc. to some M>Ctal
instirucion or Al\ent (a church, a rriest or other reli~ous leader). This 1hen
acQ. as the.! basb of tl1c power of thnt religious leader or irn,titucion. Po\\ er
in cum confers authority. This authoric-y can subsequently, if the re\i~ou,,
leader or Institution chooses, he transferred ro a secular institution (a kin!\
or government).
Relll\ion has, over the course of human history. ~o one of thi: most
powllrful and pervasive forcos at work 111 society. There Is, therllfore. an
inlin:iate and iluerdepcndcol relationship bet,,ecn rcli~ion auu authorltv in

10~
 16 Ri,.LIGION. PO\n;tt /\NI) <,OVERNMENT -105

m~l ~ocietici.. Tho~e lt1 power hove looked

m the religious lendersh1p t0 le~itlnuuc and
uphold their trnchoriry. F'or secular leaders.
the support of the religious lticr,u-cbr ~ivcs
their mle the nppearnnee of hcing part of 1he
supmmundane order of things. It' their rule
h:b a high deJtr~ of plausibility as pan of the
way things nrc, Lhc social and snored reality,
then It becomes ilifilcult e,·en to concciwal of
chan~ing it. The religious world, in nim.
looks to the sccultu- nuthorilies for supporL
This may take the form of linancial support,
or ar leai;t assistance, in the worldly
w1dertakln~ of the reUgious establislunenL
This relarionship between religion and State
can also have mutual benefitS at a higher
The baptism of King (Saint) Stephen
le,·el. Religious leaders con act as ad,•isors to (975-10J8), the first Christian king of
government, helping it to enact laws that are llung:uy. Pope Syh-cster II 5ent n sp<.'<lin.
jrn.t ttnd promote the general welfare. crown from Rome for the coro,iadon ,n
Through their close relationship wirh the 1001 and dcslgnac.:,d Stephen 'Apostolic
people. they can warn a government when its Majesty' Stephen promoted Christlanit)
throuAhout lfong,,ry and suppressed
policie.s are losing popular support. pagan rovolts. lie was canonized In 108:'
and bcc-.unc the patron srunt of llw1gary

RELIGION AND LEG!Tl~L\TION

ln order to analyse the relationship between religion nnd power more

deeply, we must examine one of I.he ruost important social functions of
reli~ion , that of legitimmion. This term refers to che establishment of a
social consensus th:it explains and justifies the 1,oci11I order. We, as human
beings. actin~ collectively, produce both the social order and the
conceptual univer.;e within which our ~ociety exists \Ve are nl~o moulded
by the society ru1d culture in which we grow up. Thus, thii. social order and
conceptual uoiver.;e are hoth produced by human beirJAs and in turn mould
the hwnan beings who emerge from them. The inslitutiorn, that come to
compru.e this social order and the values and meanings constructed by this
conceprual univl!rSe evolve an existence independent of particular humtm
beings. They are thus cxpcricnccd as a fully dc\'elopcd objeeth-c reality.
lodeed, a conceptual universe. once crented, becomes the reality, taken for
itrantcd hy those born ond raised within its framework. Only m1 'outsider'
can fully appreciate IL~ constructed nanue .
.\lthou~ social institutions arc sclf-eYidently vnlid to those who
created them bt..>eause of particular ciroumstttnccs, they need to be
explained and jm.tified to later ~cncrntions (when the same circumstances
may no longer apply). 1-egitim::nion serves to gi\'e meaning to the social
order, to make it plausible and thus to strengthen Jt and give lt cohesion. It
-1()(, RLLltllO~ I!'. so<.: it:n

serves 10 answer nny qucstton chat may am,c ahout why soc ial m,catuunns
.ire the way they arc unJ \I hy nn lmJl\·IJual ,lwulJ ncl In a p,1niculnr way
1'hcse tll\S1H:rs Jo not. of cour~c. need lO 111nkc sen,c to 1111 outsider. Tlu.:y
m..:rcly need tu s:11isfy the pcrmn \\ ho is hrou1V11 up in 1hc culwn.: The
answer~ arc often prc-thcoretlcul ~111d mythical They ial\C what ml!U1t he
called :1 roslove char~c 10 the exlMini social order ' O\'crnll. however, the
process of legitimation mm,I oovcr the murginal sltuatmns of life (Jcmh,
dre:1111s. and unusmtl natural phenomena) tb well m, everyda}· rcalH)
1'la11y social ins1it11tions have nn nssig11c.'<I me:min~ The process of
lc~ium:1tlon, howC\·cr, tics this mc::m lng loco the overall umvcrsc of
mcanin.( and the values of the ~ociety. The police force. for example, c~i:.L'>
LO maint:1in l:m and t>rder. The procc:,s of lc~itimation in\'olves a
Justlficacion of why law and order are necessary la socie1y and why It i,
rigln to achieve chem in this particular way. This level of justification can
only be consLrueted in relaUon to :all the other soci11l Institutions and LO the
C>\'erarchin.( symholic and conceptual unl\'erse.
Bearing in mind Lhis need for legitimalion in society, I\C can OO\\
examine the role of reli)!.ion. Rulers and governmemi. have used it throul!l-1
the ages for vruious purposes. The following are among the most important
of these.

Reli.~ion Used co Le1Htimace che Social Structu re

~lost religions have neen used to one extent or another to legitimate the
cxbting social btruccure. In most tradic.lonaJ bOCictics (and many modem
ones), it is religion that provides the overarching universe of meanin~ that
is objective reality for those who live within thnt society. It is the religious
profcs.sional who is the principal exponent of trus unl\'erse of me~; it L,
he (or somciimes she) who CA-plains how and why chin~s are they way th!!y
ore.
Thus, che powerful position of religion in a traditional M>Ciety is the
result of iis position as the legitimntor of chc social order, which means that
religion cannot but pl1ly an Important poUclcal role. lndee<l, In moM
situations it is the natural arbiter of power. Since it 1s religion chat decrees
what is right and wrong for the society, it is muura.l for it co be the main
buttress for rhe poUtieal ei.tablisbment.
This role of religion ns lcgitiruacor of the social order hns applied. in
particular, where chc ,-oclal strucu.ire hru. elementi. of incquallty or injl.ll>LIC<:
and is therefore potentially uns1able (and 1here ha\'c not been many
socictic~ of whioh this wai. not at lcai.l partly truo.:) RcUA,ion hill>. ,n thl)!,c
circumstances, been used to stabilize the social order hy ~vin~ tt chc d1\'ine
scamp of authority. Apartheid in cwcmie1h-cemury Rourh .\irlca, fpr
example, wru, lo.:~ic.lmated by :1 synod of the Dut..:h Reform Church in Llus
way:
 lb Rt;l,lc:10:-1, l'OWFR ,\NU OOVER1'~1El>'T .i-07

P.\J'.\L n,kl\lTtlk\ The small prtuclpn~ty of 1.h e Vatican :tnd the Swlss Guard arc all tbnt lb
mm lett of we t.'OoS1d.rrablc Jomalm am! armies of the pop.,s of the M1ddl-, Mes. Th"
Paral states were annexed on the creation of the modem state of Italy In 1870.

The church accepts the existence on canh, of nations and races as

,cparnte entitles through God's provldon.c" Thlb is therefore not the work
of human hein~s . .. Akhouj\h God created all nations on earth from the
same blood, He gave each one irs own national intuition and 8011/ whioh
must be honoured by all and which may 1101 be destroyed by lhe superior
in lhc inferior.'

ln medieval Europe, the Church was an incegraJ pan of the power structure
of society, preaching to the people chat the social order had divine sanction.
This helped to keep them content with their miserable lot as virtual slaves
to the landowners. In return, the Church was made a landowner and the
bishops and archbishops became feudal lords with an interest in
maintalnlng the status quo. The Pop4.! bimseu· was a ruler of a large
tenirnry. On the other side, the nobilicy retained close links with the
Church. Until recent Limes, it was customary for nt least one younger son
of families of the nobility to enter the Church. frequently t0 rise to a high
position within it. In this way the religious and secular authorities helped
each other to maintain the ~ocial order. In earl" Islam, there was a strong
egalitarian element. The Sunni ulema, however, soon developed the view
thac obedience to the established rul er was oblig:nory, even if that ruler
were a tyrant. In lncUa, of course, Hinduism was the chief lcgltimator of the
caste system, thus entrenching a system under which millions of people
became considered almost subhuman. Perhaps tl1e most important of all
IOh l!l,;LIWO\ IN Sot: lf'T\

Tiu: uutvcrM.· mtd Us pJraJJ"·l hunutn -.n~:h.:ty , ,H:rl.' ,.,;t=n n,

urAnnic \\.hole~ In "Jtlch c ..tt.-h.Jttl t,,n th'-' l.'1,,1n1c: M.,:n\..' a fc,tm
u( llfc, on L11c ""'lal sc-.:nc ,1 .:,Mc I hn, 11 •r,cclhc 1.1,k
(1/111,mu,) w p.:rfum, Uni,• In the r,mhrul tl1,pa,\1or1111c
r-,rformam:c oi th,, dutJ cnn nn indh 1d11.1I ac,1uon: mcnt ioJ
~ hil!hcr ,1.11,on 111 th, next llfo . Bmhmani<' cn,mol,~·
Tm CAST~ 8\':Hh~I provld-,d the r,1llu11,tl iur lw1crn,:<,11c1t)' hlcrordl) , unJ
•l''-"'1,11,wth,n "11h111 11 ,1ni1lc 1.....1y
IX 111\DlllSM
Tit-, ,t,cdal unlcr thllt cmcl'l,,'cJ out uf tbb ",tcm of vuluc,
and 11leolc>11.., \I :t, th" ca1,u, ,yMem In lll'llh111,1111c 1J.-,Joi::,·
thb wn., i,e,,.;n .ts <1 sinl\lc o~:onic !>OCiety ,n which the mam
difforunt Function, nnd IKlCUJ"'llon, wcn, ,crw,I h)' J1lkrcn1
'-,."(l!\lC~ on the haf\:i\ o( their ~ocioritunl ,tntu~, .,\t the: C4>fl

were thu pncsdy ...i~tc,, rollo"'<...J hy the rulcrs unJ "arrlor.

lK~lwtnyu.'<), the nn,rcbJHlt.s ond l.l'lldcr,, I lu1..Jt.},,.., J. anJ .
Cina!Jv. the amsan, and mnnll31 workers (~/cudms) . (l'aul (,
llieben. 'lndla: The l'ohtlclzolion or a S:acml ~,c1y', m
Cnldaroln. RcliS11ons and Socicrws· Asm and the ,\f1ddt.. F:n,;i,
l'P 291-2)

the inJu.,Liccs pcrpctratctl through religion's role in legitimating the '-OCial

ortlcr (In chat le affects the larAesc number of people) has been the suppon
it has given co cbe patriarchal narure of society and the consequent
~ubjugation of women (,ee chapter J 7).

Reli~ion t'sed co l,e,4icimace chc Authoricy of a Parricular R11/er

,\)most e\'ery king or ruler in the history of the world has used reli-,on to
legitimate his or her authority at some stage. Thib i.s most easily obscn·c<l
at ceremonies of coronation and 1m•esticure. \\'hether the ruler b a
Europenn sovereign. the Emperor of Jup:m, or a tribal leader. o religious
elemenc is present In the ceremony of coron.nion or lm·estiture. ThL,
affim1s that the authority of che ruler has been Ai\'en divine sanction \\l1ile
not so Important today in Europe, thb was of great ~ignlflca11cc In thc p.u.t
The disapproval of the Pope in the Middle Alles. for example. could threaten
the throne of nny sovereign o( \\'estem Europe. In rerum for their :;upport.
lht! rt!U~iow. prol'es!>ionals coulcJ expect the authonty of the Suitt! to
maintain their presrige and posirion.
Legitimation of the holder of power In a soclCt)· ha,, often invoh cc.I
1denufyil1,!l that person m some way \\ith the ultimate ,ource of power m
the co~mos. In Europe, 1.he doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings mnintainccJ
tl1a1 tl11! ki.11~ held hii, position on tlic authority of God. The Pope and tbc
Church supported this posmon in return for the mon3rch's
ucknowlt!dgemcnt of th.cir :.tatus ancJ righu,. In the Middlll Ea:.L, the ~lu..,lim
caliph wa..~ the vicegerent o( God on eanh. The whole social struccure
depended on him a, it~ pivor. In lrnn, the Shah wni. the Sh:icJow of God In
.Japan, the Emperor was himself considered a descendant of lhe ~Otl~ and
 lb. RELIGIOJI:, PO\\ P.R ANO GO\IHKNMF.NT 40')

\\,ts the chief priest of Shinto. 1'hc first king of th<: P11cific kingdom of Tonga
\Hll> considered w be the rnsull of the union of the sun god, T:m~aloa, and
n human femnle

Rdieio11 L'secl to Lc~itimatc War

Religion has frequently been used to rouse people to Ogl:tt wars £or the
ruler~ ~~,·el')' religion has esmblished some form of holy war in its l1istory.
In Cl1ristianiry. the Crusades against the infidel Muslim:. spanned S!!\'Cral
c.:nrurie:. In blam, jU1ad, holy war, became onc of the tenets of the faith
(see pp. .l.t-o-8). Reliition has, howeYer, often been used to stir up a war that
,,ru,, in f:ict, being waged for economic or other reasons. More recently,
Chris1i:m staces fought each other in World War I; the soldiers of each side
were assured by their religious leader.s, acting in conjunction with the
govenunent, that God was on their side. Each side prayed 10 the sa111e God
for victory. In other pans of che world, many conflicts have occurred on a
religious basis. llindu-:Muslim strife in India lms a long history, of whkh the
conflict between India and Pakistan is but a recent episode; the sufferings
inflicted by each side upon the ocher were only very p:irtially recorded in
tile documcntal')' accounLS of the partition of India.

•
•

I .., ,..,.
.. ~·-

l~cnm, dt,picliflA a war scene from the 1#1<~a<-'<UO /'i,ra,u, , a Hindu norruth-e. llalarama
c:iptures the demon kin/! Jarasandha (in the ccnrrc of the p1crnrcl while his brother
Krishna look.~ on (rom 1he left R.~sohli, eil\hteemh ccnrnry.
-110 kLLlt,101' IN SO(.ILTY

Jli~lll1S\I
,\1 the b.:gim11111! t!/ the llh:;~:l\'nc.l Ci,1,1. .\r;mu, 1•
L'(JIIIL~llplutml! 1hi:jimh1..~m1111~ /,uttlt l11:ru..:u1 tlw l'uwlt1<:uii
r,mJ 111..-,r '-"usn~, 1l1c limmrt1t1..,. f11/e1/ u,uh .o,<i,/,,...._. ,...
refuse-.< m ./iJlht t111tl cd/11 l1iA ..-linnmt'l·r. lin-./111t1 <l lu•
l"l"O.S<m l<nt:l-1111 rr,1lu:s
il!-;1.lt:l(ll '!<
Grt>al \\lll'Tiur, c,1rry on thy Al\ht If nny man think., he ,la\·,,
Jt'STIHC:ATIOKI-, FOK nod lf llnf')thcr chink~ he L< ,lmn ncilher know~ th,: wayJ 1,1
tnith Tht •:tcmnl ln moo cunnoc loll chc F.u,mal 111 m;in
\\'11n .\NI> KIi.i.iNG va.Juu1t c.Jlo lie 1~ llC\1cr horn. rutd he nc,·1:r J11.:., Ile b in
Eccmlty he I• for ev.,rmorc \\11en n moo kn<J"-1> litm ,..
nc,·cr-born , cvcrlo,,tlnj\, ne,·cr-chanl!lnJ!, bcvonJ ull
de~trucuon , how can that man k,11 a 111:111, or ~UM! onot.hcr
to kill? .
Think thou nlso of thy duty nnd do not wnvcr There " no
,!reutcr Aood for II wnrrior lksh<lrn)Y•I than 10 ll!1)11 in 1t
righteous war. There t. n war that open" lb'-' doors of heo,·cn ,
Arjuna! Happy the warnors whose fate Is 10 i,ght ,uch war
Bm to fo,to ch:ts fl~t for rl,U,tcousnes~ !Dharmal 1s to fot1!(>
thy duty (DharmaJ and honour 1, t<> fall inr<>
rrons,4rcs.";;ian . . And to ri man who is rn honuur. dh,hnnour
I, more lhnn Jcnth . . C.1n there be for n wnrrlor a moN
shameful fate?
ln Jcath th)' l\lory la he.i,·ca, ln victory tby glory OD eanb.
(BIWJ?aood Gila 2:1~2I, .11--1. J7l
BUIJOWS)I
The mrun scriptural JmllflcaLIDns for klllin4 may be hndh
sumrn.iriied In the Mahayana Mahaparimnxma Surrii 1l b
cold how the Buddha in one oi his fom1cr li\·cs killed some
Brnhmin h.,.retlc~ This wtt., done 10 protect the Ouotnnc, nml
to ,a,·e I.hem thomSl!h c, from th<: oon,e<;juenccs of conllnucJ
auacks on 1t. When the Doctrine 1s in Jruigcr the Fl\ c
Preceprs, lncluchng the prohibition on tnktlll! hfo, may bo:
b!nored
,\ second jus1Jflcalion was ch:tt It wns l\ood ro kiU one ,n
order 10 save two ;\ curious story tells of• Buddhist trawDt.T
inn corn,·an oi fi\'c hundred Fh·e hundred bnndi~ intcnJ to
attack the c-nra\'nn. A M:Out or' th<: bandirs warns the trn,cUcr
11 rhe Buddhi~l warn,. hb fellow-trnvellcrs, thC)' w,11 kill thc
scout and ~uffer tn beU for Ulktnl\ tbe life ll he JO<:S nor the
bandiLs wiU kiTI the travellers, more l,ve-; .,'iJJ he lost, anJ
more will suffor in hell So he kill• the ...:-nut himwlf Th,•
h:mtlit.~ e<m.scqucntly d<> not n1111ck Only om, Jtf., 1, 1,.-1, and
onl)' one mnn, the Bu<lJhlst, buffcn, 1n bcll .•.
•\ thlrJ Jusllflcnllon Ii<!, In th~ IIIUS<>t, nature of cllitcncl!
There i, DO .oul, no -..,If, nothin~ to kill (Fc~u.son, \\arwul
l'et1ce in t11e ll'urld'11 Re/,J!icm.• pp S:\-t,)
Ct1R1b,1A.~1n
IUurinl! \\'or]J \\'nr 11 The Llf,hup oi London, \\'1nnlol\tUU·
l.tu\rrun, ~aid, 'Kill Gemt.~n~ - co kill them. not ior the '11kt: ol
killing, hut to~'"" the world, to kill the l)<lod n, \\ell •• tht:
 16· RJ,;LIGION, t•OWER ,\NO 00\'EIHIMENT Hl

bad. LO klU the you,~4 men ns well os the olc.l, to kUI i.hose who
have shewn k,nc.lness to our wounded os "ell as i.hose fiends
who crucified the Co nndian Serl\ennt.' This, tf it was
nnything, ""s the h oly wor nlj.~in The only trouble \\AS 1hat
both sitlcs were supp<.sctl «> he Chrlsli•n ond Chrlslinn, on
each side were fighting chclr own holy wttr ( Ferguson, War
and J'euL'C III the World's Religin11s. p. I I 7)
ls1.u1
l'lglu ln the cause of God Lhosc who fl)\hl you bul do noL
trans~«ss c.he llmll:l; for Goo lovei.h not trnosyessors. And
slay i.hcm whcrc,'Cr you find i.hcm and drive chem out from
where they drove )'Ou Out; for oppression is worse than
killim\, hU< do not 1,ghc them ot Lhe Sacred Mosqu11 unlc8'<
the~• first flght you there; but if they fight, you slay chem
Such Is Lhe rewnrd of w,hl,li.,vers. But If they cease, God Is
chc forgiving, the Most Merciful And fi4bt chem oo uocil
chere lq no more oppression and until juscice ;md faich in God
pre,•ojl, (Quran 2· J 90--J)

New ldeolol!ies
Legitimation in modem societies is a much more complex affair than in
traditional sooieties. Religion no longer holds its paramow1t place as the
ultimate legitimator of the social orcl:er and the conceptual universe.
Several other ideologies l1ave contested the role ofleg.itimator of the social
order. In a democracy, the will or the people Is considered che ulclmace
source or legitimacy. Unfortunately, the will of the people has proved to be
capable of being manipulated so as to cause one group or people to assert
their will over other groups. Marxism, for example, asserts the will or one
particular class over other cl:1sses; nationalism, the will of a particular
nation over ochers; racism, the will of one parcjcular ethnic group.
Reliiµon's role of legitimator of the conceptual universe has also been
contested, for example, by the psychology of Freud (alchougb here the
number of people involved is small).
The modem substitutes for religion have noc pro,·cd so succesi.ful as
legitimators of the social order and the symbolic unh'erse of a people. The
most important reason for this is prohabJy that they are much more limited
ln scope than religion. Thus Lhe social ideologies have liu.Je to say about Lhe
fri$cenin~ mar~nal situations of human life, such as death. An ,deolo~y
such as nationalism may succeed in giving meaning to the deaths of those
"ho <lie while £ighung for d1e1r count!)', yet this is only a ~mall number
compared co the large number who die deaths that are meaninglei-s in the
ideology of nationalhm. Conversely, pi.yohological theories may be good at
explaining mar~in:tl s1cuacions lhat frighten people. They are unable,
however, to legiLim:1te the sooinl order. ~o substitute for religion is,
chcreiore. able tO integrate all aspects of human life into one o,·erarching
social, conceptual and ~ymbolic universe.
U! IU.LICllO~ IS SOc:lfTY

RELICllON AKL> TIIE 8TAT~.

rhe n:1:uinnship between rcl ,~ion And I he Srnu, has hccn muhi-focctcd and
f.'Olllplcx The iolltm ing ore II fc" of the ptN,ihlc rcl:11icm,hl1>-'

T11t.(lCR.\l:Y nR Hrrnoc 1<.,cY In :1 rhc0cr:icy, 1hc rdiit1n11, :utthorirh:, nr~- 111,o

the politic::tl authorities or al l<.!11:-.t the rdi~iom, ancJ pol1tical 111Slitulion,
:ict :I!, :i unitary hod~· ~;xampllls of thi~ st:ite of afiairi. arc 110l very cummun
hut one moy clt1.: rhc fir_..t four caliph ... of bl.im the FntimicJ c:ilipharc in
b)b·pt, C:i)vin'~ Gcnc\'a, the Dal~u Lamm,' rule in Tibel from H,-11 to l 95'J
:iml ,\ymoll:ih Khomeini's re)lime in 1nm Since God, in person, cJocs not
rule any :.tatc, a more accurate name for thcocrncy, ntle by Goel, 1s
hierocracy. rule hy the rell)tiou~ leader:.hip.

STMt: Ru,1rnui-.. A swLc reLiA,on is ohvlously closely tit:d in to the Stale ancJ
will, mosc of the time, support it. le does not, however, nm the Scncc (ns in
a thl.'Ocracy). There mny, thcrdorc, be occ3l>iom, ,, hen there lb a t.'Onlliet of
interests between lhc secular nuthorities and the State rel-W,on The h1,tol)·
of Europe in the ~lidtlle .\gcs t.'Ontnins man)' episodes of friction bccwccn tht.
Church ,rn<l varlou~ European kin,¢, and ntler~. A mort< rt<cent exan1plc 1;,
the confrontation in the United ·Klngdom between Archbishop Runcic nnd
the thc11 Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, c>Ver 1.uch matten. a., hll>
atHtude to the Falklands \\'ar and the effects on the poor o( her ito,·ernmenc',
p0licics (~ce p . 115). In o number of Islamic simes, such ns Ir.in, Pnki~tun
and Brunei, there has been an attempt to make the law of the count!'\'
identical to the lloly Law of Islam, the Shari'a. This has certain difficulties,
particularly in chc economic field, as the prohibition on usury in lslumlc l:i\\
t.-auses problems for banking and other financial tran~actiom,.

The Islamic Govcrnmcnl is neither <le,pouo nor at>solutbc.

raLhcr il is constJruuonnl. Ui course. It I; nul con,111uuon.1.I
In 1he occepted US!\~ of cha, \\Ord, \\ h,ch meons chat the
laws arc cnacccd accordmit co tbc oplruons of mdh·1dual, :rn,1
3ccor<liol! ro majority ,·ote~ It h con<11tuuonal in I.he <cn<c
thut those \\ ho adminiMl'r nnd govern arc t.'On,trJim"ll .. hv the
J\ TJIEOCR.-\CY:
<'<lnstJtution ;,p<.-cifi~-<l In the Qurun ttrotl the Sunna of th"
KHO~IE!Nl OX TIIE l'ropbcL Thu, lhb con:.mutJon 1s 0011\: 11tl1cr than tJ,.., l.1"'
and rte~ultitlon., of Jslam that mu.~t be oooy~-<l an<l put 101<1
(SI.AJ\UC .-ffoct. Tins is\\ hy che Mamie <:m·cmmcnt h che appllc:m<m
to the pe<>[llc of llw Ohinc l,nw
GO\T.RN'\IE:-IT The dif(, rcnc.: l-..,1wc-cn the lsl,1mk C.ovcrnowm .,nJ
uthcr cou~titutluna.l ~\'cmrucn1~., whct.ltcr mnn.a1c.b1.1J ur
r,.,publlcan. lie,, 111 thh that It ii. 1h1; p,.-oplc\ or tl" kln,i:,
rcpre,,cnt;uiv,-,, 1,ho cnae1 k~l,la.tlon ln ,u~h n:~lmt.::,,
"hereo, the J>(l\\er of lt.'l!isiatioo m bl.om hclon4, to .\lmitltty
I ;.,.1 alone (Khomeini, fluk11nwt-t Jslr11m , rr I~. ,1111hnr~
trnnsla1i<m}
 H, llELl(ll():-,1, l'l)\l'KR .\ND (;O\'t,RNM8NT -II~

/
\
\ -

I .
"\::s,

Poster from Revolutionary lran depicting Khomeini's 'dMne' suitus 'Khomeini did noc
<:xplicitly cllllm to be a prophet or a dhinc manifcstntion, but h<> c11mc very clo..e by
ailowmg huru.clf co he cal.l ed lmnm, which ,n Shl'lsm 11' lunctlonally the some us "prophet
anJ mc:sscngcr" with aU the nece,,_'iar). <fu.tlnctlons pclmcd out. Ile allowed Wmself to oo
the objeot of love and dev0tion that many said wos only properly che rt!lht of the Imam or
the prophet. (Professor Todd uiwson, personal com:nunication wtth the author)
11 I ltt'.I.IC:lll'/ I'- SOl:JF,T\

Rf.l.lGIO~" Followml! an lnqu1;,:uon pronounc.,mcnt that a

:iTATL .1Gnos Ali.llS~T Rl\".\L
person wus ~uilcy or heresy. a )treat procession (amo-da/<'. act or faith) woulJ b.? held m
which the reluliouq and <~-cular authorities oomhined to take the condemned J'Cl'SOO w
the place ol cxccut1on where he or she woulJ u,u,,IJy he lmmcd tn death Thul• nrc
c.iima,~,J lO hove l,ccn bctwo.,cn o <1uartcr nml hnlf n mUllou •uo.,h public cxo.,~'Utions,
mlllnl)' lo Spain rutd Port~) (ugolost crypto-~lusllni. and Jc,.~ ) and ln Laun .\n1cnca
(nl!ain,t tho,e ioUo\\ inll nM1,·c rcUl\lons) betwceo the fllttt.!nlh :lllll ea riv nlntll-.!nth
century,

The state religion obtains many bencfltl> from i1:1, position These may
Include financial support or action wken aAain~t rival reh~ons. There are.
howe,·er, disadvamages. .-\ srnte relip,ion may suirer a great deal of
interference in its internal workin~ from the go,·cmmcnt. If the
govemmenc is unpopul::ir, the state reliAion may share in this unpopularity
if it is closely identified with the State, us happened to ChriMinnity in
France at the time of the French Re,olution. Similarly, chere are
indications of a reaction aAainst Islam follo\\in~ che social and economic
failures of the lslamic goverrunen l in Iran.

PRE[)(JML'I.\NT RELIGION. In many countries of the world. there is one

o,crwbelmlnj\ly predominant reli~on, which I:, not, however, tbc stole
reli~ion In this situation, the predominanc reli~ion can expect to have a
considerable influence over the Slate. It may c1·cn hove more inl1m:.ncc
than a i.catc reliAion does rslnce che l:mer is co a certain extent controUed
hy the State) The Rom:m Catholic Church ls in such a po~inon in most of
the countrks of southern Europe and the" hole of Latin .-\merica.
 16. R£LIUION , l'OWER ANU <JO\' ERNUENT -115

On :!6 Jul_,, 1982 Lllcre was u l'l'11wmbran~-e scroice fo St

l'cwl's- C.:utl,edrcJfor Lhooe killed i11 tlw Fulkkuu.ls \Vcar ufew
mom/1s preewus(_\'. In /us scnncm, ,\rcl1b1s-hop R11r1cie
n;(crred w lhe 11ect.f ro remembt!r tlte b<.'TCa.,ed relat,'L'CS, IIOl
0111.v qf cite Bririsl, soldwrs who had been ki/le,I, bur al,;o qf
ti«•>,>tm,'! Ar,,:,mti11forn sottl,crs. Tl,~ /olk,wi111l day, rlre pre,..•
TIIE Ct.\SII tt'C"ri" unanimous i1ll rcporung tlw e..X"trcmc d1spl<."Cl$Urc q(

BETWEEN TU.\1'CIIER
Jlarg<,rcc T/11uclwr 011d her g<x>en1m,.,u, Lhat what sitoultl
lutt.'C been a triwnphanc endorsement of a Brillsli tiiclO')'
.\ND Rl'.NCIE luad been cumcd inw a ,es.sion of deep soul-searc:hi111l. The
Sun newspaper rep,,rced on ch.efo/1(1(1:inl/ clay:
0

~L\c,X;I~ Fl/RI AT RL'l'(Cl& S StCR.\10~

The Priml' Miniscc~ was last night ·spiuln/! blood' over
yesterday's F'alkfands service 01 St Pnul's. Mrs Thatcher
was said to he furiou, over d1c 'wet' sermon dcli.,crcd by
the Archbishop of Cuntcrburr And the con1ro,·crsl<1l
remembrance ser,•lo., led some To11• MPs LO la~h out bitterly
at ' paclfu.cs itnd cringing clergy'. Th~y wamed the service to
proclaim Britain's pride In a g)oriollll vlcwry. Instead the MPs
saw it ns an tnsult co those who fou/!ht and died . . Right-
wing MP Julian 1\mery s;iid angrily· 'The Archbishop would
he better giving his service in Buenos Afres than in St
Puul's .. Peace and reconclllntlon should be ptort of It - but
not d1c whole story. There was oo LbW1ksgJvlng for Lbc
liberauon of Bnclsh sub1ec1S from the invaders. I thouJ!ht it
was a deliberate counccr-auack against the mass of opinion of
chis country on the part of the pacifist, liberal we1S.' ...
After a strenuous hchind-thc-sccncs strull&lc, Mrs
Thatcher .•. was still nut happy with d1e final form 1hnt the
service took .. . lier husband Denis, when he bad n chat ru,J
s drink "itb MPs on the House of Commons terrace ofter the
service ... was said to have told LbcOL 'The boss was ani!'1·
eno~h this momin~. Now she is splcunJI blood.' (Carpenter,
Roo11rt Romcic, pp 25(,...7)

.\ ~h:1.T1-Rt:wc1ous Socu;n·. 1n a siwatlon where there are several religious

communities, each compris~ a substantial proportion of the population,
che possibility of conflict arises. In such a country, the gm·emment often
finds itself crying 10 be neutral, acting :lb arbiter and peacekeeper between
the different religious communities. The government itself may be divided
nJong religious lines. An example of tl1e latter is Lebanon, where the
unofilcial constitution divides the principal offices of State between the
main rcl~ious communities (Maronite, Sunni, Shi'i 11nd Drnse), In India,
the ~h.u,lim and Sikh minorities exert c.'Onsidernblc influence and individual
~!uslims and Sikhs ha\'e held high office. 1'herefore India, altbou~h It has
a great predominance of llindus, acti. in many ways os a multi-religious
state. Northern Ireland may also be considered to be in this category;
altho~ hoth of the two main reliAious communities are Christian, the fact
that they are in con11ict makes the bituation similar to that of a multi·
religious society.
11(, RI.LIUIOS II\ SOClt;T\'

,\, r\m-:ucarn •s So<,lt n· Many would :,t1y that \\b,tcm tururc 1s no ltm~r :1
Chrlslinn society huL ha~ lopi-ed lnro materialism nnd hedonism \\1tik th,,
ii. undouhtt:dly true If we l!<lmp::irc the pre:,cnt with the paM, one 11111,1 l>l!
careful not 10 o,·crcmpha.~izc chi, pmnt The foct ch:11 churche, art , mpty
doc:. 1101 11ece:,:.:1rily 111em1 l11,1t nll 1he people I\ hu .Jre 1101 .111cnd1111\ church
:ire lrrelil\iou.- A lar~e number of new relij\1ous 1110,·emcni,, and culls ha,e
rnk..:n up i-omc of 1he numhcr!- who h:wc dc1-crtcd the maln,1rc.1m
ch11rclws. In L11c polilicul realm, ho,-.!,·er, \\'cswrn Euro1lCun l\o, ernmcnt,
h:wc )tcncrally ccnscd to mke rclil\ion lnrn accoun1 when fnrmul:mnj\
policies While rndh•iduaJ pollticmn"' may be perbonally n:hAJoui,, th..,~ dn
nm nppear co find reliition relev:1n1 10 the political proccs,

Uolll lhc chnnl\cs In the commum"'I ,,orld that

,\.'1 ,\.,'Tl-llELIGlOUS STATt.
occurred between 11)8<) and 1990. moM communist countriCb m ~;uropc
and Asia were anLl-rcllgiow.. Go,•emrnent-fund1.,J aj\encies were :.tit up
sreciflcally to coumer llie inl1ucocc of relil\ion. Despite se\'eraJ dec:1de~ of
vigorous 11nti-religio11s cnmpaigning, however, these scmc,, were unr,hlc: to
1::liminate religion from their territoriei..

Tlie ,-\tcitude <>f rhe Stare Towards Re/i,4io11

~lo.~t religions have had a ,·:irying rel:itionship with the power s1nictures of
1heir societic:. over the ycarb. Cliri~tianity, for example. i~ often thoul\ht of
as a religion in which there l~ a srric1 sep:iracion between Church and
Swte.' In fact, however, there bas been an identification of the Scat.. ,~ith
1hc Church for most of Christian history from the time of the Emperor
Conswntine. The Byzantine Empire enforced the edicts of the Church nnd
persecuted those whom the Church deemed 10 be;? heretics. The Emperor,
in turn , had a considerable ~ay in the runnint, and c,·en the theology, of the
Church. This Church-State Identity continued in the Roman Catholic
Church with the t:stablishmem of l11e Holy Roman Empire in bOO u. The
political authority of 1he lloly Roman Emperor was dcrh·cd from the
Church. and Lhe Empire. in turn, supportt:d Lhe Church Ol\alru,t heretic!.
and unbelievers. These principles regulatc.-d affair~. C\'en thou.th ind1,·ldual
emperors may have had their diJforencc~ with llie popes of their day. ,\ftcr
the Reformation, tb1: clos1: llnks between the Church :md Statt: led tu the
invoh·emenc of the European swtes: in the series of Proccscanc-Catholic
conllicu, that mcluded the Thiny Year~· \\'ar (16lb-16).
The pietisc tradition, which w,1s MrooJ!. in the l:niced Srn1e;. of America.
held 1hat religion wa~ an indh'idual's nffair and had nothinl\ co do with the
State. Tbc cmerJ!.cncc of the l.Jnited States !IS a maJor world po" er In the
nineteenth century made this principle of C:hurch- State separation mon:
~ignlfleant in Christianit)' Th is po~ition h,1s been accepted de _rc,<.'W
d1roul\ho11t most of Europe (alrhoullh the Roman Catholic Church ha~
ccmcinued to try to h:we o polhical role) llowcvcr. with 1hc ri~e of ,uch
movements""' Liberation ThcoloJ!.y, which ha, ea :.tronJ!. social eomponcnt,
 II,· Ri,l,IGIOII., PO\\'l::R .\M) 00\'t,RNMl, NT -1 17

1'11E &>n~T Rvs.~1.-..~ V1u1 Of ,~1..v-1

The mo,-:Lic-likc variety or modem Islamic intellccrnoJ life.
dcmonstrstlnA t:ver more cnm·inc,n~I)· the harrenness n( pnn-
lsl:nmsm and similar doctrine•, ullimalcly rcOccts the
scruwc to find the most effective means of uchlc,•lnggc11crnl
pro~r,-s,, thut i; now occurring in Mu.>llm regions out.>itlc the
THE 1\.'-TI· l'SSR. In the USSR :md Other socialist countrle;, where the
RELlGJOl'S Sr.\TE
social foumlallons of rcli/!)on have been undermined. Islam,
like nil other relii\ions is he1.-omin.4 more and more :1 relic of
the po.st
Tht: 1,'0ntinual afflnru1lion or the idea of man's .;t.,mnl
,ubordlnallon co mythical tllvlne ()01\Cl'!I, the orlcntallon
toward life In the next world :inti the cuncrastlng pe,simibllc
estimation of ca.nbly life, and the absolute denial of man's
a1uonomy :md intrinsic worth - all make Islam. like any
other rcll,4ious system , Incompatible with o genuinely
scicnliflc world ,icw. (M. A. Botunsk.U in The Great So<iiet
Encydopcdia., vol. 10, p. 451)

we may be seeing the beginnings of a move hack towards Church

Invoh·ement in polirlcs. Even in American Chrl1,tirutlty, this idea of
Church-State separation bas, in recent years, heen eroded by the
emergence of fundamc,1U1lists into politacs.

The Alliet,de of Reli,Zion Towa rds clre Stace

A number of different relationships between religious leaders and the State
are possible, especially in countries where there is a state religion or a
predominant rel.Won.

R£LIG10Ub St:Pl'ORT fOR Tilt;, SJ::C:L'LAR AL'TIIORJTU::S. This is perhaps UlC

commonest role for religion to take in society. Reli~on is the chief
legitimator of t.l1e social order and therefore religious leaders are oflen
incorporated into the state apparatus. This confers upon the latter greater
legitimacy and authority. The Seate, in rnrn, gives the religious aurhoritics
due deference and honour. Cathedrals, mosques and temples are built b~·
the State to add to the aura of sanctity and legitimacy accruing to both the
secular and religious authorities,
Although religious leaders are often content with this type of
relarionship, it has its dangers. ,\ religion that identities itself closely with
the inlcrests of the State could (ind itself ddcnding a tyrannical or unjust
state (as happened for example in Nazi Germany and l<'ascist Italy, for
example); it stands in danger of becoming part of a power structure that
oppresses t.he people (as occurred in the feudal societies of medic,•al
Europe); it may find icself compromised and corrupted by the lure of
wmporal power and worldly wealth (as <><.-curred in the Catholic Church
llo\cll'RL~c; or RUJr,10, UY TU£ Snn Built between I S:\O 011J 1557 for Sultan Sulu~ man
Lite: Mog11Jfk-cn1 ( 1-194- 1566) b,• Simm, thc j\rcmc,t of the Ou.or111111 an:hlt."-'L>, the:
Sutcrmanlyc Mosque, bU1J1bul. marked a n<:w .ca~ In the c,olutloo of L\lan11,:
arohlt.icture. lis lnno1·at11e lillbtm)l and t:111, 111dl!lv-~pace<l <-'Olwnns allr>11 an imm<111-w.
unbroken interior space, i!hinl\ the interior an 11ustcrc l\mndcur The mosque is at 1hc
c.:ntrt: of n oomple:< of chnrituhlc unJ cducatinnal in,1i1111ion,. indudi~ a hn,pilAI,
r~li~iou, oollcgcs und a soup kitchen Th!l hullJinp in the forcgruund un: the hhmry anJ
n rellglou;, college.

just before the Reformation). As indicated :ihove (p. 414). there is a

possibility that when people revolt against the oppression rind corrupcion of
the secular authorities, their revolt will take on an anci-reli4ious dimem,lon
as well. An example of this is the French Revolution, which w:1s primarily
:1 rc1•olt aga.in:,t an authoritarian and tyra1111lcal polltical :.ystcm hut II hi<!h
ended up a.lso opposin~ the reli~on chat had supponed thac slaLe.

Rllto10Uli OPl'()t,ITIOS TO THI:, SEC!c1.AK At:TH0KITI~. Although m ~t!ncral

tcTITis it is not very common for religious authorities to oppose the Sri1te,
those, occasions in which it does occur are notahl«: in hisiory In pr<:·
modem societies, general social unrest is often aL'Companied hy an up:,ur~e
in religious mo1·ements, often of the millenarian type (see chapcer 10).
Marxist writers hove argued that, in such societie:., rnltgious dlssenc ib
really a pre-political expression of cl:iss protest against ad1•er,e ~ocial
condilions, poor government or the effects of natural djsastcn,
Religi.oui, expression ls often 1he only form of freedom 01 e.xpre..sion
aUowed in an authoritarian state. In such ci rcumstance~. the desire for
political freedom bas often been e;,.pre.,sc<l in religious tcnns. It w:11, for this
reason that the churches acted as a focus for oppo~ition co some Ea.,1
 It> R£LIOIO~ . P(l\\'F.R .\SI> 1:0\' l:.RSMENT -119

European communist ,tllC4.'S Pnrt or the reoson for 1hc rcligiou:. rum rnken
hv the lrani:l.ll Re,·oluuon ol 19i9 wa~ the Slrnh's ri/1,omu~ suppression of
,tll politic:il d1~course The hlack churche~ in thc ,\mt::ricnn South ore
.mother ~·x.unple of n rcligiow, alternative 10 ~uppresscd politicul n.::tivity
It "houltl he no1ctl, however. that l!ad1 of the more rl!Ccnc world reli/1,wns
\\:t, :-cen hy the esrnhlished relillion and the secular authorities of its time
a.., an oppo:-lllon mon~ment when 11 flrs1 arose. Tt wa.~ seeking 10 o,·erthrow
the c,rnhh~hed order :md !-O hnd to he confron ted (see pp. J 12, ,12J).

R.U.Ju(Ol':, .\Lcloti.t;s., fRO~I P\lLITIC.\L INYOL\'Ul f~'\T. Religious le;1den, have

ottcn remained aloof trom political involvement, regardinit this world as
hopclcl>Sly corrupt nnd of no relcnmce to the hminess of achi1eving
sah·auon. \lany Hindu and Buddhist religious leaders cake this altitude
hccau.,e ot' the concept or maya (the ide:i that this world is illusory and
d1s1rac~ from the Real). ,\sceucs and monasuc orders are usually examples
01 this rel:icionship The Baha'i Faith al.so stre<IBes its non-im·olvement in
pamsan politic:.. This is not. however. because it is unconcerned with
-,ocial mauers. Rat.her it considers chat it is in the process of building up an
ahemmi\·e soci:il order and the present politic::il system is divisive,
inac.leqwuc and irrcc.lecmnblc.

It is possible for more than one of these attitudes to co-exist in a religious

society. lrClll saw all three varieties of relationship between the state and
the religious leadership in che years immediately before the 1979
Re\·olution. The classical political accirude of the leading religious leaders of
Sh.i'bm, the Ayatollahs. has been one of political aloofness. The classical
political theory of Shi'ism state~ that the true political and religious leader
is the 1\velfth lmam, a me:;sianic figure who is :,aid to ha\'C gone into hiding
In o7-t CE, and whose return all Shi'is are awaiting. Since he is believed to
he alh·e and in hiding. nll politicul leadership is II usurpation or his
authority, the Wghest Shi'i religious leaders therefore held themselves aloof
from political involvement. There had always, however. been a few religious
IC!lders who dissented from this position. Some argued that order was
necessary In society for the Holy Law to be implemented and that it was
therefore a religious duty to support the ~ovcrnmcnt. Others, in the years
l1eading up to the Iranian Revolulion of 1979, argued that the rule of the
Pahlavi monarchs was hopelessly corrupc. was failing to uphold Islam and
should he overthrown. Ayatollah Khomeini is the hest known o( this latter
category.' lie. of course. eventually succeeded in o\'erthro\\~ng the Shah
and establishing a theocracy.

RELIGION AND POLITICS

Reli~ion has played many varied politicol roles in the history of the world.
It has acted as tbe primary cause of dJvision and hatred lJ.1 society, and as
120 Rll .ll;IO!\ I\ SO( It TY

lll.11t,1ors <>l'POSITI0 '1· l'o,tcr of Khomeini and u poUtlcal ,Io~an dcri,~-<l from on, .,j
K!Joruetnr, ~JX.'C<1hcs. Such l)()Mcrs e-patomltcd tl1c •plril of the !slAmlc lk\Olullon,
\\h1cb \\M rclcntlcssl, opposed lo the \\'1:s1cm powers, c,,pcctally lhc,r 111rnhcmcn1 1n
the !slami<, world

an ag<;:nt of reconciliation and peace. Reli/,\ious leaders and institutions have

acted both lo i,uppon the establii.hed authorities and to oppose them; they
hm·e acted with the forces of reiomt and chan~e and with the forces of
conscrvntism and reaction
1£ one takes a lon~-tenn view. one can i,ay tb:u rell~ion ha,, not been
very succesi;ful in coming to ternts with power There ha,·e heen a fey,
periods wbcn cxccptional individuals have been able co maintain a balance
between reli~ion and power, resultin~ in a brief ~olden 34e. The rule oi
Emperor Ashokn in lndia, Byz:mtium herween tl1e fourth and siJt:th
centuries CE, and the period of the first four caliphs of Islam arc periods oi
this (altbou~ even these periods have heen criticized hy historians)
O\•crnll, however, L11c relation ship between religion and power ha~
oscillated between extreme:.. Ar one extreme, reli~ion becomes o,•erhl!an~
and tyrannical, thus stifling creari\·ity and pro/lress; at the ocher extrem<.c
religion Is ignoretl antl Ll,e society loi.cs its morality antl cohesiveness
Political rnlers have also played a major pare 111 advancln,t rhe incere.,ts
of L11cir own religion. In India, for example, some Individual ruler. of thio
Mauryan, Gupta and Mu4hal dyna,.uei, have playetl an Important role in tl1e
advancement of their own personnl reli{\ion (Buddhist, llindu and Mu.,hm
rc~pccli\'cly). The fortunei, of llinduism declinetl In the face of the advance
of Buddhism for some 1000 years but then llindui<;m reas..ened itself and
Buddhism was almost eliminated fmm India (sec timclinc on p. 422)
Reli~on hai. clearly been a maJor faccor In shapln~ the polillci, of the
world since World \\'or II. The llindu-'.\.luslim riots char occurred Juring the
partition of India, the Palestim.'-bracl conllict. the Lebanei,e co1Ullct, the
problems in Northern Ireland, Cyprus and In the Balkaru, have all inv(ll,ed
religion ns :m importunt or predominant divishc factor Religion has,
however, also played a role ln peace and reconciliation • The Carholic
 lo R£LIU10N, 110\\'t.R A.ND 1:oVEltNMEKT H I

Church hus plarcd $uch :'I role in places such ns

Xic.irn~ua and chc Philippine~, ond the
Protesrnm churches played :m importnnl part in
o,·crcoming apartheid 111 South Africa.
lnc.livic.Jual rdi~ious h.:atlers such a~ t.he Oalai
Lamo have become noted intcmntional
od\'OClltcs of pc:wc.
Ourinl! the ume that the Cold War
dominntec..l international politics, religion wa.s a
minor factor that wa:, often O\'erlooked in the
polilical evaluations made by statesmen and
TIit: OPPOSITIO'< TO ,\P.\RTllf.10:
political analyst., . .\lost lenders and intelleccuub
Archbishop Trevor Huddleston
in the West assumed that religion in other pares
(1913--98), ru, Anglican clergyman
of the ,vorld would follow the s:ime course that it and one of the foremost
h!Ui in the West; at would gradually fade in opponencs or apartheid. recclvin!l
importance and become an irrelevance. Marx an aw.ird In rec<>iinlalon o( his
considered religion to be the 'opium' of the achievements from the Baha'i
community of Britain. 1988
oppressed masses:

The h~is oi Irreligious criticism ls: Mtm makes rcli[!io11, religion docs not
make man .
Religious misery !s In one way the expression of rent misery, and in
another n procest ngalnst real rnlsery. Religion Is the sith of tbe. aillicted
creature, the soul of II hearde.•s world. as it is nlso ahe spirir of spiriiless
condltion.s . Ir ,~ the opium of the peopfc.
The abolition of reli,l!lon as the 1//u..~~· happiness of the people ,s the
demand for their real happiness. The demand ro abandon the illusions
about tl1cir condition io the dem«nd w .ii,t,e up u ,-ondicion chat require;;
illusions Hence criticism of religion is. In embryo a cridcism of chis 1JOle
of ccars who~c bolo is religion '

Paralleling Marx's assessment, ic was thought chat, as people became more

educaccd and a.ftluem, they would have less need for and less interest in
religion. Symptomatic of the \\'est's blindness towards the importance of
relistion in other parts of the world was the wa~, in which the religious
factions in Lebanon who had been Ci~ting each other for ocmurles I\Crc
lahelled 'left-win!\' and 'ri,l\ht-1\in~' forces by the press and statesmen in the
\\'est for the l'irst decaclc of the J,ebanese civil war of 1975-92.
lt was perhap!. the lslumic Revolution in Iran in 1978-9 and the Wei.ts
subsequent dealings with lhe Jslamic Repuhlio there that signalled to many
the error that hac.J heen committed ln ilismbsing religion prematurely. Time
anti a~ain. mistakes were made by America and the otlier \\'estem powers
in their dealin!l,5 ";th lrnninn l~L,rnic movemenlQ, precisely hcc:.iusc the
rclij\ious factor "ru, ignored or uudcrcbtimatcd EYents in lnrn and tho
~Uddle East were consistently interpreted in political and economic terms.
President Carter mistook the [!Jamie oi,posicion for :1 movement nrising out
 122 Rf: 1.1<:ION ll\ M>CJ•:TY

- Religious
Developments

2S00
Political
Developments

E,,bc,1 ,id., ' 1111 • ,wt..

...-
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 lb IU:LlrnON , 1'0\\'~.lt ANIJ !al\ ERI\MEI\T
Religious
Developments
l,m ol 111111-4 SIO
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l l ~t B,rh1 10 lt!din1 6ll
""""""'''
Ab• !Ill,. h1 Clkph
d631
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Udlnwi, ltd Caliph 11.614
.11,. 41h Caliph and 111 Slit', 1.... d.661
"anyrdo<I of Huuy.. Jnl !111'1 1..., 680
Ott1IWIOO of lldi !hi'1 lmia 814 -
Sprtad of bl.im 1n1t W..1 Afnca c.1000 - 1000
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Wzm lf'RidJ It lndo!itlia ltd fiiliya c.1210
Jib! .J-Din au.., lll)lnal poet d.ll)J -
NIAb S.dn. !111'1 pb,lolOjll,,r d,IMO -
11n 'AW al>Wilihlb, dJ792 -
loundtr ofWuhilhi . , _ ,
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Developments
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~ 639
ff I
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lmmon of U""7Yad ahplu
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Ill eo...,t11 of Europe blltd by btd• of loon
110 Ovtttlww of OIIQY)1d1. a<ttiuon or
Abbn,d all phi
910 E11trttnt1 of h111111d1 in North lrrin
!12-61 ~,in or 'Abd ll-bhrnan ffl,
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1413 Ouomaa CA1nqut11 ol C..1unD11oplt
__,., 1491 llullim rultrs uptllod from Sp,i•
I 500- 1501 ll11'1 !Qlt t11JblMttl It lrJR by S.111,dl
~ 1116 llud1m "•&Jul Empire 151Jbinlltd. India
- c.1600 1;1,., prtdomin,w • Ind...,..
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....// IHI 8rimh ocarpy !apt frtndl o«upy Tu...,
--!J,
1t1t lltlut ol o,....,.
("'9"t
V 1920 CmtHIII II lr,q, Syria. l,b,nDI. jordH and
.J ~tia fnlm fonnff OttOIIWI provmc"
_,, lt4l Cm1ioo ol Paki,ian; Ea1t Palcntill
btam, 8,np!tsh • 1972
7" itll Ft.,odi"I of "Orp>,nlion ol llbl!WC
Conltr~CI (OK)
1979 blomic Rriolwoa 11 IrJA:
Ayllollab lhamtil,1 Cllmtl to po,,t<
121 KU IC110"< I'< SOCIE1'\'

o f polidclll anJ t!<:Onumic Jbs:ifr,.fm.:tion 11nd :1Jva-1.:d the Shah cm mca,urc,

w Jcmocmtizc hi-, )to\'ernmeni n nd )li\•e some relief to rhc poor 8111..'<-·cs,l\·c
\\'csll.: m ~overumcnli. have IIN>Umcd Lhul the h.wdcrshlp of Lhe blam1e
Hcpuhlie would he amenable ro C.'<>ntprnrruse and nc)lQLJtttion 11 oficrcJ
ec.'lrnomic inducements nnd r<>li11cal ucecptancc They hnvc hco.:n m a J,,,-.
to undcr-l..1nd why a o;.-ountry that was at war wah lro4 In ttJ.<;O \\a~ holdrn~
0 11 to .\mcrlc:m Embassy ho,tn~c., nnJ thu~ nntn~nniTinl\ the rc,t oi the
\\ orld; why u cow11.ry whose economic ~llllullou wu., dcchnln~ co111111ucJ un
ei)lht-ycar wnr wilh Iraq lont :1frer 1hcrc wns nny ll'rntorial or strnw,atic
poim to il, 11ml wh) u country that i:, in dc~pcrate need oi trade to bolMcr
Its failtnit economy refused for a lon)t Lime to Jtini any j\round on the issue
of the fo1w:1 ugninst Snlm:rn Ru~hdie.
Politician, who are used to the l\ivc-:md-take of normal pollncal
barJ!alnln~ cnnnot understand people who feel that they have a relil!iou,
principle that is not open to negotiat.ion. }.lost uncomforwblc of all for
\Vescern pohLlcians is the facL that IL is noL just the temporary distortlom,
produced by the proccs~ of westernization that provokes relil!lou,
opposition In Iran and elsewhere throughout the Third \\'orld, It h
westernization itself. In many socierles, people are rebellinl! at the
swamping of their culture and religion by che alien values and ma1erialh11c
asi.umpLiOnl, of Wei.tern culture. Quite apart from the i.ometimes VlOlent
anrlpathy towards me Wesc in Lhe Islamic world, there have been protests
against Western cultural import!, in India and there has been a general
movement co reject Wescem culture amonl! certain sections o( the
populations of China, Japan, and the nati\'c peoples in the ,\mericas. Thh
h, usually called a cultural rejection , but since rdil!ion b the ba:,b of cuJwre
in most societies outside the West, it is in reality also a reli~ious rejection
Such popular sentin1cnt can, of coun,c, then be manipulated poUUcally
With regard to the major political division of the la.~, half of the
twentieth century, ,,lchou)lh some religious lead er~ and reli~iuus
!nstiLUUons supported cllhcr lhe free-market capirn.llsm of lhe \\'i:st or
communism, there hos 11lso been n large body of opinion th:it hos rcgordcJ
neither of these systems as being Lhe optimum. The World Council of
Churches has criticized both political systems:

The CJ1urch should make clear that there urc L'llnihcti. bctw.,cn
Christianity and capicalism The Chnstian Churches should re.1ec1 1he
ldL'Olugic~ of both cunm1u11!1'JD and Ja.,,sci-wlri, capiuwsm unc.1 sltould ,c.,k
to dm11 men away from the false assumption that these exueml!l> ar-, th-,
only 11ltcmatives Each hns rnade promises it ,,ould not red<!Cm

The Universal llouse of Justice, the hi~hest authority in the Baha'i 1-'ruth,
has similarly Muted·

The time has come when 1hose who preach the dog,,1a~ oi mmcriulism,
who,ther of the enst or the wc..c, whether o( capitalhm or socialism, must
 11> Rt.:LIGION , POl\'ER .\NI> GOVF,RXM~:NT -1:?5

gi,·c nccoun1 nf the m orol s1cwarJ~hi1> thl'Y hove presumed lO exercise.

\\11crc is the 'new M>rld' promis"d hy these IJculogics" When: b th1.:
fmemnlionnl peaee 10 11 ho~e l<lcnls they proclaim their devotion? \\'here
""' the brcnktltniughs 11110 new realms oi euhurnl tmhtev,:111e111 produl'Co
b,· the o~rtmdlzemem of tlti• roce, of th3t nntlon or of a particular class·,
\\'hr is th<' ,·n,t mnjorit)' or 1lw worl,l's penpl.i~ sinkinA ever dee1>er into
hunger JnJ II rctcbeJnc,s wbcn \\'Calth on o seal,; undreamed of by the
Pharaohs. tl:ie CnesMs, or e,·en the imperilllls1 powcn; of the nmeteemh
ocntul)' b nt the <llspos:ol of t.hc present llrblters of hum:tn :iffnirs?'

The Islamic Rcpuhlic of 1nm, too, ha.~ determinedly pursued a 'neither Ease
nor \\'e;;1· policy, regarding America as 'the Great Satan' and condemning
Russia (prior co the foll of communism) as an atheistic State.

CIVIi, RELIGION

One interesting way in which religion and politics interact is in che

formation of civil reli~ion. The term 'civil religion' goes back LO the writi~
oi Je:in-Jncques Rousseau.'0 Recognizing chat social cohesion required a
religious underpinning, he advocated the formulation of a civil religion as a
rer,laeemenr for Christianity. As a concept, however, it has been best
analysed with regard to the Urutcc.l States." Although Christianity is the
predominant religion in the United States, a formal separation of religion
and stace is laid down in the Constitution. However, in that same
Con:.rirutlon, God is referred to several times; indeed, lhe whole tone of
public life in the United Stmes is steeped in reli)!ious im:l.l!ery and parallels.
The \\'ar o( Independence is the Old Testament flight from the Egypt of
Euror,ean decadence to the new lloly Land; che Civil War is the New
Testament redemption by hlood and sacrifice, the rebirth of the nation. The
nntional !lag, the national anr.bcm, and tltc recital of the pledge of ullegianc.-e
are the civil relil\ion's par:illels to the cross, the religious hymn. and the
recital of the creed or the Lord's Prayer. The eschatolog_v of this civil
reli~on sees God guiding the nation providentially to greater social
progress. America is rhe new Holy Land, the New .Jcruimlem, and the
.\mericnn people the new lsrael, ru:tointcd bv God, with a destiny to lead the
resc of the world to a new social salvation. Democracy, iodividu.'tl rights and
l!(IUal opporcunitic;, for each person LO r,rosper (often summarized as 'the
American Way·) arc the key doctrines of the civil theology, which b
e,i;entially a mythology - it creates a univen;e of me:min~ within which the
social order is lcgitimrucd and the individual finds meaning in life. The
lmponant dilierence between the United States and countries that nave a
st:Jte relij\ion il> that the religiosity of American r,ublic lite is non-specific;
that is, it does not relaw LO any particular sect or religion. Thus wh ile God
h frequently invoked, Chrl~t is rarely mentioned and no allusion is e\'er
made to any specific church.
126 RELIGION IN soc, ~:TY

A strotU! civil reliAion h:i,., howen:r, cxbtcc.l in scn:ral mhcr moc.lern

Mntei, "here the tic~ with reh~on hnve not been so stronj\ In '-,u,
Oermany. thi: clvtl Lh<!oloizy wm, hn&l!c.l upo11 11 natlonnllst ,tnd me,-.t
m~'tholo,j\y. M(lr,~ism is n civil rcll)t,on with a civil thcolo~· chnt nl'-0 sc-c~
lt.'ldf ai, lctu.liuJ! the world wwarch, a ~OCIRI :..'tln1cion. In th,-. c:L,e, llu.:
soh-ation follows an apocnlyplic revolution. The ~>net :Srnte in Ru,,la had
mnny of the 1rar1,ings of a civil reliition Confuci:inLsm in prc-cnrnmun,,t
China abo actec.l as a civil rellj\JOn One mittht soy that th1.: concept uf u civil
relij\Jon fle>ws direclly from the idc:is of Ourkhcim (sec pp SJ--.5) lk
m:untained that :111 i,ocial groupings have some form <>f rcliAl()u!,
underpinning in order to maintain l11e L'Oheslon of the group If thm
undcrpinning is not tt religion , then some form of ch·il religion mu,t act ns
a sub~tltute." .lust RS for mo,.t of hwnan history, people were not <.'Oru.c1ous
of hnvinJ! n religion bec:mse ic was part of their taken-for-Aranted
conceptual universe (see pp. 475-6), so most Americans are not conscious
today of livin~ within che conceptual universe of a civil rell~on It ha;, been
suMesred, however, that the current rise of cults in countries such as the
United Stales lb partially caused by the rupturing of the c.-onccpwal
universe created hy the civil reli~on, thus causi~ people to become aware
of the assumptions of that WJiverse and to st.art questioning it."

POWER AND THE R EL IGIOUS PROFE8S1ONAL

Every religion has an internal power structure. This is !Jle,1tal>le If there Is

going to be any fonn o( organization to the religion, and organization is
needed if the religion is going to grow to anything beyond II small local
grouping
In some religious groups, all authority and power is centred on one
central charismatic leader. This tends to be the pauern of ne" reliAioru. in
particular. New religious movements usually arise d1rough the teachin~ of
a charisrnalic leader :ind lllis figure is also I.be centre of power and
auchorltr for the movement \Vith the pass:i,ite of time. however, and
particulnrly with che dcnth of th e founder, se>me degree oi organization
becomes expedient (sec also ehapLCr 12).
The commonest pnctern of reli~ous organizncion involves some form of
priestly leadership and hierarchy. The opcx of the hierarchy i~ rcganli:<l a,.
the leader of tnat reli,!ious ,itroup. If the religious group 1s lar~e enou~h. lhc
leader becomes a figure of nacion:il Importance This applies in most non-
Wcstcm <.'OUIHries which have n prt.-<lominant reli~lon, moM notably Ill
Iran, "here the highest reh~ious lender has a fom1a l place in the po,\ cr
stnacwre; also in Thailand, where the lca<ling Bucldhii.t ahhot is o '>ttltc:
dlgtiirnry. IL could C\'ell be said co appl) to the Unitc<l Kla~dom. where
bishops and nrchbishops sit in the House oi Lords
With large rclJtious groupings. spcctal cducmional focilitic.., tmln
people for che priesthood Not ;;!\'Cry reliition h:1s a prie1-chood hut c,·11n
 II, Rt;LJ<:tOl> PO\\'f;R AM\ (l0\'ER:SMEST 427

~:-,
,

~ \
a

m~ I\U.l<.IOOb ~ROrE."'l<l~.\L Rdlgion oonfors great authority and powtr upon

ITt\\l:R ,\.,ll
reJWou., pro(<=lonab and ln mo,,l tn1<.hUonal ..ocletlcs lay people d~fcr greatly lO them.
a) A Mu.,llm cleric 41,ing the Friday sermon at a mo><jue In Nicosia, Cyprus. b) A Tba,
Buddhist priest J!Winl! a sermon ,n the Phrn Sri Rattana Satsadarnm (Wac Phrn Kaeo) In
the Grand Palace enclosure in Banj!kok, Thailand
·1211 IU,LIOIOS IN :-lOt'll:. IY

those thtH do not, ha,·c some form of power ,truoture 1,lam, for example.
ha, no pric:ltho<><I, hut the ulcma, a, a learned eln,~, fonu II flO\\cr \tructu,~
111 the lctahstlc rcll;!ion "hich n::prn;,cnt,- maln,trnant onhod(lxy Th1.: S1111
:.lmykhs hend :in alternative power srructurc n, h,md!, of my,lienl nr<lcn,
~ut surprbln~ly tltere b often frl etiun het\\ ccn lhc,c t ,, o.
The Baha'i Faith, coo, h:is no prl.!:,thood The rell~ion 1, orj\am,cd on
the hu.,is of council, elected at the loonl, nmiunal ant.I intcmmlnnal k•\l:I.
Power nnd authority ltrc vested in the council, tJicm,ch·cs and not m the
inclh·icluab voted onto t hcse hodici, ncci1-ion~ nrc mndc h:11,cJ on
consultution und then consensus or majority vocc on these ~'Ouncil,.
Ilindu reliitlnus leadership m:i.y take various forms The Brahmin, arc thl'
prie:stly c._'tste nml hnve an institutional hereditary leadership. There on.: ul:,o
many ~urus cxcrcisinj\ a more ln<llvullllll charlsmmic style oi iea<lersh1p. In
Buddhist counrries. religious organii:tlion takes the fom1 of monks livin~ 111
monru,tcrlcs. The hca<l monks or nbbots of the mo,.;t pre:.ti~ou., mona.-.u:riL~
arc usually <.'OnsiderLxl the le11dinl:! rcli~ous ~ures in rhe counrn·
The power stn,cture within each religion is the agent for chnnncllln~
Lhc considerable power of religion 1n ,0<:iety. Since the central rdi~lou,
experience is very pcrson:11 and pri,·ntc, 1' if one were bcin,i cynicnl, one
t.'Ould say tltat it ~ves no one any opportunity to have power over others,
or to accumulate ,,·ealtlt, or to achieve scams. And yet clearly reli~ion i~ :i
,·cry powerful force for motivating human beings Therefore. it i~ not
surprlsin~ thac many have soughc to channel the power of reli~lon towards
more immediate worldly goals. Only by producing communal, soci:11
expression., of the central religious experience con these worldly aims be
achieved. Thus the paths of salvarion described in chaptcr 5 (mona.,licbm,
gnosticism, ritualism and so on) can, in sociological tem1s, be :--cen n.,
mechanisms to channel and utilize tJ1e power of religion t;11forcw1ardy for
the world of relij\ion, much of this use of the pmhs of salvmion h:is hcen for
the most worldly of reasons.
l. To AC.:UU,-Vl STATUS.Since Lhe central experience of rdi~on u, :,o
import:mt to so many, rhe reli~ious professional, who ii, closely
associated in people's miml~ with that experience, u:,ually has a billh
su11us in society. This is true aL the le,·el of a villa~e "here Lhe v1llaf!t'
priest, mull:ih or shnmon is one of the notohles of chc area and 11!-o at
the hithest levcb of soclcry, where the head of th<: rchl!iou~ lucrarchy ~
a digniwry of state
2. Tt, M'.IIIEYE PO\\'F.R . ~!any of the p:iths to i.alvarion descrihcd in chapter 5
re4ulrc some cype of religious profo~s1onal, whether Lo pcrfonn the
ritual, LO interpret the Jlolv L:iw or co pass on esoteric knowled~e This
person can then use his (for it is usually a mnn) position n.~ :t h:isis for
power. This power can become very cunsidurnhle. The pope l11 the
Midtlle ,\itcs \\~elded ~reat power ha~ed on his position at the head of the
Roman Catholic Church lie was the tempornl ruler over n lnl)'.\e part of
Italv :rnd aho ru1J con~lderable influence and po\\ er tliroughout the rc-"l
 It,· REl,IGIOl-. PO\\ ER \NO GO\'£RXME:-IT 129

Jt..s.·s
Then sail! .lcsus lo I.he cro\\ ds, and w hls disciples. 'The
scribes t1nd the Phnn.~ccs sil on Moses' <~It; so pmctise and
observe whalcwr they tell you, hue rmt what ,hey do, for they
rrc.wh, hue do ,w, pr,,ctiw Th1:y hind h-,o,·y hur,luru., hunl
to b-,:lr, 11nd lay lhcm on mt,n'b bhould,r.; but tl,-,y
Tm: L E,\DF.RS Of' thcm:,dnis "IU not move them with their Rngt,r. They uo all
RELICIOX tbe,r de~>ds to be »Ct!n by m~n: for they make their
phyl:icteries broad and their mo,l!cs Ion)!. and rhey IO\·e lhc
CO:Sl)E.\fXF.O BY Tl IE place of honour nt foosts and the Ix-st seaL~ in th,; synagoi1ues,
nnd s,1lutations in th" markt!I placx:!., and being called rnhbi
rOUJ\IOERS OF by men
' Bue '"'" to )·ou, scribes o.nd l'ha.risccs, hypocrites!
RELIGION Bec,iw.e you shut the kin!ldom of he,mm e~aonst men. for you
neither enter yourseh-es, nor allow I.hose who would cncer co
/!O in
·Woe 10 you, scribes and Pharise<:s, hypocrites! for you
lilhe mim and dill and cummm , and ha\'c ncglect<!d the
wclgh1icr mmters or lhc bw, justice nnd mercy and faith ...
' \\'oe 10 you, scribe, nnd PhariSties, hypocrite,,! for you
clean the outside of the cup and of the plate, but inside they
are full of euonlon and rapacity . ' (Mouhe,,, 2.)·l- 7, JJ,
:t,, 25)
ML11,UtMAll
They bn"~ iaken lheir IJe•vil:hl <1011tor. of law and their
[Chri<tlanl monks and e,·en the Messiah son of Mary as lords
h,,.,ide Cod, whe11 th,,y """' bidden 10 wurship the one
Goo Fain would they put out Cod's li~ht with their
mouths, but Gou 11.ould not allow l>u1 tl1u1 !Ui, llgbt be
perf.,cted, howevtir moch I.hey who do nol belle1•e may delt!Sl
thii, . 0 ye who beliew' There are many of the (Jewishl
doctors oi law and the (Chrisnanl monl<s who by falsehood
devour the wealth of th" people and deb.1r men from the [Xllh
of Cod ,\nd they who hoard up t!nld and silver and spend it
not In tb., pilth or God. umo them !)h·c tiding. of a ,.,,·ere
penalty. (Qur'a,i 9..Jl-:?, 34)
8:'-u.,'vtutr
Leaders o/ religion, in ever)' ngt, have hindered their people
from ncmmlnl\ the shore~ of eternal salvation. luasmuoh as
the,· held the rein• of authority 111 I.heir m1i1luy itmsp. Some
ror the lust of leadership, others cbrou~ want of knowledi;:
and underscandinl!, have been the cause of the dcpri,·auon of
the people. Ry their sanction nnd nuthoricy, e\'ety Prophet of
God hmh drunk from the chnlice of sacrifioc, nnJ winged Iii~
flight unto Lile heights of glof)'. \\'hut unspca.k11blc cruchWs
they I.hat hove OCCtlpied the seats of nuthoric~· and learning
have lnOictetl upon the true Monarchs of the world, I.hose
Gems of dhine •inue! ('.oment with a rrnn.•itory dominion,
they ha,·e dcpriYcd them.;eh-es of nn evcrlastinl! son,rei,l\nl}'.
Thus, their eyes hchcld not the li4)u oi the countenance of
I.he Wcll-Bdovud, nor did their t'1lrs hearken unto the ~weet
melodic_. of the lllrd of O..:SlN ..
1,lO RH 1(,1(11' I\ SOCIE1'

,\lllotU! the~-.: ·,·ctJ., 01 ,!lor)· arc thl· c.11\'tn\.·~ .,nJ lloo1nr,

1h In~ ln 1hc Jay.:-. ot the Mumfl·,1.Hto11 ut Ctkl, \\hu, 114.'1;.llhC:
uJ t1H.:1r "Httl of db.l'i.!rnuu.:nt ltnd their l,•H.: uuJ 1,;;Jt!\;rm,:A-"} rur
katlc")up. haH: IJJlt...-J tu ~uhmll to th\.' Can,l' iJl (;oJ. Jl.l}
h;tvc- t:\·t.·n n.•fu~·<l tu lnl!lJHL' thctr l':,r, mu,1 lh'-· ll1\Uh.
Mdo,1,· ,\ml thl· rc<>J>lc nh11, utterly l~1orlnJ! 1;,,J aml
tnkin~ tlu:1n tor tlu. u ma,tcrs hn\ c pliu.:..:,l th,:rn~h,~
unr1.:~cncJh uut.h.:r th-.: a111)10rfty ul tl11.:"--.:- p•,m110u, .md
ltH~"-'rlLJc:tl lc,ukr, cll:ihu'u°ll.,h. Ji1111l1-1-h11m , l'I' IS-11,,
t t,~'
Tm 1311,11,u
t•ort!mtt,L ht \.'lttu~ \\crc the tl1t.:H 01· ulJ
Those hmhmin, who rcmcmhcrl-.1 ,uw,.-111 rul""
In them \'odl J!,u.irdcJ were 1hc door. ot ,<:11"'
They had achic,'l'<I 1he mn,wr)· nr \\rnth
In mc"<ht.uuun oni.l lh<' :-lnm1 lllhammal 1hc~ ,,,.,k Jd,.,,ht,
'rho~c hral1111m~ who rcm1..:mh<:n-J m1cu.:nl rule, ,
Llut tJ1coe h::ick~lidcrs wilh t.helr 'Lcl u:, r~-cltc ,
l>runk with tJw pride of hu"lh. walk wronl!fully
O'ercome h>· \\rnlh. e,ce,,d,nl( Vil)len,
\\'carlnj\ rotJ.llh h,d~. and ma11cd hair and iULh.
Ch8ntin.M ri-nd empty rite, and pen11nces.
Jlyrocrlw and chcadnj\ and t.hc rod.
\\'ash in~. nhlut.ions. rin,inii., oi 1hc mouth -
Tlu,<c nru dw """'L~mnrks oi ,he bmhn11n folk,
Thing~ i.lonc and prautisci.l for ,om~ uifllng gmn .
(Sam:,,ttwNikuya 4.1 Ii, In Book qf K11uln:d IS«,>i1&ga,
p. 74, see P. 11asclleld, Vi'f)mc /k1,dumm. I' I 5-1)

of Europe. In the East, the Dalai Lama ruled Tibt:t m, temporal and
spiritual sovereign until 1959, based Oil bil, reli~ous claim to ht: the
reincarnation of the bodhisarl'C:a Avalokiteshvam. In the Islamic world
the A~ Khan holds spiritual authority over scveral million Jsma'ill:, by
virtue of hii. claim to a spiritual station through de.~ccnt: more recent!~·.
we h;ive S<lcn Ayatollah Khomeini come to power in Iran on the basis of
his religious leadership. On a lesser level, other reLWous paths such as
gnosticism, ritualism, or legalism give indh•idual religious proiession:ils
power over smnller groups of JPCOple, ranging iroru smnll congn,.gation.s
to followi n.¢; of thousands.
.1. To ,~L\SS WEALTll. Religious -professionals of all cypes can expect that in
return for their function of performing rituul, interpreting the Uoly L:iw
or i.ntimatlnj\ esoteric knowledge, they will recel\'e some reruunenuion:
the greater their perceived sanctity. the greater the cxpcctccl
effectiveness of their rclij\ious minbvacions, and therefore the greater
the remuneration. Besides this, the hl~her a person is ln the relistiolL~
hiemrchy, the more opportunity thnt person has for panuking in the
riches accumulated by religious lm,litutlons over the <..>cnturics. Ia m:111y
 II, Rl:.LIOION . l'OW8R MIil (10VERN~1hNf ~3l

p:1rts of the world. religious in~tilutions have acquired extensive

endnwment.s, which are administered by reli~ou:; profe~slonals.

This critique of I.he rclil!lous professional ls not Just an outsider's view. ll

reflects some of the su1tements mnde hy the founders of the world's
rel,gions themseh·cs. The Buddha, Christ, Muhammad and Baba'u'llnh al.I
.:ririoized the reli.1tious leaders of their day for their i.ecking after power and
wealth and choir subsequent oorruplion, their obstruction of the new
religious tmtl1 that the founder was uying to brim\ because of their desire
to hold on to their power. and their igllornnce of the spiritual as distinct
from u1c outward meaning of their own scriptures (sec also pp. 429-J0).
This Is not, of course, intended to imp.ly that all reli,ltious professionals
enter tlleir field i11 order to achieve power or amass wealth. A large
proportion of them are undoubted.ly very genuine in their vocation, but one
can also point to an uncomfortably large number who, having perhaps at
first come Into their cal.ling from genuine motives, have eventually used
their position for tllese world.ly purposes.

F URTHER RE,\DING

On legitimation and the symboHc universe, see Berger and Luckmann, The
Social Conslroction of Re.alit_y: B. L. Smith, Religion and Le~itimation of
Power in Sowh Asia. On religion and power, see Merkl and Smart. Religion
and Politics in cite Alodent World. On ,civU religion, sec BcUal1, lk,yond
Belief (pp. 168-86) and 'Civil Religion in America'; Henry, The lmo..,·icatio11
of Power. On the role of religion in reconciliation and peace, see Johnston
and Sampson, Rdigion, the Alissing Dimension of Suuecreft.
 Rg1,101 C>N AN o G ~:Nn~:R

has come very much LO Lh1; fore 111

111s Ql't:snoi. 01, RELIGIUS ANll Lf.NDER
reoem years. ln theory this topic includes both masculim: and rcmlninc
peri.pcctivcs on reh~ion. In pn:toticc, howc,·cr, since most studies of rcli~on
have used the masculine pt:rspcctlve as tlwlr nonn, lhe i.tudy of thb issuc
has boiled down to an examination of the feminine perspccti\·e. It would
perhaps be tLqcful LO start with a few definitions. While 's!!.t' refer- to tl1c
biological difference between male and female, '!!ender' refers to the
~ooially constmctcd role~ and culrurnlly created images of the feminine and
masculine. This chapter looki, ai ilie features of the patriarchal society tn
which we live and the ways in which 1his oppresses and disadvantal!es
women. We sh:ill nlso examine the topics of the femall.! archerrpe, religion
and sexuality, the feminist study of religion, and various feminist aucmp11-
10 re-create religion.
Feminist writers ha,·c focusL-d auention on two particular wayi. in
which religion has been used: to hunress patriarchal society in 1L,
suppression and control of women and 10 support the androcentric ( man-
centred) worl<lvicw tl111t controls the thought structures an<l lan,l\ual!.: of
most societies in ways that undcn·aluc and exclude the contribution of
women. Much of what has been published on thil> i.ubjcct lo recent ycan.
relates 10 Christianity. Neverthcles~. most of the comment:. that fol1011
apply equally to the ocher world religions.

TIIE H ISTORY AND CIIARACTERJSTICS Of PATRL\RCllY

Although \\hat follows lo the next few paragraphs Is bas(.><l 011 cmpinc.tl
evidence, 1hc interpretation of that e,;dence hy femi11is1 writer,- is 1101
unconlcl>ted. ,\,- with most other areas oi the study of reli~lun, therefore it
L~ <ltfflcuh to be Cl/rtain of the factual base of the fomini:,t , ie" of rcl1J!1011
Conscc1uently, ahhou,l\h we cannot he :,urc that the followinl! arc the
historical fncL~ concerning the evolution of our patrlareh:tl soch.:tlci., they
arc certainly the my,:holoit~· uron which feminist reli~ion hai, ht!en huilt
Some archaeologists consider that the cvidencl.' suggests that ~ocicucs
in prclustory and early antiquil)' ~Ave ,a ~rcater predominanct! to f1.:1m1k
deities than to male ones. The atricultural-hascd civilizations of the Middle

IJ2
 l 7: RE l. lGIC>N A:-1ll tH:NIH:R ~JJ

E:ist, for example, saw the sprouting of the crop from the soil
as nnalo2ous to the icmulc p,ivinP, hlr1h , Since the fomwr
process umlcrpmncd tbe whole or society, the l:uter hec11me
l11c :.rmbol of this In crcmion myths ccntr-.'tl un fcmalc
dc11ies le was the inOux of nomadic herdin,it tTihcs. peoples
not dcpcmlent on agriculture, such os the lndo-Europc:1ns in
Europe and the Israelites in the Middle 1!:a~t, chat brouP,hc this
sr:igc to nn end. Mnlc w:irrior deiries rcplnccd the fcmnlc
.ul,riculuiral ones. This change occurred at varying limes in
This is n depiction of
difierem puns of the world. In central Europe, there is (1 great the Middle Eastern
Jcal or archaeological evidence that female deities were fertility goJdc,s
predominant in prehistoric times :md tbc ch(mj!e appears to known under ,·nrious
have occurred during the fourth millennium BC&. In Grcec..-e, name~ - lstane,
Astarte. Ashtaroth,
the older female earth-mother goddess, Gala or llera, was
.\sh terot h, nnd
dbplaced in importance by the male god Zeus. There is also lshuir - from
hihlical evidcm..-e that the worship of the female Canaanite &bylonin nnd
~oJdess ,\shtaroth (cquivalem to the Babylonian fertility A.~yrln to Cnnoan
~<less lstarte and the Phoenician ~oddes :\stane) was aml Pboen~-cia and
even as far as Arabia
widespread th roughout the Middle East. even among the
and Ethiopia
Jew:,.1
From the m:my examples of this pattern
or chllngc from fomale to male deities.
Joseph CampbeU bas suAAested four sta,!\es in
the c,·olution of the creation myth in Europe
and the Middle EaM:

l The world born of a goddes~ alone;

2 The world born of a goddess fecundated
bv. a male consort·.
J The world fashioned from the body of a
godde:,s by a male warrior god;
4 The world created by the unaided power
oi a male god.'
lo paraUel to this more important place for
goddesi.e:, in prehistory, there is :also
e,idencc that in maoy. if not most, societies
of that lime. women held a much more
important place. It does not :ippear that
women were ever dominanc in most
societies In the way that men now are; in
other words, true matriarchal societies J l'DAJ~t, A ~L\TRlLI1''EAL Rf.Ll<.JIOt·s

probably did nOl exist. lt is argued, however, Co)tMtl'.'ITY: The Sab!,ath c-Jndles are lit
ond n proyer is bcin!l said by a .lcw
that most prehistoric societies were from Bokharo in Ccn~rol Asia
mntrifocal (rocuScd on the mother or women
1,\-1 1H,l,l(, IOS IS ~ucn. f\'

J•'t.•ttfu1t,· .f,J, tltt.• , l11fl fruw u 't..~1rntu 1-<"- ,rJr·ul 111 u lttJ H I
L·t:ut11.·tl "'dt..'Utl :iilnu..-run' llaN ltt..·c..u u.t•t·umuluh~l ) rum
an.lun:,.,lu:.:.,,•. m,\tho/o!Jy 1..uu.l untlu,,1,olol.!.,\' nt..•.1oll,11r11t,J!
, . , .,sm/c {1"11111 th, //111,/11 _,.n,,tur., lilt' \l,1h.1hhar.11a.
pro•t•1rfr~ -.:tDrth.· 4,.'{;'11/t-nc."'l tlwt ,,_, 1/11.. time.• ,,.,,, th,-. h,,.,,k C.."'•ww
11

"""npab.-,/ le l\frh c.'t·lltun• tit El. th1ti c•l10,u?c:- m rlu. ~oc.:,,,J

FHO~I l,[.\TlllFOC.\I. t1r1lt. r 'tt-...-1~ in 1/u. ,.,,, ti"{ f".'' 1/,,r,uu ,,.,"', In rlau 1,u!',,J1.t.1,1,·. 1\11-,:
r,01,lu ~,-k.uk1.:..., to h,., (;ritl1!~ huuta
ro l'.\I Hl\ll<"II.\J.
llut I ,h,1II ll!ll\ tdl thee ahout thl· pr,1c11cc• "' nlJ lmli.-oh,d
811( II· n 1,y IIIIIMrlC11" l(j,1,t, 1,,1~.-1 full\ Ul'tlllallllctl "hh </\C'1' nifu
ol wur.a..litf () lhou oi hutu.l!'nlth: (.U,.'\.: .anJ \W-.;.1; t ,11111-.:s,
\\onu..:n fonncrl~ w4.:rc not unmun.:d \\lthln houlitCS :anJ
dcr,.:nJcnt ,,n h11,t>and, nnd oth\!r rd,m-., lhcy ""'d to 1,'o
nhn111 frcch· c111oy 1n~ "' hcsi hkcd lhcm 1hc,• tlt<l nut
then nd horc to 1hc1r hu,ha111I, tunhtufly, nnd v.i t I
homhomc on1.:. lhc~ wcr,· not r~,carJt.·c.1 s111iul, for 1hm \\1h ,tw
s~tncuonoJ U!'-i-i.14t: ot tht.: umcs. ThBt ,cry usa~ ls 10IJ1nu.:J to
thi, Ja~ by lmtl,, and h<!asu, without o:xhibmon <>l jc:oou,y.
Thal practice, <ancrloncd hy prCL'(.'()cm ts applauded b~ l?fcal
Ri,hl, .\ nd thl! p ractiL-e " ycr r<1!;)rd<'(I with re<,1"'<·1
omonl;Sl the northern Kuni, Indeed th;s u<atc •o 11:01,111 10
women huth th<! sonctlon of tlfltlt1uity The pr""'"' practk.:,
ho"cvcr. hath hcen cswhfl,hcd hul futdy
h hlllh been bean! by us Ullll there \\lb a ~cal ~ ol
name Vdd:nlaka The Rlsht'~ wn Sheiakt:cu, hm• c\Lt,
disapp roved of the Jancie nrl us.,t!o and esrohli.shed m lhc
world the pre, en1 1~s.1Jll, "-' re~-ird, men nnd wnmcn ft hn1h
hccn h c:,rd by u., thnt the cxhtin~ prncliet.- d.11-,, from
llrnt period llmtJO/t human hc,ng, but not amooit b.:lng., of
other cl:c,,_c,. AcoordJnl\)y, ,Inc:., the nlJlbfl,hmcnt of the
prll!>E:n l u,;age. It lo Mnful for wom~n not to ndhere to lht!tr
hushand.s Women trans,i!res.slnl! the limits a."sl~ cJ hy the
Ri,hi become ,l!uilt)' or lequivulen l 10) ,laym,I! t he
embryo T he wornnn al.so \\ho, hcin~ com mruidcd by her
hmbnn d to rmM: up off,-prinl) rcru,,._,s lU J., hb l>iJJll\ll
b.!oomc1h equofly >inrul. (Muhablurrutu, ed. ltoI, At/, f>uroa,
Samblw,.:a l'aroa, 122, vol 1, pp. 355-i)

in the ~ocie ty) and ma trilineal (descent was ide ntified thro ugh the mothe r)
This mea ns thaL wc:lal relallonshlp:. we re Ct!Otred o n the women in the
w oup. The core of the gro up would hove bee n o ~mall numbe r 0 1
lnte rrc:l:ned wome n (mo thers ru1d daughLc rs, for exrunph,). The male<, wer<:
only loosd y assocuned with this eemral _l\ro up and would. at tim1.:s. mon:
fro m group to group A1wc hcd to the cc nLrnl core of wome n. the childre n
wo uld, therefore, idcnlify th-,mselves wllh their m oLheri,. It may cn:n be
tha t rhe sij\ninca nce of the male role in procreation was not realized umil
cc,mpa rath'ely laui.'
It is thou,$ t lhat matrifocal, matrilineal socie ty wm, viable a;, Ion~ ru.
human socie ty consisted of ;,mall groups lili nj\ in rclmive isolarion from
each other. i\s groups began w lhc in larger numbl:rs and 111 closer
 17 R~:LIGION ANO GENUER -IJS

proximity, power rclntionships developed both within and between groups.

Warfare led to a male-dominated warrior culture and the emergence of the
patriarchy (rule b~· the father or the men ln the society) that exists as the
social norm toclay.
Some femlnist writers hav.,; tried lo dct'l.ne the c:haraeterlstic features or
p:itriarchal and matrlfocal societies. In a IJ}Otriorchy, power is the supreme
\ltlue. Those \,ho ha,•e power arc important; the)' arc taken notice of; their
de~ are recorded m the newspap<:rs and la the blstory books. Those who
do not have power are i,tnored; they do not count; they ore not even 'seen'
in the social structure, in the sense th.:1t no ac:c.'Ount is taken of them when
decisions :ire made; they do not appear in the histo~· books Patriarchal
society can be characterized as giving the grc:11est value to power,
auchorlty, control, victory, owncrsb.ip. law. cour3Ae and strength. lts main
interactions are p0wer struggles and competition. The ends justify the
means Rc~ults arc expressed in tenru; of victory or ddcaL There are only
pornts for the ,,inners in such a society, none for the runnerS-np. It is
epitomized hy tradition, instirutions, civilization and conuol over the
natural world.
In II matrifocal society, the hil!hest values are nurturinl!, life-giving,
compassion, sensitivity. spontaneity, creativity and ghing support to
others. The principal interactions are mutual and tl()-operative. The means
are as 1mp0rtant as the ends. Succc,;s is judged by the dcArce to which the
1..-ondlLion 0£ all is bettered. Ith, epitomized by family life and participation
in the natural world.
Some research in the nrea of social psychology has tended to confirm
these j!enerallzatlons. \\'ork on moral d<.>vclopmcnL in boy:, and l!irb bas
found si~ificant differences in the way that they approach moral
qu~tions. Boys tend to clli.tancc rherru;clvci. from a problem and try to gain
an o,·ervicw of it, they try to take the persp<:ctive of others; and chey try to
apply abstrnct and rational concepts of justice. Girls, on the od1er hand,
tend to :.cc moral problems in terms of individuals who are bound together
in a CQmplex weh of relationships: each person has responsibilities cowards
others as well as tow:irds the group as a whole; moral decisions need.
therefore to be analysed la terms of their effect upon th.is whole network of
relationships '

T IIE SUPPRESSION OF \VOMEN BY RELIGION

In brief then, just os the female deity was suhjugated by the male warrior
Jtod, so women have been socially subjugated by men in most societies.
Since, in most societies, it is relij\ion that establishes the social norms, it
bas been rellgion that bas created the androcentrio conceptual and social
framel'ork for patriarchy. IL has done this. by subjugatint women in several
ways
 IJ(, IIFl, ICIOS IN socu;-ry

T/11: l)t1l"ln11al S11µprc:;llit>1i ,~i ll'11mcn

1'hc conccpcuol basis for chc supprc,-~1011 of women
can he found in many n.:litiou~ doctrines. ellh.:r
O\'crtly or hy inference. Uod 111 mo~l uf the world
rcliitlon~ i~ :1 m11lc fl~urc; the pmphct- foundcr~ of
the relil!ion~ an: also mole This ~in.i~ much 1mpl11:J
v,1luc to the male Molli. :ti, opposed to the fcmnlc .
In C.:hris1i:mity, 1he hihheal 'lnn· of f:,c's
rm Ck! \JIUS rn \\'<>\~\S: E,·c urcotion ouc oi ,\d:1111':- ~Ide has been u,cd
l,clnj\ crc:uc-J iro m u rib taken doc1 rina lly to :,upport womi::n';, infcrinr ,ocial
ITI!m ,\,fom', s,ue
posi1ion.' This w:1s rcinfon.-ed hy the .:n1er4cne1. of
((;.:uc.~is .:? 2 1-22) Michclan~dn',
dcpie1 inn on I he ccilinl\ of 1dc11s of ho<ly-{,pirit du3lity. derived from 1111:
rite Sistine Chnpd Greeks, and the idea that everv1hmj\ mn1cnol is
u,·U and e,erythin~ of the :.piril b Aoo<l, dcri,cJ
from rhe Manieheans \\"omen wcrc, of eour,e.
ru.soci:itcd with the bo<ly and men wilh spirit In
Romao CathoUeism in pnrtic:ufar. lllis led lo an
nhhorrcnec of sex nnd nn idcali:i:nrion of cdib:icv
aud chastity. Thw, lhe sexual a~ociatiou "tlh
women that occurs In marriaAc hecame somethm~
1ht11 i;, s1;:cond-hcst, somethin/;t that i:, left to lei..wr
monals. The truly \irtuous and spiritual man
rem:iins chaste and celib:ire, unconcaminittcd h}'
association with women. Such fccllngi, have led to
profoundly misotynist statements, e\'en from th.:
Tut ~AU : ln Chru.llan th1....,lo~·.
tht! blame for humanity', fall Church fathers. A similarly anui~oni~tic ntutudc
from paradi;e lies ,.;th toward!. sexual hucrcoursc , and therefore t0wards
wnmanklnd The fir~c man nnd women , appears in many Buddhist texts and is also
woman li.-cd in the paradisic:d the idc:tl in lhc Hindu sannyttsirt tradition.
(brdcn or Eden It was Eve who
"as "l!llk nnd, tempted by tbc
serpent, au, of tbe forbidden The .\for a/ Suppression of \\'omen
fruit. This caused Adam and
t,;,·c to be driven out o( f'.denThe anri-t'emale tone in reli~ious doctrine and
(O"1wi<is 3·1- 2~ l In this detail concepts hccomes cmhodied in the moml swnce
from Michclan~lo's t>9inUni!
caken by religions. \\'omen arc considucd
on the ccillfli! oJ the Sb.tine
Chnpcl. icmale culpab1llty is inherently more sinhil ch:m men :md li:thle to lead
cmplusized bv also ginnl\ the men 111t0 temptation and sin. Thh. ha., JcJ to um..-qual
~erpent o woman·~ foce. moral standards bein~ expected of mcn and women.
\\'omen are expected to he modest, cltastc nnJ, :It
d1e ctme of marria~e. virgins. Men, on the otJ1er
hand, are exctll>ed the occosionol sexual dalliance or visit to o prostlrure
The llindu scriptures depict women as not fit to lend independent lives,
bur ratJ1er as necdln~ to he l!uarded aAainst their nnrural inclinations
towards e,·il. Similar srntcmcnis occu r In the writinits of reliwous scholars
In Christiani~·. Ishim and Buddrusm.
 Ii: Rf:LIWON ANO <.lt:;Nllt;R -137

IIL~J>l'l~I
le is t11e nmurc of women 10 seduce men In llus (world), for
lllilt reason, the wl;;e 11re nc,1,r unj!uardt!tl in (the company
of) fomolcs. For women ore nhle to lcod astray in (lhis) wnrld
n<>l only n fool, hu1 even o learned mon, nod (lo make) him o
sl3ve of desire ,u11l nngcr
Nt:G.\Tl\'E RELIGIOL'S (\\11cn crca11ng lhem) Manu ulloued to -.omen (11 love of
\'!f.WS Of' \VO~IEN their) bed, (of their) scat onJ (their) om,u11cnt1,. 1mpurc
desires. \\Tath. dlshonescy, mollce. and bad conducL (/-'"""~
q/Manu .2::?lJ. p . 6(): 9:14, p. JJO)
Even if ~·born and gifted with beauty and possessed of
pro,ectors !Le. husbands, fothers or hrotlters l, women ,vish
10 trnnsArcss the rcst:raims nssij\ncd 10 them. This fault truly
nuachcs 10 them, 0 Nor:idn There 15 nothing lhut is more
sinful thon women. \'crlly, women nre the root of all evil~.
(The 1,11~ 131tlshmn tcttcltlng \'udhlshthlm about women ,
quoting the words spoken by the celestial Pnnchachud:l 10
Rlshl Ka rad:,. Morol>haraw, ed. Dutt, 13:Jll:ll-lJ)
TUER,\\'AllA BL'DDtU&I
' llo"· 3re we 10 co:nduct ourselves, Lord, with regnrd co
womankind,'
·;i., not seeing them, Annndn.'
1
8ut if we should bCC- them, what are we to do? 1
':,.lo talking, AnnaJ.'l:
flm If the)' should speak to us, Lord, "hat nre we to do?'
' Keep wide uwaJ.a, Arrnnd~ .'
(Moho Pariniblxma Succana , 5:9, Digha Nikaya 2:141 , in
Rhys Onvids, Dialogues q/1he Buddha , vol 2, p. 154)
No man who 1s not p0ssessed should truM women, for they
arc base. fickle, ,mitmtcful and deceitful 'l'bey are un.¢rnteful
•nd do no1 act as they ought to: they do not core for their
parent, or broll,cr They :ire menn nnJ immoro.l ond Jo only
their own will. . \\'omen <lrc Jecciuul and ,ory sharp. 1'bc
tru1h conccmin!t tltem Is very Jiffloul, lo Ond ouL Their
onture ls hard 10 know like the movcmcm of fish in water.
l\eing ios.utinte, soft-SpOken. hut hard to sMisfy lin rheir
wishes) like rivers the)' sink down into hell Knowing th is one
should keep for a.way irom them BcinA seducers nnd nrch-
dL-cclvcr•, dlswrbcr, o( chnsllty they sink do-. o (J nt0 hell).
Knowing lids one should keep away from them.
(Kttlanajucako."' 24-5, 59--9, pp. 160, 163)
l1AllA\'A..~ Bul>IJJlllW
You should know that wl1co men have close relationships
with women. they ha"e close relationships with evil
way<
Fools lu.<t for women like dogs in heat
Wom~n 1::tn ruin the prcccp~, of purity
They <= also Jgnort: hon<>ur and ,,1 rtuc.
Caus1r,g one to go to bell, lhey pr~vem rebirth m hctl\'CD.
Why should the wfse deU~ht In them·r
Ornaments on women shaw off their beauty
 1-1~ REI 11:IO'li 1:-l SOCll'TY

Bui \\11hln 1hcm there "jln;:11 c11I 1, ln 1hc t.,Jc 1hcre t;

nor
The JcnJ '""'" ,md J,,4 nr, ,kt. 1.1hl,•,
But \\om1r,.:n .:.tn.: \."Vt.:n mun.:. Jt.1u:,taht\: thnn th..:y oln:
Coof~1..-d by \\Ooten, one l!I hurnt hy pa..,,mn .
l~cau_,e of lhcrll Olll' foll- IIIIU t!\IJ WA\, ,
There ,s no rcfu,l\c.
( Speech of the l'luddhn 10 Kin~ l 'Jn,·ono , 1mm th,
Malumunukuw. quoted ,n l'nul. 11,,.11,.,, 111 n,uld/11,111, fir
JO, .ll , 11 ~I
C11R1sn\,;1n
l<,t a wo,na11 1,::im in silcocc "ilh nU whmw.J\cn~-s1 I
pem11t no wuman to teach o.t u, hu\c nuthurtcy U\cr n1c11, ~he
ls u, k'-"'P $!lent. 1-'or ,\Jnm "'11> formed fir-t, th,m t:-., anJ
Adam was nnl deceil'cd, hut the woman "as tk."-'f!ll'W 1tnJ
hccnmc II tmn•l\ressor (1 Tim{)(/1y, 2 11- 14)
t.>o you not know that each of vou (women) l\ at.,,, an

I
Eve? You are the De,·il's Jlateway, you are the un5':lller of
chat forbidden tree, you ore the firr.t de54'Tlcr o{ 1he dil'ln"
law. you nn: tho: one who flCNu:idcd him whom 1hc dc,,1 ""-'
LOO weak 10 auauk IIO\\ """11r you dt:str0)·ed man, the 1m.lA<;
of God! Bccuw.~ of th<: death "Web )'Ou brought upon w..
i,v.,n the Son of God had LO dJe. (Tcnulllan, on" of the
Church Fathers, rn Ve Gulru Feminarom 1.1 quoted In D
Ri!ller, The Ma,~ll'oma,T Rcl,uion)
l~l..A.\I: TU& QURA.\'
Men are superior to women in so for as God ha.< sec one )lrour
over the other nnd b<.'OauSe men expend of their "calth And
so righteous women nre obedient ond keep <nfo, durin)! their
busbrutd's obs<:ncc, thOI whlc:h God would ha,.: them u.kc
cnre of. And those women whom you foar m3y reject )OUr
authority, admorush them. then let them sleep by
themseh·es. nnd then heat them (Qur'cm 4 .)4)
SUI\SI lsuw
lbn 'Abbas reported that Allah's mes.,em\cr (may pea"" be
upon him) -said I looked into the IHell I Fire :ind tht:re I
found the majority con<tiruted by "'omen
Usamn ibn Z,tid reported ,\llah's "'"'"""8Cr (mA)
pcact! be upon him) as ..O)ing: l h.t,c not ldt itftcr me turmoil
for the pt.'Oplt: but tht: h.anu done to men b) \\Umcn,
,\hu &'!ti Khudrl rcportt!d that .\llah's M~~"r (may
pea<:<.' he upon h.tm) !.aid: The work! ~ '"'e,,t and l\nlt!ll and
wrily Allah is ~in$! co insmll you as ,;oct;erent m it m order to
.,...., hciw you 01:1 5(, .ovoid 1hc rulurcrncm Qf women v~rily. [h.,
Rrst trial for the p<.'<>ple of lsnt'U \IRS anu.',t.,J by women (Sahah
Muslim. K•tub 0/-R,qa.1 no•. 1;,5?7. ()(~1-1. 101 4, pp 14.H-1)
S111'1 hi.AM
Take cart, that you do not <.'Ulbull with "umcn fur th-,ir
judllement b poor and their re,,ohe L, "cult So keep thcm
\'eiled and secluded and do not allow them t(> It<> vol. As far
 l7: REl,IGION ANO GENDt;R ,139

·" po.~lhlc, do nm nllo" 1hc111 lO h<..'C!Omc ncqunlni.-.1 with

nny mnn oLh'-'r lhan yr,un.df. Do noi S<!l lh<!m ttny t:i,,.ks oLhcr
th,111 thm wh,cb Is nurnrnlly lhclrs. This I• be,,t for their
health. tJ1elr !>alisfoctlon :mo tb1.'lr /l<>O<l looks, (or II wonmn Is
made of clay ,md not up co hard work Trent her honourohly
bu1 do 001 rnke heT word "ilh n:,llard 10 otheni nnd oe\'cr put
voursclf in her hands (Mnjlisl, 1/iliyot al,M,maqm , p . 78;
!author's lrnuslmlon)

This moral doubli! standard permeates other areas as well. Simone de

Beau,·oir, for example, castigated the Roman Catholic Church for
uuthorlzing I.be kllling of aduh men in war while rt:st:rving an
uncompromising concern for human life in its attitude t0wards
contraception ond abortion She asserted that by its prohibition of abortion
and, ln particular, contraception, the Church maintained women's
enslavement to their ~cneratlve functions and thus their dependence on
ru~n.'

TIie Social Oppression of Women

Reliition has heen an imp0rtant source of laws
and :iclm i aiSLrativc structures that kept
women iu an in(erior position in society. Ln
Hindu law, Rabbinic law, Christian canon law
und I.be lslamio Shari'a, I.be testimony of a
woman is either worthless or given less wej~t
than thaL of a man. Indeed, in many societies,
women ha\'C been relegated to a position of
,irrual sla,•ery. They have no righcs or
freedoms by custom or in law. Throughout
their lives they are completely dependant on
males. A quotation from the llindu book, the
Lau,s of .\/anu. sums up the reality of the
siruation for most women in almost every
society 'In childhood, a female must be
St..bject to her father, in youlh to her Surru: (S.1r1). According 10 the Skundn-
1'1,rariu, Sall, the conwn of Shiva,
husband, when her lord is dead, to her sons;
duel\ herself on a funeral pyre.
a womau must never be independent.'' Consequently, It became customary for
While. of course, religion is not the sole "1Jpws to do the same and the)' were
factor responsible for the suppression of nlso called Rati AlthPul!h voluntnry in
women, it is nevcrt.hcless Lrue that this social theory, In practic.: any \\Oman rufustng
to perform Jt luccd social ostr.1oi201lon .
subJug.ltion ls underpinned by the authority
Outlllwcd by the British colonial rulers
of religion. Since religion is the source for the In 1829, the custom has pers1s1ed In ff
,•alues and morality of a traditional society, few areas A nineccemb-century
religion's doctrinal and moral attitude to European depiction
women fashions the social miJieu that
1 IO Rrl,IOIOS Ii'> SOClf.TY

.1ustificb their ~ubJu!!f1clon In addition, whether ,,c c..-onMdcr ~uttcc In lmha,

clirnridc..-cromy in Muslim North Africa or the witch-hunts of Europe nnd
Ne1rth America, It hus hccn rdi~ious tradition., that have Mt11cuoneu aml
itiven mornl :iuthority to violence wwordi, women
E, en where the :.criplure uf a reli4ion :ippcarh w allo\\ a c.:ruiin Je~rec..•
of female em:rncipatlon, thc rdiitlous tradaion clump~ Juwn and prccluJ"',
the exercise of this . In Hinduism. for cxnmplc, the R1~ Veclu call-, for women
to re1~11 :,uprcnte in the household. Populur llindu epic:, AiH: ~e,er.il
ex:1mplt!~ of women who have acted intlependemJy • The reolitv of ltfe lor
women in l11Ji11. howevcr, Ill h.mst since the Middle Age,. hn~ heen domc,tie
st.rv11 udc wlrh no ri1thcs.
In isl:1111 1 scriprure gives women splriru:il cqu.1lit)· with men nnd even
~uar:imccs them certain limited social rigl.1u., sud1 ui, the niiJit to hold
propCrt)' in their own name' 0 (:i ri£\ht denied to most Christian women unrll
the !:1st century). \\'hat was given to women by i.cripture, howe,·cr, w,1~
cffoclivdy taken away by i.ociaJ laws a1td cw,toms th:it deprived them ,,f
:my ability to ac, independently of ::i male ituardian
The Qurcm loy1, down nn ethical ln1si_s for the cquulity of men :m<l
women. It has been argued. however, that when l~lamic law was beln~
fonnul:ited by (maJc) jurists, these benefits to women were ncgmed \\'hilc
tho&e statemems in the Qur't.111 which were advani.agco~ to m.:n \\ere
made into fim1 l:iws. those rhat inclined towards givm~ women a greater
degree of equality rcmalned ru, et.hical injm1cliom, only, with no ion..,c in
J:iw. Thus. £or example. the Qur'a11 states that if one cannot treat one'i,
wives cqu~1fly. one <ihould not m arry more than one (Qur'an 4:4-S) This
has not, however, been made into any legal Umltadon on the r!Aht of a man
to marry up to four wives, C\'Cn if it is prov:ible that he ha.s not treated his
first two wives equally. Similarly, the force of the Qur'anic requirement that
divorce should only take place with due consideration and that di\'orccd
wives should be treated fairly (Qu r'an 2:229..._lJ) has not been fully
translatcd into law, :ilthough other ethical injunctions In the Qur'm1 ha\'e
been converted into law by the jurists "

Exclusion of lVomcn from the Rcli[Jiou:; 1/ierc,rchy

\\'omen ha\'e been excluded from religiou:, learning. Women arc for bidden
to read and l>tudy the Vedas in c lassical Hinduism and the Tolm ud m
Orthodox Judaism. la the UnHcd St:itcs, womcn were excluded from
Christian tiwolo~ical faculties and semlnarics until the middle of the
nineteenth cencury. '· The re litious hierarchy in most religioni< is male-
dominated. \\11ethcr I !indu Bralhmln priebt..,, Buddbbt monk;., Zoroabt.rian
11wbeds. Jewish rabbis. Christian priests or Mw,lim ulema ore considered,
:ill are exclusi\'ely or predominantly mole preserve~ EHm in Buddhism,
where the Buddha himseu· gave permission for tl1e scttinA up of :111 o rder uf
nun~, the Buddhist scriptures represent him as having been \'Cry reluctant
to do so. The Buddha was implored by hib aunt ond foMcr-mothcr,
 l 7 KEl..ll1JON ,\NO CElWEK ,111

MahapmJ:ipari. for permission to go forth rnto the mendjcant life under the
rule of the Dhrtrma (tha1 is, to become n nun). lier pleas were taken up hy
Ananda, the Buddha's chief disciple. The Buddha refosed three cimes,
sayin)l, 'If women go forth under the mle of the Dhanna, rhis Dhanna will
not b.! long-enduring.' Ile said that it would be liken blight descending upon
a fldd of sutar cane. E,·entu:illy he relented, however, and allowed an order
oi nuns. llowe,·cr, the nuns were to remain suhordinnte to the monks in all
wurs, to the extent that 'a oun even of one hundred years' stunding must
show deference to a monk even if he has only just been initiated 'u Orders
of nuns died out in most Buddhist societies although there has been a
revival in the last fe\\ decades."
The abo,·e p:iints a very negative view of religion's role in women's
history and needs to be moderated by noting that religion has also at times
contributed positively co women's self-image :ind role in society. Religion
has often allocated women an honoured place, albeit usually in connection
with their role as housekeepers and mothers. Women are often, as for
eirnmplc in Ji1d(lism, lth'cn the central rol e in the home. Moreover, since
lllllllY reli~ons have made the family aa important focus in their social
doctrine, they have effectively given women an impOrtant social role.
Reli~ious history, while containing stories of impon;int women in the roles

a h
fUIJ 1 • l\lAGF.S o r \\1SDOM n) Saras,·nU. the ooosort of Brohninn. Aoddcs.• of scholarship
and lcllrning and patron of the urtS In llinduism Th~ ori,aiin of S.111.<krlt and of 11,
alpbnbct 1, attributed to her. h) Prnji1opnrnml111 ('the wl.dom that reaches the farther
shore'). The perf,;c,Uon that Jt Is oecessaf}· for a bt.,d/us«cn,a to achieve In the course o(
h1:, de,·elopmcot was embod,c.-d In Mahayam lluddl11"n m the iorm of t.his ,t:!<)ddi,s,,. I\
Tiberan block print
111 • Rl;I.IOlll)I I~ SOCIP.TY

of wife 11nJ mother, (tlso l.'Onwin" t!X:'lmplci. of more i.oclnllv ,1em·e \\omen,
thu, th·in'l women a choice C>( M)Cirtl rnlc models ,\dd11JC>nrllly, rcliitiou,
literature co111.1tit1i, femlnltte inw~ery th:tl 1-, ufrcn central lO the rd1,::JU11 In
~C\'crnl rchl!ions, includinit.ludai:sm. C:hri~tianicy, llinJut~m and Hud<lhi,m,
there i, n fcmln111c lmuitc of\\ i:,dum, for 1:xa111plc (;,cc pp. 111, 4S2).
Each of Lh.: ruajor world rc~li~tom, hn~ de,•elopc<l, co "omc cMcm, 11
fomnlc (i~urc who nci, a~ a role model for wom<.•n In the cl:1,s1c,1I
formuluuon of the rcli~1011. thb hus been 11 role thal lrns emphm,1t<.-d tht:
\ nues of eomfortin~ nnJ nurturi n~ This riiturc h:1' often h<.-en the molh-.:r
or wife of the ,,rophct-founJcr lier story hai. hccn cmrhnMze<l and
m~·tholo~lzc<l ai. a Mother Uo<ldc,s In lhe,-e reliitloru., often l,clnt u.,e<l hy
the patriarchy to promo1c a passivtl, home-ccmrcd, socially moctiv1; role
for \\omen. llut lllilll)' women hn\'e, in the course ol' each rcll~ion's hhtor)·.
and ponicularly in modem time'>, preferred rui alternative role model, om:
thnt lakes them out of the homu and is more socially nctlvc. This ha~
U!>ually been the fi~ure of a female disciple of lhe prophet-iow1der of the
religion who took an octive role in the orgnnizinl\ and promotion of the
religion io Its early stages (see pp 294-5 and Table 17 1 ).

TIIE: ETERKAL FEMALE ARCHETYPE

In the history of humanity, there has until recent years ooen a fundamtlntal
difference in the way that men ond women were perceived in society The
male is seen as an Individual person who~c bcha\'iour anJ personallty tral~
are individual and who has many social roles that he can occupy. For the

Table 17. 1 Religious Role Models for Women

P=t\'i., NL ltTL'IUSCl ,\t:TIVt., SOUALL\.•L''\'OL\"lill

ROI.£ llOl)F.1, ROI.£ Mt>DtL

I lti<JJUIMJ Rukminl, wife 01 Krishna, Draupadi, con,ort of lhc

Sita. wife or Rama PllJlda,':ls
8UOOllll,M Maya. the mother or the .\lahaprajapari, aum llJld foster
Buddh3 mother of the Buddha
Cmusrw-m· Mary, the mother of Jesus .\lary Mai!dalcnc
S\r.-111 lbWl Khndija. fln.t w,fo of ,\'isha, later ";fc of
Muhammad ~luhammad
Fatima, dnudm:r of F'alima or laynab, tlau,1\lm:r
Muhnmmad ond ,._;fe of of Imam Husayn
Imam 'All
8,\IL\'I f',\ITfl &hiyyih Kh~nurn, Tohirih, disciple of 1hc Rl,b
daughter or Baha'u11ab
 17 IU,Ll<:ION AND (:ENDER 4--t3

Bl1>1lllLSM
The nun, Somo {Juring the 8uddh!'I'• Ufetlme) . . wus
Ulllll!ed:

Thot ,·:11114g..,.grou11d the st1.!lC• mny attaln

h bani to \\'Ill, \\'Ith her two-lln~r oonsc,ousne>-•
PO:ilTl\'E ROl.E Thai place no woman is compctcm to l!,-iln.

MODELS FOR Sh,:, rcpllcd.

Wha1 should the s1nte of w<>man do to us,
\\'O\tf.N IN \\11ose mind Is firmly ~ct - or do to onyonc
Who, knowl,,dgc rolling on, discerns t.he dbamm:i?
REl.lGIOK Am I a woman In these maners, or
Am 1 a man, or what am I then?
To such a one are you, s:ir. fit to talk'
(A B:mcroft. 'Women in Buddhism', in U King,
ll'onwn in tlw World's Religions, p. R2)
ISL.w
The two men (Abu Bakr and 'Umorl marched to 'Ali's house
with on ornwd party, surrow1ded the botL\e, n.n d threatened
to set It on fire if 'All and his supporters would not come out
ond pay homage to the elected callpb, 'All came ou1 and
anempted to remonstrate, putting forward his own claims
and ri,l!btS and rcfusi~ to honour ,\bu Bakr and 'L'.mar's
demands The scene soon grew violem, the swords flashed
from their scnhbnrds, and 'L'.mnr with his hand tried to pas,
on thro~, tho t\Jllc. Suddenly FollmA nppcill'~,d before them
In a furious wmper rutd reproachfully cried:
Y<Ju h3\'C left the hody of the 1\postlo c,f God with u.•
and you b!'lvc decided Olllong yourselves " ithout
L'OOSultlng us, and without respecting our rlghl$.
Before God, l st1y, either you gt!t out of here at once, or
with my hair di~hevelled l "~ll make my appeal to God.
Tbl, made lhe situation moM critlcl.ll, nnd Abu 8akr's band
was obliged to leave the house without securing 'Ali's
homage. (Jafri, The -Ori,t:i11s crnd Earl>• Deeelnprnettt af Slii'a
Islam, pp. 50-1)
13AJJA't f AJTII
when suddenly the figure of Tahirlh, adorned and
unveiled, appeared before the eyes of the assembled
companions Consternation immediately seized the entire
gnth.,ring. All ,wod aghast before th.. ,udden anJ most
unerpccted npparition. To behold her focc uu\teilcd wa, Lo
them in<:on<.'<:lvoble ...
QuJetl)·. silently. and with the uunost dignity, Tahlrlh
stepped forward and. nd>'ancln,t cowards Quddus, sea1ed
herself on his r!Aht•hnnd side. Her unrnflled serenity sharply
contrasted ,.;th the affri11J11cd countenances of those who
were gazin& upon her iaL'C, Fear, nm\cr, and bewilderment
.cirrcd the depth, o( the,r i.ouls ...
. . . She rooc from her sent and, undeterred b~· the tumult
111 HELH,IOl\ IS :m1 'I ~, r1·

lhnl •he hut! nu,-ctl ht lhc hcJrt!I of her cun1riu1lnn,, l1t:1!;111 tu

ntltlr~.,.,, rhc n:111nan1 of th.11 :t"st!lnhly. W11huu1 1hc lc,1,1
prcmctl1tntlnn , nnrl In ln111\ua¢, "hu:-h hon: ., •tnl.111!:
n,~111hl11nct tn th,11 nf the Uur'an ,he Jdh•1:r,-J her •l'l"-"'l
"llh mmuhltss eloquence 11nd profound f,n·uur
lm111~-.l1J1dy aftl.'.r, ,he J,·cl.11'1!J 'I •111 the \\'orJ v.l11d1 lhc
Q;.1'lm Ith<: 111mm Mahdi I 1, lo uucr. the \\"urJ ... 111..,h sh•ll rut
10 tll~lll the chide nntl nuhl.:, nf th~ c;irth' ' (:-;nhtl, Th,,
l>m,cn-lln:a1«'1'11, pp. .29-1-6 l

fem:ile, however, there is only one :irchetyp:il fiiture hy which she rs Jud~d
She either fulfll.-. 1..his stereo1.yp4.• aod Is Ju<lged o 'good' woman or ~h4. is
condemned as u 'bad' woman. .\Jternatively, one can consider the
:irchctypc to h:ivc two polu:;· the positive pole, the 'good' woman, b a silent,
:,uhmbsivc, domestic creature, aurturtn~. ~0111.le and compal,;;Jonate, the
negarive pole. rhe "had' woman, is a sensuous, seductive, mysreriou~.
m,scrtive, deceitful figure, ct>rrupting and lt~ading societ~· ru.truy •• Each
woman inherently possesses both poles: creative anc.l destructive, nunurin~
:rnd corrupting, life-giving and lifc-del>trO);ng. This dunlity of !111., fomnk
archetype can be seen in the female ngures of a religion: Eve ls ac once the
mother and progenitor of humanity and the cause of the Fall; the llindu
goddess Kali i,- both the fearsome and ccrriblc goc.lc.less of JcsLmction and
able co AiVt: her devotees freedom from iear and a hlissful state of mind
Hence society sees its men as individuals, assigning co them places in
society as nobles, crafcsmen, labourers, criminab, as clc\er, c.lull and ~o on
But women are all seen in their scereocypical role. thlL"I chey become almos,
Invisible, a pare of 1hc tal1en-for-gramed backgrouml to society, itfloreJ hy
historians and chroniclers. They do not require any ~pecial eommcm m
their stereotyped roles as wives and mothers, any more than donkey,
re4ulre any special comment in their role a~ beasts of burden, or plo~~
as cools of aAriculture.

RELIGION AND SEXUALITY

One of the main functions of religion in society b:1s hccn to control

scI.ualJty. more ~pccifically icma!e se..xual1ty. lndiscrlmiJ1JJte sexual acth·ity
threatens che pncriarchal social order. For a stnrc, onlr the mother oi n child
i,. ob\•iotLS in the biology of the procrcac.i\'C: pr<><.'Ci>S. Thl.8 1.hrcatcn., the
ability of tht! male co idemlfy hib ofispnn~. \\'ithout clear and mdhput:1ble
linkinA of the ofl'sprin~ to the father, the inhoritnnce of social po,ition,
property and wcalLh, the paraph~malln of power, which b the hi,l!ht.:l,l \'aim:
of the p:11.riarchal society. hecomes difficult to establish. The only way to
control female soxutlllty and thus be certain of the paternity of the ofi,prin~
I!. to control ri~orou1,ly t.l1e ,-octal acuviues o{ t.lic female, Either she mu:,t
GE'l>tR str.Rr.r.mm1 N RELIGIOUS Brn.or..cs: In mnny religious ploccs of worship there is
wgr.-J!ation of the s1:xes \\ilh women ooing o<.slgncd on inferior position, u,unlly :11 the
bnck or ln :in upper balcony "'""· ru. in this •>·ru:igoguc In Lorn.Ion.

be confined to the house or else nil of her social interactions must be

chaperoned. The!>e measure!> need to be enforced from puberty to old age.
In order to maintain d1is control, women are depri\'ed of most civil rights,
rul\"e no right to possussions or property of d1eir own, :lnd in most insl:lnces
no ~hts even over their own bodies or over their children.
Somehow, such drnconinn re~'trictions on the female must be justifi<.>d.
Th.: w-eatel:>l source of justlficauon aml moral authority in a society ls its
religion. Thus, patriarchy falls back on religion to legitimate the virrual
impmoruncnt ancl enslavement of women. To justify this , religious
authoriucs have characterized women as feckless , sexually voracious and a
snare for men. The following passage comes from the writings of a
fourtccnlh-eenlury Dominican monk. Its lheme would not, however. look
out of place in the wTitings of religious scholars from n.ny of the world's
religious traditions o,·cr the past three millennia.

In the woman wantonly adorned to c.~pturc souls, the garland upon her
h~>ad Is a slnJ!le code or firebrand or Hell to kindle men ,vlth that llre; so
too the horns or another, so the bare neck , so the brooch upon the breast,
so with all the ourloLL~ finery of the whole of thoir bo<l~•. What else docs It
seem or could be said of it save thac each i~ a sp,uk breatbinJ! ouc hell-fl re,
\\'hich this wretched Incendiary of the Devil brenthes so effecrunlly . . that
In a single day by her dancing or her perambulation through the town. she
.1--Jt, IH.LIGIOX IN SOCI 1-:TY

inllnmcs with 1hc fire of lust - It rnny he - 1wcn1y of tho,c who bchnld her,
dnmnlnj! the ,oul~ whom t:od htt.,; erc:,ucJ nnd rcdet:mcd Ill ~ueh u ,-0,1 fur
tlwir ,ah·nuon t'or this very pu11>0.w the Dc,·il thu, :u.lorns these fomalcs
,cndinl! chem forth throu,!th thl· mwn ns his ar<,stles. rcrlct,• l\tth c,·e11
iniquity. malice. formcutlon I&

It doc, not tnhe :1 ~rent deal of insi~ht in di1,ccm here the projection onto
women or male sexual f:u1tasic:-.. The effect, ho,1 ever, has heen to Ju.,t1fy thL
,·lrttml enslavement of women in almost C\'ery socict)' down to r~>eem
(IIUCS.
80 i.ucce,sfully has Lhis picture of reality '-n eswhll~hed that thc
majority of people h:l\'e ussumed thnt the values of the patriarchy arc pan
of the natural order: L11at men arc by nawrc stronger and more u~rc:si.i\·c
and women weoker :ind suhmis.sh'e. Bue all the evidence from anthropol~y
aml psychology polnt1, lO tho fact thllt Ll1is is not a natural , inbuilt Mnt1.: of
affairs It is somcthin~ that Is cul turally lcamed; tt Is part oi the ~ociall\'
consrructc<l universe tlrnt human beings regard as reality. \\'omen nrc
tau~ht that they ore the ·weaker sex' and so they behuve as though they arc
Indeed, rhey may even become extremely anxiou.<i and resencful if chey are
pushed towards self- reliance and independence. ln this way, patriarch~ hai.
controUed most societies in the last few millennia by decermlning the view
of reality of chose societies. Even where Lhe intellectual argument for
women's cnrnncipation is woo, d1c nctu.1J mt<: of pro~n::;s ii; very :.lo,, and
the emancipation of women in recent times ha,, only been pttrtial and in a
few socicth.:s.
There arc some variations In the tmditionaJ attitudes of L11e major
religions of the world towards scxuolity, to a large extent dicrnced by the
role models provided by the fow1ders of lhcse rellgions. Of the m:ljor
reli~iom,, Christianity is perhaps the most negaci"e cowards human
sexuality. Jesus himself <lid not marry, in so far !L~ the Gospels record. and
there are SC\'Cral btatt!mCnci, ln tl:te New Teswmenc that a<lvocau: celibacy
(wi th monogamous m:1rrial\e being a second-best option)" :md condemn
homosexuality.•• Such passagei. hm•e formed Lile bal>ls of the vie\\ of mo:-.t
Christian churches up to modem times. The Buddha was married :md had
o ne son prior tO his enlightenment During the whole of his ministry,
however. he embraced a world-renouncin,:l Ufe which excluded sexual
contact. The rules for the Bi1ddlhisc monks reflect chis e,mmple of the
Buddhn Such rules arc i-.tlll applied in 'fhcnl\a<la Buddhi.J.m, but married
monks are found nmooe, Mahayana BuddhisLc;. Of Lile maJor ln<ltan
traditions. however. it ii-. Juinism that has dlC strictest nttitudc ngninst ony
expression of sexuaUty amon.e, its monks and nuns. In Islam, the a ttitude to
sexuality is, again, set by the example of the founder. ~luhamma<l, who
m:JJT!cd some fourteen wives and had II number of childn:n. There is thus
a much more posi tive approach towards rnarria.l!,e, sexualil)· and family ltfc.
Monasticism is pro'libited :ind the number of wives is limited to four.
llomosexunlily is again prohlbited. The attltude to sexuality in Judal~m ls
 1 7 Rt}l,IGION ANO ClENDER 147

111ud1 the sume m, Is (slum, except Lhal polrtamy wus

pmhihlced In the Middle Ages. The B~1h:i'i faith commends
d1c married ,-ww for all J'l!!Oplc, prohlbiLS 111on11Sllcism und
onlalns monotamy. In l llnduism. Lhcre is :.ome dissonance
hct\\ccn theory and pracricc. The exception co the general
rule Lhat the relij!ion follow,- the role model of the 111ajor
fi~urcs in 11 ls provided hy Hinduism. The scriptures and
btorles of llinduism ore filled with erotic storieb of gods
who hove sexual Intercourse with women. The story of
Knshna having sexual imercourse with the cowgirls is
perhaps the bcsc kno\\·n or these. Krishna is also reported
in some smries co have had thousands of wives. Followers
of che god Shiva worship chc representation of his phallus, ·it is in the fomiliar rompnn)'
of women th:11 one And~ that
I.he lingam, and ancient lllndu temples contain erotic relaxation "hich chases OW3)'
statues. In practice, however, modern Hindus are •~dnt-s.s ond j!ivcs re,,t 10 1hc
monogamous :1J1d there is a strict code of -scxuoJ morality heart It i5 d<:simblc for pious
souls to find rcfre.~hmcnc
in l hmlu socit.!r~·. Lhro~h 1hn1 whlch Ill
In modem times, the more liberal elements in Western pcnnhu,d by religion'
Christianity have responded 10 social realiti~ by relaxing the {Muhnmm:td AI-Ghnz.nll,
clovcn1h-{wclfth century,
stricr sexu:il mornliry chnc has characterized mosc traditional quo1.cd in s.,bbah, ll'oma11 /11
religion. Auitudes towards divorce, homosexuality mid lhc Mu."1/m Ur><"On.'IClau. ,
heterosexual couples living cogedler without being married p. U i ). El!lhtecnlh-centur')'
lncfutn mhllnture.
ore softel}ing in some parts of many churches, R~nt events
lhat bear witness to chis include the ordination of an openly
committed homosexual priest by New York City's liberal
Episcopalian Bishop Paul Moore in 1977, n service
celebrating I.he cwcnlietb anni\'ersary of the Lesbian and Gtiy
Christian Movement held in London's Southwark Cachc.-drnl
on 16 November 1996, and the vote by I.he EpiScopalian
churches ln northern New .Jersey in 1987 to receive and
~cudy a report entitled 'Changing Patterns of Sexuality and
Family Life'. This was described by Its opponents as
encournging the churches to accept homosexuals,
fomicaton, and adulterers as long os they were 'scns1llvc.
commined' pt.."Ople. There arc a few siwis of this beginning to The llnj!<uu Is the stone pWat
In the l:lcntrc nntl t.s ft
hnppen in ocher religions also. The l)alai Lam:.i, for example, rcpn,sentntion o( a phallus.
·vhlle on a trip to the United States in 1997. wru, pcn;uadc.><l It b worshipp<..>d by lllndu
co make a statement fa\'ourable co homosexuality. lollowen. of the I\O(l $h1,-n as
a symbol o( him Around
the llllll3m ,s thc .w,11,
representill.ll the temolc
sexuol Of'llans The two
THE MODERN DEilAT I-: toi!cther are espec,ally
worshipped by Shakt.,s,
In m:my ways, chen, :-ts noted above, the world religions followers of f>hnkti. the
consort of Shi,-a. who Is
h11ve over the centuries oppressed women. In modern the pe=ntfie<111nn of
times. the feminist movement has forcc-d some, more pnnua.l cncJltY
opcn-mindc.>d religious thlnkcrs to rethink their heritage.
-I-ti> Rt.LIGIO~ IS SOCll:TY

,h \\ith many mhcr fcacurc, of modernity, it hns h1.'Cn ChriMiunlty that

h::b faced this 4uc:.Llon carhcr tmd LO a mtlrc forceful dcw1.,c than the other
world rellAion~ In particular, the 11uc,tlon of \\Omen in the pneMhooJ ha,
Arcmly cxerchud many dcnominntion~. The 1rnliitlonnl1't, claim hihlicnl
amhority for their stance u)tnlnst \\'Omen prlc:,u, and point u, buch ,·crse, ,1,

the women should kccp ~llcn<:c In thc uhurchc, Fur they nrc not
pcnnmcd to ,pt>ak. hut ,hould be ~ubmdinatc, a, e,·cn the la" -.iv, If
then.• I, anyrhin~ 1hey dc~irc Lo know, let them n,k the or hu~hnn,h at
hum.,. ~or II is oh,uueful for n woman 10 ~pt,n.k on church

The pro-women lobh)• poi.J.1~ u, t.he reality of the modem Chri,llan \\orlJ
anJ to such ,•<m,e~ ai,; 'there is neither male nor female; for you arc all one
in Christ Jcsu-. '"'
In L11c 0L11cr rcllglons of Llic world, Lhc ,·oico::, of wo1mm are only ju..,t
hcginninA ro emerge." Women hove 1->ccn ordained as rahbis in Rcionn
JudaiMn. Theravada BuddhL!.t women have :bi,erled the riAlll to achieve full
ordination as nuns in Thailand and Sri Lanka, while ~lahayana women
h:l\'e clnimed recognition 11$ Zen mni;tcrs Hindu women in lndi4 ha\'C
escahlbhed the right to hecome sam1yasms (chose who follow the path oi
renunciation, seep. 129) and to recite the Vedas , acti\"ities chat were closed
UJ tJ1cm in classical llinduism. Some have c,·cn claimed to be gurub in their
01n1 ri~ht. In Iran, women ha\•e est.ahlished che ritht 10 be considered
mujcahids (the hi!lhest rank int.he Shi'i clerical hierarchy), alchouAh only
m1nistcrlng to other women. \\'hllc lbc:.c arc ccrutlnly importanl carl~-
movemem.~. they cannot yec be said to have mode any siAoificam impact
on the religious world 11.s a whole.
In the Baha'i raith. this ii.sue of L11e relalion~hip betw1a:eo men and
women is very muol1 to the forefront of concern. The equality of men and
women is one of the prinoipleb embodio.-<l in the scripwrcs and cited by
Baha'is as the sooinl hasi~ of 1ho1.r faith. The education of women IS srresscd
(enm mer that of men in certain circumsumccs). \\'omen arc cnL'OUra)tcd
and expected to play an acti\•e social role, especiallv m the promotion of
peace, and to earn their own li\ing. \\'hnt is needed in the world, ncc:ordinll
lO ilic Balrn'i Lcachinj!,i.. 1s a better balance bt:tween mascultne and feminine
elements in ci\·ilizatiow

Tlt.: world in the p:1$t has li.;e n ruled b~ force, aml man ha,, domlnatcd
woman hy rc1Lsnn of his mnrc forceful nnd ol'J!rei,sive (lualities hoth of l>ody
nml mind But tho, bnluncc ii, already ~hJiunii - iorcc I.\ losrnj\ tu." dj\hl nod
mtntal .ilenncss, imuition and the spiritual 4ualiti;:s of lov« and -.er\·lcc
on which "'Oman os strong, arc g;iinin'l a,ccndancy lkncc 1h1.c nc\\ ngc "ill
he nn ate ll!ss Jna,,cullnt:.. and more p,.:nm,:1tcJ with tht: t'c111ln.lr1e lde.1l, -
or to SJ)Cl)k more exactly, will he nn nlle on which the masculine ond
fomlnlnc chmll!olb in cl\-ilhutiun will be more evenly h;o).oll(.'t,.'U '
 17 REI.IGIOS Mm GE~DF:R H9

In .l!cncrnl, It can l,c said thal, although great atl\'ancci. huvc been mode in
brinl\inl! the (111csrlon of 1hc role or women to che forefront of dchmc In
many relil!ious communltii:s, il h"s rcmnined :1 nrnllcr of discu~sion and the
passing of resolutions raiher than prnct.icaJ advances. ln most soclct1cs.
ir.tditional :micmles nntl eu~tomary role:., suprorred 10 ii large extent by
rchl!ion, M!f\'C to keep women in a suhscrvient role.

TH E FEMINIST STUDY OF R~;LJGION

Feminbl wrltlng about rcUglo11 Colllallls several key crhlclsms about the
reliitious world nnd about scholarship on ·reli!llon. These criticism1, may be
summnrl1cd thus,

Those in p0wer nnd authority (dominant men) share our perceptions of

rc:,lity. It Is their construction of reality that is regarded as the norm and
Indeed as 'objeccive' reality In effect, humanness has been considered
identical to being male, while women are relegated to a forgotten, non-
human category.
.2 Those who do not ,,;cld power remain unseen by the traditionnl scholars
of religion. Their religious experience is Ignored and thus remiuns
unexplored. The perceiYed reality (and thus the religious world and
religious experience) of those who do not wield power is very different
from that of chose with power. The largest group of people without power
is the \\'orld's women, 1lowever, one can make the some statement of
other oppressed groups: the working classes, peasnnts, ethnic minorllles,
slaves and so on, and thus there Is much overlap In che inlcial
assessments of the religiou~ experience of women and of such groups
-' Thus, whac we have previously considered to he facts about the human
religious experience turn out ln~tead co be represent the cxpcricnoe of
a small miooricy, that of domirumt males.
-I The fact that the dominant male viewpoint is taken as the norm in tum
affects all aspects o( tho: rel~lous world: thl.! religious hierarchy, rell~ous
insticucions, doctrines, c,•en religious langua)te. Of course, rhis extends
iar beyond just the religious world and affect:, aU parts of society.
5 .\II scholarship in history, religion nnd the hnm:initics in gcncml is
inherently bru.ed on gender and cuJturnl preconceptions and there is no
such thing as objectivity. There cannot be an objective reconstruction
of the past or a religious statement that is simply factual.

Thus what has claimed to be objective scholarship about the reliiious

experience o( humankind as a whole has, in fact, examined, from 11
distorted and biased viewpoint, the reliAlous experil.!nce of a vi;ry ~mall
group - dominant rnaJes - whose experience has been taken :is the norm
for the \\ hole of humanity.
 -l!'iU llEl.lGIOl\ 1\ l>OCIETl'

l'rom 1hh ,rnrtin~ polm, the feminist ,tuc.ly of reliithm h11s cx:1mln~·d
thrcc nrnin ureas

• the II ay in which womcn :trl· rcprci,cnted In thl c.xmecpwal worlc.l of n

rcliitlun. IL, lhernturc, doctrines, 11rt and conccpu,
• tbc partlcipatlon of women in rell!ii<>n, their r<1k nnd i.111111,. th~ encm
to \\hreh thev :m: Ahcn authorily
• lu1co,·crlnl! and rcOcction upon womcu·~ own cx1)t;ricnc.-c of the
reli~ion

The Feminist Rccrcucion of R<!liJtio11

The above may be rc~ardc<l a~ the ne~ath c
aspect of the feminist sn1dy of rcliltion, it;..
description (md criticism of the pr~cnt ,tate of
affafrs. On this, most femini~t scholar~ of
religion are in hroad agreement. \\'here they
differ h, O\'Cr the question of t.'Ortstruct.ing an
alternath·e to replace this existint!
unsatisfactory state of :rffairs. In trying to
produce a po~itive feminist btudy and re-
creation of religion, femini.st scholars ha,·e
taken three maln methodological sumccs. •

FEMNlST Xr.O-ORTHODOXY. The main effort here is

Kuan-yin , the Chinese Jlo<ldes.s of
mercy ha-. an ime~ti114 ~cory ns ..:;he
h<:1!3n Rs the mnl1: l>11tlhill(ltfW1
.\,·uloldtc,,h,·11rn In Chmn hol'1:,ur,
from llhout th1: t~nth <.'ClltUJ')", the
iuturc hccam" lncrc.Jbm/l)y fcmmilw
until II b now u,,ually reprt;,emed ru; a
cltr.1rly-fomalc ~dcss
clJrected towards establishing that there is an
essenrial, ~piritual, non-sexist message 111
religion The task of the "cholar i8 to identify
thL~ and ro separate it from the culrure-bound,
androcentric language and concepts in which ii
has hlst0rlcall>• hccn prcscnccd. In general. lL
mar he said that chis type oi feminist theoloty b
suspieious of the .1bstract, ~pcculalive approach
of traditlon:il theology and prefer~ an
experience-based practical approach. Its themes
include liberation, celebration and commumt~
Examples of this type of scholarship include the
writing!> of Phyllii. Trible (God cmd the Rhetoric
of Se..,·ut.dity) and the early work of Mary Daly
(The Church and the Seoond Se..~)

fum.rsr Scx:10L0<W m K.,.,-o,1LEDGE. This second approach consider., thts

distinction between the l:intuage :md the message of the scripmrc 10 he
rnvahd: 'the medlum is the 1111!.',Sage': therefore ir ls hopeless to try to build
a icminist theolo~, from the clemenu. of :i stnrcture that is w deepl}'
 l 7 Rl-:LIGH>N .\Nil C:t:NDt'.lt ~5 l

1111hucd with m,so~·ny. ll bct.'OlllCb m.-ccs:snry to build a t.-omplewJy new

rcl~ious world for women, a new feminist time/space, radically separate
(mm om! sharing nothing with the old patriarchal religious world. This
approach ha;, been taken further by muny radical fomlnlsts, Into what has,
Ill the West, hccn coiled a 'post-Christian' discourse. In rhe course of this,
rndlcal ferninisL~ hove w1covcrcd and Jculsoncd all male clcmcms in
rcliition The male God hos hecomt! chc Goddess: the priest has heen
rcploocd hy the priestess or witch; even l:rnguagc hos hccn changed with
the invention of ne\\ spellings of words such as 'wimmin' or 'womyn'
(women) and 'herstor)" (histO!')'). Elements have hcen ex-tracted from
mythology, uncicnt and pagttn rcli~ous traditions and folklore. A new
feminist t1me/sp:1ce and n ne\\ goddess-hased religion has been created.
This new religion exist~, not surprisingly, in numerous forms under such
names as :-lco-paganlsm, \Vicca, and t11c Dianlc Movcmcm. Examples of
writin~ on this model include the later writin,l!s of Mary Daly (Beyond God
thl' Father and Gyn/Ecolo]!y) und t11c work of Margot Adler (Drawing Doten
th~ Moon)

rl.ML\JST ll£RMENl UTlt;S. Thls approach in,•olves the uncovering of the

historical role of women in relijlions, a role chat the histories of a
patriarchal society hove tended to erase. Such an approach regards the life
of tJ1e fow1der of the reli~oo and thc early disciples as a model that can be
used as a prototype from which vorious feminist possibilities can emerge.
The scriptures can be understood as the response! of t'aith to a 1,peclfic
historical~ulturnl situation; their usefulness to us can he Judged on the
l>a,-b of whm help each specific pnssnge cnn be in the construction of a new
fominist vision, a fominht reconstruction of historical reality. Elizabeth
Fiorenz:1 (/n MemOT)' of Her) uses this Approach .
•\!though most of the work that axises :u prcsem is based on
<'hristlanity, feminisLscholars lo o ther religions such as Judaism, Islam and
Buddhism :ire rapidly :ipplyin~ the s:ime approaches to their religions Leil:i
.\hmcd's \\'omen anc/ Gender in Islam Is an 4:xamplc of a work on !slum
thar would fall largely into the category of feminist hermeneutics.
l'ndouhtedly, this field of publishing will grow greatly in i:he future.

lo practical terms, che feminist re-cre:irion of religion has gone down a

:,umber of difierl'nt nvcnucb. Among these are: campaigns co 1,1orm the
bastions oi patriarchal, insclrutional re ligion, such as the movemenrs for
the ordination of women; the creation of women-only religious groups and
c<>mmuuitics. \\hlch are often characterized by a cenaln runowu of
antipathy towards men; the establishment oi links with the rheology of
other oppressed groups, includmg black theology and libcr:ilioa theolog,v;
ecumenism, interrcli_gious dialogue nnd the esrnhllshmcnt of links wllh
peace mO\·ements; and the exploration of the implications of feminist
theology for environmental concerns, the area cnlled eco-l'cminism. Many
feminists see themselves as on die road co creating a new post-reminlst
452 IU.LllllON IS :socn.TY

hnli,1ic spiritu11l11y m luch hmh men ant.I women can p:irti<lipnw fulll',
11
"1Lh 111111pprcs.,iun of one itroup hy Lhc mhcr '

Jrn.1.1,-11

OJ
\\'t.Jum b rnJla,11 a11J u11t,uL111! anJ ,h, L, c;i>II~ J,...,crucJ
h) th0,,c wtu, tu, c her, ,1111.l L, fuunJ hy thol><! wh,, s.-.:k her
She ha,,tco, to 111;1k~ hcr-df knuwn to 1h11,c \\ho dcsir. h<r
lie who rts.c, earl)' 10 -~~k her \\111 h,wc "" drt111:11hy, fur'"
,.,11 find her <imn~ nr h" i!iltc,
l~t.\lit S OF TIii.; I k.,nll"<l ll<lth whnt 1~ .scon.·t rmd "'h,H ,,,. ru.inlf~"'f.l , lor
i,- ~ ,11N l!'ff rs "1sclom, the fashmncr n( :ill 111111~,. wu~hl 111.:. hir 111 her
there ts a »l'•l'il that 1s lmdli~m. holy, unlquc. manifold.
RELJ(;l!l'- ,ubtle. mobile. clear. unpolluted, J"unct. 1111'\lln.,rnhlc,
l<l\'inl! the j\oo<I. keen, irresL,uhle, l>cnc11cem. hurnanc,
,;tcotli.•st. ~urc, fr-..~ from anxiety. n1J-ro"t!riul nH:~l.'ctnl! 111
1

nnd p<nctrnlinl! tl1mu4h nil •rlnts thut nre lntdhc,·111 nml

pure und mu,1 subtle. (ll'l.,;lm11 ,/]' S,,/Qm1111 i ~1-...l RS\'
Apocrypha nn<l P.cu<lucpl~rapbaJ
enIU.'I'! IA,'1In'
(1:vc'sj mother Is Sophia, the Wb<lum GoJ<lc,.. ,\ppar1;ntl~.
,he had 110 father. lier nuUvlty story read,
Wh~n Sopbln had ca,1 forth o h~t drop, ll Onmed upon
the \\fitt!r. lmmetlhttd)'. tlK Man, bclnf\ 1111droi.\ynom,
was made manlfo,-1 Thai drop tUok H-<, un.t fonn "-' 11
femfnlnl! ltody ,\ilerward~. ,he (f.ve( mok her hcxhly
form in the imru!c or the Mother (Sophie] which ha•
been revcnled Sh11 f F.vi,) w11., c.1mplct•'<l m '" ,h c
month• An rmdrajlyne (Em( Will> born whom the
Or,:ck,, c11U 'llem111pltrodU1.!.>.' Bui ,.,, rnod1,:r ( oophk I
In Hebrnw called her the L1vtng 1,;va,' th.u b, 'th"
lns1ruc1ore."' (lf Lite' (1 tJ,:?2-'4 ).
(Rose Arthur. 'The Wisdorn Goddess and the Masculim,auon
nf Relif\ion in U Kini!. ll'omcn in tltc m,r1t1·~ Rellllltln.~.
r .33)
811lOIIISlol
The Mnhayonn bclie,••-<l 1h01 men shnuld in their mL-.litntlon,
complete I hcmsclvcs by fostcrlru\ the (crntnlnc factors of
their personality thot the)' ,bould pmcUcc pa...s!l·tty and o
loose sofmi,ss ...
Like a woman, the ' Perfccdon 01 Whdom' IPmjn:1-
pammital de,;erves 10 he oouned and wooed, and rhe Surra.,
on purfoct \\'i,.Jum ()Ons1iu11e one lonj\ low nffnir "Ith the
Absolute )k'<lltnhon on her ns n godJc,, hns the purro-c of
,tlclUng lnsJJc her, ltlenU(ylng onl!!,clf v.ilh her, bc•'OmlllJI ht·r
lo lhi, larnr Tantra, a ,exuul uUuudc 10 Prnjnaparruullll I,.
quire eAl'lic-lt OISJ!ulseJ by the USI! of amhlf\uous term, II ":t'
alrc~dy p rescnr in the older Prajnaparanmo Surm...•
1hem,;el1·e-. (E Conu- 4uo1ed in A Rnncmit, '\\'nm,•n
In RudJhi,m', ,n l! K.in,i, m1111en m th,: m,rldir Rdu/inn•,
p 90)
 1~w1
\\'hen man contemplmes God In w<1n11111 , his ,-ontemplmlon
rests on that which Is pns'Jvc; If he oontcmplatcs llim in
himsdf, ~ccing ihnt womnn conH!b frum mnn , ho
conh.:mplatcs lllm ln that which ls nchvc; und \\hen he
uumcmplotcs lllm alone, without the pn.:,cncc ul OU) form
"hu~oe,er lssu"d from Ihm, his <.'01111,mplution corresponds
to a state o/ pass1v1ry with reAard to God, without
intcm,cdlnry Consequently his comemplntion of God in
woman is 1hc m05t perlcct, for it i~ then God, 111 so for ns lie
Is nt once .ictlvc ond possh·e, thot he oomemplatcs, whereas
In the pure Interior contcmplnllon, he contemplate, lllm
only in a pas,Jve W(1y. So the Prophet - Beaedlclion aml
Peace be uron him - was co love women beeause of the
perfect concemplation of God in them . the contemplntion
nl God In w<1mcn I• rhc m1>.st Intense nod the m<>St pcrfoct:
und the union \\hich I!, the most inu,n,u, (In tl1e senslblu
urdcr, which servcs n.-. ~upport for LhL'I <'0t1tc111plullonJ Is the
l!<lnjugal act. ( lbn al-'Arabi, quoted la Nasr. Trcullclo11al /slam
in the Modem \Vt>rld, p. 51)
BAIL\'t FAITU
Say· Su,p out ol Thy h.ol>· ch:unbcr, 0 Maid of llt!aven , lnmau,
of the l:.xolted Parachse 1 Drape thyself In whatever manner
ple:iscth Thee in the silken Vcsmre of fmmortalicy, and put
on, in the n,m., of t.he All-glorious, the broidered Robe of
l,i.O,h~. llcar, then, 1he swe1:1, the won~rous ncccm of the
\"olce tl1ut comclh Crom the Throne of Th>· Lord, the
ln<1CC<,ssiblt!, tht! Mo,., I li,th. Unvetl Thy fooe. and manifest
the beauty of the block-eyed l.lamscl. and suffer not the
servants o/ Cod to oo depnved t>f the lij\ht o/ Thy sh,nlnJl
oountenance Grieve not if Thou hcnrcst the siAhs of the
dwellers oi the c:1r1h, or the \'Oit>c of the fomcntn11on of the
<lcn,zcn, o( hca,·cn. . Intone. then, bl!forc the fot>c of the
peopiL>s of earth and heaven, and In a 1110,t mt!lodiou., vo10<c,
tbe anthem of prai><:, for a remembrance of Illm Who Is the
Klnl\ of the names and anrlhutes of GO<L Thus ha,·e We
d<>cre<'<I Thy destiny \\'ell able :trc We to ochic,•e Our
purp<>S'-' (Rnhn"u11ah, G/cn,1i11,i11, 1'1'· .?R::?-.1)

FL'RTl!ER R EAD ING

O n the mother ~oddess, see Gimhuws, The C',odrle1111e11 nnrl Gor/11 of Old
£un,p1;. On UH! 1,ociology of tlrn patriarchy, M!c Fnmch, Beyo11d Power On
women in Jtindutsm, i.ee Thomas, Indiatt \\om<.'11 and Gupta, Women in
Hindu Sociccy; fo r Buddhihm, sec llomer, ll'omcm untfor Primitiw
Btuldhism and Paul, \\'omen i11 Buclcllnsm: for Chrl~tlanlty, see Daly, The
<.:h11rcla and rhe Second Se.-c, and Floren~a, /n Memory qf lier; for Islam, sec
Sabbah, 1\'<lman in cite Muslim l'nco11sciouli; Afshar, 1\omcn in c/ic ,\liclrllC'
East, and Beck and Keddle, \Vomen 111 cite ]lfuslim World; for the Baba "!
15-J • KF.Ll(;fU1' IN ::.uctETY

F11i1h, sci.' Till' Gn:M11<!ss l\'hwh \fitlltt bt T/ll'u-,, and C:awn, J-:C11111J <:1n·k,
Sec ulM, l' J{jnl!, ll'm11c11 i11 the \l'orld's Rd1,!,r111._-. and ll'm11c11 011,l
Sp1n111a/11.v On :.c.u,alilv, ,cc l'arriudcr, Sex 111 tltc \li1rld's Rdl,iwm, c)n
t'i:mini~l ,wd1ci. of rclil!,ion, ~cc t:nn~rnncc Buchnnnn, '\\'mm.:n\ S1udic, in
1-.lrn<li:. 1':11cycbi1>l'dw qf Rd,,l!um, Fiorenza. Ill ,\/c11wry <if lier. chapter I,
l' Kini\, 'Rclii,tion amJ Clendcr'
 R EL IG ION AND rfIIE A RTS

that have been found appear to be

mlt. OF rm: t.,1u.1i::sr IIL'~IA.~ .\RTEFAc,-rs
rcliitious an of ,·arious forms and, throughout human history, arc has always
play1..-d :m lmporwnt role in the rel.igiou.s life of communities. This aspect of
reUition is, however. often forgorcen when religions are being described.
Official reli4ion presents itself principally through the medium of words.
Scholars in the field of religious i.tudies have, therefore, tended to study
text~. In iact. reli~ons hO\·e usually communicated their message to their
nJhcrents by other means, especially ornllr or through the arts. More chan
ninety per cent or the general population was illiterate in previous ages in
the \\'est and still is in much o( the rest of the world The arts can break
through this communication barrier by a direct approuch to people's hcarcs
and mmds. Thus the arts ha,•e always been an lmporcant aspect of the
manner in which religion hos on impact on society. This chapter
concentrate~ on three arcus: the role of art in popular religion, the role of
art in creoting our symbolic universe, 1md pattern<: in che history oi'
rcligiou;, a.rt.

ART ANO POPULAR RELIGION

,\lo~t descriptions of rdiAion~ concentrate on doctrlnaJ or or~anizational

matters These nspects of religion are, however, only of periphernl
importance for moi;t rcUj!.lous people. It is ordinary, ohcn Ulitcrnte or
poorly educated believers who make up the bulk or the followers of most
religions. These people hove little time for the imellectualizations of
doctrine or the intricacies of Holy Law that nre so beloved of the rcliitlous
profesi-ionals; they respond only very poorly co ahstrnct concepts and
verbal formulations; they arc not greatly concerned with the hierarchies
and power structures of che religion. For the ordinary believer, It is the
central experience of religion that ii, of greatest impo rtance (see
pp. 87-92) and the most effective way of recrcatm4 or expressing the
emotions of this experience for most ordinary people is through visual and
auditory images ond symholizacion. Because of their ovailabilicy ond
emotional Immediacy, tl1e arts arc probably ti,e most lmpona.nt source of
reli4ious inspiration and education They may take the fom, of painting.
155
-tSlt RU.IWUJ, l's SOClbTY

sculrrurc, drama, dance. :irchitccrurc, music, Mini!, MOl"'·tclllnl! or po4:1rv

Thc;,e arlJ:,tiu medllt piny n kc}· role in L·o111mu11ic(1tinl! the rd11Uou,
mc~,nAe to ordinary reople, ultJwul!h 1hey are often lutlc L'<!llsidercd h}
:,cholar, who :,tudy rcli~ion
In nUltl}' culture:,, n:liAious nrt 1:. the main mcnris of tc:ichml! urdlr~
pcnrlc the history rind doctrine" of the rcli~lon The l!rl'at cruht.'<lr:th and
churches of med1c,·al Lurope have vnst pmntin~ nnd stained-l!lm,:, "1ndlJ\,,
depict inA $Wries from the 81///c The,-e may he lt)unst anracumh 11m, lnu
in their ow11 tune they were n major 1,011rcc of rclil!ious cduct11io11 for the
mus:.ct- :u1d ,upporls t'or reliAious contemplation. Sculpture. d.r:una, 1111d
hymni. have :1bo played :in 1rnporrnm role in exprcssml! the dcepcM cruth,
of Christianity to the mnssci..
l:.ven In Islam, where reprei.cntotionul art i~ stronl!ly dh,cournttt.'<.l, the
nrts hnvc come throu~h in other ways. Just as in Chriscianity, Chris! ,, 'the
\\'ord mac.Jc llt:sh', so In lsl.3.lll, uic Qurh11 b the \\'ord of God Therdorc
where Christian mi h31, icons of Chris!, the equivalent m lslnrn1c nrt "
culligraphy of 1•cri,ci. of the Qur'u11. Calligraphy ii, the hti,1cM fom1 of
religious art in Islam. The combination of abslrnct d~i#J.s, calli~mphy and
t1rohiteoture in Islam create~ a religious space nnd amhicncc co focilitntl
religious t.'Olllcmplatlon. In Shi'I Islam. the uarratlon of the i,torics of tJ1~
sufferia~s of the Imams is the principal means of relil!ious communication
to the mn~scs. The profe.s~ional reciter of these :stories ( the rawdili-klian)
exhihiL~ ~reac sklll in raising 1.be emoliom, of his listeners and, at I.be 1>aml
time, making the morn! t1nd religious points in his stories The emotional
pitch th:tt b reached ii, reflected In the weeping and chci.t-bcating that
ot'ten follows or accompanies the narration. In the Shi'! world, che smry of
the lmnms is also used as the b::,sjs of n theatrical perfonnnnce (the
' ' ).
Ut.Zl)'tl
Other forms of relittious art include music and sonj\. llymns have
aJwa)'S rlnyed an imporcnnt pare in Christian services and nwny churchcb
ba,·e large choirs tlrnt perform elaborate choral works. SonA is an oblhtatory
part of synagogue ritual in Judai<.m In the time of chc Temple in Jcru,alcm,
t.-..irtaln musical ln~truments arc known lo ha\'c been played. includ1nt tJ11,
trumpet (/1cu,ora) and rnm's hom (s/10/ar ). But after the descrucrion of the
Temple, mw,ical im,trument.s were banned in i.ynago~uct. and the Lrndition
of unaccompanied chancing, usually with anciphonnl responses from the
congrcgacion. grew. In modem cimes. musical in:.trumeni;, have been
reintroduced to certain synagogues. Rclig10u!. soug1, (bhujans) ,1bo play an
imrormnr role in India They are the key form of che religious education ot
the masses in India They tell the Morles of :wators and s:ilncs, as well os
Inculcaring moraJ ,,atues and ~o,ciecal nonns Religious llllL~lc has e,·ol\'cd
its own specialized an fom1s such as campanoloA,v (the art of riniling
church bells), cantlllation (W'l:i.Ct.'Ompa.nied singing of cbc cruuor ill the
synag~ue) nr the soundin.tt of the call to prayer In Islam
Dance is rm important art fo rm in mnny rcligioni.. Mystical movements
such as the Ilm,1dim in Judaism and some Sufi onJer., 111 blam t.'Ombine
 lh: REl,lUIOh AND Tm; ARTS 457

Thls pi~ce of lslamlc call,~raphy csmmln~ t!Xemplars of se,·eral scyles. The text i~ (luriw
<ura 9J (til-T>ulu.r} from the cnp, the su<-'<--e'l.slve hncs arc in the fnlln"inl! styles
~luhnqqnq, Thuluch. 'snskh, foliated Kuf1, To'liq, Diwnni (somcwh:it ohscurcd), ,1;1li
Oiwnni. RJqJ' Mound the ~'<lg.I h Kufl The calli!lrr1phcr 1N Chnlib Snbrl, 1'167
 -15'> ltt;Ll(,111\ l!I; :;(lt;l~.T\'
OJ
!),\'(CF, IN
N.\Tl\1' i\\lt'IU('\1'/
RFl.lr.lON
lkDl>tllST OAS!:t. RITVAL In
thi~ Mol1,l\ullon ma.k dnncc
(T$am), vnrious BudJhi,t lcflcnds
.i.re acted ou1. Tb.is form of druK-e
is 1hou4),1 to have orl~n\ m
lnduin folk dance which wa.~
taken co 1ihet and cvcntunlh• 1e1
Mongolia. when: It hns llt:~n
tr<m,.fonnl'tl and <l1.-vclo1>cd.
I he Janee r, urc ,ornin¢c,I In II Ion!! line • 1l1c pr11,~11••I
cl<!ni..-nl t, u I hHlunlc ,1runplt1/l uf the rl~hl f,.,1 rl11, "June
w pt.•rf\..~l unhon often hy :t:-. m.mv ,1, fort) ~rtonrn.:r111 ~1nc.'C?'
,h..: rh~ lhn1 \'Ilnc:- from un1c- tn dnu.·. n " no ~~,· lfl"'k 10
1
moruon1:c th~ hl~p.-. nr" Jnncc
S,11~1111! lw 1hc pcrfonncrs ncC(>mp.1111"' the J.t111.'C ,\
J.u1cc losi,, for ru1 cntlrc d,,y ur thruul!h m'-'>t oi a n11lh1,
nlthouith rt!>I lntcrvol, arc ltttcrpus.:d throul!hou1 rhc
Jlro~raml\ "C\\1 ~,n~ nnt.J nev. dam.'(:, un: L'OWJl0'4:J for ..-n~h
ccrcinon)', ru,d these must he lcam~-d tn autt1Jlliltkl1v '"
every pcrfonner This fnct W"l'• nn inJic.1t1t1n of th" •mounl
of time nndl dfort which'"" p:onMp:,n~, In ,uch a c,.,r.mom
111u>1 expend In pr.:purmlon Thi, prcp:mulon 111kc, pla1.-.. 11
uh\ht In the kl\'llS jL-crcmunlnl buil<lonl!.i)
Each ccr1.•mony ts pcrformL'<I h)· <me of the <.'<:rcmunW
societl..-s. Of these, m Jlowvila, there ore six (or men •nJ
1hr1;.-c for women ~:ach ndult mon I\ c,qx.'C!red 10 Joon I•
$0Cl.,1yJ Pnrticipac1on In the work or the.-., "'ic,ieth!\ 1, a
rcllfllou, anti ~ocool duty which Is exp~cted or c,·cl')
man ... Panlmpollou In lhe rc!Jgtows <,b,,t:t\'ttn<.'<.-,, bnn¢, nu
spel!ial favor 10 the parllcipant.s. The ce,.,monlt!l, 3,.-e earned
ouc m order that the whole commumt)' may henefll. Failun:
10 dll one's ceremonial duues properly would bnn,t ill-iortun~
10 the entire community (D<:nnis. The /lop, Child, pp :?-I-SJ
song 11111d dance la their rcli~ious practice,
Elaborate dancoi. are formed out of relig.ious and
mythological themes in llirtdul~ID and Buddhism,
ofcen usin~ the m11dras (symbolic gestures) th.it
are also found in religious sttllucs (see p. '.!7-t ).
It ib, however, in the primal religiom, that
music, song and dance achieve their gre:itest
reU~ous si$'1ificance. Many of the most important
rituals of primal reli4ions consist either solely or
m:iinly of thl!l,e arti:,tlc forll1l> and 1,omeUmc~
orhcr an forms such as the painting of mask:, or
the carving oi wooden implcmenu. The rhythmic
<lruwing of many oi th!!sc rituab ylelc.b cvcntu.i.lly
to a rnmce state
Rcligioui- an hru, other functions also. It
frequently ha~ a talhmanic role. Ora" Ill¢; of
symbols or calli,!r:iphy of scripture In pancms
such as mandalru, ore often carrh,J on a pen.on a:,
an amulec Thel>t! :.ire considered to bnnA good
fortune or to protect che wearer from horm or ii).
bcrut.11 (&cc chapter 15).
 IN · RELIGION ,\Nil Tllf. ARTS 459

,\l{T .\ND TIIE SYMBOLIC

UNIVERSE

Onl' distin,ituishin~ fenntrc of humon life

1:, our ,1bilicy t0 symbolize - to nuacb
me:m1nl!s to rhinl!J, in what is often a quite
.1rbitrary \\ay The most important rc:.uh
of tlus ability iS huma.n speech. But, ln
face. all communication and everything
th.it \\C include under the general heading
·culture' stem from this ability. \\'ilhin CAU,IOR.\PHIC ART" Calll,traphy can be used
,1ny ti"en society and culture, individuals ro cre,ue images Herc. the name and
symbolize tbclr experiences in the same dtlc• of '1\li arc used in cnlligrnphy to create
th,: imttg~ of n ll<m - 'Hraydttr' o r
way. They are said co lh·e in che same 'Lion' bclng the sobriquet uf 'All
symbolic universe.' This is what causes
th.: soolety to cohere. lt is because of this
th:u we reco#tnize and can disrlf\Auish one culture from another. This is
,,hat the children of each ouhure imbibe from the momem of birth. They
ar.i not conscious of it as somethin'l that tl1ey have learned; rather they :;ee
it as the way char thin,!lS are, the 1..1ken-foir-gronced reality.'
ln a trndltJooal wcicty, it ls religion thut determines and directs the
symbol system of that society. Thus it Is rellgion that gives the culture its
underlying coherence and determines the values and meaning ~tructurcs of
the society. But it is the work of the artist to perceive and express these
symhol strucn1res. Thus, in n traditional society the nrts and religion 11rc
i11ex1rlcably bound up with each ocher. Together they construct the
symbolic universe or that society. Religion directs and detennines the
symbolization in chc sociery and the arts can do no ocher than express that
The symbolic universe of n 1.ocicty is not, however, usually something
that is scacic. It is, or should be, a movia'l, evolvinl! entity Reliwon und the
arcs are principally responsible for this creative process that bring..~ ahout
the e,·olutlou of the symbolic unl\'ersc ln which a society lives. A~ with aU
creativity, ic involves three srnges. The first is tO detach us from our present
worldvie,,, the status quo: the second is to move us into n new world, 11 new
way of being; the third Is 10 consohdare these new inslghcs and tmegra1e
chem into our symbolic world so chm they become p:irt of our wken-for-
granwd reality.'
This creative process ls both terrifyint and fascinatin/V It is terrifying
hecause at the momem that we detach ourselves from the old, we have no
idea where the process will rnke us. The lo;s of the old landmarks is
l'ri~cening: we are swept off our feet. The proces:, Aees on, however, to the
creation of o new world, a new symbolic universe, '11 new heaven and a new
earth' Uere begins the fascinating pan of the process, the cxplorotion oi
this new world.' In this process, however, there is always the danger of
failure. Li art or religion is too advcnwrous, nnd cuts iLSclf off too much from
160 ltlLl(.tON 11' ~OCIETY

the pns1, from lhe tmd11ions and inMj!hti. of the eMablJhhed order, 1here b
o dm1t!er 1h:tt the re:,ult will he ehm>s Fe,1 will, in any e:he, he cnrrieJ olcint!
with the nrilM or reli~ous reformer 011 :.uch a Journey. If, on the othcr
lmnd. timidity nm! conscn•acism prcdnmin:ne, there b no rmAre~~. mere!~
repc11tlo11 of Lhc LrULhi. 1111d in:.i)!lm, of the old order: 111 thb, 11n hcl.'0111~.,,
only pl:igi:irism nnd rclit!ion merely ,uperM itlon and m:14ic; hence I he
importnnc<.! of 'the ~lid<lle Woy', the path of mooer:ttion
.\rt is olso ,,Jmil:ir to rcll/!1011 with regard to the crltcna for dce1din~
wh111 1s :md is 1101 within the c:itcJ!ory F'or somethinl! to he cla.,Mned a, a
work of an depend:, not only on the intention of 1J11, urt1:,t hut nls<l on the
recep1lv1ty of the hcholc.lcr. Afnc:in works c,f nn were for man~ year.
collccwd hy unthropoloAists 1111d museums in the \Vest as merely nriefneb
They did not bccom1: works of an for tbe West uu tll such n rtbt:. a:. l'lcus...._,
sensiiized the \\'es tern puhlic to their arti~tic merit ' Sim1lr1rly, ,, hcther n
Butldhi:..t lt!Xt or II I lintlu statue oi Shiva L~ u religiow, work depcudi. on who
is looking nt 1l. For many years. much such mmeriaJ was hrou~lll to the
Wcsl and clns~ifit;:d and conscn•cd as the literature and artefacts of the Eai.t.
It was some time before there were any appreciable numbcri. of Buddhisu.
or llindus in the \\'est who could respond ro them as reliAious works ln
i.hon, It I:, not the intention of the artist nor the subject mntter t1i:1t makes
a work religious, it is rhe effect tluat it ha~ and lhe use to which it b pUl.
There is one further imporront similarity between art and religion This
i~ their essentially perform,lllve nature. t\rciscs do not, u:,ually, much
concern themselves with the theory of art; they lea,·e chm to nrt critics
.\rtists are concerned with doi1-,,,;? their art. They do not do their an in
accordnnce with a conscious blueprint or a theory. They do their an and
then let others (or oocnsionolly themselves, kiter) construct theories
around tl1c work. Mo:.t artists do not consciously make a work of art :.o lbat
it symbolizes somechinl\ or confinns some theory Indeed, the work of :1rt
doe~ not refer co anythin~ al all; il merely cxL'!ts and throuj.\h it the ariiM
1,eekJS to communicate an im,~ht. or ~Ive form to u pcrl.-cptlou.' Rclitlon b
similar in many ways. 'The imp<>rtnnt aspect of the reli~ious life i, the
actlo11, the living c,f tin, religious life, the doinj\ of the rclij\iou:. 11c1. The
reason why rhe ace Is done. rhc theoloiUcal or lc~alisdc framework for 1he
action :m<l the pnttcrn of Hie. i;, a secondary structure built up by the
rdi~uus profes!,(onab and of only mar_t!lnnl concern to many believer:,.
The artis1 is not , chereforc, merely enA,'11\Cd in representing n gi\'en
form, cbe religiou~ person b nol merely carrying oul prc:.cribcJ oclh"ith.::,
By their l'ery activities, 1hey are crentin~ new world" They create the
forms of perception and meanini,t by which human J,cing., imerpret their
experiences. \Ve :.ee th e world dift'crcnily once we have (:XpericncL'tl a work
of an. Those who lh·e in che West in the l:11e rwencieth cen1ury cannot
think of a hero, even of ancient lime:,, withou1 :,cein,g him throu~h Byron'!,
inw~e of a hero, we cannot chink of tl1e Last Supper without carryin~ in our
mind 1,conardo dn \inci's painted visualization of the Last Hupper and ii'
we were young in the 1960s, our view of the world is probably affected by
 111 REl,ICHON ,\'10 'l'IIE \RTS -t<, t

+At
M<&tD
CIA

.:.;,~~
,. '

h
l\~,;RRt:LitilOUl! tSfWE."CE N T i lt o\llTS: ol There as o clcur pn.'<lcdcn1 for the 1mdilion<1I
Chr~~t11111 depiction or the Madonna 1111d child in this third cenwry ci, mosaic or the
infant Olon"~m. l'ophos. Cypru;,. b) 11111\hia Sophia, the urownJog monument of
Byzo.ntme orchitec1ure, wu built by the Emperor Justinlon bctwc>en SJ.:? and 562. After
the Muslim conquest, tt was converted Into a mosque In 1453. Ha,ithla Sophln hecamc the
model for Turkish mosque architecture
.J(,.? Rt:LlUIU:-. IN $OClf:T\"

1hc mui.ic and words of John Lennon and Boh Dylan .\ rclil!inu, l!cn1u, also
crcatci. a nc"' ,,orld th:11 did not Cxi!,( hcforc We can :,crm:dy think of
Chrlsli:milv whhout Lhinklnj! of it in terms of the C..'<lnccptual world crc:atcd
hy St .\u!!ustinc nnd St Thomns Aquin:i,, let :,lone St Pnul, nor can w1:
hnnAinc much of Mahuynn:i Buddhii.m <mL~ide the worldvicw created h,
\'a~nrjun:1 We should nOl, ho11·ever, imniilne that wh:11 1hcsc anl~t1c and
rch~ou:, giant!, have done is cxccptional. IL i, only cxccplional In 1li. ~calc
:111J impacl. \\'h:tl they have done is repe:itcd (on a i.mallcr ,calc aml 1111h
less rcsoundinlt impact) each time that an :irtist work~ or a helu:,•cr soylo 11
prayer In a i,plrll of dctauhmenL from the world :ind nn opcunc,,,.\ u, ch1111~e.
\\'hat occurs is th,11 chrou~h these activities human heinl!.\ hecon11.: more
human, moro 11\\nre of the polcnLial wilhln thcmsehcs, m()rc scn,ithc to
thelr cm·ironmcnt

TIIE ll tSTORlCAL DEYElLOPMENT OF RELICIOIJS ART

Religious art may he considered to move through three stages in the hismry
of each religion (although not every rcllgion has moved chrou~h all three
sta~es): amconic, iconic, and representational.
Religious art in the early stages of those religions chm are focused upon
in this book, lllndulsm, Bmltlhisn1, Judaism, Christianity. Islam and the
B:.urn'i Faith, was aniconic in narure. This means that iti: artistic fomu; did
11()t involve any aucmpt to produce the likeness of Its principal Mlcrcd
persons. Iconic forms of sacred an e,·olved in some of chese rcli~ions with
the: pass:ige of time. In iconography, there is nn ntrempl to produce n
likeness of a sacred emlty (usually God, a god, a founder-prophet, or o holy
personage) hut in a traditiona l fom1 In the West, the mo,·c toward~
representational art {in which the person or object I!, rcprc~cnted a~ close
to the natura l physical fom1 as possible} hel\an with the Renaissance h did
110! nffect other parts of the world until the present century.

The Mo'Ve from An iconic Art to Iconic Art

Aniconic art usually representS its subject by a symbol. ' In contmst LO ~I~~
which are intended to signify n specitte empi rical thimj or c;,cpcrience (such
as II wamin~-slgn:il in the case of a fire), srmbols refer LO n reality which
would odierwise elude one's .iµ-asp. They do 1101 indic11tc or denote ltO much
ns evoke . . In the cnsc of religious symbols the specific carthhound object
touches ofi a transcendent dimension io the person's experience' (For an
indication of the manner in which a symbol can touch off this transcendent
dimension, 1,cc pp. 170-J.) The important factor about i.ymbols i1, their
multivalence. They can be understood at m:my different levels of mc:mln~
The aniconic image nrny indeed be considered more tn1e than the human
liken~ Jcpicted in the Jeon_ The lauer distracts lL\ and cmphaslzc1, the
closeness of the sacred person to the human mode of e:icistence, ,vhercas
 Ib RELl<~ION ANI) TIIK ARTS <16.'l

TRANTION.\1, .\RT A.\ll RF.PRE!l~'TATIOSAL ART" These are lwo portroits of Tupa Kupn, 11 Moori
chid The ldt-hruid one Is dr11w11 by Rn En@sh nrllst 1U1d showli hi~ human likeness h
1, tbc m,m ns he "ould see hlm,clf tr he look<.-d In a mirror. Th" rl!lht-hond picture L, 11
.cli·portralt drawn In accordance with t.he tradltlonal an of lhe ~laorl people. It shows
Tupa Kupa accordlnt to bis d,vine ,mage, his heavenly archetype, his Inner perfocllon,
hi, tme r.:allly which tr.:mi<eends hi., earthly Fr:ime. (Coomaraswamy, 11/hy E..:hibir \\'ork.~
qfArr~ p. 116)

the aniconic form remincl~ us of the l1igher spiritual realities and the
relative uajmportance of the human mode.'"
Later, the an form becomes iconic. This means thm it tnkes on the
human form. Figures of Christ or of the Buddlrn appear in !.he an form.
There is. however, no attempt to create a naturalistic representation. The
form does not draw on a human model but rather upon tradition:11 models
that are handed down from master to pupil. The featur~ are heavily
stylized, wich symmecry and rhythm being the predominant features. There
i!i often n tradition that the original Image appeared mlr:tculously. Since the
subject is divine. no human emotions are shown The aim is still to provide
!l support for contemplation nnd thus the lines nre simple nnd there is
mirumal distraction.
The precise reason that aniconic art fom1s evolve into iconic forms is
not easy to determine. It would appear lil«.:ly that this evolution ls linked to
the 11,radual diversification of the pathways to salvation, the performative or
~ocial expression~ of religion, as the religion develops (sec chapter 5)." In
particular, the dcvelopmea l of ritualism and tlie religion of love and
worship, as major pathways of salvation requires iconic imal\es on which
the believer can foous, nniconic nn being perhaps too nbstrnot nnd
lnteUf:!ctual for popular religion.
IM ltEl,H,JON IN SO<.:lt. T\

In IlinduiMn, Lhe early \'cd~c reliAion was nniconic, c.'Onccmcd murc

wilh rltunl and sound Lhnn with imo~c:,. '· The \'UM profu~lon of lco111e
im11Ac1> 1hm no" chnmcterize.~ I lindulsm :1lmos1 certainly de,clnf)(!<l wt1h
the emcn.l,cncc of the /1/wkti sects of <lcvo1ton rownr<l1, pnrticubr <lcitlc,
In Buddhism, 1hc carllc.,1 rcprescnLallons tliat we have of the llu<l<lha
rm: anicnnio. lie is rt!prestlntcd hr a lotu~ (1houAl1t to r4.cpre:-en1 the
Buddha's hlrtl1), the BcxlhJ 1rec ( rcprcscncinA Litt: Buddha's 1mllivncnmcnt),
n wheel (:.ymb<>lizint the Buddh:i sc11inA 111 motion 1hc wheel of rhc
Dlwnn::i). or n swpa (mcmoriul monument symbolizmit the Buddha\
IJ(1ri11iroonu). O1.hcr images rcprcsc11til11t the Buddha include his footprint
n throne, n blazinA column :ind a tridcnc (sec p. -H>6) Such amcon1c
rcprescmmlom, of the Bmldhu pcri,istc<l until about the 0rsl ccnllll"}' c f
(nhout six centuries after th1: time of the Buddha) .\t thb um..:, ~lllh,1yana
Auddhi~m developed. with it:. concept of Lhc Buddhri llS a rcdt-cmer figure
\\Orthy of veneration in his own ri~ht. IL ii, only lhen that ic.-uruc
rcpresemations of rhe Buddha began 10 appear.
Juduism und Islam ure two r..:ligions which h:ive g..:ncrully r"m:um:d
aniconic in their sacred an.0 This may be connected with Lhe fact that tht:
orthodox fom1 of bod1 religions is legalism rather than ritunlism Tho;:
ngorous monotheism enjoined by the orthodoxy has prohibited Lhe
development of any iconic art. ar least in the srnagogue or mosque; an)
images are considered incipient idolalry.
Baha'i places of worship, too, arc likely ro remain aniconic In vie\\ of a
specific injunction in the sacred text. Much of the an found in Baha'i
homes is also aniconlc. mainly religious symbols and calligraphy. Thh may
just be because the Bahn'i Faith 1s in an early stngc of it, developmem Thc
hasls of a move towards iconic art exists, however, in Lhc pbo1ogrnphs and
palnLin)ts of ',\bdu'I-Baha, d1e :.on of Lhe founder of the Baha'i Faith, which
:ire to be found in many B:iha·i homes.
There are problem::. ln rcconsLTUctlng Lh., earlr history of Chrbthu1
religious art, as very little h:1s survived The early Christian Churches
appear to have been strongly a~llinst all pictorial represenuulom,, which
Lbey associated With pa~an idolatry. No doubt thev wert.? also influenced by
the .Judaic roQts of ChriMianity. The cnrlicst Chrisrlan nrt is th11refore
itnlccmk. Christ Ii. reprci,emcd by i,ymbols such ru, Lhc fu.b. Lb..: Gre..:k
letters alpha and omc,!ltt, :i lmnlb. an anchor. and later the c/ii-ro s~·mhol
(the,c two Greek letter:,, being the first two letters of Chril.f, nnmc) ~lost
historians now agree that the abMm<.'C oi pictorial rcprese111ation wa.., not
because of foar Qf persecution, :is w:u, ori~inally thou~ht ,\1 ,nmc time
during th!! i.ccond or third century CE, however, tl11s :mlwde l>etun to break
down and ima~es of Chri~t h:,vc- been found in rhc Chrl,rinn art ~un·i\·in~
from this period It was at abouc the time of the dccr1.ae of Consmmine in
Jl:? ct. givln~ official rccog11ition to Chrl:.tlanity chm I.here wru, a
prolifermion of iconic an in Chris1l:inlty
Iconic art cru, be placed ,omc,, here he1wccn an iconic rtrt and
rcprt:scnwtlonal arc. IJei.pite their le,;, abstract fom1, iconic fonn, of art ore
 18: R£Ll<:ION AN!l TIIE ARTS 165

R11nm1 .\.',O c.u,r..~ct 11< l'ltAl)ITIOSAL ARr. Thc,e tW<• pictures, the fir.<t Cl:ltlc eottrm·lng.,. on
.itumulu:, Jnt.l the >et'Ont.l a tlurteenth-<-'t!nlUry Madonna and child by Clmubue (In lhe
LuU\ re). wow the same pamm1 'l::vcrything musl come to~thcr to t!h•c blrth in the
specuuor's mind to the idea of etemhy throu~ the rno\'emem o( the e,rcumference, In
the authority and b~· the power of the cadences and. i)nally, o/ the rhythm, which is one,
~l>.solu1<J, and expressed h>· the curves of the clrolc, oi the sphere. So \\' C ochlcl'c the
unchanging h_y rcpcttt1on o( the some. men.sured numhcr. Tlw curve h.t~ chts prerognt1vo,
1hat tt 1, ot once the most ouohUc and llui most SlaUo o( nJJ rll\urcs.' (Glctics, Rch41on
o ,Id ,\rt; these dra"in/lS were prepared by Robert t•ouyo.rd for GleUes.)

i.till lo a l~e extent symbolic, in thai they lake us beyond lhemselves to

the truth chnt chey represent. That truth bein~ beyond humnn
understanding, traditional artisti, are t.-ontcnt merely co allude to ll i.lmply.
Thev are not concerned with makin~ the icon seem lifelike. Indeed. to do
so would distract from che purpose of the work of urt. Iconography is based
upon a :.cn~e of ordia!r In the unil'erse, tbe au1.bority of trndltion and tJ1e
hierarchy of che established cosmolo,1ty. En Christianity, such Arc is to bi!
found not just in the icoru; of the Eastern Orthodox Church but al;,o in tJic
paintin~. sculpture, architec1ure, calligraphy and m11nuscrli,t illumination
of areos RS diverse as Britain and Syria.
There is something of a parallel co be drawn here between a traditionol
work of sacred an, such as an Icon, and a rirual such as the Christion
Eucharist or the Muslim pilgrimage (llajj ) The Eucharist is a ritual re-
enacunent of Christ's Last Supper and ta1e llall re-enactl> certain event,
from che lives of Abrnham and Hagar (sec p. 280-1) but no-one thinks of
chcse ll.\ hiMorical rc-cnacuncnts; no one is concerned lo have t.he setting
and the scene correct from the viewpoint of hl~torlcal realism. That wou ld
be missing the point The purpose of the ritual of che Eucharist is not to
-16', IU,Ll!il()'.1111' SOt:l&TY
. _......
i'>·
AMt:lN(; IIJA(;~ l}F TU£ BllVOIL\; llere Lite
Buddha Is rerresemed hy a throne upon
which 1here is a pillnr with O:imcs
emerginl! irom the side In place of the
hcud I~ 1lt" chakro (wh<.·d, oho
,ymholi,ing Liu, sun), anJ at Llw baw arc
the tooL•markl. (p,u./uklo) ). On either slJe
are followers In filLiLUdl!~ of \\~)rsh1p.
Amomv:all. 1hird ccmury CE.
Moot.Rs ll£PR£Sf,\"T,\TIOS.\t Alll': Th is r,icturc show• 1hc h1tth nf the lluddhA
-•
i(;()~I(; l)L\tit VF mt; Dl lll>H.\. This •• "
llj\urc cut lo stone of the Buddha :,catcd
under the llodhi iree with his rillht hanJ
in the ,lblltt1v, m1ulm (gesture 11(
fe,U"lc<snc-s) "lt,oh h" ad<1p1,-d
lnuncdlrt1cly after his e11l1Aftu:nm1:11L It b
In Lhc Gundharo MIie of nortb-w,:st lnd1a
(second-third century u) and the Gre1:k
influence con be seen in the fiiture on 1h1:
left
 11< RELH;roN ANO TIIE ARTS 1(17

AMl:O~IC OIA(,l Of Umlll!'I'

Tiu, symb<1I of Chrl>t In
...-orly Chrisuanlty was the
n.h, nm <>nly bee,, ,,~e of , he
.. . .
• t.,..
implicminn of spiritual food
hu1 nlso hccn,,,e rhc Greek
word for fis h, iclttli.)'<Jll,
•pcll(.'tl lhc lnlllal letters of
• the &Ullt\Dll!lll! Jc,;u, Chrls1,
, I\
.,.,. ...
Son of God, Saviour This
• •• mos,iic nlso refers 10 , he
pornhlc of 1hc lo:o,·e~ nnd
flshcs .

lcosm t\lAO£ or C11R1ST: The crucifixion,

Creel.. orthodox Iron from Kotnnllk,
1.1
on 1:le,enth-t.'<!nLU')' church cul low
the rock face lo G<lrcme, central
Turkey

Rt.PIU.St..NT.\llll'IAL IMM,I m CURJST ,\

Rt1n11lssoncc deplcllon of Lh"
e11tomhment of Christ (c. 150i),
1,howinl!. naluralism and intense
emotion Painun4 hy Raphael
(1483-1520)
4ul> RU.It.ION I~ SOGIFTY

rccn:mc the ,1c1ions of Christ amd the disdplc, cnrrcclly frnm 1111 ,•mr,1rical
h1,torlcal v11.m point hut ru1hcr lo c, okc lhc bp,rltuul rcollty of that c,·cnl.
S11nilnrly, th e icon b concerned not wilh :l hl\t<incnlly CJOITl-C I
rcprcsc11tutlon of Chri,:.l or l\lury or 1111y other i.:icrcd fiJ!urc hut \\llh ,111
evocation of tht:: ;,pirltunJ reality. .\rt ,,,.1;. In the Iconic trndiuon ur,
concc m,:d 10 nrmnl!e the imn~e" in 1hcir wnrk in :i way th:u lc:id, th<: mind
:llonA a 1>nth of contc111plation

Tlw Move Prom fc:onic co Ueprcse nuaionol .\rt

\\'c no1t::d aho,·c chat art and rcliAion :ire carrym~ out much the "nmc ,on
of aclivitlci;. they are both eniµgcd in bulldJnii up lhl i.ymbollc 11ml
conceptual universes of their ~ooh:ty. \\11ilc that uni\'crsc rcmaini. urnrnry
und unfrngmcnted, the 1wo can do no other th:111 to wo rk ,:.ide by side nm.I
an iconic or ico11lc fom11, of art predominate. Thb luteJ!raLlon of relh!,1on and
ihe arts in society heg,111 to hrenk down in Chrisrian Europe with the.-
Renaissance. Stnrting as early a$ i.he eleventh ond twelfth ccmurlc~ and
de,·eloping inexorably down co the present day, a new secwar form of
ctinscio usness arose We may speculate llint chc religious scrnciure nf
medieval Chrisli:mity had, hy the twelfth century, become coo ossified and
rigid le was no longer capable of moving forward with art to explore new
ground. A parting of the two bcC11111c inevitable, us art broadened its sweep
lO include ever more secular, mnterialislic perspecrl\•es
Por a time, the two Western perspectives on art stood side by side·
religious an, based on the relativity of the sensible world and the prlmncy
oi the spiricual, and the new secul:1r, humanist, represcnrncionai an, ba~ed
on lhe absoluteness of the sensible world. Then, following the Renai!.sance,
the first gave way before the second. Paradoxically, t.lesplte iu. Mme. it il>
the latcer, humanist arc, which crea1cs a universe of sensations in which
humanity shrinks in signillcancc. Even though such art frequently dcpicls
che human form, it is the animal, sensuous ru.-pect of l'he human form thm
is emphasized, thus pulling humanity o n a par with the rcsl of tl1c natural
world. In Iconic religious art, on the ocher hand, the h11ma11 bei~ o<..-cupiei.
a central position as the apex of God's creation. The rel!Aious painters 0 1
the medieval pc:rlod doubtt:d the- po;,sibillly of knowlcd~c ilirou~h tl1e work
of the sense.~ alone They tried co give their work eternal value rhrouAh
resonance and rhythm . Their aim was to provide :1 s upport for
contemplacion." Artists after the Rcnaissuncc believed that knowle~c
could best he acquired throu.U, the senses They tried in their work to hold
up a mirror 10 the world, becoming concerned principally with spac.-c and
spccwcle, and co create the illusion of thr4.\C dimensions from the surface
on which they were working. t';;vcn when the subject of ,he work has n
religious theme, the emphasis is on the wn:,ual nnd marcrlal, on emotion
and passion. rather than focusing o n the spiritual and acilng as a basis for
contemplation:
 Iii Rt:l.l<HON ,\ND THE ARTS ~69

Chrlsuan urt, for C.\nn1ple. h,,)\Jns wl1h Lhc rcprcscnmLl<>n of th,: deity b)'
ohstrnct oymbols. which may be A<--<>metricul, , ..'l!cmbl" or th,:riomorphic
[in animal form ], nnd nrc devoid of nny scnthnen1:1l 11ppc11I whatc\'cr /\n
:lllthropomorphlc i,ymbol follows, but thl~ 1s s1III n form nnd not u
fi,lurntion; 001 made as tl1ouAh to function hioloAically or as if to illLLstnue
a 1c~1 hook of anotOm) or of dmmmJc CX'J)rci,slon. Rtill loier the form is
scnllmemnllscd, the feniurcs of the crucified are made to exhibit human
suffcrinA, the rypc is completely humanised, nnd where we hcl\nn with the
sh.tpc of humunity us an nnnlogicnl reprcsentntion of the idea of God, we
end with the por1roit of 1he artist's mls1ress po:,lng as 1.he Madonna and the
rcprcscnwtion of an all•!OO·human hnhy "

:0-o equivalent to the Renaissance

uccurrcd in the reli&ious world of rhc East.
The tradluonoJ arthts of the East
therefore rescmhle medieval European
arti~ts in their attitude and approach. t•
E\ <!a ln Eastern religious art, however, we
may detect some drift towards an
increasing concern with cmotJon and
,ensation In modern times. We can see
this in the increasing cl(lhorntion and
~e11umentollty of much modern llint.lu and
Buddhist an, more concerned with image
and sensation than with conveying truth.
~led1e\•aJ European artists und anlscs
from trnditinnal cultures today express
what they com,it.lcr arc eternal truths.
They do not need, therefore, to identify
themseh•es on their work Their
icono~raphy Is concerned with lhe use of
the religious inw,iie, tl,e contemplation of
wl1ioh tokes us heyond the image to the
M011£R." IIL\'lllf REU<llu l'S ,\RT- ,\ picture
truth that it represents. They are nm d<Jpiotinl\ the )'tJun~ Krishna a< o OO\\ herd
concerned with making the imal!e seem and dcmonMrntinl! th<: clnlx,rn1cn<J" um.I
lifelike. Post-Renniss:incc \\'csu:rn anist., scntimcntulh)• llf mu~h modern lllndu art
however, in rcjeetin~ the established
trat.lition, mainly had chc random va,!\.1ries
of subjective indiviJuolism to guide them in their search for inwnrclnt!sS
and feclin~. They themselves became the onh· authorit>" for their work. It
was, therefore. fitting rhat they incrc:tsingly adopted the custom of signing
their work,;.
Thus in Europe, religious art moved gmdually but inexorably awa~
from heing primarily concerned with symbolizing eternal spiritut1l truths
nnd supporting contemplation (anlconlc nnd Iconic art) wwar<ls 11 s11w11ion
in which most art with reliAious rhemes lvas an attempt to represent che
 -Ho 1u;1.1n1u:-. IN ~oc1t.1r
Tm l~L\<il ot Tllf, llrt,l>ILI, 'If we arc Jbturbcd b)'
whnt \\t· tcuJI lh1e •,ooancy" of u BuJJha'•
expression, ouia)it we 1101 to hear m mind that
he i< lhoul\ht of us !he i-,ye in the \\'orld. Ute
lmpnss,hle spet'tntOr of 1hinJ(;', as they really are,
ond thnt it would ho\'c hccn impcr1incn1 to h:wc
A"'"" him features mouldl!d hy human curiO>ll)'
or pw,slon~ I( It wn~ an ortlslic co11on that \'cin,
and bones ~hould nor be 11wd<: app3.rem. C-.lll "-"
hlame the Indian artist 3S an artist for not
dlspl.ti~'inl\ such u knowle<li:t, of anntomy "' ml.l!h1
ha,·c cvok'--d nur a<lmimtion~:' If we know from
uuthoritttthl.! 1iti!rttry '\OUrt'!t.:S thul tlu.• lt.)llli
on "hid, thc BuJJhu sits or ~wmJ., 1, not,,
b0La1tlc.1J S('<:clmcn. but the unh·cl"iul Around wf
cxt,,tcne<, luflur.,,l!<!nl in the wa1cn; of Its
Jnd.,finiu, pos<1htlit1cs, how inapproprhtt;: 11
would hAve hccn 10 reprl!.Wnl him in 1hc ~olld
Ot"lh prcl~lrlflulll\' hol:mt'<.-<l on 1hc ,urfo1:e
of ,1 r.:nl und frlll\llc Oowcr' (Coomat11>\\uu11,
ll71y t..~lulm \li>rki<ef.\rt~. pp. 4i~'I) C,1uu·1
,u1tuc of llic lluJJba ln l)llyum 1111,u.lrtt
(mcditallon 1,0,turo,) Polonnaruwa. Sn Lanka,
c· 12th ccnnuy ri.
image, the cn10l1on, nnd the
i-e11tlmt!nt!> of the phvMcal l\lirltl
(rcpn:;.;:n1111innnl art) Rcli,l!inul> .in
moved from the rc11l111 111
icuno)lrnphy to h,:in~ c" ntrcJ on
111,:>,thcuc,. from form to fiJ!urntion
The l11di1•1dual Mylc of th" aru,t
ch:m)lcd from hcin)l n mere nr..-cil.k nt
to bcinS the principal (ocLL, oi thi.,
critical nppmi;,:1J of a worl..
From tlus mcrcn,in)l concern
11 ith the !>en~ihlc world cnmc thl.'
bnliJ!htenmenc and the .\~c ot
Science Thc:,c dcl'clopmcnu.. 111
lUm speeded the retreat of rehit1on
As angels nnd the supr:i-scn~ihlc
world fut.led from our c.-onccptual
universe. :,o they also faded from art,
which hecame meren,in~ly
c.'Oneerned II ith the em pineal world
13ut this concern 11ith the i;cn,ihlc
world has merutt that the art;. hal'C
moved away from their oril!in:11
function of reflecting the i,rmhol
;.tructure of i.ocicry and becoo11:
concerned instead with ponraym~
its physical form llum11nlty today b
thus suirved of the world of symholl,
\Ye h:1ni a situ:1tion in our modem
M!CUWrizcd i.ocietic:. in whfoh tho!>e
who reject reli~ion find themselves
un!lhle to exprCM, adcqu111cly their
inner workl~, for lack of a sultahle
symhol srrucwre On the other
hand, Lhosc who call thcm;.cll'el,
relc~ious have access to a rich world
of symbols lmc find it mcrensm~ly
irrele\'ant t<> their ordlna.ry Jives
\·:1rious attempt~ hnl'c hccn
made to fill Ull!, ~ap at the heart of
society Since chey h111·c tried 10 1111
the place of rdi~inn, Jl is not
lncorrcct LU call thcm p~cuJ.o-
rcli~ions One of chc mosc 1ntlucncinl
ha;. hct!ll p~ychoaualy~is, of dthcr
the ~ reudian or Jun~ian variety Th.,
 Ill RELIWO~ ANI> TIJ~; ARTS ·171

lmlll\l!S and i.ymbols of Freud and, more

particularly. the archetypt:s described by .Jun~
rul\ c been rct1ected in the nrts The other iwo
muln t.>untendcrs 10 fill tJ1e Ideological gap at the
heart of society, ~larxlsm and natio1mlism, have
also bad their impact on the ans None of lhesl!
has. howe,er, proved a satisfactory or lastin~
nh,•m111ivoJ The art produced, particulnrly by
the lam:r two. i:, :.upert1cial and wwdrr. no
matter how good the technical aspects o( the
c..,ecutlon may he.
But we may be in the process of turning full
circle once again ~la.ny of the concepnml bricks
on "b1ch the macerialislic secularism ofi the
modem world Is h::tSed are hei,nning co crumble.
The traditional view that language is me rely the
form which articulates content has been
ch:illenf.ted. le is now realized that our language ~(nor~ ~10\'E!tEl,i IIA(l~ TO l(:OslC:
prL-<lct1ncs the way th:it wc i.cc the world! and .\Ill' 1'his statue of )fadonna ,md
Child by llcnry Moore ;,hows i,omc
thu:. the content of what we say The traditional
lndlcuUons of o movement nwoy
narrative form of the no,·el creates 1he illusion of from re1lre.5enui1lonal Ort and a
o world. the events and values of which are rctnm 10 traditional Iconic art.
independentlv ohsen,ahle and which che concerned \\ith symme1ry and
•
narrator is ml.!rely relaying. Thi.! modern novel rhythm, rnt her thnn figuration und
challenl!es chis by making le clear that dte nncurnllstlc rer,r<>Scn1111ie>n. St
Matthew'& Church, Nunh11mptun.
no,·elist :ind render are both invoh·cd in chc
creation of meaning thut is domiant iJ1 ll1c text
and comes alive in che ace of readin4." In the world of science. che empirical
science of Descortes and Newton has given way to relativity and quantum
theory, ln which the hard races and solid matter of classlcol phy~lcs melt hllo
ooncepcs th:it are more in che noture of mecaphysics. And in an, cuhism and
other non-flgurarh·c modern an can be seen tlS a rcjccti<)n of the illu~ory
n.:alism of Re-nais~anc.-e an, and, in the case of some artisL~, a remm to
cndcncc and rhythm, the expression of :u1 inccrn:il nnd eterna l reality."

ftJRTIIER R E.\DING

On the 1dcncity of function of religion and art sec Mardond , Religion mu\n.
On the rell~ious atdrude to art, see Gleizes, Art et Reli~ion; Burckhardc,
Sacred Arc in Ease ctntl ll'esr , and Coomarnswamy, Elem1mrs of Buddhisc
foonography and 1171.v Exhibit Works of Art? Sec also Craige, Literary
Refori-ciry; l,eSh:111 and ~lorgenau, Einsrein's Space and l'an Oo~h's Sky;
.\ L. !iloore, lc01u:,graphy of Religions, and I linnells, 'Religion and the Arts'.
 ni Rt,LICI0'.11 IN HOLllT\'

•
j

-·
RFJJCTIO\'l! .,Rcmn:c;n'I\£· The Sikh Golden Temple at Amritsnr, lndm. the holiest pl~ce <>(
Sikhi<m. SurrounJiOJ! the temple is the Amrilff S"rns (pool of intmortnlity) ,n .,h,ch
Sikh, bnthc to be ritual!)• pur1nL-<l.

Sri Mnrtamman Temple, n lllndu ThJ, nmet,'<:Oth-<.'t!ntury Scph:mllc

temple built m IM3, Sinl\aporc S)'nal!O,l!uc In Horcncc I;; bascJ on die
desi,an or
llastla Sophia, lstonhu l ond also
show-. mOuen«"' o( the ~IOOri~h Myle of
architecture.
 I~ HJ;tlCION ANn Tit~. .\RT$ -17:I

Shrine oflmam 'All, ~:1J:1f, lrott Thi• g<>ldon-donu,d hulldlng is the shrine of the firM Shi'i
Imam '.\II, "ho Is ab<> con.sldcrnd lO he the fourth onll11h b)' Sunni Mu.,llm>

Bn,ilic~ uf the ,\nnunclntinn. '-azar.,th Thi., modem church ,-,mn1n, the tradltlunnl
luc,ufon \\her<: the angel announced to ~lnr)· Ulilt 1,ltc """ tu he tl1c 111ntl1cr u( Ju,u., .md
rtbo the um!Jllonal 1,itc of Jo,cph', t:al'f""ntry ,h.,p. It w:i, buJh by the Romon Ct1thollc
Church and comrlctt-d In 1%$ It L> mo.lnudnl'<l hv the Fnmebcan Orr.kr
 17 1 Rf. l, Jl;IO\ 1:-/ $()( l~.n

M11hllbodhl Temple Al Samllth, lnJl,t, • modem BuJtlhlst ll!mplc It ,,. lvc.ncJ on the
lrudlUonnl •Ile of the UuJJh.1\ fln,1 .enmm 11ftcr h1, cnllclttcnm~nt .

8.~h11·1 lli,usc of Wor,,h,p, :-IC\\ 11clhi Th" tl!mplc ,. 111 cl,c fom1 or., l,)111, Om«·r, 1hc
•rml>ol o( the m.u11f..-.1atlun ul the Oil'IJ1c tu lnJJan rdlelun
 R EL I G I ON IN T HE N10DERN W ORLD

rhat modemit:y has h:id upon

IIIS C.11.\PTER F.X.\.\fl',F:S SOME OF TIIF. IMPACT
1.hc rclll\lous world. Thli. Include~ both the challenges that the modern
world presents to relil!ion ttnd the ways that religion has responded to
1.hem. I shall hriel1y sun·ey tJ1e developmcnL~ undergone in the twentieth
century by each of the main rell,l!ions that this hook:. ho1- concentrated on.
iin:11ly, lookin~ at a few topics such as new reli)tious mo\'emcnts, religious
freedom, and reUtion and tJ1e media. Several topics that parlicularlr
concem rclition in the modem world ,ire dealt with in other chapters
These include fundamenrnlism (sec chap1.er 14), fominism and religion (see
chupter 17), rdi~on and the environment (see chapwr 13, pp. 352-61),
and religion and modem dc,·clopmcnts in art (sec chapter 18, rP 468-71)
One of the moi,t important ini,ighti, into the study of rell~ion ha1> been
provided by 1.hc work of Wilfred Cantwell Smith. What we now call the
religions of the world were, 8mith has sought to show, not always seen thus
The enterprise thnt the present book is engaged upon, understanding
reli~on, would itself have heen difficult to conceh·e of in the pre-modern
cm In the pre-modern world , religion WtL~ not a separate part of life thnt
could be analysed m, an enlity. Rather, 1c was intel!,ral to livinl!,; ll wa.;, the
way rhat people saw the world. Since what we now call the religious view of
the world was I.he way tl1at people saw the world, it was, in a sense,
mvisible, pan of the basic as:.umptions that people made about life and the
world :ihout them. These assumptions \\'Cre S-O hasic thin they were not n
suhjcct for dbcussion. th.:y w.:rc m..-ccpwd m, 'Ai"«n'. fonnin~ an lnhl!ren1.
and seamles~ pan of pcoplc'i, re:ilit)'. Wh:11 the modem world has done is to
~1,p:1r:1te this pan oi human lifo and cnll it rdiwon.'
In a traditional society, there 1s LL~U3l1y no word ior religion In It~
modem ~ense since all that can he seen from inside such a ,·iewroim i;, 1hc
tom] structure. \\'ord;, such as 'piety' and 'ritual' exist but the uorrclmc o(
the modem <.-once-re of reli~ion docs not c:cisc since it cannot he ·seen' as a
scpar:11e entity (sec p. 25). The use of the word 'rclhtion' itself, in its sense
of tllfierentlatinl!, the dilfcrem reli~iom, of the world, is a new usage. In
earlier rimes its meanlnl!, was closer co the prescnr use of the word 'ricty' ·
\\'c ma~ follow tl1e Mswry of the word 'religion' further. in post-Rcnaissru1cc
curOp.!, and partlcularlr at the Enlil!,btenment, 'rell~on' evolved from itl-
previous sense to hecome ·rhc rcli~ion'. h thus hccnmc id<mtificd as a

475
476 IU.LIGJO:,; 11'1 SOCIETY

,cpornre rcifled entiiy ll was :-till seen, however, n;, the nonn for ,octet,
the basb for people's cLhici. and , nluei, of the people.
In the modem world there has been ti meltin~ aw:1v of lhili rnle ior
rclil!,ion a~ ;J srnhle and solid hasii, for society \\'h:11 "as prcvmusly '1lw
rcligwn' hos beconw 'o rcliAion'. Each rclil!ion i;, now seen n.-, one ot a
number of l.'<lmpctlnl! reli,tlnn~. nnd e,cn llwse must ,tmMle for people\
loyalty with u large number o( modern ideolot1es and worllhk,,:..
This procesi. of ·reiOc:111011' (nmkin,ll smncthinA into an ohJcCI tlrnt c:111
he ohscn·cd) hns the ,treat ad\':int:1,1\C of helpinl! u~ lo ,llnln o ,t\rc:ltcr
umlcr:.wml.ing uf the world. It also ha., 1.llsadvanrn~cs. hoWC\'cr. ht t.hot
11mfie1ally scpamtinl! somcthlnl! ,hnt ls inherently irllej\rnl to human lifo
lends to a distortion. The wny that people saw the world hui, mm hccome
lhc way people see the world on Sundays, or In the mosque, or In lite
Buddhist 1emple. The rC:<t of the time people <;Ce the world from o scientific
\'lcwpoim. 3 mau~rlalist.lc \·lewpoint, a ~larxbt , iewpolJll, a nauunafo,tic
,·iewpoint, and so on. Religion has lost its claim to he the exclu,n·c
,·icwpuinl from which people see the world
We may trace the beJ!innlnJ!s of this process to llenaissance Europe
Religion. in the form of the Roman Catholic Church, had n:iiled its colour-.
to the mast of the lradilionnl vie\\ of the \\ oriel. But then ::.ciemlM., and
anists hegan to demonstrate new ways ot -;eeing rhe world. Galileo, for
e;:xamplc, looked into his telcscop,c and snw n cosmo::. that wns different to
the Lradillonru one. l\t first. the Church's opposition 10 these new ,icws did
nm have coo deleterious on effect on the position of reliJ!jon Bm the crack
that lmd been created in the overall dominance of the trnditionnl worldv,c,,
was lO widen ever f1.1nher over the years. 011cc the pos:.ihiliry wa:, raised of
worldvicws other th:in 1he traditionaVreltgious one, an incrcasinii number
of people hega.n to examine and adopt them. At t.hc same dmc. tht:
1raditionaVreligious worldvicw could only be exnmincd once there were
01.hcr vicwpoiDL::. Crom whld.1 w cxantln1: Jt. Thu, was ::.oawthinii that. hod
nm heen feasible prc,iously.
,\:-. time went by, the divcrl\Clll.'C between lh1: 1rndilioru:tl worlthic\\ of
reli~ion and lhc l.'Onlempornry w<1rld\1cw b1:came;: ever J!reate;:r. The more
1hm rhis occurred, the more iTTclcv:111t rcli~ion became to most people. In
i.uch :i situation, socicly may nut dil.peru;e wllh rcli~ion alw~ll1cr. Rcli~ion
may continue to perfom1 a symbolic and ceremonial role but 11 Araduallv
ceases m affect the WU)' that people think and nc1.

SOCJ,\L CHALLENGES TO RELIGIONS

The modern world hai. llirown up M.:\'eral cb:i.Ucngcs lO rcliiiion. ThCloe.

initially at lease. weakened the p0s1tion of rclU\.ion. as there seemed to be
no ndequaw response from the religious world
 19 R6LIOIO:N IN TIIE MOIJt,;R.N \\'ORLD 477

r
Rcli~1ow1 />/ura/ism
On,• of the most uucomforl3hle fonturcs of
mo<lcnucy ior reU~tom, has heen caused by the

f
unprecedented interminitlin~ of peoples in the
laM hundred year;,. Thil> ha~ rc;.ulted in m:111y
,Ol'lecies becom111g to a l:ir~c excenc multi-
ethnic nntl muhi-rcligious. Previously, British
people, for example, had only o theoretical
knowled~e that there were such people as
llindus and MlL~lims. Now they have the
concrete foct of Hindus and Muslims living next
door. of mosque:- and Hindu temples in their
nd,lth bourhoo<ls.
The foct of a multi-religious sooiery has a
numhcr of consequences. Many religions have
always advanced claims of rt:li_~ious superiority
or exclusiveness \\'hen there was minimol
contoct \\ith other rell.glons and cultures, It was
possible co belittle other relig,ions :md assert the
Mtpcnoncy of one's own. Distance, langunge In o home ln Britain, a ~hrint ,et
difficulties and culcur:il dlver~ences made up with li~hc;, for the llindu
me:iningful comp:irisons between one's own festi\'al o( Dhmh
religion and others :ihuost impo:.siblc. llut these
obstacles become less problemadc with )!.reacer
contoct. Tlicl, has described how he found indh'iduals of grent piety and or
high moral standards In his conmct.s with Muslim, llindu and Sikh groups
in Birmingham. rr was chis that led him aw:iy from his Chrisc-centred
theology into o new framework that would allow for truth in these other
relill,lons.' Many others have had similar experiences.
This problem h:is affected the \\'estern religions more acutely because
of their tendency to exclu,ivlsm. The Eastern religions have better Inbuilt
mechanisms for coping. Hinduism hos no [Problem lncorporatinit a new god
such as JesUl. Imo it.~ already extcnsh•c p-anthcon. fn some pnrc.q of India,
Hindus form a la.r,l\e proportion of the crowds chat commemorace che
martyrdom o( che Imam llusayn, a Shi'i Mui,lim commemoration . They
,nonage to incorporate the martyrdom commemoration, 4uice eru,lly into
the >·car's reli~ious calendar without feelln,I\ that they are bein4 disloyal to
Hinduism

Secularil:o.cion
The phenomenon of secularliacion may be defined as the 'proce,s whereby
religious chinking, practice and institutions lose social signiFicance'.• \Vherc
people once relied on religion to guide personal and social liic, they now
rely on ~ci1mce, education and cheir own personal castes and ambitions
 17'1 RlLIGIOX 11' SOC'lETI'

There arc II numhcr or cliffcrcm ways of looktn~ 111 Lhb phenomenon

1 Dt.-clinc of popular involvement In lns1itut1onalizcd rdl~lon This can I>\:

seen in the decline In church nitendnncc, with fower m:irria~c,,
hap11sms aml funcrnls bcinl\ performed under rcll,t!ious ,1u,11iccs
1hrou#wut Europe durin,t! the twentu~th century.
., The lo:.s of the prestige of rcll~iou.~ inslitulions ,u1d ~ymbol, There has
Ileen o loss in the 111flucncc Lhm rcli,t!iou~ Institutions hove m·cr public
policy and o similar loss in the pcrsonnl prcsrigc of the r<:ll~ous
profc.~sional Thh ma) he partly rcspouslblc for the d1f0cull) that man\'
religion~ lrn\'e in rccruitintt religious profcssionnls.
J The separation oi society from the relil\ious world, so that relil\ion
bccomcs a purely pcrsonaJ maller Smnc ha\'c discerned a hi~tnrieal
process which be,ltins by contestinA the public role of rclll\ion; 1L then
substitutes other forn1s of :mthorit>· for the amhorily of religion, t1nallv
ii rclcgmes rcli~lon to the private sphere of human cxbtcncc.
.J. The 'desaoraliz:11io11· o( the world As science inorenscs ou r
understanding of humoniry and of the world, the area of ·mystery' and
the supernarural doorease. This is one reason for the decline in 1hc
popul11rity and impact of religious beliefs.
:.. Rcliwous groups themselves hecome increasingly concerned ,,·ith the
thin~ of this world mt her tlrnn the ~piritual world. The ~oall' of rcu~ou:.
insrirutiom, become indistinl\tlishable from those of the rest oi society
Some rcli,iµous groups have begun to participato in the compctiu,•cne,5
of free-market capitalli;m. They <.'Ompete, for t:.X-amplc. \\;lb i.ccular
instirutions in rccreation:il, education:11 and l!ocial acti,·itics They h;wc
made the religion t.hat they offer inw a commodiry that they market..'

As discu.%ed abm·e, the modem

Cct~BILI\C"lALli>\l IN IU.LJGIOS: A rdi,etous
,upem1arket \n ~ml!apor.,. selling Chinese
reli~Ou• )1ooJs
world bas divor~d it..-.clf from an
exclush·e attachment to a religious
worldvie,, and now presents a
varietv of workh·iews, from which
the indh·idual may choose. This
very fact is a det:ply d1srurbtn~
phenomenon for che cla~sical
rcligiou., mind. E\'en the position
that the reli~ious world,·iew Is
superior to other world,;cw:. h not
sufficient for the clas!.ic:tl rcUl\iou.!t
world,iew - for irs hasic 11s,umption
was that 1t wa!> the only valid
viewpoim It ackno,\ledAcd that
other viewpomts cxif,tcd hut these
were dcluso~. the work o( the Oe"il
 l'1 Rf;UGION IN TIiis MODERN WORLD -179

The first hlow to religion cnme through its incre:ising lo:;s of socinl
control. In the 1raJhional :,tructurc of llindu, Muslim or even mcdie,·ol
Christion society. rchAion co111ro llcd all aspects of life. Religious
in,tilutlons were the mnin pnthwny for acquirinA an cducotion, for
obtrumn~ mcdlcnl trc:u111ent. oud for the poor to obtain relief. E11en :.uch
mauer. o:- the runcuoninJ\ of cr:irt guilds was 10 some exumt undl!r reliwous
conrrol GraduCIII\', . however, o funotionr,I differentiation of society.
~'Curn..-<l, leading to the Increasing autonomy of lti, different pares. In the
lust hundred years. In most countries. the modern secular state or other
,ccular institutions hnve tukcn ewer from the religious cstnhlishmcnt
c;.-ontrol of such areas :is medicine, education and welfare provi1,\ons for the
Jl()(\f
The second blow to th!! rcligiouo perspective came with the Increasing
lmponancc given co individualism in the modem world. Previously lhe
imli,idual was \\illin(l to allow the religious perspective to predominate over
Im or her individual views. Today, there is an Increasing emphasis on Ll1c
individual's own point of view. This lends to a loss or lhe authority of the
ccntrol institutions of the religion .\s a corolfary 10 this individualism came
a b<.!Uct' in Ll1e beneficial c[feco, of self-in~crest as the guiding principle of
human ocoon, :,i development that contradicts the ccaohin~ of most of the
cs1abliJ.hed religious.
The individualism that is characteristic of modern Ul'c in the \\'est ls
rullccted in the uncnmmittud, ii 11,1 cnrte :,ipproach to !lpirittt11lity thnt has
lx.-comc very common. It is typU1ed by individuals who flit from relii,oui.
woup to religious group, cominually on the religious quest and never
arriving at tl1eir goal. \'ery often such individuals do not join any religious
group but attend meetings. mad books and :,earch through the internet,
Jdoptint a pot-pourri or relitioui. ideas on rheir way This approach ro
i.pirituality is almosl the exact opposite of lhc path ad\'oemc<l by lr:tditional
rcU$on. According 10 the Lauer. spirirual advan(..-ement demand:. disciplim:.
commitment and ohed1cnce (both to Holy L:1w and 11suall~· to rcli~ious
institutions). Thui. one ha1, the parado.\. of modern eclcctk i.piritual
t11dividuahstS on the one hand readinA enthusiastically the works of chc
~rear medieval mystics nnd on the other hnnd rej<--ccinai rhc i,pirlcu:11
dll>c1pUnc and approach that made the production of such work:; pu:,;,Jblc.
In these wnys. secular vnlues and a~ents have come to replace relil!iou,
onci. :it the core oi society \\1,creas prc,•iously, norms were c:.rnbll,hcd
because the,· \\ ere lhc \\ ill ot' God, social norms are 110\\ --:11ldntcd h~ an
appeal to science, che welfare of the people, democratic appnwal or the
freedom of the individual ,\1 work, !ti :;chool :ind at lldb11rc, the last
hundred yeari. bas seen t.he ~radual cdgin~ out of reli~ious fomts and tl1eir
replacement by secular forms This process of ~ccul:iriintion has hccn
g,odual In some cow1tric;, ll i1o pos:siblc to name a particular event which
eithcr inluate<l the prnces1o or ,!lave ii J!reat impetus. I11 France. it was the
French Revolution that led lo the m·erthrow of Church s1n,c1urcs nnd the
nihln~ of ratlon:1Ji1,m to the sU1tu1, of a reliAion. ln Brllaln, it wos pcrhups
l '!IJ Rf,LICION IN SOGIKI Y

the tiloriow, Revolution o( lbH9, lcadm~ to the ovcnltrow of the conocpc n(

11 role for tht• llh·inl in humau affair-, nnd 1he es111hlishmc111 of ,k111ocrm:)'
:L~ 1hc h•ithcst princlpl1: 111 )tm·cmmcm. lkmever, In mos, <.><>umnc,. no
prcc"c dmc can he j\i\'Oll
&culariwtlon hub grndually permeated the Chrl:,,unn 1,orld It led u,
the sl1m11ion in which, hy Lhe nlm::1ec111h cemurv, Chrlsllanlty had cc:L,,:d
to have much rcnl inOuencc on the i,oclril and polilicol life of F:urop,: The
fom1 w:ts 1110Jnudncd, In tliat pullUcal lcllllcn, usually 111:1de a ,!reat ,.h,11, of
uttend,1111 reli)t1011s ceremonies and were ot'tcn pcrson:11ly pmus Reli,:u,n no
lun(cr had n role, however, in the :.hnpml\ of political nn<l M>Cial poll<:>
Other corn,ldcralions und other M.:cuh1r l<lcolo.(!1cs h;cd taken o,cr
Followin,ti the loss of social and political 1nflucncc, reli.(!ion hccam1:
lnercasln,itly lrrdcv:uu to lhe U1·c~ uf orJinory pcopll.! abo

AIH·n1C11i-oe lrlcolo~ies
By the end of che nineteen ch cernrnry, a new ~ct of ideolo~cs, nationalism
socletlism and racism , hnd mken O\'Cr the position of rclutlon in Europe
This h:id occurred both formally at the policlcal le\'til and. lO a large excem,
abo in the hearts and minds of Europeans The i.ecularizotion of socicl)' ho~
mc3nL t.hm secular forms have taken over where oncl.! the rclii!,iOlllt fomt
would h:1,·e heen narural In the drive cow::trd~ narionohsm , loyalty to the
nmion-slme has replaced lo~·nlcy to the cemrul nuthorit~· of the rcli~iun. the
national anthem has replaced th e hymn; :1 speech from a politician hos
replaced the sermon; the nationalist sloAan h::ts replaced the creed· and the
sUJtc or secular chnrity has replaced lhe chr1riwhle role of rt:ll~iOUl,
lnscitutlons. 8imil::trly. In communism, thl.! works of ~l::trx replace 1he
Ncriprure; the cla:.s struggle replaces the rcligiouh Mn.iAglc again~c evil, and
tbc final collapse of capitalhm and the triumph of <..-onunumsm is the
millennial promise.'
In :;umma.ry. a traditional society i:,, one in which rcli~ion is an lmcgrol
part of the authority and plausibility Mructurl.! of the socicLy ,\s ,uch.
religion can control che concen1 ttnd form of much of the oni,cic one.I
liwrary expression of tl1c society; 1101 nec<:ssarily In a coerci\·c scn~c. hut
ia th1: Mm~I.! of defining whut nppe11rn natural and pl:msihle to the i.ocic1y as
a I\ hole. \Yh:11 modernity has done i~ to separate thl.! various a,pc1m, or
bocicl) illlo diffcnmt 1.!nLith.:s ,\!> rcli~on wa., :>l.'1.!n tu lm,I.! Lh1,; 11udlcc1uaJ
argument with science and rmion:ilic)', ,o it wns pro.(!rcssi\'ely dril'en aw11\·
from 1he ocmr<: ground thnt it hod occupll.!c.l tts an itllt:l\rnl p.1rt of the
amhonty :,lrllctun:. le becaml.! 1d1.!nclfie<l :Ls :i scp:'.lmtc 'rcihed cnUt1·. Thi,
fissioninA tendency in moc.lemi~· split oft art anti litcrarure which had
prcviou:,ly hc1,;11 the scn·onts of the rcliftiou:. world1·iew (....cc pp. 4<>-\... i l)
Th1:sc now became separate entities, each struMhnl\ LO find II nc,1 h11sh ior
it, expression
Till! l\ap left at tllc ct:mrc of ;.ocicty, lis ideolo.(!,·, the source ior :,oc1i,t:1I
\'alues, rhe f1n:il arhirer of riAht :md wr<llll\, was filled hy w,riou, secular
 l'I 1u:1.1rnoN IN TIit MOnt:RN \\'()1(1,1) I.W I

1d1.'(llogies such as nationalism, communism and racism. These have e.1ch

tried to re-c::-rnhlii,h the old order wherein society wa,, :tg;:lin an integrated
11,·hole. focused on the central ideolo,ey; In which art :md literaLUrc again
,uhmirced to the dcmonds of the centre of society. However, one hy one,
during the lru.t hundred yenrb, these subhti tute religions ('pseudo-religions'.
'<lu.'ll'l-reltl\ions'l ha,·e failed dramaticnlly and destructively. Durinl! the £irst
l'\O decade~ of the rn1.•nrieth century, n:1rion:1lism brou@,t destruction to
Europ.! ln the form of n dcvostnllng world war; In the next two decade.~,
racism produced the horrors of the Nazi concemration comp~, while in the
I.1st d1.-c:1dcs of the twemieth century, we have wirncssed communism odmil
to Its ln:ibility to bring c.-ontenuncm or prosperity lO its peoples. One b>· one,
e:1ch of these ideologies has shown itself to be incapahle of substituting for
the f>O"illon once occupied by reliitioo. This. at lcasl parllally, accoun~ for
che resu~nce or reli~ous fundamentalism in the lase decade.

TUE INTELLECT UAL ClIALLE~GE TO R ELIGION

The socio! ond politic.1I ideologies mentioned here are not the only
challenges thnt rellgiou hru, faced ln the l:ast hundred years - although in
cem1s of the numbers affected they are the main ones. A number of
alternatives co rellgion have also presented in the intellectual "1'hcre, trying
to give meanin,! to human life and to sacisfy humanity's need for an
undcrscanding of the transcendent order of reality. Although these hove
affected comparach·ely few people, they are nevert11eless import.run.
Amon~ the most important of these aluernative sources or meanin,I! has
been a turning lO our inner world The ficlc.!I of psycholoitv, in particular, hns
produced i.everal different ways of looking at che inner 1vorld of human
bcin~ and givint!, it meaning. Although some have attempted to incorporate
the ideas of Jung. in parllculur, into a religiou;, perl>pective, these
p~ychological explanations remain an alcemative to reli)tion as ways of
gil'ing meaning co human experience~ and thoughL~. Some of the idea.~ of
Jung and Freud are brietly examined in chapcer J .
The exploration of our inner worad has gone even further, in
experiments with drug mystici;,m and other techniques thm arc claimed to
'increase our Inner awareness' and help us to '0nd ourselves·. Often the
technique,; involve forms of medication derived from Hinduism or
Buddhism. The connection with the Eastern religions Is, however,
somewhat artificial, in that meditation has been extracted from its setting
within an overall religious frnmework. In t he hand~ of many of those who
teach ii in the \\'est, ic is used mechani.stlcally, to create an effect. ,\n
experience is produced c.h:H may he exciting nnd even exhilarating but,
lacking iti, rcUgioui. framework, has llttle lru.tlng effect. It has become, in
effect. a form of escapism.
Some regard the philosophical outlook of existentialism as the
anlithe1,i!, oi religion. It ~ces the religious search for the ultimate mcanin~
 .J't2 RlLIC,lll:-0 1:,; SOClf:n

and the e!>,cnilnl nature o( human hcmll,'1 n, lllw,o~·. lluman

hcinJt.,; csbt and e:1ch humnn hclnA hn1, 10 ~mrril• \\Ith ,uch
human predlc11meuts m, nlicmu,on, dcuth, anxietv, suftcnull,
null rcspon:.1hill1y. There ill ntJ ovcrnll pl1111 or pnt1ern ch.11
chcy should fnl lm, I lumnn, impo-.c 1he1r o,, n me:1111ni.t :md
order upon the um,·er,e. The woy uf life that the) lcuJ
depends on 1he ch<m:cs chm chcy rnnkc ,\hhouth th,•
thcureticnl uu1li11c of cid,tenli.1hsm muy m:1kc II uprear u
:..onlC\\ hot bleak, indiv1duolbUc philosophy. thb h11, nut
pre1•cnred some of its followers such as .Je:in-l'nul i:-nnn, lrom
c:.pou~i111l M>cial cuu.,cs, or likt! Soren Kierkej\.:lllrtl cvcn
1:vol1•inll the philosophy In a rehj\iou;, Jirectlon.
1,;,n. n K1erkej\a.1nl Al the intellectual lcvd, rcli!lion hn, hccn con~tnndy
( 11'1., ~51,
turccd 01110 the retrcnl. Religion con~idcrs that it bru, access
ul,1c111lnfl,1 rdl~lo11,
p1t1Jc..orhy to an absolute source of authority :md kno" lcdAe Then.:forc,
it clnimlo 10 he ahle to give ahsoluie nnswcrs to those cccrn:il
qucstiOllh that puzzle human bcin~. \\'hy arc we In thh
world? \Vhac happens afcerdeath? In rum , reli~ion has. m the past, churned
11nd been given the right to set the nonm, and values of society But 1h1s
impressive structure, which enm a century ago secmeJ eternal anti
immutable, has all but melted away. The reli~ious foundations of valul.!~ and
1.!Lhlcs arc now M.:cn as being set in the c..'Ontext of the t1u.x or h~tory, JUM
another vtewpoilll competing with a mrriad other worltlvlew!>, sonw
reli!!ious, :-ome seculnr. The modem world hos set its fnce intelleeconlly
ogi.tin~t unlvcr:.al m,planations and claim~ - :ilchough tl1~c Mill sppcnr to
h,we !lrenr cmo1ional appeal
At the Rennissnnce, tht! C:hurch opposed Gulitco ewer ru.trnnomy; in the
nineteenth cel1lt.U")', It wiu, popularly seen to he 1>pposc.><l w evoluuorutry
theory; on both occasions, it lose the intellectual haule. Currently, the
gre.'lte.sc intellccwol chalhmge th:1t religic>n faces i~ rclmivbtic or p1,,1
modernbt tho~n. Relativism has become one oi the main currerm, or
thought in the last hundred years Ir is, howe,·cr, deeply disquictin~ to
religion, in the same way tbat nstronomlcal findinA, and cvolutionnry
l11oullht once were. Relarhist1c tl1ou~ht strikes :11 1he vcr,· rom~ of the
ohsolute claims and exrlnnarions or rclillion It maimaim, that human
kno,l!cdgo cru1 never be absolute, but is nlw:iys relative tO i.ocl:tl :ind
Individual factor,,. Post-modernism maintains chat reality h,-elf b a human
construct. all that we nrc capable of doing b to explore the rclation~h1ps
within time con~truct, there is no ab;;olute reality tlrnt can be kno" n
our.;lde it. This is the basis of the profound challenj\e that refati\'ism and
pOSt-modcrnism place hcl'orc the clnims of religion; :1 challenge to ,1 hk•h
rcUAlon , i1> only JUSt bc!llnnln~ to rel,pund .
The proct:~s of rcli,!ions retrent mny be summnri1ed ns h:wini! taken
pince ln two ,tn!!cl> The first w~ the connict between religion and modem ,
se:itmtilic thouAln. Modernism wru, l11e worldvhm that dominated \\'eMern
1hinki11g from rhe time of che ~: nlighcenment in the SC\'cnu,emh century
 IQ RFI.IGIC)N IN TIIF. MOOF:RN WORLD 18.1

mto the tw;;ntieth century. 1'he main source of ~·onflict here ii. the
itt.si.~tencc of the scientific approach on rcg:irding rcaliry ns heint total!)•
explicable from wlthit1 this phybienl world In other words, the scientific
1iewpoint denies a need 10 posrul:ue a cranscendenc dimension to reality.
The social i.cicnceb, using the scicnrific opprouch, see every human
phenomenon, mcluding religion, 11s being the result of che psychological or
culniml crwironmcnc from which it arises. All religious phenomena con
then be fitted b1to a pnttcm, u network of psychologicul. social und
e..-onomic forces . Thus they emerge from what has gone before and in turn
become the substrate for what comes after. This schema does not allow for
the interl'enLlon of the Dil·inc in human affairs.
The troditionol religious viewpoint isnw the world as an ontological
hierarchy with God (or the Absolute Reality) nt the top and the physical
world (or Cl'il spirits) 01 the ho11om. The existence of the hierarchy also
g.·we rise to values. That which was associated with a higher level of the
luerarchy had greater value than that which was associated with a lower
level. People looked ro their scriptures 10, find the proper orderi ng of their
rcollty and the source of tJ1eir values. As a result of the adl'ances brought
about by science, people began 10 believe that science's description of
reality was more accura te and meaningful than th:11 of religion. The
,,clentillc ,iewpoim Jeniei. the exh11:nce of ontological hierarchies, oocaust::
they arc not omcnable to the scientific method. If we call this ontolo~ical
hicrnrch)', the vertical dimension of human cxisUmcc, then science is only
uble to deol with the horizonwl dimension - observable, preferably
quantifiahlc, entities. Science is therefore also unnble to dcol with such
concepts as l'alue, quality, and purpose, which nre all connected with the
q:nic:ll dimension. Once relition was diisplaced as the arbiter of reality
by science, che vertical dimension disappeared from intellectual
consideration.
The second sca~e in the intellectual re treat of rel(Aion came as a result
of n.:lnd\'lMlc or post-modcmist thought, wh1uh haJ its betinnings in the
early decades of the twentieth century. \\'hile modernist, ,cicntiflc thouAht
rejecced rhe trndilional religious world,•icw and se1 up an alternntivc
~ientlfic world1•iew, poi.t-modcrnist tWnkiug rejects worldviews ulto~ether,
seein~ chem as political instnaments. Once one worldview is accepted as
:ruthoritlltil'e. other worldviews arc marginalized, together with those who
subscribe co them. The oncological hiemrchy described In the preceding
parowaphs could, for example, be analysed as the creation of a male-
domina1ed patriarchal world The p:uniarchy pen,uades people of tJ1e
rlthtaess of the hierarchical social order hy demonstrntlnll that it is a
retlection of rhe transcendent order of reality. This ·dcconsm1otio11' of whm
\\'e considor to be reality ls the main methodology of the post-modernisL It
is important to note thlll it is not accompanied by the creation of on
altemalil'e construct, since that would also then need to be 'deconstructed'
On the one hand, post-modernism rellecti. the current plunilist world
situation. m which numerous different worldviews are in daily conrncc,
-t'i-1 Rt Ll(,10~ l'I SUUl I\

c11ntrn,t m1J cnnnict with one am>thur On ihc other, It present, the
11nco111fortnhlc pro$pcct of 11 \\orld dcnml 01 uny i.uhi.tn11!1:il reality UHi! cun
~ ,itr:i,pcJ ond 11Arc1.'tl upon hy all 1n,1cnJ there ore unh :in mlinllc
1111mher 01 vit-11 po111tl-, none of which can claim any 11111 hnrlty and non~· oi'
11 hich dc,crihc reality 111 tu1yth111A hut n pro, l!,iollRI wny
RellAinn hn, 11.!cn on th.: dodcnsivc :114111nst the r11h·nncc, or mtl\h:rni,t
11ml post·JllUdcrni~t th111k111A over 1he past l\\O hundred ycari, In the We,t
Th" cau,c~ prohil•ms for rcliAlon that Ao he)'olld the lrtll.!llcclll,11 a~umcnt.
~ltlst people In the \\'est todnv nHt)' knnw hulu or nothmA of sc1cn11f1c
mcthudolul!y ur the lntcllcctu,tl ar)\unurnts for rel:1tivi,tlc thuu)\hl
1'e1·er1heless. the ~cncrol 1ntcllcctuol 1Hmo,phcr1;: uf rclativhm onJ
anwJlonlsm tu c oncept, of :i tr:in~c:cndcnl rc:ility hn, pern1c:ued their
1.-0111,clou.,nc.•,s und ml1ue1wc1- tJ1c1ir t.hlnkiaA Thus the abMJlutht rclutloui.
worldvicw comes to stand out ns mcon~mous with cite worldvic11 ot thi,
majorlt)" It is thb lack of ccm,itrucncc with the world\'lc11 of the mttjority
that is perhaps, as much as unrdun~. responsible for tJ1e dccUnc tu the
inllucnce of reli~ion
Sonrnthing that 1s incongrucm with one's workl\•hm may not 1w
reJected completely. lnde1;:d, relitlon may be maintained for all sort!> oi
reasons, such as nostalgia or social prestige. Society may keep it for
ccremoninl and symbolic purposes. 13lrths, marriages and deaths may
connnue to he commemorated by o relij\ious ceremony by many who
othcnviso h:1vc no religious t'Ontllcl. Thi. is, however, mor<! on cxi,rc. slon
of i.uptm,tltlon than of rellJ!.lo::,ity. Rellglon ceases, In such elrcumsurncci.,
to he relevant to one's everyday thought processes, it ceases to be t'lken
into accowu in the life decisions of the Individual or the political JL-cll,ioni.
oi a ,itovemmenc
Tow::1rd1, the middle of the twentieth century, the outlook seenwd hlc:tk
for reb~ion. Many scientists and soc1ologlst:,. were prepared to foretell its
demise, either over a few generations or over the nexc few centuries In :i
book published as ro;o.-cntly ru, ]966, an anthropologist wm, nblc to say·

1he cvolu1ionorv future or religion is extinction Belief in ,upcrnaturul

bcln¢1 ontl In supernatural force.< th,11 nff<'t!l nuwrc "lthout obcy111J!
nature's law, will erode and become only nn intcrcsrlnJ! hl~mrioal
memory . As n eulturru trait. belief In supcmntural powers 1, <loomed 10
die out, all owr tbc ,-orlt.l. a~ u rc,ulr or the Ini,rea~1ng adequacy ant.I
diffusion or scientific knowlcdJ!e the proccs~ !< inc-imble •

ReliAion has, however, proved remarkably adapcable and resilient ,\lthou,1th

science and technology have contin ued to :idv:rncc and c..-onquer new field.,.
rcli~on ha, re-emerged ai; a potent foroc in human affairs ,\Jt.houith
science has heen successful in solvinl! material problems. it has foih.'tl to
find solutions to the social and individual problem~ of human belnit~
Science provide:. no answer or explannl1oa to the presJ,ln~ qucsli<ms and
emotions of human existence such a~ dc111h. lo"c, purpose, und hcnu ty It
 19 RF:Ll<llOl'i IN THE MOOER'I WORLD 185

hos iaill.'tl to flnd solution~ to the social prohlems of our cities :md rural
nrcas. Indeed, it is incrcnsinit bcinj! hlnmed for creating 1hc mcohnniscic
Lifestyle t.lrnt numb~ and cru!rvates hurunn hcing.s and the pollution thut
threatens all. Relifllon. for iii< part, has ndapced and emerj!ed in new more
\'Ital forms to mcCl the challenge of modornity.

R~;LIGIOUS 1-\ DAPTATIONt> TO TIIE ~10DER~ \VORLO

.\!though I have portrayed reUgion as having been l.'Onstant.ly on the reueat,

soci:tlly and incellecrually, in modem times, chat is not the end of the story.
For modem humun being.s have paid a heavy price for the individual
freedom of modernity..Modern societies can be bleak and lonely places;
isolation and :iliennrion exist to :i degree and an extent th:it do not occur in
traditional ~ocietles. "' The w11rmth and acceptance that o religious
community pro,ides can be a powerful magnet for those suffering from the
ulhmatJon oi modernity. Therefore, some have argued that the increasing
sceulari2:11lon of modern society is. paradoxic:1lly, the very cause of a
re~urgence in religion In the \\'est, it is 110L the traditional orthodoxies thnt
have benefltcd IDOl>t from this resurgence, however, but fundamcntalisL
*oups :ind new religious movementll. These can proVide on intensity of
cmotion:11 and communal life thac is missing in modem society (sec p.
512).
In response to attacks, religion has sought, in nirious ways, to preserve
iL~ position. Religions and culturc1o have Jl'ich resources upon which to draw
in defemlinl! thcmseh•eb against the onslaught of modernity. and they have
made a number of responses or ndaprntions. These include UlC! less
successful adaptation:. that the rcli~ious orthodoxies have made to
modemicy and the nltcrnntive pathways of fund:imcntnlism and the new
religious movement:;.

Rctn:ar inco Fundamenu,lism

One adaptacion to modernity is the retreat Into fundamenwlism (sec
chapter 14) Fnced with the confu~ion and uncertainty of the modern
,,orl<l, the belie,·er is t0·1ng to recreate uad1lionaJ ;,ociety. with IL~
cerrnintics and stahiliry. {Tnformnoccly, it is not rornlly possible to do chis.
Once the genie is out of the bmt.le, getting le back in nguln is difficult. Once
people have se1:o that alternach·e worldviews exisl, l!\'Cf)' bit a:, ~ood as
their own ro ~ back to the previous situ:1tio11 where the trnditionnJ
rchgiollb worlth'ic\\ was lhc onl) plausible und pos~iblc vh!\\ b \'cry
difficult To do this. e1lher people musL somehow isolate themselYcs from
the ouL,idc world (as in plctisl communitie~) or they musL drown om the
clamour of C."<.lmp1:rln~ worldviews hy heio~ \'Cry vocal and alsserti,c
themselves. The goal of t1 return to the past is :i useful hue ilhtSOf)' fiction.
What we an,, in facL, !seeing In the fund:1mentali:st rcacclon l!s on adjustmo11t
 lt l,l,IWO'I I!'> li<lC:lfl Y

• h

\h,,,.,,s \\ll f'n1 f'\Uc· Musi relij),inn., flrc no\\ nc,ti\" 111 th<: iodJ ot 1ry1n~ w cnrwcrt nthcr.
ca their foilh ,1) I Lisld,c Jew, m SAfuJ, l,rncl. try tn ,~in,crt 01h<:r Jc\\, 111 clwlr
\'lcwp111111 h) Th" SnharJnn .\rm) tuk,.,_ 11, m1,,lc,nuri effort into f~l'km F.uroJ>c Kie,·,
l'krdlnc, Jut1c l'l'J.I c) ,\ li.th,1'1l,.xlUblL1u11111 o 111,mry ln BcJforJ, l'.1~unJ
 111 R~:t.mlON IN Tm~ MOOF.RN WORl,O lk7

10 tJ,e rcalltles of the present~ presented and Justified us u purification and

rcium 10 n mychologicnl, ideal p:ist (sec pp .32J-l and JH0-2).

Symbolizut1011
Another way of dealin,lt with modernity 1s lO relnterpn:t trml.itlonal relitlous
,;cws. p:trticularly chose beliefs that :ire most at variance with the modern
world. The commonest way of doing this i,, 10 emphasize the :,ymbolic
tL'-peCt of these discordant doctrines and rituals.
One of the central tenets ot Islam is the doctrine of jihad, holy war. The
m1dltlooal bl:imic position is th:H Jihad Is incumbent on Muslims. They
must tiltht non-belie,·ers until they submit and agree to pay the ji.zyc,, (poll
tax, payabfo by 'People of the Book'; sec p. J-18). Today, this wou]d
efii:!Ctl\'ely mean th:lt the Islamic world would have to be perpetually in a
state of ,wir og:iinst its non-Muslim neighbours: Christi:in Europe, llindu
India and oon-Mu:.llm Africa. No Muslim i.tate has seriously tried to achieve
such n state of affairs since the seventeenth century, when the Ottoman
Empire used to launch campaigns againsl Christian Europe every summer.
In the modern world, it would be almost inconceivable for a Muslim state
10 try 10 renew this policy, and yec it is a cenrrnl tenec of Islam One w:iy in
"hlch Mw,llim, httve tried to come co tenns wHh tbls suuc of 11J'falrs ii, Lo
raise jihad to the ethical level. There is one statement by Muhammad which
~.iys that the greater jihad Is again~, the s,clf. l'\ow Lhis is a minor Trndilion,
not found in the Qur'c111 nor in most of llH, main collections of Traditions."
However, it provides a valu:1ble exit route ond modem ~luslims have seized
upon it as a way of reinterpreting the Qur'anic injunction in a symbolic
wav. In this way, they can move it away from the obvious sense of physical
fighting tow:irds :1n ethical sense of the struAAlc against the lo11·cr nacure of
human beings.
A parallel development is wh:11 has been called the 'theological non-
re:ilism' of \\Titcri. such as D011 Cuppilt. Cuppict maintains that the true
~ignificonce of God is as a symbol for eve-rything that being a spiritual and
moral heing entails. The question of whether the concept of God :ilso refer~
to an exts1e111 mcwphysical entity separate from huornn bcit,gs Is. Cuppilt
maintains, Irrelevant and of no religiou.~ Interest today,

What then is God? God b n untfylnJl symbol that eloquently pcrsonlfl..s

and rcprcscnLs m u~ cvcrythin,11 that i,-pirituality require• of us. The
rl!qulrem.,,u ls the wlll of God, the dlvlne nttributt:s represent to us vurl<>u.~
aspect., of the spiritual lif<:, and God"s nau,re 11s spirit represents the ~al
we or" co ouoln . God is the rcliJlious 0<>nocrn rcified ,..

The Trunslatiun of Reli4ion inw Parallel Seculllr Oute~orics

i\ third ;.Lrategy for ad:ipllng rellj\)011 to modemit)' Is to de-emphasize cJ1ose
asp;;:ct~ of reli4ion that must be accepted on foith Those parts of religion
thnt dc:nl \\ilh the: 1rnn~c:ende111 .,re 11lnved i,lown uml rcliP.i<,n is c41u,1h.'tJ
11 ub ulhur etlle,(\orlc:, Lh:it :ire 1111ire acccpmblc to mo<lemHv.

Ill 1.11,11>\ .\s Mt11L\t.1TY ,su Enm s. Th" ,tppruach 1n1u:1cc, rt:li(\1011 to :1 morul
c,xh.: for llvln!l h c1111 <>flt:11 find l!cnernl .1cccprnn'--c in ,octt:l~ 1;,1,-;clalh al
,1 lime 11 hen ,ocic1~··s moral, :ire pcrccl\'cd to he in dechne h ,., n~11e,l th:11
11 ,th Lhe lo,!- uf hchcf 1t1 reli,(\ion, 1h1;re Is II lus:. of va lue~ ,m<l '-'Oherencc in
,oc1e1y Without reli,C\lnn acnn(\ n., n l!luc 1n keep ,ol:iet~ tnl!cther, thmi:,,
hcl!in to foll apart . ~!any \\hu du nul con,ider thcm,clvc, rdt(\wu:- hu1c,
nc,·1:nhele,,. o pm,ltive llllltudc towunb rch,(\lon ht:eau,<: of II:. p\;n:ctV<:<l
,uppurl for moral onlcr They will, for c'l'.nmple. ,end their childn.:n to
rcli!llou:, cln:,,e~ for mornl c<luentlon, ullhouiih they do not hclicve 1n the
dwtrinal matters tnu(\ht there.

ll1.1.1rnus AS l':ffWIUTlll:.R.\J•r. Many people sc:1.: rcli~on n:, o mcam, ol

psychological support. They perceive its function 11, ~1·in,(\ mcaninat m
,uffcnng and ,itrict', it helpi. to create wholeness ond psychic health m the
lndll'idual

RfLIOIOS .\S Snf:I.\L ,\.'ffi POI.ITICAL IOF.01.0GY Rcli~ion can he \Ceo M the
fountla1ion of political and :.ooiol idcolo~iCl>. Those who incline toward~
:-ocialism con~ider thal the tnie spirit of reliition is to I~ found in e<m~m
for the poor This may involve helping them dirccU)' or strugglin(\ for social
justice. Such ~roups include lite Sarvodayn movement in lntlia (sec pp.
501-2) or che Fid:i'iyan in lrnn (on Islamic l,eftist Aroup that w:1s prominent
in lr:tn during the Islamlc Revolution). Simllarl~·. othcri. can 1.,ec In Chrbt's
concern for the poor a Justification for 'Liberntion theolotv Those who
incline 10 the ri(\ht, on the other h:ind, sec the Chrh,tlnn go~pcJ a, the bnsh.
for the ideab of capitnlist society and, Ii they arc from the United Statel>,
'the American Way' of life.

The 1hcnlogy in question w:is 1->om at on huur nf l!ucrilla

warfare, at the hcnrt of battle< for 1hc '<.'On-.c,cnul.lliOn' 11( the
llL1!,l,tl' In uppo~illon to 'ciipltalht oppn:,,Jo1f · h,11t1.,_. wa&<,d
b)' .iudl!ni.- .uJHI lhc bc,urg,..-ot.lc 011hcr than h~· \\Orkc"' ru1J
pc.t!>:lnli.. batdel> o( an "lntcl!Jj!cot;.la . These 1.'0mmllkd
LI BF.RATIO~ 1mcllt!etu.1h """'" men of action on thc pnm,rn of CiunJlu
Torres onJ Che Guc,..aro mt,n of tho~t like 1;11\lft\o
TilEULOCY Cutlerrez or Enrique Ous.wl Mon)' of ,h.,m were prie.h \II
of thc-m h<1d I.aim Amcrlc.1 hr.md1.-J m their hc.irt.s anJ
mlnJ.s They took th,: myth o( hhcrallun anJ proviJ~-J It" !th
• tbcolo~y Or pcrhnp, one •hould ,ay, u,cy pro,·1JcJ
thcolu,t)• Mth B nc" life, one dcnr\!d frum the rn~ur vi the
liher:iuon m)·th (Ph-I Andr,:-\'mc.-..nt, Th.- "ThcQ!n~,.,.. of
l,,hcrnuon "'. in Schall. l1berawm Ther,loll;\· m (,min
.\mcrioo, pp l'>l 2)
 l'I: RELIGION IN Tm: MOnF.RN WORl,n 48'1

Th<' Pl'r·sonuli:.:crciun of Reli;Hon

One way of dt!nlin~ with the problem of modernity and rcliJ!jous pluralism
1, to witl1drnw from making any universa l and social claims for re li~io n,
tl1u,, making le a purely pcrso11al affoir. ·~ty religion satlsfle~ my needs. It
may noc smisfy your needs or C\'en anyone else's All that matters to me Is
dun it s:itisfics mine' This then sets u1p 11 dcfcn.'livc wall ag11inst any
po:.siblllt~· thm 0111::'s rclh\ion can be stitown to be mtdlcctually faulty,
illogical, or inferior to another's.

TIit' Dcmy1/wlo~izatio11 o.f Religion

This :ipproach stcnL~ from the rcallzatlon that much of the language oJ
~cnprure is h:ised on the mytholo!!.icaJ and cosmological assumptions of the
times in whicJ1 it was writte n. The discoveries of science ha\'e destroyed
UH' das:-:ieal cosmology and many of dte o ld myths have gone Imo decline
In pamllel. Rudolf Bultmann tried co s crip away the mythological cloak in
\\hich Christianity had been \Happed, to get b11ck to the spiritual
experience underlying It. ~·or Bulonnnn. it made no difference whether
historico-lhernry criticism showed rhat the resurrection of Christ did or did
11ot occur physicolly in Polesti11c 2,000 yenrs ngo. The reality of die
resurrection experience occurs in the heart of the hellever today. Cri tics of
such an approach ha\·e said thac there seems little poim in maintaining a
bcUt:f in a trnnsccodcnt God In tl1is programme of demythologization for,
after oll, the concept of God is also a produce of the myrhological age The
ideas of Don Cuppitt (sec p. 41\7) could also fit into thi., cate!lory.

Reli~1011s Sccwriunism llnd l nno'Vation

\\'hen people t1nd that their society's standard reli,1Uous orthodoxy is not
tilling their needs, a gre:u prei:surc arise:. for new reliJ!jou., forms that will
meet tho»c nee~. These new religious formb arc culled 'sects' if they split
from the existing religioui. orlhodoxy. If however they arise de n1X10 or are
import~ from nlicn cultures (~uch ns llindu movements in the \\'est), the}'
arc calJcd 'cults'. Sects and cults ure LL\Ually narrowly focused 011 spcelflc
rcli!lious needs in society The attraction of these mo,•emencs is often the
,cnsc of unity and belonging th at they create for the individual, thing~ th at
an, lacking In modcm society. (See 'New Reli.~io~ Mo\'eme1us' bdow )

The~e istrote~lcs may be superficially attractive, in that they appear to

make rdl~on relevant to the concerns oi the modern world IIO\\ e\ er.
several of them are, at o deeper level. in effect seculnri1intl religion,
emptying It of 1u. traru.cendent anti ~plritual conccm and makintl It Into a
purely human activity"
 1'>0 Ht'.I.H,IOr-. 1:-. s111:It:lr

T11b Rts1•0Ns1:; o~ Rb1.1u10N 1x 'r1t,\D1T10:--.\L 80<:ttrn~s

Thus for,"" h11vc 111:1inl) t~in~idcred the 1111p11cl of mndenutv 1111 thl \\"c,1
The !>ltu.111011 In clu: rest of lite world b nlll ,cry different 1 ltc 111:.1 ltu11JrcJ
,•ctm, or so ha.~ seen rr:id,rionnl rclt~ious societies all <1,·cr lhc world l'<1m1111~
tu fm.:c 11111Jern1Ly. The arrh·nl of tltc Wcslcr11 ~>wen, 111 1110,1 p:11 t,. 11( thl
world durln,l the n111ctccnth century hrou/!ltl ,, 1th it ,evcrc problem, frrr
the relil{lons of those plnces The 1ct•hnolo1tic11l 1111d political s111...,riorllr 111
the West uppcarcd to Jay do\\ln an unonswcrahlc chrulcn~c to the
c.-c:1hlbhcd rcli~ion~ or other part:. of the world Soml tribal rcli~11,n,, ,,11.:h
u, thos" of Polyncslrt, ,,II hut c.lli,appc:ircd under the mis,.ior1;1ry impact nl
Chrlstlanltv. More esrnhllshcd rclt~io111, ,,ere put on the dcfon,hc wilh
mnny of their bcst-educmcd youn~ pcnplc <.'Orn in~ to dcspi,e llwir O\\ n
rc!l~low, culture. Ouc can <li~eem a general pattern of rcspou,,c, <lc~pllc the
difference::, arnon!l the rcli!!ion:, The varlnui.. pha.sc:, 1111h11, rei,pon~e et1n tic
denoted in the follm,~n~ ways (se<: olso pp Jk1-2)

1. Mvdernizution cmd \l'csten1izutivn

The 11rst reaction of a trad11ion:1I :reli~ion LO its encounter,, 1th th.: modem
world is a sense of dismay ch:tt the modem world h:,s au,·onet'd so for
beyond the traditional world. This presents a <lilcmma Lo the rcl,~ow,
mind For the ~llddle-Easccrn Muslim in the ninineemh ccntur), thl~
dilernrno could be expresst'<I tine;: if the religion of Islam b the true rclii,on
of Go<l. ,, hy has Uod allowc<l the Muslim nations to fall so for hehlnd !he
\Vestern, Chrisrian nniion,-:. Ont
partial solution co the dilemma
appears to 1-it! a whoh:~al1: adoption ol
modernity so ns to clo.,e the gflp It
L<-., in partiuular, modern tcchnolol\._v
that is importe<l - rh1s bcinl!
somethinl! that <loc;. 1101 Inherently
challenAe !he rcli~ous world, 1C\\ '
But olonl! with mooum rcchnolol!)
come, modem c<lucatlon, Lo cn.ahlt:
people to u~c rhc technolo.ity. Thu,.
l!n1dunlly, there nrriv.., mher modcnn
concept~ ,uch as dt:mocracy aud
ind ividu11l riAhc-. Thc,e ore much
lb.LI< ,II )I ' ISH lll'IU.L\Tlll~ .\.~II l~>LITI( .:,, Ou rla,:
the lnm1:1u Cun,-mull<111al Rwoluuon of 190.l, more challen)lin,t to tradition.ii
1,n~ ol the prohk·m< of the rdonncrs was to soei1:ty. It~ structure~ ,mJ. ultim,11cly,
iu,1ily th<! chan,l!c, that the)' wi•ho..·d tn makl' 111 lti, rclil!ious foundations Thl'
l,Till, oi 1,1nm ond the Qur·m, This cur10O11 mt>Jcmuers artlue thut all of these
from H P\:fMOfl 111:t~aL.i lltJ ur the umc show,
,, muUah ddrnJJ! mto the (./11r'cm unJ
elements must he taken on ll<1ard
linJm)! ~uch ju,uflununn~ The)' e\'ol\'e n sol1111011 tlrnt say,, u1
effect, that nuxlt:m i<le:i., ~uoh as
 l'J RtLICllOI\ 11\ T II E MODERI': WORl,I) •19 1

democmcy are not concrnry to the native religion :1l :ill. lndc!!d, rhey rcflecc
1he llnc~l lrodilion~ of the rclition, hut luul been covered over In 1hc course
of centuries.
In the Islamic world, the ninocccnth century snw scvcrol modernise
dunker.- \\ ho soughl a way in "hieh the lsluntic \\Orld could come lO lcrms
with European dominance Amon.a rhe hetter-known of these are Snyyid
.Jamol ol-Dln 'nl-,\fghnni', Khnyr ul-Dit, Poshu, ~lulrnmmad ',\bduh and
~Urlil Mulkam Khan "' Tluiy ar!\ued lhat such Ideas as democracy were
cnshnned in rhe Qur'an and the practices of the early Muslims. Similar
IHndu modeniisc mo1•emems. the Brahmo 8amaj and the Pr:iru1arma
Snmaj, incorporatln~ clemencs of modem European tl1ou~ht, were founded
111 the nlnete<!nlh century.
The 1111por~1m.-e of chese movements in 1•arlous pares of the world
indcd. however, as ic became clear that the :idoption of \\'estcrn vnlucs into
these cultures was Aolng lo be very prohlem:1Lic. Ami in tho:,e cases where
11 wns tried, rherc was linle success in hridgin~ rhe j\ap with Europe

2 Nc,rionalism anti Sociali1m1

The next phase in tlw d<!velopmcnt of the response of lraditional societie:.
to the challenAe of modernity was a politicization and sccul3rization of the
problem. Religion was largely pushed 10 onc side during 1hc first half of the
t1,1mtlclh century wbllc thei,u societies l!xpcrlmuuted 111th various political
,olutions l'\ationalism was the first ideology to gain widespread currency
There wru, a rbc ln nationolbm acros:, the whole of Asia and Africa ln lhc
first half of the 1wencielh century In Turkey and Iran, secularizatlon and
reform movements developed under At:aturk :ind Re:im Shah respectively.
Under t.bc .Mandale arrangement:, afwr World \\'ar I, 1,c1·cral ,\rab :-l!lles,
notably lrnq, Syna. Jordan and Lebanon were created and Inter came to
independence. ln Africa. India 1111d SouLh-Eo:,t Asia, independence
mo1·ememi. arose.
,\frer World W:ir II , nationalism's numction gr:1<l11:illy yielded heforc the
rbc oi soci(IJISm and uomn1u11bm. Several of the most u111uenlial ,\rab
stmes. led hy tltYPl under ~asser, turned to socialism. as did newly
independent India Ac lhc same time, cc>mmunist forces overran \'ictnam,
Laos and Cambodia, in South-East Asia.

J The Fundnmerrwlisr Backlash

.\s in the \\'est, there h(ls hcen a movement row:irds fundamentalism in
nrnny crndltional socicllei.. The secular ldcolotlcs of nallonallsm and
communism have not resulted in any ,l!reat lmprn1·emcnt in these
tmdltionol societies :ind there has therefore been, in most of Lhcm, some
dctree of fund:imcnrnllM backlash a,l!aln,t ,ecuforizati~,n. ln some
countries, such as lmn, Indio and lsrncl, it h:is either Aained power or is
very influential and a slrong tontcndcr for power Elbcwhcrc, c,pccially in
•IIJ? Rl.LltllON 1;1/ SOCIF,T\

1hc Mu.,hm worlJ. IL form, a rowcrful anJ ac1l\'o oppo,i11on tu the curn:lll
Acl\'cmrnent The rndicul fundamc11rnl1,t~ l>Cck IO Ont! ne\\ 1111," Cf' 111 thl.'
1c.xt;. of their ~cripLUrcs 1hm will provide nu alwrm1tlvc IO mo<lcnutation
:mt! "c,1c.:rn1z1Hion .\ltern:111\ely, 1hc 1mdltinn:ilh1 fumlamcmali,1~ ,c,·k tu
rc1urn i<Oclcty HI 1hc tratl1tions and cuMorll', of the p;1,t (Sec chapter I I I

8cu~IEKIS~I ,\~L> J~TEKR~Ll(;IOUS DtALOC:l'E

One 01 Lhc most imporuint features of the lt1st fifty ye:1rs hu., been thl'
incrca~in,I\ extent t<> "hich rell)tion" influence each other One major \ICJl
in 1his process wus the Pnrlinmcnt of Religions , held in Chicr\~o in lk'J.1 ns
pan or the Colombian l::.xpo$lllon llere the C.:hristl:111 world :,,teppcd baol-.
from the nrneteemh-century assumptions or the ,upcnonty of Christ1:1n1t,·
11ml Western culLUre and ga\'e an opportunity to the r<:prc.wntative1- of LIil
other major religiou:. tmdition~ of the world to prc:_.em their ,-icwpomt:. and
oontrihu1ions. The icnor ot' 1his conference W(h summed up in the opcmn~
addrcs!, !Jf Charles C. Bonney to the Parllamcm:

\Ye meet on the mounwin height of 111><.olutc rcspL'CI for 1hc rclll!)ou,
convtcUons of each other, und an t'tl.11ll!l.t dcstre for J b<:ucr knowlc~c of
the consolarion, which other forms 01 faith than our (>l\'TI of1er 10 tht'ir
Jcvo1ecs. The wry basis oi our co1woc:11lon i, 1hc idc:n that the
repr11S,mlativcs of each rcli~un sincerely bt:Ucn, that It b the truc.,1 rutJ
the bes1 of all; and that they will, therefore:, hear with pcrt'ec1 e<1ndour nnd
wlthom fo<ir 1lw conviction, of mhcr s1m..·,m, ,ouli. un the (lrcat quc,tion,
ot the uumortal life.

This prt>cc;,s of dialogue and imcrnclion among the religion,, oi the world
ha!, continued up to the present. ~lany individuals ba\'c been intlu1mccJ by
the ideni. or rcli~ions and cuhures not their own ~lnhotma (~undhi, for
c:x:uuplc, intc:rprctcd the nimlu doctrine of tJ11111sa 11,. non-violence in the
scckin~ of political chan.i\e. This inrerpretmion i~ thnu~ht co have hc:en
tready influenced hy his reading o( tbe C.hristinn pnc,fo,1 work~ of Tol,1oy
Gandhi, in tum, lumsclf influenced mnny. includin,I! ~uch 11~un,,. a.~
Re,·erend 11artin Luther Kinit in the Christian \\'est t1ntl the liuddh1~t
.\ .I .\riv:1ram,1, whosL Sar\ odnya Sham1atfa1111 ~lo\'cmcnt h:L, tri<:J to
dc,·elop the poorc:.t vlllal\<:s ln bri L:rnku. The Christian churchc.:l> In India
h:i,·c j\one n Ion~ way towards ahsorbinl\ clements of their llindu culturnl
milieu Chrhtinn iift1111yw,i11 (wnndcrin~ ,i,cc tici,) ,ind ashrams arc to be.
found.
\\'ithm each reli~ion there h:n•e hccn cffons in 1hc la~t hundred yc:irs
to hnn~ the dlifcn:nt ,ects tol\ctbcr in unity, for example, the.: attcmp1, co
w11tc the i\n~lican and Methodi~t Churchc:, 111 C:hrisri:1111t~· The work of the
\\'orld Council of Churches in brinl\inl\ mos1 o( the.: C:hm,uon churche, in
a~rccmcn t on L'ommon pos i1ioni. a.nd proi).rammci. of action h,t., ltt.-cn
 l'l llF..LlUION IN nn: MOl)fjllN WORl,I) •19J

a b
1,11:RRELIGIOl"l, PL\LO<:WE: n) Bishop (later Archbishop) Desmond 1\1tu ,isitill,I\ the Jode
Buddho Temple of Rhonghol IUld mcctinj\ the ch ief 11hoot, Zh en Chon b) ,\n
m1-,rrcligJous wonwn'• nwctlrtg in Tor\ll/1 (c,1t11rrng speaker~ from the \\'e.slcyan, Mormon
4nJ Baha'i ,eroups 111 the village of llolon~a. Vo,-n'u. 1997.

parallellcd by such organizations as the Muslim World League and the

\'1~hw:i I Undu P:irishad.
At local and narional level ic is increasingly common for religious
hiaders to come toge1her at intcrreligious mt:etlngs and to co-operate over
Issues on which there is general :tgreemem. lnterreligious dialogue and
local and national incerfoith forums hn.ve multiplied and with them the
number of projcccs onrrlcd out on an inter-fnlth basis. There ls still II long
way to ~ in such macters, but a scare has cerroinly been made.

A SURVEY or RELIGIONS T ODAY

In this section, I shall briefly sun·ey the impact of the twentieth century on
tbt: rdi&ion:. that havt: bt:t:n considered i n this book.

Judaism
The nineteenth century and che first decades of the cwenrieth snw cwo
opposinit dcvelopmenr:, for the Jews of Europe and Russia. On the on<!
hand, under the influence of Enlightenment thought, they were gaining
greater freedoms than th ey had previously experienced. Eu rope:111
Christians Wt:re starun~ to sec Jews as individual humon bcin~ instead of
as an alien mass. On che ocher hand , anti-Semitism was takinit new, violent
forms "ith the ~tan of pogroms (o rganizt:d massacres) In Russia. From
1881 onwards, there were recurrent episodes of persecution and killinl!:,,
One consequence of chi~ ,w,s that many Jews emigrated from Russia and
Central ond Eru,tcm Europe to lhe United States, many of lhem neelng
 194 R..ELIC:101' IN /;(WlhT\'

denih 11ml per~cculi(ln A!< 11 n~sul1, the number o/ .Jew~ tn tht• l '111tcd ~l:Hci.
lm:rcn,cJ from nhout I S,000 in I R-10, to I ,S00,00 in F>OO and 1.200.000 In
l'J2H.
i\mon,ll die dch111c, thut flourished nmonl\ ,JC\\;; in the nr.c h:tlf of 1h~·
1wenticth 1.-c111L11')' was the quesLiorm of Zionism, the erentlon or n homcl:uul
for Jews The fir:-1 ZioniM Con)lre:-s wni. ur,.tan1,l'tl hy Thcodor Ifer.cl ,n
Huslc in 11<97 The tuminit point foT 7.ioni,m w,1~ the Hnlfour l)ccfarntion oi
I'JI 7, appro\'lll/t the prlnelplc oi" the cswbli~hmcnt in l'alc,tlnt of a
'nmionnl home for the Jewl::h peopOc' From that time on, much enerj\y wa,
dirccteu cownrd1, cswhlishing .Jcwh,h sc1tle111enu, In Pnlc,1 inc
The two moM lmporllllll C\'enb of the twentieth century for ,fudu1..~111
were the cxtcrminntion or nn cstimmed 5-6 million ,lcwi. in Centml nn<l
l:::1,tcrn Buropc b~ the :-lalb during World War II :inti the crcotlon of tin:
State of Jsrocl in 19-41-1. The se1.-ond was very much a consequcnce of the
firi.t, :is the ,·iclOrll of the war were put under grcm prei;surc co find 11 horm:
for larite numbers of tlii.placcd Jew,. The
subscquem ,\rab-lsraell w:irs and conllicl
led to large nwnbers or Sephardic Jews from
the Arab count.ries fleeing to Israel, while the
J fall of communism re,ulted in the
im,nigration of many Rusi,lan Jcwi..
The establishment of Israel led lo JC\h
arountl chc worltl unifying in suppor1 of thl:
ne\\ i.rnte, and many of them em1j\ro1i11~ to
ir The financial support ot che world,vidc
Jewish commualty, a& well a1, the nbtlity or
1he .lew,sh lobby in the l:mted Stares to ralJv
the ,\merican tO\·ernment to pro\'itlc
financial anti pol.Hical bupporl to brad have
been major facton. in en:1blin~ rhe Stale or
brae! to survh·e.
Today, lhe Uniu:d Scates ls the t.'Ountn
with che lar)test ,lew ish population rn th1.
world, with some 7 million Jcw1, .\bout 4
million Jew;. live in lsroel There :ire still
sonw 2-J million Jewi. in RuJSsia. The tntnl
W1m IS.\ Jrw• One .,f the quc•tionR 11umbcr of Jews In th;,; world was ei.tlmutctl
thrnY.n 11p hy 1he C:rt'fflion of the Srnu, uf to be 17 million In 191-15 nod was prcd,cLCd 10
lsrncl I, thu qu1:.,1lun of whn I~ u Jew> incr<:u:,c to :w million by 2000
\\'h.1t I~ the po.lllon ul the uhllJrcn of
mi.led marnn~·, What form of
L'On\'er~lon to Judnlsm Y.ill be Christi<.irtily
~cceprnhlc'• Thi, picture shows
dcm1>nstroton, masldt the l<rncll Since the Or<ic elements or modcmuy arose
Rnessu1 while thl• quo.:slloJI wn, hcmg in the Chri,tinn world, Chrii.tiunil~ hm, been
dct>aicJ The plncurd reads 'A Jcy, • one in contact with the challenl!cs oi tile modem
Y.·ho pro!'~-,.,..,, JuJn.bm'
world more th:m :rny other relil\ion The
2000 <lOOI

c.1109
~

llignlloo
""lf11td frDIII Ur on Nuopo1>mo• 10

to Egypt by Joi,pll and h11 r....t,,

Cw••
-
1500 c.lSOl-llSO Rt111111 ol brtt~ltl 1" ea,,.,. undtr ltldtnNp of Now,: rNl>bDn ol tbt Im CommudMtna

c.1025 S...I tmblllllt1 lotgwp amonJ dw llrttllces

1000 c.1009 Omd Uf>lUrtl J•nrultm and m,kts ~ 1111 aprlll
- c.'11 Oulll ol Sdomon (wllo wile die ltmplt ,n ltrvsaltm) Inds 10 1ploumg or di, k•nidom
lnco IIOflhtra pm. 11ml. ud ioudlttD 91f1. Jlldu

soo
- c.712
SU
5Ja
)28, 165
m
Jlldall undtt <irttlt Ptoltmris aod Seleuod rvltrt
f.
Ito 1onlm1 uibn an dtfmtd by Allym ondtr SaJtOII II, art d1p«1td and 41iapptar !rom killll)'
Htbodtadnmar II o,iu1t1 jt,vul,m. desm,y1 dlt Ttmplt and dtp0ru tht Jm II BaJtonia
Pmoan bn& (ynn >low! jM 10 1t11rn 10 wm and to rtboold tht (compltttd Sl6 IC!I

Jtw1 (ulldtr Judll H.K~, of Humonaun family) cap111rt Jt,.1am: dome T,mplt of Grttk cods
0 ~ CIOqlltll of j""1>itM
ll~ P.ttgn of Htrod die G1t11 (rtbclilcllllg or d>t Tta1plt IA J•rwl•• btg1111 1C1 20 la)
~ d.c.45 l\olo or Alo1nd,,._ ltadmg upoundtr ol Hd,11110< Jtw!111 dl""tht
t.U-10 !ulot rr,ok ap,nn lolllt m•hi ,n dtwUCIJoo ol 1k Tt,.,
and ol modt ol cht oty ol Jtruialtm
70-lll A aroup ol rabb11. tilt Tan011m. rteon1iw1, tht Sanhtdr11 • JMltll, t!U/Jll!h dlt 1yn1goeut
C E. =:J 11 mt antJt o/ J,wuh tilt mpl"" ol ch, l,111911. ,ad by do,m dlt onon ol dw 1a,pn11t
....- lll,lS Rn-olt ol 1,moo bu lokhb,. w1lo dalmtd to bt di< Ht111•h. 1•ppm1td by ~··~
al Jm txptlltd frvm Jmi,ltm
135-259 Compil,non of tht Hohn.ii, uDblnhmtnl of ct111rn ol j...,,lh ldlobl'lh1p in Gll~tt and hb)toni•
l5t-600 C...p,l•t1111 of a.i.,,1001111 and PJluuojan Talmo,d

S00 _531 St&i•••CI el rtstllCIIOftl •• )1'11'1 by Chnsu:lll lyunllllf Emptron

- c.760 Aun bto OM! t1tabliiht1 th• anli-nbbrn,c mtt ita of Judai111 io llp!ad
90Cl-1300 Amt of ],.,,~ cultvrt ,. Nuihm Sp110
I 000 II~ Jm kolltd m (uropt dVlln& firt1 Cnmdt
10,6
d.1204 H111no,,.~ ludona )twtlh phiJoso?l,l!f
111,.,
lt,,nJ ol llbb,11 (c.bb,11) in lp,m
t.1250
1290
Jrw1 txptOtd fro,. [ngb!ld
14f2 ]M txptlltcl fro11 Sp,io
I6'5 lllabbtlJI litw p1ed11m1 hlmidl Ntnuh
1500~ d 1611 Splnou,J1wdh pholo1e9btr or di, KnkaWi (Enlrgl,clllfflm)
dlSI Btg1nn1111J ol H~,c mo,tmtnc mGtrrun1
J lltl Edra of toltnlJOn ol Jm II Holy llomao, Elll9'n
1191 Jrwi c,wn po,ua1 ,qulloty ,n fnoa •fur frtllO kMllocooo
c.ltot 1q,..,"'1 ,r atlotm Jllda,111 • Gt11111ny
1111 ""'""' 1p,m1 Jm IW~ (Offl,qutnt ,m11r;ino11< ol W>R and hlltm Europt>n jtWI IO USA
I"1 fv,1 !iooi11 C..gmi ,o Intl, lwratila""
2000 1917 M!,cauon or 8allour Otdlfl~on txprtl!IIIC tile tymp.11"7 ol !ht lfflnh go,tr1111tn1 uiwardl
dlt <lllibidllmffll OJ I jtwi;h llomtJ111d II Palullllt
ttll-45 Nu, audlon~tl 11 <iftm.loy ptrlf<!III Jrws <¥fflloally CJIUllt dudu 11 5-6 moll,on jM
19~8 Crtlllllo of 11>tt ol km!
1% 11u.11aus 1)1; socn;n

re,.ulb hme hcl•n a w,cn: dt-clmc In dw rdl~inn\ mOuen~ In 1h1:

Euru1-,e:111 heartland of ChrlMinni L), a pcr\',1s1\'c m:11cnuli,-m h." ,pccJcJ
the retreat nf rdi~ion The .-.!!>lilt h:1, Ileen ,1 lu;,, of tht! nntuml pu,111<,n ol
l'hristiu1111,· 11s the puhlic ~uammor of the moral order. 11:, \\ell a, 11 dechnc
111 pri,:nw rch~iu:-lt) 111 Europe Thli, d,•c lllu.c h,L, hccn le:.., ,-1,:,crc 111 ~urth
.\mcnc:i. There hnn: Ileen si~n:- of a renewa l ot mwrcM in <'hn,-11a1111y 111
the t 980~ ,ind 199(),, mo,-tly out.,IJc the tr,1dltinnnl inMILutiun.11 ,1 ructur",
In paralld \\Ith thb decline of Chri:.t1an1ty tn th" \\'c:.t. ho\\c\cr,
m1ssin11:1ry ;rctivit\' h:is resulted in nn mere:!! c In the numh,:r of I :hrhunn,
111 the Third \\'urld i\t the hc~innin~ uf the 1wemictl1 '-'cntun·, Euro~ and
:"forth Amcrie.1 :u.-countcd for most of the ,, ortd·s Chn,t1:1n:- fl\.\ p1.:r ccnl),
1110~1 of thlt remainder hein_j\ in l...1 tin Am1ctrica ( 11 per Cl'nt} TuJ11y, f.uropc
ant.I Nonh ,\mcrlca accoum ior only -IS p.;r cent of utc world', Chrbuan,.
.\frica 1101\' nc..-coums for 15 per cotnt - a fl~un, that alrcatly cxc..-ceJ;. that 01
'fonh ,\rucric:1. Perhaps C\'en more s11!nificnnt than thl: demol!raphic ,h,11
L, Lhl' L'Ouccptual i.hlft that i;. occurring. The ,\frican church.,,, arc not
comem merely co import C:ithohc and Protest:inc norms from European
ChrbrioniLy Rather, Lhcy ore eng:ig.,d in :i creative reintcrprct.11kin of
GhristJ:HtiLy iJ1 terms of their own cultural norm~. !11 1:iouth .\fnca alone.
there nre more ch:111 .1,000 separate naciYe churches, each cxprt:,,inj\

C!Jiu:,Tt\.\ 1.u ,11-,is~1 l'np,: .luhn-l'aul II anJ f..<:um..nteal l':nrlMCh lllm11no, I <.t t,1.inbul.
lead.,r of lhe llrthcxlnx Chur~h mo:l on ,ltnmc In 11<,,c,.'llll>,,r 11•si
 1'1 • RLl.l<,101" I?\ TIIE MOTH.RN \\'ORI.I> l'J7

Chri,rionit)' in fonns mnrkcdly differenc from rroditionnl European norms

European Chrblian:, ,;;tlill,I! o congreg,uion of lite Church of Kimbnnitu In
1hc Conl!<) may "ell iecl jtL,I as ou1 of place as 1hcy would in n mosque in
~audi ,\mhio
The d1.:mot!mphic shift ls ulreody hn'l'1ng ,-e,eml 1mporto111 c!focts on
1hc Christian world Experiments In Christinn thlnklnlt and occion
orit!lnnrin~ m the Third \\'orld ore stnrchi,g to ho,·1.: an impacl on the origin:11
hc:irtland:, of Chrislionily•. The mcr,1!1111t of all lhc Protc:,tonl churche:, in lhc
Church of South Indio in 1<>-H is :iccin~ ns o model for ecumenical
mo,<!lllcnts dsc\\hcrc. 'Liberation lhcology' from Soulh America has
stirred up thinkinl1 amonl1 both C:icholics ,ind Protcstunts of l::uropc (llld
~onh .\mcric:1.
Om: que:,lion tl1ot Nmoi11s to be an&\\ered b lhc extent to which tht:
disbandment of rite communist go\'cmmcnrs in Eastern Europe will affect
Chrblianlly in tho:,e countries. \\'lll thcre be a Chri:,li:1.11 rt:,·h·al or will tht:
materialism oi lhe Wesc swamp the Chri.stlanicy chat has sun·h'ed che
1.'<lmmunist on,,Laughr-, Initial reports do not present n clear piclure Some
are:i:, in E:ll>tem Europe report an lncreasin~ interei,t in Christianity.
despite stroni~ competition from new religious movements that are also
spread.111g inlO these t.'Ounrrie~. ln Poland, howc,·er. where the Roman
Calholic Church remained relati\'ely scro~ durin/l the communist period.
lhc autht>riry of the Chu rch seem" to be in decline. M:my arc openly
tlcfyin~ Its rul1ngs on comrncepuon and abortion. This m:iy be &imilar to

Ry deflninj\ Lhe rroblems or Ch.ri,tinmty m isolation from the

hlock condition, whir., thcolo~· becomes o thcnloJ!..v "' white
oppressors, scning 11~ a dMnc Mnctl11n Iforf crimin11I act,,
t'Ommltkod l!llntnsl blncks.
No \\hJt.e t.hcologlnn hru< e,er taken the oppr,~ion of
blacks as a polm of departure for analyzing God's accMrv ln
BLACK 118E.IUTIO~ contempornry ,\merlcn Because white 1heoloj!,· has
TH EOLOGY corL•i•tcntk pn.-«cn·1.,J the in1Cj\rity of the community o(
opprc,,:;or,;, I concluiJc dtut It •~ n1>t Chrl•tlnn tht'Olo~ at
all
It ts unthlnknblc lhll op1,re,,.ors coulJ ltlo.,ouf~ "Ith
oppr1.-ss..'<I cx.lstcoe.: aou thu, sar somethlog rdc.. an1 ubou1
God's hht,rarlon of th" oppre<>-1 In order tel be ChriHlan
lheolo~· white Lheolo4y mu,t cease hein4 u:hfce thcol~·
and l:>ccome hlnck theology hy di,n);n( whltcnes.• ~s an
ac:ccpu1bltl form or humo.n cxlMcnc,., 3nd n(11nn,n& blackm,~s
a,, G<xl'• lnh:11Uon fo~ hunlJUlll)' \\1tl1c tli.wloJll.ins v.111 imd
lhb difficult
Black theolo~· .• ma111rnln, that .111 net• which
panic1pate In the destnJcdon of while racbm are <.:hnsuon,
the hbcnitlnit deeds or Ood .\11 acr, wh,ch impede rhc
>t..,We of bl~ck sdf-dctenn1n~11on - f•hck power - arc enll·
Chru,tJon, the \\Ork of S111.an (Cone, .~ Bluck Thw/04.v q.f
L1bcromm pp '>-10)
 -1\1'1 RE.LI< ,JOS IN' SOt!lt.TY

North Anu:rie:in :me.I Europcnn pn11crn,, but wns rre,·iuu,lv 11nu,ual m

Polnnd.
Them cr:1II :111aJy<;h roinL~ to a ~rad uni dccllm, in the prurortmn of the
world's population 1ha1 is Chri,ci1111 from ;I I •I per cent ,11 the.: hcAinnin&t of
1he 1we11ue1h c.-cniury to J2.-I per ccnl In 191,5, 1)Crhap~ <l<l\\11 IO ,12 .) per
~·cm hy chc end or the century. This declmc 1:, due p;1rtly 10 the c1>11t1n11i11~
lol>..~ or fallh amon~ the Christian popu.lution~ of Europe, partly 1u thl: lu.,.cr
rote oi fcrtiluy amonA Chnsllttm, " Some itroup!>. ,uch a, 1'1:nu:co...1.ib nml
maritinal Pro1cs1nnt'l (Jchm·:ih's Wimc,,,,cs :111d Monnons) nre ¢rm, in~
rapidly Since they wkc moi.t of thdr convcru from other Chri,uan ~roup,,
howc\rer, chis does 1101 rc~ult 111 :iny on!rnll mcrcasc 111 the number, 01
Christian,

/sfom
Islam has faced the crisls o( redefinln~ lcse l( since 1he ~Inning of the
lwcntlcth century. Prior to this, the ~lusltms hod to u lari!<: c:u,mt -.ccn
them~clvcs as one community (umma) under the leadership of u1e L'llhph
,\fter World War I, the caliphate was aholbhed hy Atarurk in 192-l and
~fu~lims found thcmsclve~ eitizeru. of a large numhcr of
newly created SUllt!s. The divlsl\'c dfects of the
nationalistic c laims of these new stnces dealt :i severe
blo" to the sem.c of blamic unity and cohcn:11cc
As described earlier, the Islamic world has
experienced :1 dilemma during the last hundred yea~ over
whether to adopt idl.'llS and attitudo:s from tho: \\'c:.l. The
liber:ils have tried to show that the idea.s of modernity :iro:
computible with the Qur'«n The conscn·ali\'C clcmcnL,
have rc:,isu..-d the intluem.,'e of the \\'est and have looked for
:inswers in the traditions of Islam Ai fir,t the~«:
\h'SI 1\1 \11!'-'IO\.\R\' flfORT' consen·alive clements were oven, helmed by the Ude of
One l!,mup Qf J)Cflplc ,n e,·cnlS nnd the force of the liberal a~umenl \\'holcsaJe
the C:hnstlnn West "ho wcsternizin~ refonns were ndopted in the newly cre:iwd
hnvc rcsponclcd UJ .\cab states, a:, \\ta:U as In .\taturk'!, Turkey and Reza Shah·,.
M~lim 1111M,monry ~ffon
has bo:co th.: black Iron As lhe years have pnssed. howc,·cr social ond
population m che l:niw<l economic problems have ,.:ominucJ und c, en lncrea;.cd
Srn1t-s \!alcolm X. lnillul optimism has AJn:n w:1r to l>Ocial db,ruptlon. a
p,cwre<l here, joined the decline In moral sumd:irds, a pcrvnslvc corruprion o(
:Sntion o( Jslnm, a fnnl(~ public life and fear of the loss of cultural idcullty under u
Mu~llm mon:m~m, m
1'JSZ Mrcr making the tidal wave or we~ternization. This has 1cd n dcsm, to
pllllru~ u, ~lcccn In return to a pa~, that b pcrccivc.'CI co hu\·e hccn fr1:c of i,uch
I 9h-l, Malcolm X adopted prohlems. An incrnru,in~ number of J"l'c'Oplc h,1\'e begun 10
onho<lo, lsl:1111 "'ith lhc pay :inemion co the t.-onscn.•oth·e clements
name \lnlik cl-Shnll:iu In recent limt:s, there ha,•e heen effort~ ot blumic
lie wa., .,.,,..,tnatl:-d ,n 19<,5
ecumenism. In particufar, the Rt:,·OIUliunar, ~o, emn1t!01
in Iron ha.~ been keen to hcol the 8unni-8hi'i divide, bu t
 I'} Rf.LIOION IN TIIF. \IOllERN WORLD 11>'1

1he;,c effons received a ;.cverc setback "11h 1he lron-J raq war, "h1ch
1cnJL'tl 10 play on the di, Ide
l~lamlc ml~1onary effort ha& been i,low to builJ up. ll ri;ceh•cJ a greal
1>oos1. howc\'Cr. from the money llo\\in~ from the oil hoom of the 1970s. In
.\iri<:a, bfom b continuin~ to creep souLhwarJs. often <1l the expense o(
Chri~tian1t,•. Spread in other Jireclions irom the Islamic heartland..~ has,
howc,·cr, been difficult, due to 1he hostility cowardi, Islam in Hindu India
,md Christian Europe. Nonetheless, there has been a grcnl deal of
<.'On~olida1ion oi the lsl:unic bolJ O\'Cr the mnrl\lns of the lsinmic world in
Indonesia and ~uh-Saharan .Vrica
o, erall. Islnm h:lh 1hu;, far been more successful In rci.lsllng lhe
de~cruccive effects of modernity than Christianily. This, to~ether with the
high hinh rote in Islamic countries , means chat Islam is forecast to increase
irom an esumatt'd li.l per cent of the world's populadon in 19b5. 10 19.2
p<'r cent by the end o f the cwentieth century.

B<1hn 'i Faith

The Baha'i Faltl1. being n religion tlu11 emerged wllhln the modern period,
ha;. the advantaite of havin~ much modern 1hough1 already within ns
~cripture Such concepts as che equality o( men and women. che need co
balance.: scknce anJ rdlg.ton nnd we need, for social ju!>tlcc cause no heart-
searchm~ dilemmas for Baha'is, because chey arc :ilready enshrined In lhe
~cripcure:, of che rcliition. Thus, the religion is SJlfifed some of 1hc more
acute clement;. of the fundruneatalist-libcral tem,1ons to be found in the
other rcliitions The main prohlcm for Baha'is is not evohin4 these
fonnulallons buc chc nexl i.1:u!;:· puuinit them inlo dfccl..\mong Bah a 'is
trom more traditional societies (the majority of Baha'is), this present~
panicul:ir prohlems and is one reason that the Bnha'i community hai. put a
c,re,u Jcal of 11s encrgie;. into social and economlc dc,·elopment projects.
L:nul abou1 1hc yenr 1950. the Bah.:i'i community coacentr:iteu on
Jc"eioping its administrative structure :ind estuhlishin4 small Baha'i
commw11lie" in all parts of thc world. from about 1CJ60 onwards, fl
experienced a sudden spun of ~rowth wilh larAc numbers of poor rnral
~a~ancs in 1hc, Third \\'orld bcl.loming Bah:i'ii.. The largesl Bahu'i
commun1ties are no" m the Third World: India. South-East ,\:,ia. .\frica.
the Pacific and Sourh .\meric:i .\ccordimg 10 :n least one authority. the
Baha'i Faith ~ no" die second mo,t widely sprcaJ reliitlon ln 1hc \\Orld
nicer Chnslian1ry and le.., m1e of conversion~ Is one of 1he hi,g}1est amon~ all
relil!ious groups · There were about l million Boha 'is in 1968 and 5--6
million in 1995-6.

Hinduism
Durin~ the lase hundred years, Hinduism at the villac,e Je,·el has continued
In much the same way ru, in the pa,t (and thls. oi course, iS l11t! reallry for
 Th~ Spr~ad of the Baha'i Faith up to 195

.._,
L
~ 45

c. a
......
:-
1942 \

cz
z
I
lrJ
-
:,,;

:;
... 1'12 C,
"' f?
c:19
g The Baha'i Faith was taken to most of the rest of the world after 1950 in cwo campaigns, 1951-53 and 1953~3
"'
 19 IU.L I Gl()N IN rtti,; MOUt;RN \\'OllLU 50 1

0\T R(>Lf OF Tllf RMI"'' F,\ITII IN TIIE 1101).f,RN WORLO: Th is mcctinl! of lcadinl!
ennronn1cnt:tlibL~. rcprusontot.in..~ of ,rnriou.s go,·cn1mc.nt$ l\rid bu~iru.-ss IL-r1c.Jc-r~, wo~
com·encd by Lhe llnhn'I lntcrnuLlonol Connnunlty m t-ollnh(lrnliQn wiLh 5c1·crnl
en\'lronmcnw.l organlznLlons and bosLed by Prince Philip at S1 Jamcs's Palace In 199~.
The meeune was in1cnded to highill!ht che imp,orwnce or forests In the world's eoolo,l!y
and to look at ways of co-ordinating thci r preservation and muna,l\emenl The picture
$hows Prince Ph11ip nod Madame Rahbani, the leadin~ Bahn'i repre.senrntive ,11 the
conforcncc, seated while Inn Long, rhc SL'Cretary of sratc for &'<>tlnnd, read\ out the
mc,snge u, tbe conference from John Major, thc tbc11 British prime minister.

some 75 per cent of all llindus). Ac the urban, national nnd lnccmmionnl
le\'el, howc\'er, Hinduism has undertone Afcat changes.
The most important factor of chnnAe has been the emcrAcnce of India
a.s an indt.!pendent btatc with a Hindu lcaderb.hip. All ll in<lus supported this
development, hut some tmdilionalist:, htl\·c wanted to ito further and to turn
lndin from a secular state into one hasecll on llindtt ism. They stand for the
iull implemcnt11tic>0 of the <U!Stc system wllh the boeklnt of the law, tht:
prohibition o( che slau,!!hcer oi catde, and che enacnnem of anc i-Mu.~lim
measures. Their numbers and inOuence are increasin~ through suc:h
or,1:anizatlons and politlcnl parties as the Arya Samaj and the Bharntiyo
.J:inata Party.
Liberal llindu thou~ht durin~ the last hundred years hos hcen mainly
on e:<t:rclsc in reinterpreting traditional I llnduJsm io ways thac relate LO the
modem world. One cxnmplc of chis is \'inoha Bha,·e (] /-.95-1982), 11
follower of Gandhi und founder of the Sarvodnyn movement. lie translated
chc notions of karma and S<."t'<l (which in classic:il Hinduism refer to rinial
 SO? Rl::LIIIIIIJ\i IN SIJ( It.TY

works 1111d ser"ncc I() hij\her ca,1cs h, lowcr 1.·n,t1:,

rcspccti\'<.>I)') inco ,,wial ,crvh.-c Aood \\urks ,~rforml•,1
for the hcneilt of ttll t•or him, sucrlllclnA fur other, nml
)!i\'inA 10 the p<'>Or \\<!re the 1-riril of llindu"m in :ii;uon"'
Even more <lr:un1111c has hecn the ch.111~e 1n the
external fnoc or lllnduhm r ro111 11n inwnrJ-l.,,1kh1~.
cxclus1vis1 orienr:nmn, it has chanAcd mto nn ouc~omA,
mli,.,lormry rcligicm Such ~roups n, 1s1--01, (l11l1.:rna11unal
&x:iety for Krishna Consciousness. the ll;ire Kn~hn,1
Movement) :iml the Sai B:iha mnvcmcm hmc rnkcn
lllndulsm Itself Lo th1.: \\'t:~t. Ulln,r mo,cment~ ~u1.:h us
Tran'lcendcmal Meditation and the Brahma Kumaris
F Xi<>llTl'<i ll"1>111S)I (RJ1jn-Yogu) urc a more subtle cxpon of Hindu idc,L,
:," .,ml l'rnhlmpndA These Aroup~ have focm,ed on llhtdu philosophy anJ
(l li'l<>-1'>77), founder of
l~ht ,,~, l11Lcru-.1Lfcuuil rsycholo~v. as well as on such prncticn.l mnllers a.,
S,,cicl)' for Krbhnll techniques of rncdiuuion
Consc,ousa~s, He The Ilindu ecumenical mo\'ement is Mill in IL, infancy
tro,-elteJ to New fork in and not yet very inOuenciaJ Thi~ is pardy because
I<>65 :tnd SCI UJl ISKfX>S llinduism has not hnd much hbtory of sccrorian ~trifc and
th" folio" 1114 y~nr
,,oleace, so most llindus in India see little nL>ed for
ecumenism A number of world Hindu organiz:ition~
exist, such as the Virac Hindu Samaj, led by Dr Karam Si~h. and l11e
Vishwu Hindu Parishad
Largely because of the hi~ birth rote among Hindus, the reli~on is
forecast to Increase slightly, from 1.3.5 per cenc to lJ.7 per cent of the
world's population, between 1985 and the end of the twentieth cencury

Buddhism
Prior to the nineteenth century, Buddhism had been In decline It wa., lht:
effons of people such as DharmapaJa (the founder of che )W1abodhi
Society, 1891) in Sri l,:1nkt1 and Vajiranana (who restn1c111rcd mona.,tlc
munlnj\) In Thailand, as weU as the effort:. of Europeans :.uch as Caroline
and Thomas Rhyi; Da,1ds ( 1he founders of the Pnli Text Society, I '!I, l) that
revh-cd the rcliiion Buddhism played an importune role in the nntionahsm
thal supplanted colonial rule in such counuies a.\ Sri Lanka and Burma.
Accompanyin~ this, there has 'been a maJor anempt co reinterrrer
Buddhi1m1 so as to mnke it a more i;ocially active and 1..'0ncemcd force In
thei,c societies.''
Themvacl-t was 1he t'irst form of Buddhism to come to the \\'est
Buddhism wru, l!nth1.11,i:1sticall)' prornote<l in Europe in the early part of the
twemleth century as a scientific and rational reli~ion. in co11uadlstinc11on
to Christionicy, which w:is considered co he full of superstition. lrratlon:illty
and the ~upernowrnl. In more recent year1,, another s1rand has been oddcJ
to thc ideas current in the \\'est obouc Buddhism the idea lhat II Is a
pncificist or pct1ceful reliAion. Bo~h of these ideo;. obout Buddhism orosc
partly ouL of rem.lin,(\ Lhc Buddhisl texts rmd thinking thoL the religion as
pmcti~ed must accord wil h these texts, and partly from West em scholars
and rcllJ\lous enthusiasts seeing whnL they wnnted to sec - crcaling a false
1Jeali1.acion that, in turn. led to a blinkered percepcion of the focts, It
~'<ln~rllute~ the growth of n mythology of Buddhism in the West. In foct,
Huddlusm b not and never has been free of supcrnutural elements:

The worship or deities hos been known In the history or Buddhism from
th!! carlkst limes. And althou~, some scholars of the past idealized
Buddhism AS An nthelst reli~ion, the place of the deities In Sinh,1lese
Buddhism bus hardly clurngcd ~lnce the ti.mes of ll,c conuncmarics, and
cnnnot be nttrihuted to the intluence of pre-Buddhist religion, of 1-linduism
or or m,,gtenl-nnirnism.
i\ccordin~ to the Sinhok-se Buddhists, supernatural l>cings ore as much
n part of the universe os human bein~ and all other forms of lifo in nanirc."

~or have Buddl1ist socielies been any more free of a

tt!n<lency to wariure tJmn orhcr societies:

The historical record of the Buddhist kingdoms of South-

E,c,t .\.>,In d= not support th<.: view that where Buddhi,,t
institutions nnd ideas hnve a prominent place in national
liic lhc 1:<1n~cquen11c will he peoccful internnlionnl
relations. Nor t, there on}· clear e,,1dence thot lo countries
where Buddhism i$ rhe Sl(lle religion l''ars h:we heen
regarded as un-BuddhiM activities. The evidence suggests,
on the contrary, chat Buddhism In South-East Asia ha~ heeo
successfully employed 10 reinforce the policies and
lntcrcsis of national rulers, often lo their t.."OmpeLltio11 "ltb
one another for resources or prestu\e. Burma and Thailand
proviclc cx1:cllcnt examples In this respect. ,.
TrntTAX Bum1111sM; Thll
Tbjs \\'escem interprerntion has in tum inllucnced the Dulnl Lnmu hu~ bt:cn thl!
way tlrnt Eastern Bu<ldhibh, sec themselves. More title held by Lhu ht!Ud o(
recently, since che 1960s, Olhcr fonns of Buddhism, such tlu, GduApil sect of
as Tihet..1n and Zen, have found lorge numhers of Tibetan Buddhism slnec
1578. Tho present Oalai
..<lvocates ill the \\'esv
1.nmu (Tcn,i n Gyntso,
Buddhism, perhaps more than any other religion, hall 19J5- ), tho fourteenth
buifored hecatL~e o f the odvonce of communism. [n large In the llnc ol suc..-e&~lon,
partS or South-East Asia, the communist authorities made has been In exlle &lnet:
greut efforts to uproot Buddhist cradilion. The most 1959. lie won the Nobel
Peace Prize in t 989 and
determined example of this wns Pol Pot's p.;rlod of rule h:t.• hecorne a world-
o,·er Cambodia ( 1975-9). Buddhism has also buffered renown<-d figure
from the materialism sweeping Japan and the newly promotln~ Buddhism
industrialized nation:. oi South-EaM A~ia. There has been and odvocotlng tltc cause
a Afeat deal of success in toking Buddhism to the ofTibeL
!10 I IU:I.ICllO!', IN .SO('lf rr

Tubfo 19.1 E~1l111.1tcc.l Number of ,\Jhcrc11L, of WorlJ Rdl~lon,

l'/00 1\1 1'170 !II. 1'1!15

( m,11·s \~It\) (Hk•IS\.'11r;) (Tlhll'~\.'11>.<I) (Tlllll 'ASI"")
Cll MIi> II ASS 558,U~, J l I 1,2 l6,57•J J,l 7 1,Slh,5'1;! J.? I 2,IJl'J,'l;!J .I.? I
JlUIIA,\ .?7 I ,')91 1(11, 55b.0.?4 HIS hM,;?2:? 111 5 l , lf,'>, lt;J l k,
C.\T I IOI.IC~
C11<11101w ,x 121..?45 7.S I I 1.11•1•1 .\ I I JU,11.17 :! 7 I !\.),U!I:? 2I
l'RoTI STAS fh ll9,<,t,1 74 259.(145 71 2<1:!,7.l-1 t, I .157, 1119 !17
M AK(;fN,\I 1.040 01 IO, 1119 OJ 14,!lt,S 11,1 :?:?, ISi IJ 4
l'R<!TI Si.~\TS
~h'~I I\IS 200 102 I:? I 550.'ll" 15 J Hl 7,llf,S 17 l 1.:?00.1,S,l 1'1 :!.
St•l<SL\ l 7:l, 111 10 7 1(,S,1117 12 9 6-',0 ,l!SS I I 2 ·~!'I'!:?<, I<, n
Stt1'A, Twf.LI lR :?.?,250 I4 oS,270 1.1:l HM , 193 2 2 LS 1.71t0 2 I
, \JOLll!ln',\ iO (1 2.c,JS 0 1 4,7J4 () I ')217 ti I
I11~111-s 203,0JJ 1::? 5 -165,7!15 12.8 647,567 l J S 859.:?:i:? lJ 7
01HtK l~t>I.IX
RU,.IC...10~:i
811<11s 2.96 1 02 J0,612 OJ H,,150 OJ .?J,11.l::! II I
JAJl<> 1,J2.3 0.1 2,(>16 0.1 J ..'49 01 4 ,J0-1 0 I
RtllllllllSTR 127, 159 78 231 ,672 64 :!95,5 71 62 359,092 5i
M,\IIAl'A.'!A 7 1,SS<) 44 130, I IO J6 166,JSS J.5 201,842 3 :!
Tttfl~\VAl)A 4/l, 100 J.0 87,700 24 I II ,6 1f> 2.J IJ5.IISO 22
JtWS 12,271) 08 IS,186 04 l7,8.lk II -I 20, 17-1 II I
ZoRO.-\.'.lTRl.1.'I~ IOS 0 121 0 172 II 219 ll
J:l,IIL\'IS tJ O 2,659 ll l 4,4-IJ OI 7,649 0 I
Crni<tJl>, rnt,K· Jb0.-104 23.5 214,J92 5.9 187,9'14 J9 15bA7J :? 5
lttLIGtosum;
JAP.1.'IF.SE 6,720 04 4 ,17J O1 J,164 0.1 2.65,', ti l
Sm'<mt s-n<
TRIBAi. A.'10 117,986 7.J ll07,167 J.O I 10,00-I 2.J L?.'.l,221 :? ll
~PIRJTISTS
NOJNIEUCIOl"S J,149 02 7011,35-l 196 1,016,426 2Ll 1,134.136 :?l,
AND ATlltlSTS

OTIIER (L"CLl!IJJSO 6,606 0.4 ISl,799 2.1 112.7116 2.4 l-15.861 .? J

St.II' REUGIOJ,;S)

\\'OKUl 1,619,&;6 1000 J,61:?,0J4 1()()0 1,781,123100 I l>,259.MJ 100 0

Pol,lL\TIOS

SOl'RCE: Table Is based on Barrett, World Cliriscum Erwyc/Qpedw, p 6

Non;s: l'erceota~ show percent~ of world populallon Pcrcento~es nre rounded ,..,,..,
small percentai:es ar" shown as O; thus, wtal may not come to JOO per cent.
'Tribal and splnusi' In my cahlc conslllts of cfau, lti\'cn 1or "l'nbal rch~onl•L,',
':Shamnnb1~· 'Afro-American sp,rills15' nnd 'Spirlus1s' m R.1rrcm's u,blcs ·~on-reli~ou..,
and llthelsts' m ffi)' UIPII! consists ol those lWl) scpamtc ~'tllCl\<)riCS in 8~m,u's U)hlc
'Oth~r· in my iahlc consi~ts of dnw for ·~cw-rcli~onlSts', 'Confucinns', ·~tand,-ans' and
'Other reliA]onisLs' in Barrcu's table ·~tul'4lnal Prorn•tants' refers to ,;uch ,t1rour- GS
JchO\-nh's \\'irnc~cs o.nd Mormons
l'pdn1cs of this rnhlc have oppenrcd m ortlclcs by Tlorrstt in 11n11u:1l i•SuC$ <Jf
Brlwnniro Bonk qf rlre )car (Ch icnJ!o fnc)•clopacdrn Oritannlca) .,.,.,, for c,wmr,lc 1<!-U<'
for 19Fl9, p. :?99 llow,:1-cr ns thc.sc Inner tahtc, u,., n dlfforcnt ha.,!• for th,irc,1lcul:Hif1n~
(the number nf ~'fluniries, for C.lumplc, Jumrs from 2Z.1 In U'h r/(/ Chn.,cmn E,u.-:,,:fo1><·tlu1
10 25-1 ,n Rntu11111c-a /Jo,,k ,if rhe l eur) und do not 4lvc •uffidcnt lnfomiallnn tn upd.1tc
all the cfaw in thi, table aud T:tblc 19 :?, I hal'c only u,cd the Enc.,'CltJpetiw,
 19 Rhl.lOION IN TIIE ~IOIIERN \\'OllLO ~OS

Tc1ble 19 . .J Rmc of Gro\\ th ,mt.I Sprcat.1 or Worlt.1 Rcli~1ons

Aw11.,m 1.\"-1 'II 1,1.,,-or. l '17140
:-.i.,n R.lt. Tcm\1
1,, Kf \~~ Cc l1''\Tk.,lr>N~ I\C".llt.,~~ N11. <lF

t:11111,<fLI.\~
(11Kll<~\'/llN)

.!1,11 1
'
J (,3
(Tlttl\'SA~I •'I)

196 001
' (Tlll'll'SA'll'S)

21,1,11
'
1.6-1
corxTRII· s

223
lloY.I.\ IJ.7/;J 1.l!S JJJ o.os 14,lJJ L\IJ 221
t:.,r11011cs
ORTllc>OOX I .1<11> 1. 14 ..<)4 -0 Ofi 1.252 1.06 96
PRUTf'"T.\.',TS J.ltJ 1.24 -1.11!2 -0.44 2.130 060 209
M \JU;r'i:.\t 111 1 25 11:? 1.24 286 2.49 176
Pit( lfl,.l,'TA'/1':l
~l<'l'WIS 17.O<>.) 2.71 140 (l.02 17,204 2 74 162
Sl"\"\°IS 1-1.565 2.H -250 -0.05 H,J.15 2.70 157
Sm'.\, T\\Tt\'l R 1,771 2.J7 J05 0.11 2,076 .?.71l 54
•\IIWJJIY\A 97 2.99 J9 I. JR IJC> 4. LR 56
I ll'10l'S 12.145 2.34 -241! -005 11 ,1!97 2.JO 84
0mfR l\'OLI..,
REl.Jtdl•:-t":i-i.
Sn,tL~ JJJ 2.70 30 0 24 J6J 2.94 JC)
Jus, 67 2.14 .4 -0. 14 (,.1 2.00 5
Btl){)IIISTS 5,112 2.0J -'l08 -O.J6 4,204 I 67 84
~l\H.\l,\.',A 2,1!65 2.0.1 -50-1 -O.J6 2,J62 1 67 77
THf.JIA\',\D.\ 1 .940 2 OJ -JSO -0.J7 1,591 I 66 18
Jtll'> 18() 1.16 -11 -{),1)6 175 109 112
ZoRnN> rtuA.~~ J 2.44 .() -0.0 1 J 2.43 ]()

8.\JL\'1:- 1') 2.46 .n I 17 116 36-1 19+

CUISEM: J.H4 J.66 -S,l()J -2.+6 .J ,<>60 -0.80 55
h>Lt.·RllJ<ltO~'\.'ttS
J.\PA-'l.llt. 46 l.l'l -1 11 -2.85 -65 -166 J
SHL\Tlll'!TS

'flllliAJ. .~\ll 2.iOO 2.50 -2,622 -2.4:l 177 0 16 •

-.rnUTIST~

!\OS·R!.1.1<,l<>I '' 11 ,761 1.46 11,S<lb 1.06 20,267 2.52 •

1\1) ITIIFlliTS

Urtil.R 1,935 :! . 12 \11 0.11 2,1).)2 2.2:! •

(l\l'U'DIS<i
\l'W RELIGIONS)
\V,1KLU il>.Jb8 1.\IJ 0 0 7().Jk/l l.9J 2.?J
r, 11•t'L.\TIW,,
Snnu:r Based on Buren, ll'orltl C/iri..r;w, E11,~'C.·l111>ctlu,, p. (, Sec nntcs IO Table 1'> 1
~,,n:s The l..tM onlumn rcfcnii to 1hc nun1ht:r of councrks wfch ,..-on1111unitit.:.!<i! uf
ndhcr,m..,, • • dnro not nprlicuhk
In 8:lrrcn·~ rnhlu tmnwd chnn,!-l• 1s Q,inm r1s: 1970-A:i TIH~ i" l'Vidcncly n nns1okt: and
1'17C)J;() is int.nd,"<i It ls nlso c,1dcnt Lhnt Bnrrcu'• fillurc for con1•cr,.ion, for crihal
rdldonl<c" •hould hm·c, • mlnu, <1,t!n h<:foro It I has<.- cn1lculnted separate fl!,\un:, fi,r chc
rate or muur~I iacrc:i.'-4: and convcl"\ions
506 • nt.:1 H;mN 1s :socn,n

Chrlsilan \Vest :1n<l manv convcns have ll(!Cll mmle rhh tloc, nut,
ho\\evcr, make up for the Jo,.i,.c,- to lluddhbm thlll hn\'C O<.'CurrcJ from 1hc
:tJvnnec of communbm. Ovcr:.111, Bu<ldhbm Is c,.tlnliltet.l l O hnn, J1.-cll11eJ
from :,hout 7.N per cent o( 1he world '~ populruinn :11 the ,tan of thi.'
1,,cntkth century to about 6 .:? per cent in I1J'l5.

Ud11fHm i11 l'rm"'I Socicucs

II w::i,. confi<lcmly expected by many that primal or tm<l1t10nal rcll~lom,
would ce:1w to exist durin)! the twenric1h ccnwry 11 wm, thou~hl llrnt \\h:tt
the missionaries, under the protection of the colonial powcr1>, could not
:1chicve, lncrea~inA education and secula rirnti on wonld A \\orld
missionary conference in J 910 h en rd the followi~ report . ·~toi.t of t.he~~
peoples wlll hove lo:-l their 1111cicnt. faiths "ilhin a ii1.mcratlon. and '"II
accept thnt culture-relil!ion with which 1hey tirsc come ,mo contact'·
Surprlsinj\ly, thl:. wns not. nn :1cc11rate forcc:ll>t. Tradltlonal rellgioni. havo
proved to be resilient. While as a proportion o f Lhe world'i. p<ipulacion lhe
number of rheir followers hns decreased, rhc abS-Olutc numbers have
n:nmine<l approximately the i.:une throughout the twentieth centl.11)
Accordin~ to one estimate, there were about 118 million follower,; of
trndilional religions in 1900 :111d there will he ::ihout 110 million hy 2000,.
If one includes followers of sphriclst cults ( many of which dorive from

Fostered by sevcml non-rcli~lou• factors, •uch ns the

nnthr<1polt)1\lcal lltcmturc on 1mdhionnl ,\knn rclll!llln and
culture, the ris" or nntlonollsm. the ~tn1M)c for. 1u11I
nchim·cmcu t of, Independence. thc lds-olo.lb' or '.\irkun
p<:rsonailty'. etc., th.i rc!Jllcncc among Christian;, of ulcmc=
or Traditlonttl Religion has o,ver be<.'Ome more P3tem In the
NATIVE AFRICAN
course or this century ~me inscance8 moy be cued
RELIGION A.'ID Christians freely p.inicipate In the 1mditional oommunal
fest lnls now, such a, the Otlwira (old ycilr/ncw Y!'ilr
CJIJUSTI.ANITY IN celcbmtlon.~). ,rnd the i1rca1cr Atla<' cclchrnt1:J c,ery ,ix
week!, 011 Sundays In hon<Jur or ct,.,
Bll<ltitlll'i> or the clitcf,
GHANA and the que<!n mothers. Tbey cnj\nge (morel 1r-,dy In
Jrummln,! and dancing, and In tradlllonaJ communal
processe.~. , uch as the sweonn,!! of the""''" kc_•e (w-.,at oath)
in a trocJ1tional process of law Thcv accept trodiunnol offic..-cs.
even If thn1 eni,.il< exclusion from full mcmhcr.hlp hy their
church
Mo;,t Chril,tlons <..'Ontroct m~rrlo~c, •<-'<-'<>n.lml( 10 the
1r:HIJtlon:1I custom,, thus c-auslnl! thu nCM-<.:ompleu: (allure ui
church blesi<ed mnrrlllj\e
ChriMJans also resort to pcr;.onal 1raclltt0n, nr~s.
cspcciall)' for pro1cctlon 04aimt wlcchcroJt nod ,nrccrv ancJ
for healtn4, (.I (; l'lntvoct. The Akan lkhc,·er ond hi•
Rcli~lon•, In Vrijhof and \\'onrtlcnbul'JI, O.fficiul anti /',111ul<1r
Rdi,tl1u11, pp !-(,<> 70)
 I? ltF.I IC110:-I IN TIit' MOIH; RN \\'ORl, ll :107

crad,rlonal religion:..), t l11s lust number 1ncre!lscs to 123 million .

.\pproximntcly 70 per <-'Clll of followers of tmditional religions arc in Africa.
\lol>t of ll,c remainder nrc In India !u1J South-Enst .\slct.
Tmdltinnnl rcliitions in Africa have been under pressure for nil of the
l,1:,t hundred yc:1rs, with lslrun ,prcading from thtl 11orth and Chrlstiu11ity
l'lt'lnit importtld by the colonial powers. Dei.plte this. it Is estimattld that
:,omc ,10 per cent of blnck Africans still follow tmdltionnl rcliAions, while
nnothcr J0-40 per cenL resort ocoasiom1lly lO traditional religious
pr;accictls."' flowever, this lnccer now mosdy refers co personal and family
religion Truditionul tribal roligious ceremoniel> and practices have declined
itrcally
The 1ribal peoples of India, especially the hill tribes, have remained
lan\cly isolotc<l from Indian society. Although those with a high level of
contact wHh the rest of Indian society have been 'llinduized', the resc have
1.'<>mlnucd their traditional religlom,. Of an estimated 38 million tribal
peoples in 1970, some 9 million are estimated co have remained animists:"
Traditional religions arc also still widely pracciscd in the archipelago of
u,lands that make up Eastern Malaysia and lndoncsia. Ucrc Islam has been
acrively promoted among the tribal peoples by the State. Many hal'e,
ho\\cver, resb.ted this and others have O'Onvertcd to one of several new
religious movements with strong elements o{ traditional religion. There are
e~timnted to be some 8 million adherents of tribal religions in this nrea.
Such figures do not, however, represent the whole picture. They fail co
account for the large influence of traditional religions on those nominally
converted to one of the major proselytizing religions. As indicated abo\•e.
some 30-40 per cent of black Africans, while nominally adhering to
Cbristinnit)• or Islam, still participate in some of the practices of their
traditional religions. The 11arne is probably true of 1ribal people In Malaysia,
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea .
.\mong people who are nominally ChriRtian in Latin America and the
Caribbean, there are many who also participate In ceremonies and ritual!,
that can be traced back to African religions. When slaves were taken from
,\frica to the America.~, they took their religions with them. During the
pt!riOJ of slavery. African tribal gods were disguised as Catholic saims and
could in this way continue to be worshipped. Riles and ceremonies were
hel<l ln secret. TbCl>e practices continue w the present, allhoui;h then: ls
now a srrorui movement to dissociate them from C.:acholicism.
,\irican gods, beliefs tmd rituals can be oleurly discerned among l11c
practices known as Saoterfa in Cuba, Vodun (Voodoo) In Haiti, Shaugo in
Trinidad. and C:mdombl~, Umhunda or Macumha in Brazil. Although some
90 per oem of llaicians identify themselves os Catholics, about the some
proportion of the population practises \'odun. In Brazil, about 90 per cent
of the population is Roman Cntholic, hut some 15 per cent of the
population arc estlmated w be participate regult1rly ln one of the Afro-
American spiritlst cults and another LS-15 per cenc occasionally. These
.\fro-American religious practices have spread to the United Srntcs.
Ml~ ltEI.IUl!JJ\ IS S<JC:lt.TY

Open 1-"tk r

OJ
Tm. 8~;1•.\l{i\flON o•
To 1hc puhlle nml f'<!Oplc uf Cnndon11>1c
Tl 1c IHb aml Llub:olorb.l, oi Bnhla, 111 JccnrJ.iuc, "Uh the
Jit•~Htun u-.,um1:tl ln the ,,...~11,J WnrlJ Cunfcr.,11n ,,1 <:uhur.,
n11J Clri<hil:< TrnJltwn, rc;,lli,-J ,lurin~ 1111: r--rtu,I of I ith ltl
;?,1rJ of .luh· OI I'll,.\, Pl !Ills ell) mokt puhhc th.ti nlt,r thL,
CA\lJOMllL£ FltO~l
C:onfcrtncc 11 h,,cnm1: dcnr <h,11 nur fo11h 1 rd14l"n .111,I nnt
n s~·ncrt.:tlu :,.eel
CA l llOUCISM w., cannot 1l11nk 1111.J 1,hall nut allu" othct1' tu thtnl,. 11.,
\\ell - Ht ou~d\'t'::, th lolklun,, ~\.-'Cl. n.nlnwun. r-rlmttJ\L:
rcllj\lon, o,- II ha~ hoppcncJ In thl, <.'<lUntn, 1hls 111!), l><:111~
nunckcJ hr opponcnL~ nnJ Jctrnc1or1; ""'' puhh,h,-J om.I.,,
like: 'Candnmhlc is somcthmi\ of 1hc ncnl', .\Jrw,m pra..uccs
prirnitl\"C or syncn:11c'; or h>· ritunl <lrcs~c!< i.1kcn l" olhc,11
contests, litur)!ical ,ymbols token for murt-1 markctin1t 1111J
our ;,.,crcd llousc11, uur temples inclu11L-J, 111J1c111cJ ,n the
column of tolklorte 111 llahio 's ne"spapc-r;;.
Ma bcru, Olorum wa pclu aw,;n omoris:i Illm" no !cnr
God 1, wilh 11ll 'children' nf Onshn)
Sl4"111urcs;
Menlnlnhri do Oantois, lyalonXll of the .u~ llti lw, Mnm1n
lyama"s~
Stello de O;,ho-.si, lynh;rix,i nf the II~ .\ll~ Op,'I .\fonJ~
Tete de Inn,..,,, lyaJurlx6 uf Ihe II~ Ka.so Ok4
Olg;i J., ,\kJ<cto, l)'illorLd of the lie Maro,a LaJ\c
Niclnhu t.Lc, Bogum. lyaJond of th!! Xo~O l~um Mall! li.1-
Rw1do
S.1lrndor, 27 .July l '1&1
(:Ofowspapcr report by Vnndcr Prata In Jounu,I do Ht,111,,.
S.1IYt1<for, Pndav, 29 Julv 19'1;\)

particularly through Cuban refugee~, and there ,uny be tL, many ru, 800,(J()()
practitioners, mostly amon~ African-Americans. (f'or further dernils of
Afro-American rel t~ion in Br:izll, sec pp. 399-403.)

N~:\\' RELIGIOUS 1 IOVEMENTS

Ouc of tbc most markt!d features of the modem world i~ the ,·a.,t
prolifcrotion of new rcliAiou~ mon:mcms T hese movemi:ncs have Arcat
imporUtncc b<.>cllLL~e oi wbm they tell w, nhout rellf\lous chango am! tltl'
development of reliA}on in ~eneral, The nc\\ er major world rell~lon~ ,uch
as Christinnity, l~lam and Buddhism each started as new rcli!!iou~
movt:mcnt:, within other established rcllgiuus ~y~ll.!111!,, It may \\ell be tb,n
we arc \\ltncssin~. amonA the new reliAious movemems of today. the next
major world rclistion ahoul. to emerge, in the !.:tml' w:1>· th:n Christl:rnilv
ctuer!!ed from tht: rcll~lous turmoil oi the Roman Empire.
 Iii • Rl'LIGll l'i IS TIii' \IOIWRX WORl,I) :1(19

In 1.b.: l>cl!mntnll, ull rdl~lun, arc ohscur.:, UJl)', de, lanl cult movcmcnts
C.tullltt ni lite ri~ltt rnomem, Jesus would lt,we been found leadml\ a
lundful of rllgtng fl'lllm,cn, ln ,1 r<1mo1e ~'Omer of the 1111,l(hty Romun
Empire llo" bul\bublc It would have sci:m.:d to Koman lntcllcotuuls that
thi~ obi;cure s~t could poi.ea 1hrc,1t 10 tile ~rea1 pag:m 1cmrk.., In •imilar
fo,hion. Wl~tt,rn lutell.,ctual, ~com cont,:tnpor:1ry l'ults Yet, if mnjor ncm
faiths :m, abomlnl!, they wtll not be found by consulUnl\ tl1e dlrectorv of
rite t-ational C1,uncil of Churchc, Rather they will be found in li,t,, of
o~urll cult n1ovt!ntcnt.s. ''

:-:ew rcll!tious mo\'cments moy be cl:1ssified as follows, although this

d~liication is, howe\'er. malnly applicable t0 the movements In the
\rest·

L ~lon?mt!nts derived from t!Srnblished world relitwns in a straightforward

nmnner E,·en if chcy are noc accepted by the orthodox adherents of chat
rehgion, they are sufficiently similar to be considered part of the broad
tradition of one of the established religions. Examples include Jehovah's
Witnesses. ISKCO!'I (lmemational Society for Krishna Consciousness),
the Friends oi I.he Weslern Buddhist Order, and I.he \'arl0us Sufi groups
th:1t h:we arisen in the West.
2 . ~lo\'emems deri\'ed from l:ll>mhlishe<l world religions, but having such
differencei: ns co rnke chem outside che hroad tradition of rhar religion.
Such heterodox groups include the Children of God ru,d che Unification
Church deri1•ed from 1he Christian tradition.
J . ~I0\'ernencs that are nor derived from one of the established world
reli~ons. These movements are distinctive and different from any of the
traditions of the world religions \\'e may broadly divide chem into two
groups:
a. The 'self rellitions and the religious!)• flavoured psychotherapies.
Many of Lhcse may not consider themselves religious movcmen~ at
all. They are concerned with exploring the self, searching for
signifieru,ce and inner meaning \\irhin the individual.
b The 'New .\gc' movements. These ore aho cng:iged in the :,enrch for
the crue self, hut seek to relate this to some excemaJ uanscendem
reality or to nature and the environment. The sources for che ideas
of these groups include anciem folklore, pagan traditions, alternative
medicine, environmental concerns, and ci1e psychic, astrolo1Ucal and
occult traditions. There mar he elements taken from some of the
established rellgions (for examplt:, a belief in reincarnation) buc
these ore dissociated from their doctrinal and philosophical settin~ in
those religions.

This section examines new religious movements in three areas where they
appear to be L'Speciolly ocL1ve. (.\!any of the oommenu, mode about
510 RF.LIGIOS IN SOG I ETY

mlll\:11111ul!M movcmcnu, in chaplcr 10 mid al:,imt the ch.1ri:,mutic founder:.

of relitic>ns in chapter L2 nrc :1lso of rclm·ancc 10 1he study of nc,, ,..,hst1uu,
movcmcnL~.)

There is n VR$t ond frenetic rcli~iou,, mnrkct pin<.'<! in opcrolion in thl•

\\'c:,u.:m world ,II present. 1'01 since lhe d.cdinhig Y'-'ar.; of the Roman
Empire bas 3 similar profusion of sects and cult.~ cxbtcd Th" mo<lcm
situation begnn in the ln:,t half of the ninctecnlh century" ith the foundmst
of such movements a:, the Lauer-Day Sn1ntS (Mormons), Christmn Sc1cncc
and Spiritualism In the ycnrs followinl! the P:irliamcni of Rcli)ticm~ In
Chica~o in 1893, there arrived scvcml imported reli~lou,, movement:, from
the F:ast 1\mong these was llinduism (brouAht bv \'lvckanand:i), Buddhi,m
(brough1 by Dhnrrnapulu nnd others), und the Baha'i Fnilh (which arnn,d
In the Uniwd Stmes in 1892 but did not make any <.'Onverts until l h9,1-SJ
The number of new religious mow;?ments incrensed drnmatically, howc,•cr,
after World War II. In current tL~age, rhe tcnn 'new religiou:, movements'
refers to those religious movements that have come to the fore :,in<.-c World
\\'nr JI, and particularly since the 1960s."
Church attendance figures for the major Christian churchei. In the
West have shown a marked decline in rhe last hundred years. llowever,
some have argued that this docs not 11cccsst1rily mean a decline In
rcli~oslty. for the number involved in new rcl~ious movements has. at the
same time, increased. One estimate stntes that 5 per cent of the :1dult
population of tl1e lJnJted 8t:.1tc~ and Canada may have parllclpatcd In one
of the nc" religious movements in the three decades after World \\'ar 11 · .\
Gallup poll in 1976 found 12 pe.r cent of American!> in\'olved \\ith :;omc
iorm of new rcll,Uous movement (Transcendenro.1 Medltmion -l per cent,
\'o~a J per cent; charismatic movements 2 per cent; mysticism 2 per cent;
Eastem religions 1 per cem)." Many of tho!.e who arc recorded In ,urvcy~
as having no church affiliation do neverthelesi. believe in the mystical and
supemnturol. Studiei: ht1ve shown that cults proliferate where trnditionnl
church aJ'filialion b weaker."
Some oriental practices such as ·rranscendenrnl ~led1tation (T~l) :ind
yoga found wlt.lespread populoriry in the 1970.s and lCJkO:.. They were
cxten~ivcly advenl:,ed and lhere was ea~y ae~ to short 111troductory
courses. As there was not much doc1rinnl cantenr and little demanded in
t.he way of lifestyle changes those who participated did not ncc.-essnrUy
consider thcmsel\leS to he Joining :1 religious movement.
A way of clns~ifying these new religious movements in the \\'e~t would
be a division into three groups: those that arose In the \Vest as scct:tnan
spliL~ from Christianity, for example the Latter-Day Saints and the Children
of God; those thm arose in the \Vest but are not recognl:wbly Chrisuon, for
e.xamplc Scientology and \'arlous neo-pa~an groups; and those that an:
Eastern imports. such as ISKCOS (lntcrnmional Society for MQhna
 l'I , REI mm:-. 1'1 Tlll' MOOER'I WORJ ll St I

Parli4m<!nt .,f Religion,, 1$93 . Thi$ g;,thcrlng org.1nizcJ by llbcml Chrl,llnns brouA111 •
r.,,Ji.w.Uun of th<! Jcpth o( E11s1"m n:ligluns II> 1h11 West. Such f'lgun:s ,u, Oharmopalo
1BuJJltlsml ,md \'ivckannnd11 (lllnJuism) nuenJl!d ll and 1ourcJ 1hc \\'cs1 afterwnr~.
The Baha'i,, nbo !'e1\nrd It n, lhe first public mention of tltcir religion In the West.

Anl\drlka Oharmapala (1665-1933) was a The Hindu religious leader

::>inhal,;se 8uddlus1 monk. He founded the Narondran:uh Vlvek:tnanda
MahnhoJhi Society in 1891 (186.3-1902) was n leadinit disciple oi
Rnmokrishno and member of Bmhmo
SatnOJ

Consciousness, l111re Krishna Movement). Not all groups will happily fall
into lbis classification, however. The Unit'icatlon Gburcb (Moonies), for
example. is both an Eastern import and ostensibly a Christian secc The
first group are usuully called st.>cts, lhc second and third cullS. Apart from
this teneral differ1.,nce, it is very difficult to define the words 'sect' and 'culc'
because the w::ucrs have been muddied br the careless use of these cerms
in Lhe media, in the course or cult conuoversies. The word 'cull' has
chanted frClm beinit elcher a reliitious tenn meaninit devocion or veneration
or o sociological tcnn (see p. 77) ,md has become o term with ncg:itlvc
 512 Rbl.lGION 11' Mlc:IETY

connotation~ It 1, no" tL,cd In the nwdht to 1111:an

lluk• m1trc than HTI) rcl11tious ,1tro11p nf 1, h1ch tho.:
( ) writer or spcnlu:r disi1pprovc:. ~or thb rcm,1111.
mnny suholnrs h:wc nhnndoncd chc 11,c CII these
1wo tcm1, in fav!lur of 1hc 1cr111 'nc" rcll~wu,
mo1cmcn1'
Mnn)• of the new relt~ious movements can Ile
uhurnctcrized hy u numher of ,ocial foa111rcs Tho.,.-.;c
include a charii.motic lcadcrslup and a follu" 111~
that h; prcdomin:mtly youn,lt. middll. dn" rmd 11 di
educated Thcy often expect a hl~h level of
R~, Sun \f~w1i: Moon .and hi~
wife Mr; lhtk Ju llnn Muon,Jolnl commitment from memhen, nnd sometime,
lca<kr• o/ tb<J llol~· l>plrll invol,·e ne" ,uuVor cxolic lifestyles Some of them
.h,nclo1hm for th~ L'mfic,ulon of orc11LC tithtly knit rci;lucn1i:1I cornmunltic,,, nlmoM
World thristloolty (llS,\U\\'t:), all involve o hi)!h level of social lnrcractlon "1th
nl-.o knnwn as 1hc Uniflcntlon other ~roup members. &:,·cral :,tudics have :,ho" n
Church. Ir wns foundcJ in Seoul.
Kon,n, nn l MHy 1954 that it ill thi~ lmcnse fcclit1J: of comrnunily that
nttr:1cts people to rhe new reli~ious movements
Bcckfor<.I found, for example, that millly Moonic~
had lltcle Idea of the doctrines of the group when they Joined, and found 1t
impossible to accept them fully when they were tau(\ht 1hcm Th1:y
ncver1hclcss were firmly attached to the movcmem by in1ense fcclln¢, or
~roup loyalty :rnd solidarily. ,. L:istly, it may he ,aid char most uf thew
movements have a Mrong American lnOuencc Even tho~e movement,
originating In tJ1c East bavc taken on Amcrlcon-style prcscut:1tlon and
wchniques for their propa~anda and prosely1lzi~ ..,
Some sociologists have favoured using the conccp1 or tension m, a way
of distln~uhbinl\ between lhose new reli.~ious movemcnt:. thal are called
cults and other religious groups. ~cw rclil\ious movcmems are
ebaractcrizt<d ru. nij1:cting Lhc :.ocial e1wironmcnl in "hlch they cx1ot
Conscqul.!ncly. they are in ti suite of tension 1vith their social ennronmcnt '
In recent yea,.., these new rdi~iOlLS movcml·nts h:wc come to puhlic
attention mainly as a result of this tem,ion bctwi.-cn them rutd the re:.t of
society. Thfa has come to a climax over the claims that 1h1w ha,·c wl-.en
advomagc of, deceived and hruinwa.shcd youn~ p<:ople. More recently, the
au:1ck on the new rcli~ious mm·cmcm:- has ;.witched w ·cxpo;,url.!l,' or their
alle.!!ed financial irrcgularitic.s nrud deception$.
,\ major t'nctor ihat is frcqucn1ly mentioned in :mack., on nc\\ rcli~1ou,
11101·cme1111, is the t\l.-cui;atiun that they split uJ) familic5. Kc\\ religiou.,
movement~ ofren regard rhemselvcs M ne\\ l:'lmilics for rheir mcmhcr, (,cc
pp. 155-6): they are therefore ,ccn a, ,pliulng up the tr:idition:11 family .\
second and rdmed accusation :u~ainsl "omc new rcli~1ou, movements Is the
allc)!ntion thot they use coercive or mnnipubtive hch,niouml ccchniqu._..,,
'bm1r1wru.hin1f a.~ it b usuully caHcd. The i.ludy of 'braill\\m,h111~' cmcr~cd
from work done on \\'est cm mil itttry and ci,·llmn personnel imJ)ri~unc<l in
Chin:1 nnd Korcri in the decade niter World War II P~ychiatrht~ :1ml
 JQ RFLIGIOI-I IN TIIE \IOnERN \l'ORl,0 .'IIJ

l)ur,111! tlll' lw,· l'i70s mu/ til<! 19/iOs, mw1y 11t•ws1x,,x:r,; nm

.~wn,•s tlwr occu.xt'd 11<."'W rcliAmus mm.~men,~ like the
/'11i/icmfo11 Clurn.•/1 or me Hore Krish110 M<K'Clm·nt qf
bmmwas/1111,<1. Tlte /01/ou,f,1,<1 ,s /lart •1/ un urricl,· tlmt
cappeare<l 111 rile 8r11a._,l1 llL"W.spo/i<T, rlac Dully Mull rm 29
May 1978 anti /Jccarm: 1/ae obj,:ct of an unb,,C.'CCs~frtl label
8R.\J:S'W,\Slll~G AND
acuo11 by the l'n!floodon Clwrc/1 ·
TIIE NE\\' REuc1ors TIIF.Y TOOK AWAY MY SON AND TIIF:N RAPED IIIS MIND
MO\'EMENTS D:1phnc rold us thnr Onvid had hccn subjected to
sopbistlcmed 11ll11d-oomrol tcctmlquc~ ploncer~-u by the
people who ir,dncd the Kami Ka.ze, anti 11Sed clfccLlvcl)•
during the Korean war and b)• the Chinese communists
during World War ll.
They included lo,·e-bombing, (const.'lnt nfft'<ltion and
touching between grours of people). sleep deprivation,
prowin withdna\\ol. sugar-buuing (increasing tlu, blood-
sugar lewl so that the bnaJn becomes muddled}, repctitlve
lecnm:s, famlllar music wilh 'rc,,,orcd' lyrics, and 0U1cr
seemingly lnnoceni but in•ldious de,~ces.
David hod been terrorized into believing that Moon was
the second coming of Christ .
'The Moonles we lrnd met al the camp were robots, gla'6y
\lyed and mlncllc.s, prngrrunmed as soldiers In lhJs va,,t fuud-
ralsln!l army with no 11:0als or ideals, except as followers of the
half-baked ravings of Moon, who lived in splendour while his
followers lived in rorced penury . we took comfort In
rcnlizing thnt it wus nol our son . . but n diaboliool force thot
had been implanted in his mind . .
'Da,1r.l's mind, Wt! nre convinced, was raper.I ... Few
people be.lleve that mind,control ,s po,,slble. h can happ.;n. It
can happen to almost anybody. David Is a strong, lmelllgcnt,
foroelui personality J>erhaps he was In the mood, over-clred,
,.,ady to flow wHh the lidc , . .'
David, n respected Washington journalist, warned
yesterday tl1nt Moonic:,,; wen, ns much u threat to the world ns
Communibm ... 'The)' use hypnosis and other method, of
mind-control They operate on decepllon through idealism
and their credibility is enormous·, (Ba rker, The Ml.lkil,g qf a
Moonic, pp 121-2)

psychologists found that these people had rhelr thinkinl! and behaviour
chan~ed by the use of certain techniques. These researchers then applied
d1ese findings to the conversion techniques among some new rell1Uous
mo,·emencs and found parallels between the two. ,\monj! the speciflc
·brainwashing' techniques that they considered some new rcli1Uou1,
mo,·ements used were: isolacion, hun!!er and cold, hum!Uation, confession,
manipulation of information nnd of language, and psychological nnd socinl
threats, i.uch ru, wilhdrawal of physical or 1.imollonal needs."
A number of groups ort:mi7ed by parents and others hove been set up
In North .\mcrica and Europe to oppohC these cults. Some of these hove
511 Rt.l.lC,ION IS SOCIETY

resorted to ki<lnuppanil and 'dc-pro~rummh,il. yuunA cult mcmh<.:r, tu

cn:1hil• them tu ·escape' from cults. This renc1ion l>cj\nn LO Allin momcnium
111 the I970i. and wm, Chpcch.tlly stren~thcnt:t.1 folltm l n)? the ma,,
sulcidc/mur<lt:r of tJJ.1 memhcrs of ,Jim Jone.,\ l'eoplt:'s Temple in (,11y111111
111 No\'cmher 1<>7H.
,\ nurnhc, of :,ocioloA1:.ts hnve oppo:.t:d the p,ychlotrl,t1> ant.I
p~ycholoj\j1,ts mentioned :ihove, moinw inin(\ that the c,·idence ,ho", that
this ad,eri.e re:1ction directed nt the cult:, has been mostly n i.purrou,
product of the m:isi. media Tlwy stole that then! h ,cl")' liulc 1:,idence that
nny of these cults have cn(\n(\ccl 10 nny ~i,!nificnnt extent in hrnimrn~hinc, in
1J1e strict scn:,e of that wont. Rcporu. of such aulin!Je:. often ori(\lnntc from
nmi-cult or,!anlzntions and :ire ea(\erly pounced upon by the mns~ mcd1:1
.\uc:ordir1g to these ~ociologists, they are, ho" ever, found to h<.: ln~cl~
baselc:.:. on closer examination. The e\liJence that ha.~ been prci.ented for
brninwashinll is usunlly the resuh or a mlsunder~tanding h)• parent'- of" hnt
is lrnppcnirig to their children." Tbc:.e ~ociologll>ts hove uompurct.l the
attacks on the new rclilalious movement.., to the witch-hunts of fomtcr aJle'>
The 'brainwru,hing' power over OLhers th:it lhesc 'cults' are said to hn,c i\
no more rcaJ than the ma~ical powers llmt those witches \\ere popular!~
supposed to have hnd and the 'de-progrnmminll' methods of the modem
expen are a parallel to the crude and violent mctho<l1. used In former time,
against those su~pecccd of \\itchcrafc." 'The metaphor of hrainwashinll b
best understood as a social weapon which provides a "libertarian~ rationale
for the suppression of unpopulnr social monimcntS and belief syl>lerrn..''
The attack on the new reli~!OLIS movements rs of greal Interest for what
it reveals to us nhout our society. These group~ provlt.lc a \'llriant subculture
often at o<l<ll:> with the norml> and voluei. oi the :.urrounding :,0clety. which
mny develop into mutunl rejection. The new reli4ious movement~ re;ect
i.ocicty's \•nluei. and uorml>, socit:ty rejects tht: new rcllgiou:, movement:,
\\'estem society is hiithly seculnrized; a hil\h level of reh~ou.~ t.'Ommi1ment
therefore. causes tension Many mnjor churchci. h:t\l! hc<.-ome lo,~·kt:y and
liberal In outlook, thus rl!ducin,g their lenslon ,vith soc:ll:ty. The m:\\'
reli~ious movements frequently have n high intensity of reh~ious
commitment crcatln~ tension with the i,eculnr 1,ociety of the \\'eM. ,.
The attack:. made n~ainSt the new reUj\iow, mmements thus re,cal the
secular nature of Western society The representatives of the dominnm
rcli~ous groupi. ha\'c lx.'<.-omc lncrca:.i.ngly reluctant to issue condemnation...,
of these movementi. Neither the mental health profesi.ional~ nor the
profe~sional 'de-programmers' who hm·c gh•cn cvidl.!net! in varlou., anti-cult
law 1,ull!> comment much on the doctrine:. anJ bellcfs of the mon!menl..., ,· It
is as if the intense rcli~ious commitment that these nc\\ rcli(\rous
movements oflen g,mcrate is embarr::lb.Sing for the reM or socil!ty (and c.,·..,n
the traditional, doml!lant reh~ous ~oups) to deaJ with directly.
This mutual rejection between the ne" rcligiou.s movement..., and
soclt:ty b usually morl! intense for those described as cult:. thun it ,,. for
sects This is because sects. htwing arisen thmu~ schism from the
 JU RF.LIOION IN TIIE MODERN WORLD Sl!i

tr.t<lltlonal orthodoxy, rctoln :.ome fe:uures of it. :tllowint them to remain

more ncccptllhlc. The culL~, arising de =o or imported from a forei~n
culrurc, ufum lt:J\ c mony more fc:1tu~s that :ire ot vorlancc witJ1 tJ11:
Jominnm nom1s and ntlucs
Thu:., hoth 1he rise of the new religious mo,•cmencs and the atrncks
made by ~oclct~ on r.Jwm are Important barometcn, of tJ11: rdiitJolll>
~iru.1cion in :i society, The 11rst measures the scren~th :ind standing of the
Jominunt rdi~ious orthodoxy; many new movements arise in the Chri~tinn
\\'est and In Japan where the traditional onhodoxy ~ weak, but few in we
blamic coumries where it is strong, The second is rm indication of the
d1nllcngc Ultlt r.J1e movement presents to the norm~ and nttimdes of the
,ociety (For a further consideration of attacks on new reli!li ous
mo,·ements, see p. 519-20.)

Japlrn
Aicer its defeat in \\'orld War II. Japan enacted a policy
oi religious freedom nnd a complete dissociation of
State and rdil!jon. Thi:. led inillally co a bun.t of
ncth·ity from religious j\roups that had been suppressed
under tlw old order, bul In time ll abo resulted In the
t1owerin~ of many new religious movemencs. Most
Japanese religion is n mixture of Buddhism and
trndltlonuJ Shinto religious practicei.. .Mort! than 80 per
cent of the population have ~uch a reli~oiis mix as
their family religion. Various surveys, however, have
shown that only aboul a r.llird of Japan's population
rel\ard chcmsclvcs as rclfAious in a personal sense. Of
tb~sc. a large proportion are membcrb of new rcllj\lous
movements (sliinko iihukyo in Japanese).
l
The eclccllcism Ut:lt L-; t}'Pioul of Japanese rcll.itious Shoko ,\sahara, leader or
Aum Shinrikyo, 3 ;yncrctic
llie (see pp. -45-6) also extends into the beliefs of manv .lnp:lllc61! ~<..'Cl t hut hllll N!cn
01 the new religious movements. Aum Shinrikyo, the accu..\Ctl of the S...rin ncrvl!
rcligiOu,, group that b accus1:d of ilic Sari.n gas attacks gns aunck 011 the Tokyo
on the Tokyo underground in 1995, for example, Is wtderj\round r'1lh-.,y
hns1:d on worship of the Hindu god Shiva, together with
Japanese and Tibetan Buddbbt beliefs und Christian eschotololly.
Some ~cholars ha,·e noted that involvement in new religious
movements in Japan is usually for very praclloal. worldly reasons People
joln iliese movements because they believe r.ltat this wlll result In betcer
health, finances or marital prospects. Many of the most successful of the
new rellllious movements specillcaJJy promlse mat participation in lhe
mo,·emem ,,;U result in material and other worldly gains A typical new
~roup will have a charismatic, authoritarian lender, a mbturc of bdiefs
drawn from se,·cral sources, but usuall>• imclucling the promise of i,alvallon;
\\ill offer healinr.i ancVor magic; and will have a stron~ community life.
511, R~.1-ICll O!'I II- sor.tt'Tr

Su/1-Solwran ,Vricu
\\'rlUnl! in the prduec ()f the \l',ir/ll C:hr(sciw1 Bn,,·t:lti1>t!d1«. et.hlttr
11,
l)avitl Barrett recorded the surprise of chose workin~ on the l·.nevclor,acdrn
at the number or ,ccth 111 Chrl:.ti11ni1y They c,cmually found thnt thcrc
wen: some 20,000 sects :ind denominations, which was ,omc four time:,
greater th:111 their o rijllnnl es1imaw." Of thi~ :?O,tKlO, :1 very ln~e rror<>nlun
come from ~ub-Sahamn .\frh:a. O\'cr .1,0()() cxlM 111 thl! llt:pubhc of South
\frl cn" :md some 1,500 in ' i~eri::i '' Many of thei,e ~r<>ufl'l would be more
correctly eonhidcn:d ns new rcli,l\.ious mo,·cmcni, mt her than ju,1 Chri<-tlm1
~cc ~. since they m,uully lncorpor:tlc helle(s :and practwe:, trom tru<lltl()rti!I
,\frican reliAion
These religi()tL~ m()vemcnts tlre centred on such tlcllvilics ru, heallnj\
ma~ic. exorcism of e,•U !.pirlt:;, and eradication or w1tchei. and :.orucnm,
They oft'er an ex11lanation for suffering and injustice and a means for
r<.'l.luclng am! co11trolling them. Some have mlllennlallst or mcs~larnc
themes. They often have spirit-mediums as cencral fiAures in the
movcmem. They may be considered to foll into two mnin groups. &,me :ire
a deliberate rejection of the colonlulil.t inhcrirnnce and seek to return 10
authentic African religious experience Others seek to brlnA 1o~ther
c lement~ o( traditional rellg.ion n.nd the reli,iiion of the colonialists (us1UJl!y
Cbristlanlly, but somellmes lhcrl! are clements of Islam and Judaism)

RELIGIOUS FREEDOM

ln considering the question o( religiotL~ freedom, we Dl:I}' make a sl!tht

distinction between religious toleration and religious freedom ReliAioui.
toleration assumes 1hac there is an estnblished S111tc religion and refers to
tolerance being shown coot.her re'ligions It presupposes, however, that the
State shows preference to the Sitate religion. Religious freedom, on the
other hand, refors to a SilUJltion in which people arc free LO folio,, any
religion and the State treats all relli_l!ions equally.
The concept of freedom of religion as a human right Is, to a ltltgc extent.
new to the world. In previous age~. most people assumed that 1he State
(whether secular or religious) had a right 10 impose a pnrticular relijlion on
the populace; almost e,·cryoue agreed that the State had o rl~ht to ~upprci,i-
objeceionable religious movemcncs This ri~ht was based on the notion that
unity or religion was necessary for social cohesion .\rgumencs aj!amst
religious persecution wcrc mostly on the basis that 1,uch persecution Wah
an un-Christlan (or un-lsl::imic, and so on) course of acuon, not thal
freedom of religion w:is a rlgh t
The awareness of che concept or frecdom o( religion began t0 gro,, wllh
the wricinl\s of John Locke (16.32-170.J) and the creation of the l'niwd
St.:ttes of America in J 776 Many of those who hat! founded coloni,;s in
Nonh America had tled there to escape reh$ous pt:rs<.-culion. It Is not
 19 REL IGION IN TIIE MOllERN \\'ORLll :117

-:urprisu~. thererore, chac freedom of reli~on became one of the cornerstones

,.,f the ,\merican Con:.titulion. The first nmendmem of the
Bill of RW1ts ( l 791) i:,uued lhm ·contre~ shall make no lnw rt'SpL>ctlnit an
c:;wMishmcnt of rcli~ion, or pmhibiti~ the free exercise thereof'
Enm in North America, however, the nolion of freedom ()f religion ;,lid
not at first extend 10 Native Americans, nor even completely io Jew:,, :111d
chc concept only made fitful pro,l\ress elsewhere in the next cemury. The
l>ccl;ir11tion of tJ1e Rl~hts of Mnn nru:J of the Citizcu, the manlfcsLo of Lhe
French Revolution, was promulitoted in 1789 and also included o statemem
~uara111cccin!\ freedom of religion 1n Briutin, a series of Acts of Parliamem
durin~ Lhe nlnt!teenth century removed :some of Lhe restrictions placed on
C:uhoUcs, non-conformist Procestnnts. and Jews. The Parliament of
Religion:., held lo Chicago in 189.3, wa:, a major 1,tep forward In chc West in
acknowledgin~ che status of non-Christian religions.
In Lhe aftcrrnuth of \\'orld \\'nr II and thc cstabli!,hment of u1c United
Xations. a Commission on I luman rughcs was set up in 1946. The result of
ii$ deliberations was the Un iversal Declaration of I luman Rights . This was
pa:,~cd in U1e United Nations General ,\!:,sembly on 10 December J948
\\1thout :my dissenting votes. Article l R of this Declarncion stares:

Everyone ha~ lhe rlghl 10 freedom of 1hou#}1. conscience and rell~on; this
right includes freedom 10 change his religion or belief, nnd freedom, either
:ilone or In community wilh others and in publlc or private, to manifest Ills
relil!ioo or belief in tt!:tchin~. pr:iccice, worship and obsen·:mce.

.\Jthougb this Declaration has been a major factor lo the adl'ancem1;:nt of

relil!,1ous freedom, ic hos itS limitations. It merely sec :i standard towards
which ooumrics shouJ<l work; it had no legal force. ~lany countries huvc
found ways of bypassin!i its provisions.
.\ good example of the manner in
which countries find it easy to bypa:,s
their inccma tion:11 obliJ!,ntions can be
foun;J in Iran, n countrv whlch is a
slJ!,nalO ry to the Declaration of lluman
•
Ril!,hts Both under chc Shah's regime
and, much more intcm,ely, under the
prcl>enc Islamic .l!,overnmenc, che
B:1hn'i community in Iran has been
pcr1>t1cuced. Kt:itht!r J!ovenuuent has
rccoJ!nizcd che Baha'i community in
Iran, allhough iL is dw largest non-
~lusllm minority \\'hen challt!n!led PfKSI Cl'llH~ m ll.\lL\ lS IS Ill.\.~ One nf the flrM
0

ahouc this persecution In the 19:iOs,
tl1c Shah 'i, rcglmc dcnicd Lhlll Utt!rc
were any Baha'is in Iran The current
post-revolutional')' constitution of Iran
ncllom, o( 1bu Jtc,·<1lutlo1ury l~lamlc gci,crnnu.,nt
Ill Jran """ to urtlcr the tlcstrucuon :mJ to
er.uilcntt! the ,llc uf thc holiest Baha'i ,hrlnc
in Iran, the House ni 1hu llah In ShlrM
1111! 1u,:1.1tau1' IN SClCILT\'

(artidc 1-l) st:m,s·

The ~l\crum1:nl of the lsl;i_tull· lk•puhlu: of ln111 nmJ all \lu,lhtL' nrc Juty
honucl 10 trcttt non-~l11,hn1' 111 ,tn cth1c:.il fn,hlon nnJ tn Al-..~lrJ'111C~ \\Uh
l,lil,1uc JW.l!Cc mul equity anJ lo rc..,,pcUL their hum,tn nl\hb Th" ptinclpk
11pplics 10 nll whu rdmln lr!lm cn~a,4in.l( In et1t1\11inl'-'V or ,1cti\'ltv .1~1111,1
l<lnm nnd the lbltm11c Republic of lrnn •

llowevcr. the constitulion only rccotnize~ the Zoroastn::tn, Chn~unn nnJ

Jc,, ish communltlc~. :tlthou~h t.hc Bnh:t'I communi1y i~ lnrgcr th:tn ony of
thc:.c The 1:.lamic ,l!overnmcm c,f lr;m, foceJ ,, Ith \\1)rld,,1dc ct111t.lcmnalton
of its pcr~cculions of Bnhn'is, has ndoptcd the 1r1c1ic or clns,~in~ 1he B.,ha i
huth w, :i political rnovcmcut and ctccu~lng B::iha'il> of bein~ ~p,ci. for bract
nnJ 1he United Srnt~. This cnnblcs it to deny that it rs per«ccutin~ B:iha'I,
for religious rc:i~ons "
W'hen they wrote of reli~lous freedom, those who w<?r<? drawm~ up the
Universal neclaracion of llumt1n Rights hccwccn 1946 nnd 194& no douht
hnd in mind evcnll! chat ht1d recently occurred. These included the clashes
belween .Muslims and Hindus In India at lhac rime and the Nazi per«ecucion
of Jews during the recent war. They were probt1hly t1lso concemcd nbom
the denial of religious rights In com:munisl councrle:.. Almost certainly, they
did not have in mind the vast proliferation of new reliAious movements that
was only just beginning ln t.hc post-war world. This has now bcoom'-',
however, a major (..'Oncern in the que11tion of religlo~ freedom.
II wos not felt ncccssrtr)' co include II definition in the Declaration of
what was meant by rellgion. No doubt il was felt t.bat this wm, clear. But the
matter hns become much less clet1T with the prolifer:nion of new reliit1ous
movcmenL\. For wcomple, arc groups that are purposely :.ct up to mock the
concept of religion, such as the American Church of the Sub-Genius. ,l!olnit
co be classed as religions? \Vh:ll ahouc groups th:it dei-cribe them.selves t1~
Satanic? Of more pressing concern arc the activities of some new rcliitlous
movements. Questions have been asked about cbe point at which the
activities of some new religious movements cease to be rcli~ous and
become ovenly financial or political. ln Germany and France. official
moves have been made ~Inst Scientology, based on accusmions of undue
psychological pressure on convcns :ind financial irregularities in ill>
activitie~. Are these merely Aovernme.nc and Judlcial moves r(:l,pondin,I! co
press hysteria or ore there genuine concems? Another quc~tion arises
cont.-cmint the atliwde to be taken t0wc1rdi. rdli,ou~ Aroups that aJ\'OC:lle
llleAal activities. Ra~tafarianism, for example, rc~ards the smol11n~ oi
cannabis as pan of its religious rituals. Mcmbc,-., of the Nmh c ,\mcrican
Church in the United State-' use peyote In their relit1iou~ rituals
 !'I Rt;L1(:l(lN IN l'llF. MOIH:I\N WORI I) 5 JY

R EI.IUION ANI) TIIE M EL>IA

One oi l111.: feature~ of Lhc lasL hundred years hab been the trowlh of 1.hc
new~ and communicalions media. Up to the 1960s, Lhc media kept strictly
to reporting lhc estahlishmcm ,<Jew of religion. They Lherefore hod very
little effect ocher tl111n to spread !nfomrntion more r:ipidly and widely.
'.llcwspapers puhlished the texLS of sermons and radio and television
brondcnst church services, both withoui commentary nnd without any
ath!ll1Jlt to ralse contro,·ersial issues. This pauem was broken In U1e United
SHIU$ in d1e 1960s. As ,\'1th much else tllat concerns modernity, most of
the developments that hnve occurred in the last three decades have begun
111 North America and ~radually spread elsewhere. There Is much that could
he wriucn about what has happened in the Inst four decodes hue I shall
consider here three themes only: the manipulation of public attitudes,
teleningelism. and the imp::ict of the Internet.

The: Manipulaciun of Public /\tLitudes

It is a fact of modem life, especially in the \Vest, that the communications
media (radio, television and newspapers) .are 1be most powerful faccors in
forming rhc public's attitude towords any social phenomenon. Religion is
not immune w this. Over l11e years, ru, mentloncd above, sel'cral rcligtoub
~roups or individuals have fallen victim to the media; examples include
~omc of the new religious movcmcnL~, such as the Unification Church
(Moonies) ond ScicnLOlo/,\Y. There bas also been a series of religious horror
stories: the Reverend Jim Jones and the Jonestown suicide/murders of 913
pt.'Ople in Guyana in November I 978; 82 deailis of the Branch Davidians
under the leadershlp of David Koresh in \\'aco, Texas, itt April 199J; tllc SJ

7!:'-rn'f!:;.'ls-,.~/lfr•~ 11 " " " ' •'" «.-. ---,~-..

..., j4-t'• .!}lft .X. •) • "1:, • AOI ffilll u4._,'-..._._.,..._~
L--.A:I
llt.\\"£.~·s C.,r~. Prior to their group suicide ln 1997, lht: llcavcn·~ Umc <:ult created :in
elaborate ""b site which contains written and audlo-rc<.-ordcd suuemenL~ Witnt:ssln,t to
th~lr f111th and beliek
~zo Rf I 1<,lll:S IS SOl"HTY

denths 111 S" 1tzcrlaml and C.::111:1llu m,1-oclatcd "Ith the Order of the ~ol,,r
Temple under 1he lc:ider.;hir of Luc Jour<'I in Octohcr I9 1>I, the Sann ~,,
ultuck l11 th 1: Tokyo under~round on 20 March I 995, ~irricd out h) thc
,\um Shlnrikyo ~ccr under the leadership o( Shoko ,bahnra, and the J•,
mcml~n, of the I lea, ,m'l, Cute/I li~hcr Source stro11p "hu 1,.-ommitted ,11,c1de
nellr Sn.n IJieto on 26 ~larch 1'>97. It wt1, probuhly the "enMlllt>n:1llreJ
mt!dia rcpor1inA o f the Jone~town episode In 197N thlll 11n,t foc11'i:d a hu!h
level of unfa\'oumble pubhc attention upon the ne,, rcll,stiou~ 1110,·emem~
nnd AaH! lmpclll:. to the 111111-cult mm·cmcm.
Another more ,uhdc way in \\ hich the media inl1uenee cVl.'ntS i~ the
foct t11111 the netath e publicity from thc mcdln can l'let.'Ome pan of the cult\
narratl\'e The cult':, leader w,11 often prt!d1ct in the c11rly Jay~ of tho:
movement that they will experience opposition hcforo the i'inal ,·,ctory
\\11en the 111t.1dln does them i'0<..'1.1<> 11Lumuon on Lllt.1m this be<..'Ome~ o
fulfilment of the prophecy, evidence of the veracity of the leader This c.in
then itsell' contribute LO die rcadinc!>S of the cult membe r,. LO folio\\ the cult
leader down the path to mass suicide or other extreme beha\iour. Tbe
media also love stories of religious group1- nnd individuals who foll from
grace and are rm·ealed to be sinners. Examples of thi~ include the stories
abouc the tele,·angelists thac became public In the earlr 1980s (see below)
and stories of Catholic priests who are shown to be paedophiles or have had
sexual affairs.
One exnmple of rhe media's manipul:nion of puhlic ima~ ch:n 1s of
purtlcular intl!rest ls the de"clopmcmt of a ncgal.ive Image of Lslam in the
Western media. In Europe, and more particularly in North Amcric:1, the
media have built up a picture of ~luslims as fanatics nnd ex1rcmiscs. Thil. is
a picture that the averaAe Muslim finds bewildering and dhtressln~. The
words 'fundamentalist' and ·terrorist' arc frequently almost automatically
linked to the adjective 'Musllm' when ther occur in media report.,. YcL lhere
are just as many Christian fundamentallsts and terrorists as Muslim ones
\\'hen bombs go off in lsroel, the pcrpetmtors, who arc trying 10 remm·c
what they consider to be an alien occupying force, are often eallc...J 'Musbm
terrorists' in the media. Yet when bombs go off in l'Jorthem Ireland for very
bimilar rensom,, the perpetrators are not called Christian terrorists \\'hen
a bomb is set off in Jerusalem. the perpetrators are called 'Muslim sulciJc
bombers', yet when an Israeli fundamentalist maehine-~uns Muslim
worshippers in a mosque, he is not called a 'Jewish tcrrorbt'. One can
speculate on the factors resulrlnA 111 this slnrntion: the at1e-lon1? conn1ct
between the Christian nnd Islamic worlds going bnck to the days o( the
Crusadci., the ~uccess of the pro-h.raell lobby in manlpulaung tht: mt:d!.a in
the l"nited States, the lack of an ob,·iolL~ alternative enemy fo r the West
following the collapse of communbm co ful111 the need for II new mytholo~r
of evil.
The impact of this neg:u:ive media image on ~luslim~ li\ing in the \\'est
has become severe. Followinl! the bomb1n~ of a ~vemment buJIJLnl\ in
Oklahoma Cit~· in 1995, the media. \\ithouc any evidence. immeJi:ncly
 l'I REI.IGION IN TllE MODERN WORLD 521

hlamed ~lu:.lim terrnrisu, As a result or the:.e report.,,, many ~lu,llm

families li,inl\ ln all parts of the tTnitcd States suffered abuse, ni.sauhs, nnd
J.imat!tl to l11eir propcny. Even aJter It\\ as di:.covered Lhttt the blame lay
"11h .\mcrican right·" in!\ terrorists, the media felt no ohh~acion co offer
,111,· <:xprc:-sion or rcgr.it or upology for whm had happened.

Tdecu111tdism
ln 1<>611, the Fe<lernl Communic:itions Commission, the government organ
that controls hroadcm,ting In tho United Smee:., issued a mling Lhat meant
th:ll local radio and tele\'lslon station owncn, could charge for relif!lious
hroadcasting and still have it count towards their public interest
l>ro:1dcnstlng commitmenL~. The mainstream churches, who had until then
dominated the media, refused to purchase broadcastln~ time. The
C\':mgelical mm·ements enrhusiasticolly picked up the \'acant slors. From
that timc onwardi., It has been evangelbr:. who have
dominated relil\ious bro::tdcascing in che United St.ates
During the l 970s and 1980s, the evangelical broadcast
or~ani1aclons moved row::1rds settln~ up their own necworks,
uslng satellite and cable delivery systems. Between 1970 nnd
19~0. annual expenditure on rcllwous telc1·ision programml1Jg
ro~e from i,;50 million to l-l600 million " By the 1980s,
the telenlfltcllsts were building churches and unh·ers:llics
and fundin_~ such projects ru, theme parks \\itb Lhe money
hemg raised by their hroadcnsts In addition , several
tdevongclists bef!lan to move into Lhe political arena. Pot Jerrv f'alwell, founder
Robertson's Christian Coalition and Jerry f'alweU's Moral o( the Moral ~faJOri~·.
~lajoriry supported both of Ronald Reagan's presidential o ril!ht•wing funda-
campaign~ and were credlted " ·Ith ddiverlng a l:Lrge block of mcntnli>t Chris!lan
polnJonl group.
1·01es co him
During the l 980s, howe,·er, serious problems had begun to
appear for the televan~eli~ts. With the number of tclevanl!elists
increasing, the amount of airtime CJ1ch tcll!1·:mgelisc was buying
lncrca~lnf!\, and the arrival of three ?-!-hour religious
broadcasting networks, the market reached s11rurn1ion. ~lost of
the tele,·angcli~ts expcricncl!d a decline in the number of
, it:1vers wacchln~ each programme durln~ the 1QSOs. This
hctan to cause financial problems Then, on top ot' this, came
the scandals of l 987-8. 1\vo of the most prominent
telcvan~clists, ,limmy SwaMart and Jim Bakker, were in
inl'olvL-<l in financial and sexual scandals which t:1rnished the
Pat Rt>bcnson.
im3gc of televan~ellsts In ,l\eneral. Audicnet.: fl~urc~ for rcli,'lioui, founder 01 Chri,dnn
broadcm,cinit fell by almost .JO per ccm. Sc\·er:il rele\·3n~elists Co<tlltion. 11 nl!ht·
I\Crc forc1.-d oi( the air due to (inancial problems. Despite these \\ ln,a 1uml1111c11-
problem,, thou#J. rcliwou~ hroa<lcn~tln.~ is sull srron,'l in the tali,,t Chru.t:ian
United States and hns considerable financi11l backinJt" rc,IIIJ"'1) ~Vll[l.
 5?2 kt:l, IClll l'I 11' Sll(' lf T\'

~,uropc has lngj\e<l bchmd Nonh America tn 1hc

Jc\°Clopme11l of rcliAim" broadcasting, p:irlly l,-,cn11,,·
of much /.treater J,tmcmmcnl control und partly h1..-cau~c
of tlift'ercnt ,1uuiem.-c mi;1c~ In Ocwher I '>'15 the hr,1
continent•\\ idc Christion tdcvi~ion sllltwn l>c)!1111
bro:idca~i., of two hour,, o J:w hi l:.11411,h hy s:udhtc. It
has not w-own :i.-, much :1s 1t\ founder, ha<l hnl",!d anJ
hy January 11)97, It wo, only pro\'i<lin,4 ~0111<: 1hr<..'C
.llmmy Sw,tAAArt h<,ur!, of pro.ttrunu11111~ each c.lJ1~· \ k1 satcllhc :md c.1hlc
1d,·rnn~c1t,1 The rocential power of rch~iolL~ hroadcaMin,4 111
other i.etlin~!> i:. :ibo \'Cry great, :ll> can be :-.ccn from the
cnom1ou" impact that t!1c tclevhion scriolizauon of the
llindu epics, the Rc,mc,yanc, and the Maluihltr,raw . hnJ
when they were broadcru.t on Ind Ian television. There was a
\1s,hle decrease In activity on the Mreets of India\ clt1e., at
the times of the broadcasts

The Impact of the J,uernet

J,m ll.~kker, Some have said that the future may wdl come lO rt1,l\ard the
rdcvangcHst lntemei as a phenomenon that hos as itreot an effect on
b.uruanlty as ilie ln\'cnlion of ilic printing prci.s. \\'bile only
a \'ery small number can have the pril'ile~e of expres~inil Lhcm~eh e!, In
print or on rndio or television, the Internet ii,, in theory ut least, open 10 all
The World Wide Web is tJ1e ultimate tool o( imll\•idualL~m. Anyone can, for
a comparatively small price, publish thei r ideas and opinions for anyone
else to see. In practice, of course, it is still a small proportion of the world
that hru, access to the Internet and only those with knowledge of Enitllsh
can ~ain the full benefits of access.. It is, however, becomin~ crul)' i!lobal in
the rnnge of its spread and, with increasing use in school&, the young, ac
least, are completely ac home In chi~ ne" world.
The impact of the Tncemec is, as yet, difficult co g11u,l!e. Mo~c of the
larger reJigiolL, groups have o presence and such things O.\i cybcr-churchcs,
on-line confessions and Internet missionary work have existed for several
year-.. Thus, religious information is increasingly available co oil Possihlv
more significant, h<)Wtver, are the Ub<!OCl groups nod mailing h:,tS where an
open conversation hecween mam· individuals occun..
Some consider that Internet relil!ion ~implr ma~ifies the enrcmi~m of
,\merlcan culture. CerLainly, se,·eral bizarre rcligio~ actl\'ltiei. hm .i
appeared. Others have commented chat che whole poim of reluUon is ch.i
~ocinl lmcraction involn.-d when groups of hclle\•ers ~ct wgcthcr nnd th:it
lhc lnten1et can never replace this What the lmcrnet ha., crc-jceJ,
however, Is the opp0rrunicy for different oommunities to emcr~c that cut
ncrosi. religious und gl.'Qgmphical houndnrlcs People can go to the local
meetings of their reh#ous group, and some can then ito home nnd cxchanj!e
ideas and opinions w1th ocher fellow-believen, livin~ chous:inds of miles
 J<) R~.. LtOtoS IN Tm: MOllERN \\'Olll,I) 523

Ttw WorlJ \\1dc Wch (WW\\1 I, • ,wv fluid plff~"' "here •hci Ol""n,
clo~ ond m(wc \Cf1• quickl)1 The followinJl i"i un ocu.,mpt to pick out
\\hat nre likely co b\: the m~l suable and htfornn,u,•eo Sil\.~ on rcl'lti<m
F,u inJ1\'idu;d rcliil,101u1, I luan.' Crk"'C.I to sol~, ~ill""' lhru nr~ usdul
luum,hln,t pnJ, for (u11hcr, more •r,:ulfic, i11fum1'Ulon ahuu1 1hn1
n:f111J41n
Rl-:L1Glll1' SIH..:, :Sl"M'CT 1,11ur.s .,sn Sf.AROI MAt:IIIS£S
If you Are lookmg for parclculnr lnform30on on the World Wide Web.
ol's nu, \\'o RU> lhcre ,re two ,ll(feren1 nppro:.ches thni you may take \'ou may use •
st>arch matthlnc to look for a \\Ord or n comhination of word. h will
Wm& \VEU rctum to you all oi the WW\\' addresses 1h111 comnln that word This
approach works well if the subject thttt you wish 10 look up i• mther
o!,scun, (say, for example, 'l\"al)ar.iunn') and, therefore. there arc nm
likely m be many •ites If )'OU feed 111 common words (say, for example,
' Jcsu,; C:hrut'I, y<1u nr.., likely l<l get tlmusonr.k,, if not hundred• of
lhou,nnr.t. nf addrcssc• rotumo.'<I Scnreh Engines Include .
bttp:/J\\"'·".(l)wvista dJitllal.com/
http://~uldo.lnfosook.oonl/
If you are lnoklnl\ for n <.'Ommcm suhj.,ct, you would fore netter looking
In a $ubject lndc• These are hlcmrchicall)• arrangcJ lnd.,.ci, which
havl! the sd\•onua~ thtu, in some cas~, the sitCJ hnvl.l been sclcctc-d a.nd
you ore more llkcl)· to come ncross useful sites The rcll4ion S<.-ctlon9 of
two useful subject lndcxC1! ar"'
httpJlwww.yahoo.oomf.:,oclct)'_ond_Culmre/Reli,l\lon/
htrp://gala,cy.elnet.net/j!aL'IX)'/Communlty/Rel1A1on html

,\Jib~ fOR R.I.UUIOU6 Sm,J>

llah•'I Fa.1th hup://wwv.·.oohnLo,gt
http//lA'\\'W,bcca.orp/
l!uJdhlsm http://www.dharmam:t.of9/
hup://www.c,iolek.com/WWWVl,.Bu<ldhism.html
ChrisUanlty bup://www.c,hnstianlty.ne!/
h11pJ/www.c-rosssenrch.l'<1m/
ConfuC1anism b ttpJ/www.t<lbanv nell-!!eenm,Jkon,l!futV
Hinduism httpJ/wv,,'W,hlndunct.or~
hup:/A,,wv,,·.indialime.mrnlreli,lllonlhindulsm.htm
hnp://msoncws myncc.ncllt.aunchJ)Qdllnde:t html
httpJA>.inq.. buffalo edu/sa/mu.slim/isl/l,1 html
Judoism http://jcwlshoe1 oel/
htrl)://shama.sh .o~trbljudaism.html
Sikhl•m hnpJ/www.sikhs .orl!frnp,cs htm
Taoi~m http://Www.C'la., un edu/userslj\rhm<ny/m!)i<m/
ZorOMtriani•m ht{1>://www :roron<trion orr,J
htrp-Jf,...,ww.mroa.<1ttri11nJsm.comf
Aced~mic http//sunfly.11b.unJ,freibun!,de/n,IWoolrelblloo html
hnp://www oor-•ite.orA/"'2ripwA.\R/puhliclr~source htm
hnp:/Mww ocndl!ffllclnfo nct/reU4inde,x html
h11p://\,....-..<u.11C.ukl-mlkd/durh~h"m html
hnpl/www ,.,t'g)II ca/rclll)lon/oubjec1 h1n1
Scripture~ httpl/Www unifltatlon n•l/w,;/
\\'"omen hup/lwww fe:min.,,eon\Of~mina!So<,ic,ynndCulcurc/R;,ligJo,'1/
5? I kLLIGIOI\ IJ\i .SC )Cl t;. T\

u1v,u

OJ
I\ lER.'\~, T HJ-UCI0:-1
u...,11ct 1, the •Y.tCIII of hllcniet ,lu..,u,,1011 j\roup, ,.. ,.,,
pvstlnA: r,~nt to the ~r,,up Ufllk.'iir-- 10 u,cn rk.'.~m \\ho h,1).
~ub,crih<.-J l<l th,11 )!roup &,mo: j\mups nr,: m,,.lcrat~,t ,., "to
kt...-cfl chc d1!'-lcn.,,1nn on the 1orm. nnd tu t.: \1,;.hh.k nhu""JH.·
1

lon411n1tc 1\m nll service prm1dcrs prO\irlc Rl'C.'CI\ rn r,,nct

.,ml somo: ,c,-1cc pro,•IJcrs runrlct tht number ol ITM·n<:t
/,\n>11ps to \\h1ch th<:y µruvlJc lll'C"-" Th,s I• not ,urpn.int ,,.
l)J:,Cl ·Sl-ilOI\ nkOlll'S
tho: number or l'scnu Qroup, run, lO 10:n, of th,1us11nd,
\\'1th111 lfsenet, the soc.rclll\ion h,cmrchv is motlcrnr«l
1111d has the mo<t serious dJ'icu.ssron There o.rc ,omc ftlt~-.:n
j\roup, includ111J!·
,oorchAJon.bahal
'<lC rcllj\1un chrlstlan
S<'>C rch,!ion hlndu
soc rcliAJt>n.l~l•m
soc rcllP,i,in cristcr11
Much more 11narchic nre the unmoderu1cd air rcli~nn (11\er
110 ~roupi.) unJ wlk .rcllgion (four Arftups) hlemrc:hic, Th.re
nre nlso country,b<1scd Jisou,1,lun ~roUJll< ,uch •••
uk.reltgJon.nusc. l'onlclpatlon un ,um-, t:,,:n"L ~roup~ "411 I><.
tlt1lned via o mnllu>I! lb t (M!c oolo" I for Lho,,c who<>c oc-c,,,
provider, do not ~ve acce~s tO U>Cne1 .
MAJ LlNll Ll~'l:;
Those wanu n~ a more serious or morti aoodemlc discu,slon
on a rell,1\10111 or on o rchl!mus subject can try ma,linl\ list~
These operate in much tbc •nme "11Y a< l 'scnet The nnt~·

away. They can experience, at first hand, the ideas of fellow-helic\'ers who
come from ve ry differen t cultura l b.iclq\rounds Others can go home and
interchange ideas with those of a different religion Ideas that previou~l)
would hove taken month~ or yean. lO mo,·c from onc part of thl.! world to
another now move in days.
At thl.! heginning of this chapter, I dc~cribcd the impact tJuu mulri-cultuml,
multi~thnic societit:S can have on the re~ous world- The effect of the Lnu:met
is greatly to mn!\Jlify rhm phenomenon :md speed its effect.~ Now. e,·en a
p<!l'!,()11 who lives on, let ll'> ~:ty, a remote Scouisb island \\herc thc entir1.:
population Is of one relil\ion and one ell:uticlty can havt.? rej\ular 'con\'ersacion~
with others of difforenc rcli~ou~ opin ion, and from difforcm cultun:s.

R ELIGION .\8 J\.1EANl1'G

The cnp:icity to symbolize di~tin~uhhcs human bclnits from :111in1:1ls

SymholizaUon involvci. the attm.:hmcnt of nrbltrary mcrmmii;. anJ ,nlu<.!;. to
thin~s; culture is the rc:-ult of n society's a_iirccd ;.ymbolirn1ions Thb
rc~ult;, in a pattern of wuy;. of heh,I\ 1111\. <-'Onccpt1-. ottiLudci.. art fumi,, and
 1•1: RELIOION IN 1'1111 MODERN WOIU, D 5?5

J,(fur.ncc ts thlll the mntcrfal come, l<I ,·ou n~ .,.,nni ls There I~ one L'\!lllml computer for
.,.,ch ll•L Lh.u l, prugtt1nu11L-<l to tum \lnch lnoomlnl! IIIL'SM!iic Into c-mulb Lo nll
,ut,.,,.·rthcc.l mcmb<:n- of 1ho 11,L The follm,ing ll:.t •• lnld out with the llM namti :md th<,
,,Jdrc,,, to wluch II request for ,ub,criptiou ,boulJ oo sl.'nt For addresses bci,nnln~
'hst,ef\.., the tc,t, which should he in the bod)' (not the suhj!!Ct line) o( the meSSll#,?,
,hf'IIIJ he ',uhscrihc list-nnmc your-flna-nnmc your-lnst-nmnc' Fnr cxnmplc. i( John
Sn111h wonts to $Uh<crlhc 10 lslom-L, he should ,end 1111 1.1mnil to
lM.:,cnlB'ulkr,·m loul,c,•illc.cdu \\ltl, the •uhjecc llne blunk nnd the messnl!e 'subscribe
blom-1 John Smlth' 111 tbc bod~· u( the 1ex1. For t1dtlrei»cs l>C/llnnhtl! 'majc,rc.lomo' or
'major', tb~ te>.t In the body o( the ntChS<'!\C shoul<.I be 'subscribe ll~t-nnmc your-e-mall-
aJtlre;.s'

M.10 N, LIST ,\DJ>RY.SSES

SubJccl Nome ,\ddrcss

.kadcrruc Luits
Relu),ious studles ANDERE-L listscrv@ucsbvm.ucsb.edu
Rclu\ious Mudie$ AAR-L mojordo,no@shemesh .scholar.emorv.edu
New rclil\ious NURELrL listscrvCltlistscrv ucal~ ry ca
mO\'CDlCllls
B)• Rc/1giQ11
&ha·t Faith BAU.Al-ST major@Johnoo.cc.kli.us
Buc.ldhlsm 8UDDIIA-L lisiserv<i!-ulkyvm.loulsevllle.edu
Hinduism l-llNDU-D lisiscno@llstscrv.nodak.edu
l•lam ISIJ\.\1-L listsen-@i,lky,m.louise\illeedu
Judai5TT1 H-JUDAIC li.stscrv@'h•nct.m,u cdu
Taoism TAOISM- Mnjordomo@coomb~.nnu,..-du nu
STUDIES-L

so on which is called culture and is handed down from one generation to the
next as tradition. Pan of culcure is co do with accommodation to the physical
world. This, which mainly invoh·es the group's accumulated knowledge of the
various ways of :,urviving (obwini-Og food and bhelter and avoiding d:u1gers) in
the environment oi che group, is the science and technology of that culture.
The other part involves interpretation of :md oocommodntion to the menrol or
supernacuml world This involves the relig,ious aspect of the culrure. Religion
is found to some degree in every culture that has been studied. Along with
marriage, the family, incest prohibitions and some fonn of social organization,
It is one of lhe few cultural universals among human beings.
The relationship between these two aspects of culture, the scientific
and the rcUgious (the natural and the supra-natural) is a fascinating object
oi snidy. Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) found that the Tohriand
Islandcri,, when dealing with those aspcctJS of their surround.ings Ol'Cr which
t.hey had control, buch as farming and lagoon fishing, used their
accumulnted knowledge (their qcience and cechnology) \\1hen it came to
more h~nrdous acdvitlcs, howc\'er, such as open-sea fishi.1-ig or war, or in
the face of disease and death, magic and religious actions predominated. '
f'or the last two centuries, many lrnve though1 that as science and
technology expanded humanlcy's knowledge and control Onff nature,
52<, IU.LllolOK l'I SClClf.TY

rdij\lon's role tn soc1el:,- would :-hrlnk und evcmually vunlsh In the laM le"
decades. huwevcr, ,tnning wid1 qu:mtum theory nnd lll:li,,cnherlf,
uneert:ilnt>' pr111e1ple 111 phy.s1e, nm.I eJ1te11dinA more recently to Mudic~ o(
chno.,, it hab become incrcasin_l\ly clear that unccrtalnry i, hullt 1nm th"
Mmcwrc or the universe itbelf. Thus tht: concept of th1: ~-..,:.mo, os a ~1:1111
machine that humanity wlll enrnlunlly under,umd and ma.-icr 1, an
illusion h now seems clear that we will never g:1111 complete know lcdllc
even of tho physical world. As for the world of human hchn,iour nnd
~ocicty, tht: prm,pects of dlscovcrh~ law:, th:11 wlll cnnhlc u, lO predict ond
determine these (a quest thnt some lhough1 possihlc a few dcendcs n~)
h,1,c now receded Indefinitely. It would therefore appear L.11at ther;; i, a
permanent role for reliAion ut the human world. But it must, or cour~c he
o religion that is in nccordonce with the mo<lern world'$ view of the cosmo,
:is eJ1tun<lcd hy modem science and tcchnolo~y.
We may characterize modem ily as a pro,j\ressive destruclion of the
traditional view of the universe. \Vcstern thinking has 11,rndually moved
away from 1.hc clas:.ical medJev:il pcrcepuon of Lhe cosmo:. :I.', a Lhree-
layered em.icy (he:l\'en ohove, earth. hell below) popu.la1ed hy an~els. splnts
ond demons. Science had dcsi.royed lhot cosmolo~· long bdor-, M1tdli1.-,
viewi. of 1hc earl.11 showed its falsity to all. ~Jany would not mourn the loi,i,
of wh:it now seems a childish view Along with 1he loss of the amhor11y of
the religlorn, co1,mology, however. there has abo occurred the losi. of :111
authorirative meaning structure for human life as a whole. To many.
humanity appears lost in 11 wilderness of meaninglessness
Human beings seem to need a map by which 10 oricm their lives, a
framework ,,ii.bin which to make sense of what happens to 1hem; a psycho-
culturnl world of meaning that they can share ,vith fellow human beings
Humanity also appenri. to have a need to affirm rnis common set of
dominant values hy sh:ired action - ritual, ceremony, shared symhols, art
and music. llaving lo:.t faith in religion, humanity ho:, tried bC\'cr:tl
alternath·e ideologies durio~ L.11e i.ast hundred years: nadonah:.m. racism
and communism l lowcver, these h~ve also foiled to gi,·e human beinits a
::,atlsfocto~· and lasting an~wer Lo Ulcir basic human nced~ The failure of
rnese ideologies appears 10 presal!e a rcvh•al in the forwnes of religion lf
this is so, whot form of religion will satisfy humanitr's basic need for
mea11ln~ and significance and al the same time I><: conj\rllous ,,,th the
viewpoint of modernicy-:.

FURTIIER REAOJNG

For a re,iew of the contemporary religious world. sec \\'halinA, Reli,iiion in

1bduy's World See also Bruce, Rdigum in 1he Moclcrn \lorld (deals with
the West only) anu the relevant. section:, in Hinnells .• \ 1/cmtlbook ,ifL1v11w
Reli~ions. On secularization. sec Wilson, Rd~ron m a Secular Society On
human right!,, sec Rouner, Human Rig/res wul tile \\or/d's Rcligi<Jn1' nnd
 J'I ltl,;1, IGTON IN fllK MOUbRN WORI.U 527

Tah11h, Freet/om of R<'i1}1ion or Belief On modern lllnduism, sec Ashhy,

.\lvclcn1 1r,•rads i11 l/i111/11ism, ,md Richn rd8, A Sourc:e-Book of Mm/en,
/1111cl1mm1 Mo~, hooks on modern Islam focus, undersuindahl)•, on the
pohtic,11 11sJ)Ccts; M .'C ~lunsun , Islam cmd R1.-o<J/11ti<Jn nnd Mortimer, Fnirlt
u11tl Pc>wer• •\ j\ood bihlJoj\rophy on mo<lcnn lslHm Ctu1 be found in BurreU,
Islamic f\mdame,rrc,lism . On rhe contemporary Hnha 'i F11ith, see Smith
:u1d :\fomcn, 'The Bahn'i Faith 1957- 1988' and P. Smith, Tire Babi a,~/
&J1<1'i Rdiition. The best statistical survey on the current state of tl1c
\\Orld's religions is Barrett. IVo,-/d Chriscim1 Encyclopedia. On the new
rd~lous mo,·cmem;,, see Barker, New Rcli~ious MO'(.'<?mc,us, [IJld Beckford,
Culc Concroversics For new reli~ious movemems in Japon, Korea , che
C:idhbean, Nigeria, India, Sri Lanka and Lhe Islamic world , see Beckford,
.\l= Rc/i,l!ious Movements. The latter work, however, makes liLtle
distinction between new, independent movements and movements of
re,·itollzutlon within the traditional orthodoxies. For a review of new
reliit1ous movements in primal societies, see Harold Turner's anicle on this
in lllnnells, .\ lfandbook of Diving Rclijlioras, pp. 439- 54.
 CONCLlTSIO.

of rclil1,iou:, phenormma irorn

:,. TIii~ 111101\. WI IL\\~, UIOKt ll Ar .\ Sl'MHt K
scnmil dlftcrcnr perspectives As was pointed out In the Introduction. thi,
11ppro11ch has the odvonrnge th:tt nnc cmn use whiche\'er tht.:orctical
frame\\'ork 1,ccnis to shed most lie,hc on Oil) pnrucular u:.p,;ct of rdi~on
The disadvon111.(!c is thac the work ns a whole lnck:. nny ovcr:ill unifyine,
theoretical basis and 1s 1hus less coherent. The method is olso susceptible
10 the charge of l,einl\ arbitrary. The melhodolol!,lcal problem arise.., from
the foct that tho field of relil1,iou.s studies has no overall thcoreticol bash, on
which all ore ogrced. Chaptcr J exn.minecl a number of thcorctk.-al h~(;..,
that have heen proposed for the study of religion None of them ha:. j\aint:t.1
ovcnvhelming support as (lit overriding theory to cover the whole field oi
religion. although c::icb bas cntbus~tlc :.upporter:, who have ~ue,ge:,te<l a.,
much.
The fact thnt (tn o,·crriding theory hos not emer~cd ~hould neither
surprise nor dismay us, however. Indeed, we should be ~ad that this h the
cose, fo r an auempt to impose such a thl!<>ry m this sta~c would lenJ to che
premoture pigcoo-holin~ of rellig1ous phenomena. E\en in a field ot'
experimental science such as p,lrt1ele physics, there Is as yt•t no unified
field theory. Physicists use the framework of relmivity theory for lookinl!, :it
some problems and t.hc framework of quanrum theory for nthen, Phy:-1c1:,1s
ha\'c the hcncfit of heing able to perform experimentS in order 10 prove or
refute their theories. JJ this situation has arisen ln a field like physi~. there
is not much likelihood of the emer~cnce in the near future c,f o ·umfie<l Acid
theory· in rcli,l1,ious 1otudic.,, where minimal cxperimen111tion is possible and
the data arl! often unreliable or Irretrievably lost. \\'Ith no unilied iielJ
theory to fall back on, wc arc lefr with :i wide ,·arietv o( d1ftcrcnt theoretical
fmmeworks from which to \'it:1\ reh,e.iou., phenomena.
Oesplte the fragment.ation c.•all!;ed by d1ese dl(fcrent approaches. the
hopl! is that the reader \\;II h:rvc gt1ined ~omc clcj\ree of under,wndin~ of
rcli,ltlou~ phenomena from readmit this book Different thcoreucal
approaehe, each ,heel n different li~ht on am· particular a~pect 01 rdi~ion
It Is hnpcd that the o,crnll diect b co incrcasc undcrs1uncl111~ Li;t U'- tak~
rcli~iou:. :.ymbob o:, an example. ~lo~t of humanlly\ reli,tiow. life c.'On.,1sc~
of ')'l11bolism in some form. whether o~ l::inj!u:11te, riru::i l or an. In 1.:hnpu,r
1 I, we ~n\\ how Eliade consiclcrccl euch relig1Qui. symbol co be a local and
 CONCLUSION s-i'>

, 1x-c111c manifc,1.acion of certain archeryp(II fonuations,

Irruptions of 1he sncrcd world into 1he profane; we i.aw
th.H tl1ere is :i dialccth!al ruo, tHncnL between the
univcrs:LI archetype nntl the local symbol. In chapter J
(pp. bJ-1 ), ,,c s:iw tl1at Jung placed these archetype,,
deep witl1in tlte human unconscious. The symbol ls that
"hich awoken$ the archetype within us In functionalist
tbco~· (pp. SJ-5), o i.ymbol could net as a focal point for
the unifvinJ! effects of religion in society. The culture of
a society represents the communally agreed way in
"hich tl1e members or th:it society iuterpret their
symbols; of course, the mosc important or chese symbol
strucrurui. is the langungc of :i culture (sec pp. l 01-4,
ll-1. -159). An important part or the symbol structure of
most culn1res has been relij\ious symbolism In
structurnllsc theory (pp. 56-8). a symbol can be fitted Tm; BAIM'I PAJrn: 8'1ha'i
inco an overall structure that reveals. the lbouj\ht S)'mbol placed in the
structures of the mind. ln chapter 7 (pp. J7Q...J), we sow centre o( the dome o( the
that religious symbols could exert their effecl by Bahu·; llouse of Worship
unlocking certain religious experiences which, because nt Tiapapato, near Apia,
Wet.tern Samoa
they occurred et heightened levels of emotion, arc
blocked at the el'eryday level of accivicy; tlie symbol acts
as a key co take the indjvidual back co the state in which he or sl1e first
encountered the experience. V,e have also noted e connict between IJherals
and Fundamencallscs over whelher the scripture should be understood
symbolically or literally (see chapter 14). In this way, a composite picture
can be built up of the way thut the religious symbol acts in religious life.
None of the above viewpoints on the religious symbol represents a
complete scaremem of its origins and functioning; even all o( d1ese different
, lewpolnis together probably do 1101. represent tlte whole truth. But at least
me composite picture is more likely 10 be closer to the whole truth than
any individual part or it. The composite picture is also more likely to be
useful, in that any further examples of a religious l>ymbol In action can be
compared to these differem view·poincs; this would be more Likely co suggest
furilier id<!as for investigation thon the use of just one tJ11?oretic:d
framework.
Similarly, when we are trying to understand some new religious
phenomenon, we can use ilie broad range of lnterprctativc frameworks to
see if any of !.hem throw light on the phenomenon. Ii we are ex:mtining
religious fundamcncalism or the feminist approach to religion, for example,
we can see tht.: tendency in these movements to build an Ideal mytl1ologicnl
picrure of the distant past, a Garden of Eden rype of mythology. They nlso
create a new religious mrth of dcalh and resurrection, in which the evils of
lhe present situation are compared to ilie benefits that will come when all
adopt the heliefs that they are advocating (see pp. 285-6). We can also
perhaps see an clement of cschatological or messianic c,"Cpccrntion i11 their

J
~.l<I TIit, l'lltNllMENON OF JU,Ll(.ION

promise of n C.okh:n ,\ge in the future, \\hlch will rcpliente the Colden,\~~-
of the post (~c pp. 251-J). Throuj\h under.stondinll the~e undcrlv,nll
motlr:-. we en n al,o understand the aurnc1ion th:11 thc:-e mm•emcnL'l ha\"e.

FHO~I I :--IDJ\'IDl'J\L EXPERll~NC E TO SocJ,\L EXPRf.SSION

If thii, hook h:is nny unifyin!l theme, ii iii that n~ we Jlo from the rcliglcms
exr>cnem:c of the indiVidual lo the :.ocial cxpre~sion.s oi reli~ion \\ c.:
or
encounter incrensln!l diversity. The reli!lious experience the lndlvldunl n,
dcscrihcd in many rcllgiom; truditions from nround the \\orld I~ broadly
similar. I shoU nut here repcm tround th:it has nlrcndy been c..-o,·ercd 111
chnpter 4. Suffice it to soy thot the reli,iiioui, experience of the individual Is
nu c.~pcricncc of an Lntimatc Reality that is LrnnscendcnL to (and often nL~o
Immanent ln) the world. The -expcricnel! can be described In mnn}
different woy.s, but its essential fcnlures include n feeling chat the
experl<rnce hus saved or liberated the lndividunl and, u~ually, an clement
that transforms the life of the individual.
Once we go from the experience itself to aucmpts to describe it and '-Ct
tl In eome.xt. then we L'Ome to a much greater de,-\ree of divl!rslry. \\'(;
hum11n bcinii~ create the intelleelUal and cultural worlds that we call
reality. Each of lhcs"' cultural worldb sees renlity ln a dificn:nt way. IL 11, not
surprising therefore to find that descriptions of the religjous experience arc
dlffercm in each oi thcJ>c worlld.s. An Indian yogi may deJ>cril:>c his
experience of samadhi (deep meditation ) a~ being that of insi~ht Imo the
cssentinl unity of :ill things with Bmhmon . .\ devout South ,\merioan
Catholic may describe the experience that she has in front o{ an altar ni,
beinA that of a vision of the \'ir~in Mary
Bcc:1use of the import:mce of the religious experience, human hcin~s
cr1.:ate c.-onceptual world!. that allow for and give a prominent place to It. ln
primal societies, this invoh•es creating a conceptual world that is populated
by many spirits and mny be ruled over by god:.. These entities nrc then
made rcsponslble for the relll(ious experience. In l(enernl. there are two
ver:;Jons of reality, rwo ways of interpreting religious experience, that ha~c
achieved a wide geographical ~prcad and have acquJred ,1 wide base oi
supp0rt amonll the peoples of the world. One version, which I have called
theism, see~ religious experience as given to human beings from tm 'other
power', which is usually ca.lied Goo. Tbc other \'erslon I:, non-thclMlc and
1s usunlly represented as a form of monism. This secs relit,ious experience
as heing :..omcthing l11111 emerges from within the indiviJuaJ onct: he or !>he
is prepared for IL Thib preparation is usually a comhinauon of kno\\ led~
and some experiential component broughc about through tcchnic111cs such
Ob medltalio11 or ritua l ehanll~ (l>Ce chapter 8).
By itself, the reli,-\ious experience has no effects in society unlc.~~
individuals express it in some ,vay. Rcli!iious experience hai; i,.ceml!d ,o
joyful, liberatin~ and imp0rUtnt to human bcin~s thm they han~ sou.11,ht to
 CONCLUSION SJJ

CHRL<rLu-m·: Madonna and child fresco from tltc museum of St Stephanos monastery, a
ilncenth~nl\lry monastery (no" occupied by nuns) perched on top of a mount~in in
~ntml Greece

sec up fonnal ways of :ichie,'ing it. From the fairly simple conceptu:il
dichotomy between theism and monism, cmu1pter S truced the emergence of
ei$t pathways or recreating the religious experience. Since the religious
experience is liberating, I called these the pathways to liberation or salvation.
As we now go on to consider the variou:. social expressions of religion,
the pathways to liberation or salvation, we find an even greater degree o(
,·ariety. The social expressions of religion vury not just between the
different religions of the world, bur between the sects of each religion. Not
only is there variation between the different sects, hut even 1hc same sect
will show marked variation over lhe course of itS historical development.
The Religious Society of F'rlends (Qu:ikers), for example, began as a
introverted, pielist group but later developed marked extrovert, social
reformist tendencies. It also went through a brief evangelic:il phase In
Britain in the early nineteench cencury uoder Joseph Curney. Even within
tlte srune religious ~oup ar a given Lime we find ,•ariaUons or social
expression, The Church of England in the second half of the cwenciech
century is divided Into "high' church and "low' church, fundamentnlists and
liberals, supponers or the ordination of women and oppommts, ;.uppOrten,
of moves cowards ecumenicism and opponencs, and so on. It includes
indi\'iduals whose practices other members of the Church of England may
condemn as superstitious or pagan. It allows such diversities of social life
as hierarchical, disciplined monastic orders and egalitari:in, undisciplined
house churches.
5,12 • TIii l'lltNO\tF:NOI\ <H IH.l, lli lO:-.

A rcll,itious pcr~on mlAhl lnlc rprcl these tacts lO mean th:11 the th reel
reliitiou, cxrcnencc is the ccntrnl phenomenon of rcli~ion. the ' 1ruth' ot
rdii!ion .\i, such, ii b n unifyinA irhenonll'non ,\., one then look, 10,1anl,-
1he s11eial cxprcs:-lons of rcllAion, one b cnlCrinJt :111 nn,u 11 here there 1,
more and more humnn im•olvement in 1he nffoin, of reli,ll.ion Thi<, then
reprc.,enti. the pure 'truth' of reli,lion mixed 11t1h fallibk human i11fluc11cc,
- hence the dll'ersiry 1)( reh,ll.i<>ui. :.oelnl phcncu11cnn
One theme that seems lO rL·1mr ircqucnlly when we 1..'0n,idcr rcli,iiou,
phcnomcna Is Lhnt of d1<Scc.t1L and .n.,cent or dcoth aml resurrection \\'c h,l\'c
seen th::u this is the haslc pattern of all crcmivc phenomena (~cc pp. 99, 45'>):
there il> t1rst o dcMruution or dccny of the old nnd Lhen the nrbinl\ of the ne1~
\\'c can sec this os an undcrlyin!l pattern in I.he sto#~ of rch)!,ou., exp1::rle11cc
(pp 99-100); ii is also the way thm rcliAiou:- lnn~ua~ has It.~ effect (sec pp
101-J) und Lhut religious myth, ritual nnd srmbob fum:doo (i,cc pp. 270-5.
27~6); it Is implicil in the prophecy of ca~strophc followo:d hy m,.$,ianic
hope that oppciirs in mosl rcli~on (see chapter 10), rmd H is, of C.'Oursc,
responsible for Lhe power o( religioui; art (sec pp. 459-62).

TH E II IST ORY OF A RELIGI ON

\\'c may ols.o survey the historical development of rcli~ioru.. In the e.irly
doys of the evolution of :.1 reli~ion, the founder of the reli~lon ;ind hi, eorly

l~t.w fridny l'rni·~rs In the mosque, especlally In Sunni 1,lam, act a,, R MJ<.!l~I fo,:,L, for
the ~'<>mmunll)'. All Musllm men try to :,11u,nJ lier<: people nre ,creamlnl! lntn the U.,nu:
of 1he ltock In ,l<irusalem for f"riday Pm ycr.
 CONCLLISIOS 5,13

thsciples cscn a strong ix:rsonol inOucnce over l he course of the relitlo11 -

"h:11 \\'ebcr cnlled charis-mntic authority (sec p. 3 17). The religious impulse
:tl lhh e:irly i.u~c I,, i.uoog Bdicvcn, have a JJrcet ;u,d powerful cxix:ricnee
of It, feeling that they arc III direct contact with the Real. There is no need
10 instilution:1ILtc the pathwnys 10 salvation, as nt this stage in itS
Je\elopment, religion Is a fairly simple personal phenomenon. It may have
itrent social impact 1.1s, for example, the ffrst generations or Muslims did as
they swept out of the Arabian pcmlnsula and defealcd the armies of the
estaoli:.hed powers of that lime, but the religion ii.self Is still a fairly
uncomplicaied matter. For those early Muslims, religion was a simple and
direct rel:uion1>hip between 1.hemselves and God, a relalionship guided by
the PTophet Muhammad. Any social problems or disputes were solved in a
dirccl manner by reference to the Prophet himself or his rcprcsCnlative.
As l"ellgion develops and grows more distant from its ofWns, a number
of changes occur (see pp. 320--4 for more details). Tl1e informal, direct
relationships of the enrly years become increasingly formal and distant.
The religious authorities in lacer years claim less
authority and status than the propheL-founder or his
earliest disciples, and yet they maintain a structure
that implies a much .grcntcr distance between
theiru.dv.:s and ordinary belit:vers than w:ru, tht: norm
•
in the early period \\'e may say that the treater the
charismatic authority, thil lllss need there i~ for
formal authority structures. As charlsmaLic authority
declines with the passage of time from the early years
of the religion. so the fom111I author!()• structures
become more pronounced and hme rarchical.
Similarly, as the religion de\'elops, the religious
professionals lnc reaslnt)y intrude Imo the orlj!lnal,
,imple direct relationship between the believer and
God.
The result of the insdcullonalization of reli~ion
and the fom1alization of the p:ithways to salvation is
the trndual weakeninj\ oi the religious experience fli1'1>t1s~1: ,\ Jl<hter of Lord
Itself The focus oi rcl~iou~ liie ~hifr.'\ from the Shlvn his wife Pan·nu ond
spiritual ond moral impcrnlivei. of the founder's their ,on, 1h1: dcph:uu-hcad~d
t.:achin~ co the institutional forms of tbc rclil\ion, god Lancsha. Abo in thi>
whether 1hi:; bc the Chrisrian Church, the Islamic p1c:rurt! a rt! numt:rou.~ symbob
of Hinduism. Om
Shari'a or tl1e BuddhiM monastery (:,cc Pl>, J2J-J 1 ). (1hc holy sound, nn the rniscd
The shift Is from anracdon to the inner :..pirlcual and ril!ht pnlm of Shiva). swa,tikn
inu.dlucmal life to an :ntachmenc to the outward (on 1he raf~c.l nj,\hl palm of
fonn~ uf L11t, reli~on. Gnnci.h"}· Lrid<!nl (ril!ht hand
\'arious other chan)tes occur ns :i rcli~l on a~es oi Shh·oJ. conch-,hcll (left
hand of Shh·a). lotus (ldr hond
\\'e h(ln.? ob:,crvcd a tendency for religious orl forms 01 Pan·ou), Knodi the while
lo de\'dop from :-lmple. d1recL, aniconlc bull. Md thc liuj,\am (tnp ril\htl
representations to the iconic reprcsenl:lrions of the
5.H TII~- 1'11 f',IOMl'SO N 0 1' Rl'I IGICIN

b/iak11 cypc 01 rehitio11~ devotion, :ind flnallv lO fully rerre,eni.1t1onal :irt,

c hoructcri'.1ic of 1he period 1'11er1 the rchgio11s lmpulw i, wc:ike,1 Cscc
uhupu.:r lb) There l!t ubo u w11dct1c) for the 111:,tlwlional ofi1e1;JI rclu~1un to
he rcplnc(.-<l 111 people's c~rimntion by popular rcl1~iou, forms (,cc chapu,r
1S) One m;pcc1 (>f the decline in the intl11cnce nnd effee1ln,ncs~ nf rdi,tiun
1s II pereep1ion tlmt Llw r<ili~ion 110 lon~er mldrcsse" the uoncems of the
11te There is II lack of contrncncc hctwcen the vicwpom1 of the n:h,tjon nnd
the worldvicw of the majority {bce chapter l 9). 0111: rc,,ult of the pcn:cptlon
of 1hl:! cfoc llnc ol rell~lon Cttn he a rt?vnlt og:1111st 1hc llhcr(lllsm uf the m:11un.•
religion und :1 desire for n fundamcnrnlis1 return lO 1hc roots of the reli~on
(M.'e chnp1cr 14 ).
Once people consider n rcli~ion to be in decline. once the moral~ of
~ucicty arc perceived to be degenerating, howcvl;lr, there ls :i pow1.:rful
impul~e for ehauj!e. rcfom1 or renewal. This Is the situ:111011 m which the
myth oi the solar hero (see pp. 270- S) comei- into play, messianic
expccwlion& ore ro.iM:d (sec chapter 10) und new rcUg.iolll, mo\'cm11nu.
come into being (sec pp. SOS-16) \Ve can see, in such -iituatlons, 1he milieu
from which a new rdigion 11mcrg,cs The founders or the great world
reUg,ions, Jigures buch as the Buddha, Jesus and Muhammad, would c:ich in
his own time have been seen :is a minor religious reformer of the existin~
religious tradition, the leader of a 'new religious movement'. It is only with
the benefit of llindsJglu that we c.:an see the distinctl\'e foatures or the.~e
religions that caused them to emerge from the general mass of minor
religious movemenL'l and develop into major religious traditions.
This process of reli~jous cha~e or conversion can Itself he analysed
from scvcrnl viewpoints. It can be seen from the hlstoric::il perspective as
the proeeS!t that must inevitably occur if a religion goes Into decline and
ceases to he socially or imellecrually relevant (see pp. 476-89). New
religious forms emerge ond many convert to them. The some procebs cni1
be analysed at the le1·el of intellectual and conceptual chanites as the
perception chat one worldvicw hos become inadequate and the emergence
of an alternative (see pp. 151-3). The pi.yol1<.1loiµcal aspccls of rdi~ou~
change and conversion may also he examined (!-ee pp 99-H>O, 151-61 ).

J\.NALYSIS AND CATEGORIZATION

As was pointc.-d out in the Introduction, one must be careful not to bt.'Comc
lOO carried away wllh academic analy&e1, of the phenomenon of relld!oo or
to propose analyses that (Ire coo facile and underestimate the power and
significance of Lhc phenomt?non. I:n examining relill,ious experience. wc urc
lookinit at a facet of the believer'" life that means a ~real deal m her or h,m.
Ultimately, nil thal we can do is to describe the shadow cast on the can!
wall by the experience, not the experience itSetf. Peter l3crJlcr used the
analogy of the reports of travellers co a famway country.
 CONCLllSION 535

Taki! the ca,c of trmt!ller:, rcumung home with ae<.'Ounts of a forawor

rountry ,\,;csumc that it cnn he dcmonstrnccd beyond a shadow of n doubt
tltot c,crr one uf these 1wcoun1s is dc1cnnl11cd by thll ltlstorlcal,
SOC'lOet.'Onomlc, nnd psychological cbarnctcrlstlos of the traveller in
4uc,uon. Thus Ollll tra,·cllcr secs the faraway country us a rcnecllon of the
past hbtory of bis own country, another d"scrlbes it us o soluUou 10 the
social problems from which he suffered In his own life, another perceives
11 us the embodiment of his own wo,.,,.t fcors or best hope,,. And so on onJ
<o ionh. As the crltlcol observer analyzes all these reporu, It Is perfectly
plou,ibl~ ior him 10 perceive the forawoy country ns n gllll)mic proj<'Ction
of the lrtl,cllcrs' own cow11ry. lndecd, the t.Jro,•ellcrs' accounts will be ,•cry
u.seful in itaining a herter understanding or lhelr home country. None of
this, howc1·cr, invalidates the propo•ition that the farnwny country docs
indeed exist and that something 3bout It can be gleaned from the
tr:11ellers' occounts. The final point is not thnt Mnrco Polo wns an ltnlinn -
and, who knows. an ltnllan with all sons of CUL.~, resentments and with an
unrc~'Oh·cd Oedipus complex - but thar he ~i,ritcd China.'

This, then, is the crux ot' the matter. It Is all too easy for an academic co
consider that by categorizing and thus pigeon-holing a phenomenon, he or
:,,he hos understood It. And yet reality i:,, much more subtle I.hon any
academic theories and concepts. Almost every phenomenon, however
neatly it falls imo a category or classificntion, is also in t-ome way an
excepclon co the rule. Natural phenomena, and especially human activities,
are infinitely variable. l,ike fingerprints, no rwo are exactly the same.
Therefore, every time that we categorize and cl:issify, we are to some extent
forcing the factS to flt our categories; we are imposing an interpretation on
the dam; we are to some extenc distorting the cruth.
On the other band, It would not be possible to write a book such as this
\\lthout catej!orizing and classifying data. The balance therefore lies in
finding thm degree of categorization that is useful in increasing
understanding without unduly di!.tOrtin~ the facts. The criterion for success
lies in the extenc to which the analyses help on understanding of the
phenomena and the extent to wWeh they arc :tble to accommodate new
data.

TIIE D EFINITION OF RELIGION

This Conclusion is a suitable place from which to look bnck nt an issue that
wru. rolscd in the Introduction, the question of a dcfJnlUon of religion.
L'nfonunately, our survey has brought us no closer to an authoritative
d1dinHion. A definition of religion gh•cn in the Introduction, such ns 'that
human accl,•ity that acknowledges the existence of anothtir realJty that is
transcendent to or immanent within this physical worldly realit)' nnd seeks
to describe and put human beings into a correct rcl:uionshlp with that
 5,l(t TIii' 1'111•:'I/OMESON !H' ltl I trnoN

reulhy' 11111)' srlll be oonsidcrcd ,·ulfd \\'c c1111 110\\ ,cc.

however. thac il cffccllvllly hides a, much u, h rc,c.1b
The 11,·cro~c educated pcr,,on from a \\'c~tcrn
hnck~rountl m1t)' rend ~uch a dcflnlllon, think thnt ,he
or he knows whm it me11n-. ,inc.I nl,!rcc with it But we
hnvc seen bo" each phrase o( th!, definition t,
i.w,ce1nihlc w mnny alu:mouvc '-'Onccprunli1auon~
The phrosc 'ruwthcr reality', for example, doc, not
jlll,t mean Gc:><l, ns the \\'~tcm rcllllcr mi~ll think h
includes non-theisuo (monlstlc) conocptuoliwuons 01
,\hsolmc Rcnllty that urc in man y way~ 1hc cxocl
opposite of the We1,u:rn '-'Oncept of God (1,ee chaptcn. 2
:111d ,Ii). \Vh:11 , moreover, arc the implicot1ons of the
feminist crluque of the patriorclml worldvicw for the
pl1rase 'another reality' (see chapter l 7 ),;, b It even
Jt U.\JS\I. Tbc <lmfor is o possible, in the light of post-modernist decon,1niction.
muslcttl i1bt.rwncnt to lhink of 'ru10Lhcr reality' ru. being a mcunln~ul
tr.1d11Jo11.1Uy mac.lt: c,f nun', phrase? What, as another example, iii 'thm human
h<lm It Is tradlllonally activity" rha1 puts ' human beings Into a correct
<011nded ot the Je\\iSh
festwal• of Ro.sh llo.sham1h relaLlonshlp' 111th the other rcolity? Some t!1~ht
(1',~w \'enr) nnd \'c,m Kipur differem pathways have been described, each claimin4,
within particular context:., to be the correct human
acthicy for this purpose (see chapter 5) .\ \\\'.stem
render may well hiwc in mind, when rending such a phrase, the ordinn~·
activities of religious groups such as prayer and ritual; she or he will abo
think of the extraortUnary actions of some ~aims and holy fi~ures who ha,e
consented to mortyrdom or other sacrifice rather than jeop11rdizc their
'rclalionshlp' with the other reality (see pp. 2JO-l ). WW such a reader abo
think of popular religious practices that seek 10 put the participant 'Into a
correct relationship' with a divinity in order to obtain nn immedime hen,dit
Mich ru, material gaJn or heallh (see chapter 15 r( Man~· wHJ think oi such
practices as being more ma,iic than religion, hut they ne,·ertheless fulfil the
definition given ohove.
Some may consider that a definition of religion 1hat encompasses hoth
theistic and non-theistic religions would need ro start with the human
being. All religions agree that th.ere is o probh:m with hum an cxhtcncc, o
naw in human nature. Some may see lhis tlaw as hein~ caused by ori~inal
sin (Christianity), by rebellion a~ainst God {Islam), by sccin~ rcalit ,_.
incorrccllr (Ad,•alw Vcdaalist [ll.ndulsm) or by the human tcnd(!JlC) to
focus on and desire trnnslem thinl\S (8uddhbm). Thb naw in human nature
is considered co be something lhnt ordinary human cffon cannot m·crcomc
Only the pall,way wu~bl by each rcllgion 1~ able to ol'ercomc It :,al\'ut1ot1
throu4h belief in Christ (Christianity), followin~ lhe Shari'a (the Holy L.'lw
in l!,lam), seeing thing,.~ as they really are (,\d,·oita \'cditntist flindui~m). or
followtnit the Dhamma and the Noble Eil,!htfold Pach {Buddhism). A rcU~on
could thus he defined as that which corrects or compensates for 1hc h11,1c
 CONCLllSTON 537

11:1" in human nature. llowe,•er, e,·en a ddlnlllon or reli~ion built up from

~uch 11 hasis would have difficulties. ilarxism simil:irly secs a Oaw in human
na tuto: or, more spL>elfically in human society, and showi, the pathw:iy for
ovcrcomin~ it i\ similar face befolls the funcciooal definitions of reUgion
tlu11 ,,cl\' cicc<l In the Introduction. A eriti<1uc of these may he found in
droprer J .
lntlmatcly, we must ren,m to 1he foct thnr is insisted upon in so many
sources the rcU~ious experience cannot be adequately defir1cd or
communicated. It can only be experienced and grasped in a ilirect way. All
attempts to describe and amllyse it ar(!, to ,1 large cxteJII, missing the mar k.
b..-cause they are relying on the descrlptlions of those who have had the
experience, data which are themseh·es faulty. As the greal Muslim mystic
and philosopher al-Ghazali said, the mystical and religious experience arc:

something thol cannot be apprehended by study, but only by immedilite

e:1:perl~oc.-e (dlittt.."'</ - IJu,rally ·ui~clng'), by ecsta~)' and by a moral change.
Whni n difference there is hctv,ecn knowing the definition of health nnd
Mtlicty, toi,<cther with their causes and 1>resupposltions, nnd being healthy
and satisfied! What a difference between belnA acquainted with the
definition of drunkenness . nnd being dnmk' Indeed the drunken mnn
wbUe tn lhnt condition docs uot know the dc!'llllUou of drunkenness nor
the scientific account of it; he hns not the ,·ery least solemlfio knowledl\C
of It The sober mn11, on thi: other bnnd, knows the dofinlllon of
Jruuk,mness and lls basis, yet he is not drunk In the very least.'

8t'M 1UMI \\'at .\run. a fbai BuddbiM 10:mpl.: in &mitkok, at ,uo,,.,t.

 GLOSSARY
heen denned here as tht:y ore used
.\J\'Y OF TIIE n:RMS Tlli\T FOLLOW llAvt;
in 1his book in n?lution to 1J1c study of religion, they may haven 110111cwh11t
d1ffcrcnl mc«ni~ i11 other Ocldb, such as philosophy.
/\luimun (,\ngna-Muinu) Spirit of cJnrknc._,
and cvll lo Zoron•tnllnlsm anu the chief
opponent of .\burn-~latd.i.
Ahuni-M,u:da The Supreme Deity In
1.oronstrianbm, Tl?prt1-M!ntin,l 4ood.n~s
•nd 1,#,t,
/\mitubhs, or /\mid:I RuddhA The BudJhn
of Infinite Llgln, one of the five Dbyani
or medlwtlon lluddbas. ond ruler o,·er
the \\'est"m or Sukha,·01, l'amdlse. The
Pure Lend, or Amida, Mahayana
Buddhisr sects opened up a new
p<llhwoy of sahmion in Buddhism In
which c•lfl1~ up<>n ,\mlu1hh11'• name, ur
,·tsuulizlng bis punu!Jsc, en11blc, the
l>efl~,·cr to be born lntc> hi~ paradll!c, t<>
hl'lll' rhe Dharma taullbt there and to
achieve Nirvana in one round of life
ln<tcftd of numcrou• rebirth,
'"'""" (Poll, s~n•knt rmu.tmtm, lltcrnll)'
' nu StJLd', or no sclr) The llud,lhl."
doctnnc Lhot tbcrc is no p.,rmrutcm.
l!tttrnal, Independent soul, i,cl( or
suh,;t ance that is Inherent within the
lnd,vidual In M•hoyano doctrin<! this 1,
rnkcn further nnd come,, w mcnn that
lhcre ls oo pe:m1ant:nl ~uhst.nnc.t: In
anythln~ that ntfbC• (..:c 'S/nm)'atu')
cm ic«1 (Pall: San.kriL tmll~Y.1) The
lluddbist doctnne lh•• aU thm11$ are
rmnsitory and unpcnnanent
onimi<m The ooncept that behind all
tbin,'t\. 1nc1udint inRnimaLc nutur:tl
phc.nomcnll {such ns trc..::-.. rlv(:rq o.nd
moontflln>J, there .. o &pint, usuall~
endowed \\ith hwnan quohtlcs (th...'Ory
propounded b) t; U Tylor, 11171)
apool)1>dc A \"le\\ <,( tl1c end or 1h, world
,,. a c.,rn;mlc b:mlc rc,,ultlng 111 the
triumph tJ( ,ioot.l over c,·U
apcmopoic Ha,·lnit th~ powcr 10 a,cn "'ii
Qr bad luck.
arl'l1e[)l>C The ori,tllnnl mythical nr
splntunl modd un which cx.,.tunt thm~
ore pnlterncd ln Jung. 1L•~ An
unconscious co11oep1 c,r mode o(
thoul\ht passed down as lhe common
lnheritnncc or the human race (the
collective unconscious).
a.scieticism The view tha.1 spirimn1 progn: ,
C<>mes from c'Ontrnlllng rbc l>ooy and
cwcruomJng physlcru tlcslrcs In order to
•chlcv-" thlli, lt ts u.suttll)• ne<.'CS:lat') u,
t-ot one.elf off from conuict with th<:
world (sec ·ereminsm' )
,\.,h'ari The ,chool o( sch<>ln<llo the<>I~
1h01 h,u. pn,dominat~-<l in Sllnnl M,tm
DllmcJ nftur ,\bu al-Jim.an nl-,uh'art
(c.b7~.')JS). It tal<cs ,1 mu,.kr•tc
tletenninls't pos,uon ( = 'Jetcnnlnll,m')
.\1n1ru1 In llindulsm, Atmon 1, the
immortal Miul 1>r M!il "h,ch o,x,sL•
beyond the mortnl l>otl)·; tn ,\,h-aita
Veiliulln. it Is ul.,..olu1e QQn~lou~m.,,.,
und is 1cJcntlf,cJ "''h Bmhmun
/\bs,1lute lt.!aht) In Buddl1brn. rhc
existence ol an Atman is denn,d '"'"
'anaua')
a,11tar (orrn,wuro , liternll, 'dc,sccn1') In
llindub:m, the d.c~cot of th"" Jninc
con~ulvusnc:~ to canh 1n the fom1 of a
humnn bc,Jf\l\ Th-, ft\ uu,r b thudorc
not• result o( k.lm,a (q.\ .) but ratbd
the result <Mon ae< of ,.,11 prompted t,,,

t.bc hcncih,·nl.."C
.. ot the dchy. The wwatur
"')me~ :U • time \l( los~ of rtithU•.'()USnC~
•nJ 1, .,t,1., 10 c.1113e new potl1w3ys uf
ncll4Jnu;. n,lhu:ou;,1css (Dhnm,a),
a.faptc,I t<> the ne<.-tls of 1hc 1Jme, 10
ori<c Kri,hna ond Rmnn ore ronslder<-d
"'"'"" or the go.I Yi>hnu
""id.)'O ln lllmlui.m and Buddhism,
uauM.-d b) tl1c lnobUlt)' 10
1b,1>l'llCL,..,
tll>tln~uish the absolute iram tl1e
contill/!<!nc, an lnabU11r to see thinit.• as
the\' rully 11re. This ignorance tS caused
1,,, m<a.m (q, ) In Buddhism, ncidyo is
lll.nol'lln"'1 of the ~our Noble Tn11h1,
b«qn ('C<)nclnunn<!e") lslnmio Su(l rnnn
J.-notlng the conuuunnoc of tltc splrauml
Journey of the LndMdual in God after
ba\lru! the reached the srn~ offcma
(q v)
borin (lltcmlly anterior') Tenn in lslnmi.c
m) •Llchn1 und m)'>lll:31 phllo.oophy
lk!1lt1U1,g the ltuu.•r csowrl~ truth of a
concept or rt1Wll n athecr I.hon l~ outer
cxo1ertc meanlng or di,scrlpc loo (.cah!r).
blaaltri ('love') The Hindu p.1lhwoy to
"11\'atlon, 111\'oMnit lo,-c and devotion ro
and \\Or>hip or n pnnioufnr dcit)'
bodhiaatt,:,c, (l11emlly, 'enliglnenmem
kUlj\') A b.:lu_l\ who I,, on the way ro
o:nllghtmment. In Mru,ayano Buddhism,
one "'ho achieves perfecuon and
col~1enment nnd ,s ohlc to proceed to
Xio·an:i, hue puts off this sc<IA,e in order
to help other beln~ to prOj\r'e•• nnd
auhlwe enllghtenment
Bruh11U111 1\hsulutc Reality, ob.solute
consc:lousncss, the )!round of betng. In
Ad,-.uta Vedanm, the supreme non-dual
reality w·hich Is idenrienl 10 lhe Atman
lq v) This renn &hould n0t be confused
"·ich Brahma, the crcntur god uf
IUnJuwn, nor with Brahmln (sec below)
Broluuln (~lcltcd form o( the mon,
C<)CCl.'Cl ' Brahman') The prle~tly C3Sl'-' of
llinduasm
cluarismo ,\s u.<cd h)• \\'et>er, thi~ term
cknoui, thou p<>\\*er of otrraa(ion \\ hloh
the kaJ.,r or. (religious) mo"""'""' ha.s
by ,·lrtuc of being con,ldercd to po1»C•,
t:.xtnwrdinary p,.,wc:r'b or ~ts.
1.'hlwism &-.: 'ntlllennlalbm ·.
church A Chd,tlM wmmunlry and also the
buildm!l ln whk>b it wo,...hlps
Soc1ol~c:ill}', me tenn is used 10
CLOSSARY 5,W
Jc....crlhc any rdl!lluu• _l\roup thut I• lnJ'!lc,
W<!ll-<:>t,,blihhcJ In ,oul<:t). I• lnclu•lvc In
its membership. nml ooaaslders ltbClf the
soll.' lci,1lma1c I\Wlrdfan of the truth. It
u,unll)' mnkes low dcm,1nd.s or Its
mcmber,1 (cf 1dcnon1Jnul1011• ,uuJ ·~...-ct')
,•Ml ...,li,liuu ,\ 00lll'Cllon of hdic(s nnd
acllun• through which lntllvlJ,ml•
lntcrnut "Ith dcuacnLB of clVil wclcty ln
WO.)'• that resemble relll)aous oonce11ts
30d 8CIIVlliCS,
conuncntru)' A book that explnans rand
inlcrpnits n (SCrlptuml) text
cottmt>)!OO~ A doctlint.'! or du.-ory regarding
how the unlvenie oame Into hdn,t
eosm.oJogy A branch of metnpbyslcs
conce.med with the rutLur~ and structure
or the llOiVCTI!e.
cuh Refers to a reliitious group whose
hclicfs or actions nre su((icJcntly 01
vnrinnoo wilh lho.sc of,,,., pnl\'ulling
norms of JOCJCL)' tluu thl.$ c.1uM!S a
detri.-e o( tension to art!><!.
denomimation An autonomous ~oup .,;ih1n
a n,li~lon Sociolo!Jically, lhc ccnn Is used
ro describe• religious group thnt is well-
esu,iblishcd, lnclush·c in IL• membcnih,r
hut rC<.--O/lflll<!b cbut olhcr religious troups
may all>O po,,S<lS., the truth (cl 'cburcb'
and 'S<.-ct'I
detenninlsm In philosophy. this tenn
denotes che idcn ,hat onuses nre
lnevitnbly followed hy their
(.'Onscqucnocs. In rdl_g.ion, this tcm1
refcnir to Lhe d<>etrhw that 0\'etytlllng
thm comes 10 pnss Is predeumnhK-d e.nd
thnt buntan free wlll ls tltere!on,
delusory.
Oh•rnin ~c p. 202.
Dhnm111kny11 'the l)hnrmn body of the
Buddhn In Mnhnynnu Buddhism: rhc
highest nnd true noture o( the Buddhn,
1dcntlcal with Absolute k.cttllty
dlaikr (llu,r:ill) ' remcmbranoo') lo :,ufl
ls"1m, 3 ccnn denotlnJ! the rh)'chmlc
or
rcpcririvc chnnrlrul of a nomc Cod or
.,r• •hart forrnuln.
duali,-na In p.hllosoph)-, thill term ,csamlly
rden to the <>on<'cpc that mind (or SOt~)
•11d mnttcr, (orm l\H) Jh,tin<.'t reaUtlc._ ln
thb book the ,~rm has al,u 11..'CD u:-ed to
denou., the concep1 that the dMne
reality and the humnn re3llty 3re two
distinct realities (the lltndu concept of
SHI Tllf. rm:NO~tF.'IClN OF RF.11<:ION
dt"t'iJW ). Thh 1:- In ~c,aur11<1L to tht:
oonwpt o( .,,,~~"'" ( nvn-d<Ull"l') or
mom"rn fht:h! L.\ :alM> the l:.thlc..'ftJ
"""'"'"t t•I J11;1ll,m 1h11t ro•I" th•t ~,,...i
nnd -.:,·ii .,;tl..-1 .,'J t¥1oO ,U,tlnct r~Aht1c~ in
1hc "~,r1J (M:-1: ',.\h11r11 ..Mn1d;t' anti
,\hrunan'l
emic Th~ description c,( :1 r<:li/llvu.., trndllion
us111t the unden,tandinAS ru,d Cflte,!orle~
tho, the ~dhcrcncs thom~d,-.:• """ and
r,'C<'l<\111,c (cf ·e1,c'J
'-'rupirio.,m An approach to ph1lu6oph) thnt
rtldl111s1ru 1h01 \1ulu ltnowlcd/!e can only
he gained from empirical '"'ldcnC<l (1.c,
basl'C.I on ot,.;;cn'lltion or <.•uncrete
expt>rienoo)
epi<temology The 1heorencnl aspects M
kn<>-.IL'<l!lC the ddinhlon of knn" lcJgo,
,1,., '"""''" of kno..lL'tlgc, the kln(l< or
knowlL..tgc and the dellrce or <.-.:rtnlnly
ntltlchlng w Olllch klml, the rclatiunship
betY.een the knower and the known
cremitl<m The pathway or thu rehAJou1
r<-cluse, hermit
cscl1ntulc~ Tbc study or knoY.l<.-dj\c c>/ the
'i&>t tb1ng,,i', either In tho ,cn>C of
knowln,il what \\1li happen at the llme o(
Lhc cod of the v.otld or of" hat ocx,u rs to
the mdwiduul nfter de~rh
etlti~ The brnnch o( philo,<ophy concerned
wilh dcrMn)l morali1y.
ctic fntcrpr..:>call\c cute!lflrtcs thut n ~cholar
ntW,1 m1p0!ie upoo • relli,on from the
Oub1de (cf. ·emle'J.
Euc.harisl The Chrisllao ritual of 111klne
consecrated bread and wine, os a
mcmorinl of the La•1 Supf>Cr of Christ, ••
n ~)·nthuliCJ r~prt..-S~nwtion or t-hc ~p,rltunl
union of the bcltc, or .irul Chrbt, or lu
Lite l>clroef th.Lt the brtnd nnd "·lne h11w
c:ltang<.'ll tnto the actual bod) and hlooJ
( If Chri,t.
e,11ngcli,m (lltcmll\', ·~nod new•' ) A l><:ltcf
liu1 ,olv•1lnn llcJ"'nd, nn n Jl<:rwn:d
c<mn.ir.lon expcrh:nt:-.: nnt.l dun Jt 1, the
duL> ot the lnJh tdw,I lo ,prcuJ the ·~,J
"~"• ui Lhc 3,uUabl11ty of tlt1• >1th11Llon
w ull
e,~"j!c,i, llm\\1nl\ ou1 nnd <XJ!hlnln~ th..,
menninl! ot n text
i:\xi,tenriA.fi,m .\ w•dc-rn11tin~ rhiltl'llph~·,
-.omc of lh1.: '-'UffiJXJnt.:nL, oi ~ tuch
lm:ludf.: tht llMl-l'CUhJ1 tlun human h,Jn~"-
urcat~ tht:1r o-..·n nature by t..be chowc:,,;.
rhut lhc~ mukc f.•.u:h lmlh Wu..il ha" 10
.t,,.l~t:"uh i1 umH:rM: th-1, 1,
unfn1homi1hk ttt c.s,rnmll h,.,..,h ur
hlnt,di to• r:uh nr ,1-.~:,uon. on..l tu Mkll
n.:,ron,lhUu,· lor dw,f\.,,, m 1d\!I v.uhou,
1hc bdp 11f uni>·•"'·'!, "h),cll\<
M..1nJo1rtls.
faith l:lcli<!f In lf\l<t In, nnJ ~..;,mml1111,u1 co
u rc.H~ous ~ysccm
fun,, ('cximcuon') l<lnmla Sufi ••rm
dcnourut 1ho SI.II.Ile In th~ mJl,1Jutt1·,
•'PirlLWll Joumcy ,. herein 11U tm<.u c,i ..,u
11rc exun~u1~ht..>J (~C\: 'barJ(,')
fctJ,,hisru The bclld In 11bJ1.-cu. or flctM>llll
f)OS!-!CMl.-c.i hv SJ'ririb. ~ hldJ In tbc <:a~ of
r,:n!Ollll JS not their own <t>ul
functiouaU1om The ~tud, of rclut;ion 1n t-.:n111o
uf 1he humon nc1.-d• ii fulfll• nnd ii~ rut.
In tht, o,cmll functlo11111g o( o •ooial anJ
uultural •r.icm
luodtunc_owl."11 A term uri!l/n.:tll! LIMXl tu
dtnote t:e,rtain Christian ~mups ,. ho
hcllc\'cd In che ,nfaU1b11lry and the llu,tt.l
lntefJ1rcll11ion of the R,bt,· \lore
,-..,._,nr.ly, 1h,: tcmt h1u, h<..-.:n cxtc11<ied to
rdcr 111 ~oup,; from nny rcllgJon that "'"
uharoctcrl,.,d by any or all or the
foUowlfl!l. oppos,uoo to a ruooom ubeml
intefJ1retanon of the,r rehll,1on. an
cxelush·L•t at Li rude (re1cctln,! both orhcr
rdi&tions nnd other intcrrrccnuon~ 111
their cnm n,l,O,lon ), 111d a d<..-<l to
reu,rn the rohA1on to 110mc P"""'iwd
earlier ideal .cste.
j\nosi,!, 1\110,,tkbn, A tenn o~nallv used
ui oeruiln Christian •ect< th.it rm<'fl!e<l rn
th~ ,t.-cond Qtntul'\ t f, hut U-'4..-<l tn thi~
book 10 refer to uny rdlgJuu,i j\rt>UJ' tho1
~mpb>.,~co th.tt iruc t,n,.,,
let!J;" uf d1<
path"' Nthnuon or bl>t:ratlon , ur lhc
o)rn:cc int~rp-rctatlnn oi -.cnpturc, can
c>nl)' t>c uh1ain,.J thmu~h n ''""'"''
km,wled1,>v kn0\\11 only b, 1h, t!n•UI' 1or
IIJJ le11J~rl .111d urth- tmp:irtcJ Ill 11111-,1,..
~u.n1 A ~pJrm.wl m~cr, Olten um.' to • ho1n
un4Ui.1::,t.foncJ olN.-J1c.ncc mu.,t ht ..u,·cn
1/odith \ &1),n~ nr nc11on of 1hc prnph,1
Muh.1m10;1J "h,d, "· • n,pon:ed onJ
tr,m... nuth:J ontlh unul H "'''-" •n1u..:n J..1"11
In Sh, t
in oallL'\.!"UU«."i some '-"'.'l1W~ti lnu.:r
J-.L,m the //utbtlt., rd:twu\ u, tho, lm.&m.,
(Q, l arc also cons•kr..,J oui.lu,nlJIU\.:.

11•.u The bLuulu ruunl pll!lrhn114': tu Mcccn,
unJcrtal«n ot " pr.escrtbcd umc and In •
pre$cdh,,J m:tnncr l,;ee pp 21!0-I)
t1ablJ1• h (litcmlly, 'r:nh' <>r 'way·) The
tr•Jh,001111 I• " In .ludnl<m, h.t,,-J nn
m1'hfnlc.il lutcrprot.1111111 and tnumnlu,-J
urally unUI "1111,11 Ju\\11 In the l!ltrly
'\.'\.'Qturi1.·:-. Lt.. It ~upplt.!utC.t\t..-; amJ
amphO,-s the .cripmrnl la" l:dd do",, In
1hc PcntOl~uch
1K,nn,·n ct1tic,,, The rrinc,plcs nf
1nt~rpN:1J1tl(,n of O lC.\I; lhc Study o( the
methodology of lntcrprorntlon.
betcrudo~ (.;onU'll<liclin~ or being d1fforcnt
tn,m the s,andard trodiuon:11 teacbin)ls
of• rehj\1on
hienl<!rncy The nde of o society hy the
prit'l,t• t>r rcli,:iou• pmfcsslonnl,
hlcropllllll) the lllllnlicsuttlt111 t1f tho sncn.-d
tn pby•lu:d fomt (1,en.on, t1i>Ject, event,
-=.tc)
Hl>-<:t)n ThlrJ or the Imams (q.,·) of the
Shi'! line, wa.< mom'l'ed In hnttlc at
Karllol1 in lrnq, un eve.mt \.-Ommemurntt..-d
each yc.ar by Sh!"I,;;, with mt.k!h l!mt)tlon
anJ po,,,;IOJl
lbli• Tho, name for Satan In Islam
Icon .\Jl ,mal\C of somethull\ that I$ holy,
Jr.iwn aocording to tmditionttl fomt<.
Imam (1,tcrall~·. 'b.,{on,' or 'In front', 1.c the
um: ,.hu .tands in front) Used
throughout tho, blomlc world l\> denote
1.he lender of the ritual t'rlday prayers. or
aor leader Also used in Shi'i Islam ,n the
specific sense of a series of pc:rsons
r.~nlcd as hovinst bc<,n the ri.¢ht!ul
<uC0t:ssors w the prophet Muh ammad
d.l\J v.·bo arc ro11sldercd to hrwt: divin«!ly..
Inspired knowlc<4le of the ll'\le
interpretation of the scriptures. The
majority nf Shi'i. the Tu'i!h·er~. hold io n
series of cwdvt• ~uch Imams hut ot.hcr
~up,1 ,uch •• the l•ma'ill• rUC0!\1111.c
uthcn.
lnclfable Jne~pable of b.,J11g expr<.!SSeJ In
•,ords, tnd=nhable.
jari See ;""ma'
jihad Holy war. r,nc ol the A,·~ pill.ir11 n(
l<lam In modem lime, thl~ has
tncre,mngly bccn lntcrprctcd In an
c.thlcaJ sen~ as a v.·ar Qn bd-lfl:Jm~f>.' and
u·rel~.on
jirild rliternlly 'one's own power') Japan,-,,c
GI.OSS.\ln' i; 11
ll1,1dJh i.t term cJcnutln)l ,plruunl
poth"•Y• such as i<m, In which pro/!roSS
tlnd ulummclr lihcrntion L• t h mW(h one',
ovrn effort - In rornmd,st,nctlon to tonk,
(lltemlly, 'l>thcr power'), "'hich refer,. tn
p,nbway• t bat rely nn lilx;rm Ion through
1.he fklWl!t ul ouuthur (o:A Amldu Buddhi),
ji\.'•onmukti I llndu knn tlcnoU.n~ 0111.1 who
h"~ attained llhernllon wl1lle •tlll alive.
j >lonfl. j ,1,m o .Yo/!" ('l..nowled#') The
ilindu pnchwoy m ,nlvatlon , involvmg
ln<cll1..-ctu1d scri,·lnj\ nnJ n11.4iufnit <.'<1m:ct
knowle<l/\c, seeing thlnl!,I BS they really
ore.
Ka.hbala. Cnh:dn A system of .Je"ssh
m;ystic:i~m. mystical intcrprctotion o(
•cerlpturc nnd thaumoturgy tbnt
orlginowd In mc-dicvol tlml'> It ls heavily
ln.nucnced by Ni!0-plnto11f0 con<.'Cpts o(
lhc odl)lo of the world throu~
emanation
lwm i Japanc,;c tcnn dcnotlnJ! spirits or
<lh·lnllJCl'J thal n.,~dc in n;itural phenomena
(o.Jr, sk)•. mounl.4lnJ, wind, ell!,)
kamu, lllodu Mid Buddhbt term dcnotlnjl
the la\\ of ca.use :ind effect, that one'~
oerlo ns ha,·e lne,•lwble consequences,
either po,;ilivc or n~tlvc, that must be
played out, either l mmedintcly or niter
Jc."h (l.c what we do nflccts whnc we
cwntually b<.'<.'Omc), Buddlwsm
em1>h.a.slte'!l- the inwntlon of the aL-t:1on a..,
who, produces kanno f,ulil!)uenmcm
pl!Oduces the nh,liry to act without
causin4 the nccumulacion of more kam1n
kouu A p.,nidoxlcnl i<ayinst or notion in Zen
Buddhism, which tninso...nds log10 ond
oonccptu:JI thou!)ht untl 1, thus lntendcJ
to polot 1b.c \\fl} to coU~hLcnmenL
lnmn Oritinally the equivalent o( ~uru (q ,· .)
In 'libcrnn Ruddlti<m, but now npplicd to
nll mnnks.
llbcruliou theology A tlu,o logy that
olrigimuc-d ruuong South Americau
Ronlllo Cntl101!<: derzy nod that uses
some or the oon,..,pu, and lan(tu31\e or
social ond p0liticnl rhtlosophic• such 05
Mnrxism, combinln,I them \\ilh o
theology()( ••h•,ulon chrouA!t IJoornLlon
from .oclul lnJu.Llc,,
m1ufra8'l l,lamic re.h4ious collc,l\e where
srudics ccmre on tl1c Shod'o (q v)
S 12 Tllf PIIF.\O~IF.'10N ()f RF.I, ln!()S
Mrutrcy• Umkll111 The 811JJh• th,11 1,
rrnphc,.1~.J In the lluJJhht ...:rlpturo,:.,
onJ ,•xr-,cccd lO "'°'"" ,L, thl! flflh
BudJhn nf thl• \\<1rlJ cvd;.• At prc,<>nt he
n.!Mth.--c ar, th'-' Tu,hiw p.nrodiM: .
inunn \ ,ufk.:rnocuraJ f"CJ\\Cr 1hnt cnn rc~IJ'-1
tn ohJcc,~ or t:M.·011h..-
mu,..W11 In Oud,lhl,m c,1,,:01Jlly the
T,mtriu BuJdhl>m of Til><l, mnmlnlu., tJrc
l\\O- or thrct...,danwm,tomtl
reprcscnCAtlon, 01 ,he co.<mc,s, usui1lly o(
a p.1r11culor ~ . Huddho or bodhwmu,
h c., n f,. ""'-~I •• pnrr of o ritual or as •
"uppor1 for nu,.-Jlttnion or vi.11w1liz:.1 inn
Munlfc.c,uious of CJo<l U.lbal term dcMUO!t
1hc foundu,pruphc" o( the world
rdll\1011,. who are considered co b<-
p,,rfocc manllestatluns of the nami:.~ a n d
attribute« of God
manlru ,\ rej!ulM rhythmic ohnnt In
lllndul,m and C"J1C"l11lly Tnntric:
lluddhl,m, often uf the n111nc of n dclt y
,., Q( a MtCl'L'<i •Yllnble or •)·liable,,, nm.I
urc.cn u..,d us • lor111 ur m~'<lltatlon
ma.)'a The <lOOmlc: 1Uu>100 In I llmlubm and
Buddhism that hide< reoli<y and thus
keeps u.\ In ,,inorancc (i,t.-u(vo)
.......;...J~m The belier in ,he od\'Cnt or 3
foture world ••••lour n(ccn nls<> lnvolvin,tl
Ult! establishment of o C',oldun Age
metaphysics The pnn oi ph.ll0<1ophy
c-onccrncd \\1th the noture nod structure
o( reality.
millennialism, millunariaobru Belief in a
future (',olden Al,e (one 1housnnd year$)
In wh,c:h there wlll be uni\'on..11
proopcriry and p<:noc, u,uully through
the. nge.ncy o( a future world .,., lour (Set!
' m=uinwn ').
.\lishMI, The Rr•t p:m or the Tc.Imud,
C<lnsisting of n codiOc.tion or Jc\\'l.•b ornl
law, compiled In •hnut 200 Q; by Rnhbi
Judnh
t1w"8l11J ( muJtti) Lihcrutlon from kttnnll
1111d from tltc cydc of birth llnd denth
mona..dcbru ,\ relh\1ous path that tn\'Oh~
the establlshmcn1 of o community wh~
mcmoors ha,·e taken ,·ows 10 follow •
Spintual d15e1111ine ond who usmllly U,-c
ICI op,,n from the rest of society
monism The l,.,llcf thol r.hcrc is only cxwni
n:al11y; in nmdws:m the doctrine or
a,l.,.,110 ( non-duull~mJ lblWIU thot God
a.nd the soul ore one rcnllty
morality bee ·ethics·
mudru .\ 111.Jdll!t puA1un.: .,, ,tt-"'turc to
lllmlut,,n 111111 UuJJhL,m
mucaln One "ho N">uUd.«i thl..'. oclhdfl or
1mll to ritu.-tl pnt) « In l•ln111
Mn1u1rm.m Th\:. Or,t mnnth (Ir th ...- \iu&Jun
rcor In hhi't l•l,un thc IIN 1,11 J,,i, A«
IHkt:n lifl whh Ct•01rll\:ffiUl11'Ctt1ll!'t "' ,ht
mon~ rJorH o( th\' I 11uu11 I fu'-At~ 11
muJtalntl { l11crillly, ·onL: \\ho ,trlH:s) ,\n
l•lamlc cleric.., bu ho• •~h,,,-eJ
•ufilCJ"nl pruf1<1kt1L~' IO the stuJ~ of the
lloly l.aw nnd relt1t111us JUtt<pruJ,-noc w
I><: aht., to mnkc intkrcmknt 1u.lP;<-mcn1•
abmu 1hc nr,,llt.~lion of th.: Jlolv l.Jw 10
rlu· ,,.,w.ulon" ti( t:H:r'\J.a\· life. In
on.ltodOJt Swtnl tcnchlna. there ha•'
"'"'" n<> mure mu1wh1cu i.tnw the uo,~
or th~ founllel'$ of th<: four ~hoot. of
Juri<pn1dencc Shl'is holJ, how.,vcr that
11 l• $lill J)()s,,ihle for miumhid.t to
functinn
1111,kti Sec 'nlt>ltshc,"
murW Sufi 1"1,rnuo term ll•uoung tlte rurtl
or• muriJud (q , .).
mur~hid (pir) t.lamlc «rm dmotm4 A !iuii
master who 1s nhle 10 teach others the
<('Crees of the sptritual p,tth
M11' to~;1n The lslnmic •<-hool ol sc:hola•nc
thL'<llQgy thQt empltns11ed muonality ,md
u.,sened Ulftt che Ou.ran \\llS c:rc:tt<-d It
w:I! dclcated In SuonJ l>lam b)' the
,\sh'nrl school \q v.), bur oontlnu,-J t0
predomJnate In Shi'i lslan1
mysticism ,\n approach to rcliAlon tbat
emphasln"' o direct intuitive kn""'ledile
.,f Goo, of l11ln1n1c Rcoht)', or o( the
•plrluml wurW Thill •pproa~b wtu:.. un •
wide variety o! iomL• but amont the
features that mMy of these how In
common ts that th..-:y re!\uh tn ~rcnuy.
harm<tnlzotion of tbc tnner nnd outer
life. and joy, they also emphMize un,on
or unlly IAith 1hc l1tlmal<' Rc»h" Th,
t,Qc:lru for111 or r.hJ. appr"'1Ch Ofll:11
lnvoh ._, membership of llD order and
.uhmbsion to a splrlrunl must..-r lAhu
,nuoJuc<.-s the 1n,ua1c Into the ,p,mual
techniques involved
myth ,\ trad,uonal i;ncrcd story th.or tell• of
the ori~n of the world or of dcor.h ond
r-c~urn.•ulon
,wmbu11u A tcnn In Jap,,111::<C Amida
Ruddhl,m rclcmng ton mc:dttauon
practlc:e that hwoh-cs tbe rh, thmtc
 rcpctlu,,n of tlu., 111t111" uf .\1111<.l,1 81111\Jhn
(n.unu .\JT11dL1 llm.•ul h Is bdtc,ed th"t
th1.;; .:.an $Ut..."'Ct."CJ in brln~h\¢ ollout
,-.,~1nh inu> the Wcs1cm Sukhavntl
p•rndl'< <'f .\ml,Lt Buddha
,oorLaloni,m ,\ wlJ<.~ran(ulj\ 1•hiloM1rh>·
that u,,u11II) lndud•• the 0011<.'Cr"l of th~
Jcrl"1uon o( the world and of the humnn
soul l11:ro~ a serie.s o( em:mutlon, from
thc One The humnn soul l• therefore, or
shnut.J bc. ,~1~-d ,n !he wsk o( reun,tln,ll
11..«:I! \\1th d1e >QU'-"· of Its bc11u\.
, ,mw1mi11 In Mohnyann Buddhi,rn, this
1errn denotes the tron,fonnotion body or
the Buddha. the ennhli· bod)' with wluch
the Buddhas appear to humnn,cy lo order
"' fulfil ,heir ,·ow of j!uidin,ll nil beinj!S to
caHght~nmen1
'\lr-ana (htcntlly, 'cxtlJ1ct1011' ) The goo ol
humJI.Jt t!ntlC:t\·Our t.11 BuJdh.lsru l_j to
achle\'I! • s,a,e In which all human
desires, halreds nnd delusions are
udnguished, thus putting nn end to
,·olitl<tn and ,uficrlnl), o.nd freeing on~••lf
rnnn the dfocu; or k11rmo (q v,)
nOl!dc Of, or relntlng u:i. the ttOWI, the
lnwU<.-cL
nmolo,tr The study of the nature and
relntionships or heing, lncludil\( the
cxis1ence of on ultlmnu.• being, God
o~inal •ln The do<.:t.nnc thnt humanity I•
tnbercmly lillllul due to the llrst ,Lu
comnuucd h)' Adum and !;ve In the
Garden or Eden
onhodo-.y Correct bcliers. beliefs that arc
,n line with the moinstNlllTI 1mdition o( o
rcltl!lon
porwllarl.hu ::Ouprcme reality or supreme
truth. hy the enalnment of which the
individu31. achic\'CS liberation
p<,rinir,...~n,, Complete c.xtinclion , usually
e.iuntcd •·Ith ni"1padlushcAh1M1in,u1w,
~lr\·arui ltp·.) After ~nth
purlttu The chruu.tng of S<."-'llilrul of
scrlpturc. usually for protection or good
fonune, in Th~ra"nda lluddhlsm
phenomenolo~· .\n approach 10 philosophy
tha, onempi.• to Je-.crih;, phenomenn ••
they pn:M?nt them<cl,·c. to tl1e
-.:un~iowrl.CS!t. to un~·cr the n<."t.~ry
am! lnvlltl411t feature; or a phenomenon.
plttlsm A mowment tn C:ltrl•tl3.nlty iliac
hold,, thin faith doc, 001 consist or
~'lrnM dtc'<Jhlj\lc1tl tormulJUtJIIS hut
raLltcr c.mphrt.Slics l...'011\·cni:lun. pcN>nnl
rell~ou• c~pcrlcncc and tltc fruit, uf
fniih In d:1ily lifo
pfr l>e..- 'm 1111,M,/'
po,ithbnt. lo~icnl po-"itht,m A
philo.opbl<.'<LI po,111011 tluu ,L...,,.,rLs thal
ull 111<,an111~ful st111cmc11c,, mmt oo either
unnlyuc or empirically verifiable All
met.apbysics is therefore lnberentl)'
mc,.nln,l\less.
11rajiio In Mohnyu.rm Buddhu;m, that
lnmlllvc wisdom whltlh I• beyond
conccp1uul and radoual tl1oul)ht ond
which leads 10 enh!lhtenment.
prana~-ama Conirol of the breath ,
breathin~ exercises in R(IJa-Yo,!n
pmtity,n-«,mutp«da (S:in•krit, Pall:
paci<.•lu.,li,,.M,muf)(uldlf) Co-dcpcudcn t
orlgin11llon or oondltloned srltln~ - all
t!Xi,dnJ! things are lntcrdcpenden1 nnd
mutuall)' condition one another This
cmangles bcin!l,s In S.1msora (q.v ),
primal rcli,tion~ Th0<c religion$ thdl •re
omUy tmntmlttcd, the religions o( ,,
•Inf.Jc trlb<, or a llmlwd cd1nic µoup.
procei.~ pbllosopby A philosophy that
asserts that re11lity is constantly is • sune
o( chan11C and Oux The rcll,l\lous or
theolo,l!lcal aspects or thi• philosophy
rercr to o God who I• ever changing nnd
Jcv<.!loping, who cntcn. Into relotlon•hlps
with the Individual and I• affected and
cht1n,lled by these rel:,tionshlp,s: it
emphasizes becomln,! rntber than bein.Q.
relall.lonsbips rather thon stn1cturcs.
pro.selrtism The proccs.s o( ,,,mslnjl
son,conc lo chnnge their relillfous (nlth ,
rccntfung wmc.-ono co a nc" reUglon.
rnbbi A Jc,.ish doctor qunllfied t<> e~pound
on and opply the lloly Low, the ltalftkhah
{q \' )
Ramadnn Tho month or lasting In the
l~lumlc cnlcmfar
n.1Jleatilou Tbe proces.i 1.1r rCl\nrd!n~
somctl1Ing tho.L ts abo.tmcl as a L'Oncrcte
or materiul thin~
rlda Comcnrmcnt (with 1hc "ill of God)
An 1,lamic SuO rcnn
ri•l1i I linJu term refcrnng 10 • seer or
...1111, In prutluu.lor tbo,c indJ, tduotb, 10
\\-bttm the Vetlru. \\Cre re\·cntcd.
rim <11 r,as.""4e A ntlllll or cercmon)' tbat
mnrks on lmponnnl tumlnl! point in an
!I 11 TIIF. l'llt.l'-OMF't-OS cw RPI 1rnns
1nJMJunl'• U(s, ollcn ,,bt1 le,KIIUJI to n
uhan,l\e o( ''""'" blnh puh.;rt)',
nmrno~,. c.lcuth
ritual ~,,rmnl rc1iA,fo11-' \\urJ~ anti R(.•tlou~
thnt ~t:k to t::\'c.,kc.• fl ~acr...d C\ cnt orr
uwukc a s.ncrcd 1wc,,.cmcc
,rtulhu I h11du term dcnotll'.1,1! one who has
renounc.:d tht, world in an ciron co find
IIJxo-rnuon
,rolr,1 Rltunl rroyt·r in Islam th,u should
idcall)·, csp;.-ci<tUy on Frid!l)'8, he snid
oonitr\:WJ,LIOJull)t,
SOUUttlhl A ~lftW of L'OO~~iuuimcss Ill whlc.h
mcnllll activity 1.-enscs In Buddhl,ni. the
expcrocnomit •uhjc~t bccom~-,; one with
the Cl<f)CrlttK'(.-d ohJ~l. hen,.., the nomc
•nnc..rt•incedn~~~ (1f mind'
Samhho,luku)" In Moh,1y,mA lluddhl•m
thl• term denotes th" 'bib~ body' or tbc
Buddhu_ 'rhl, Is the body that exlsb In
the paradise where that lluddhn reigns,
for cxnmple, Maitreyn Buddha (q,,• )
cxl<ts ln hl• Snmbhognkny• In rhc
Tu.hltn pnrodi"" nwnitlng his rebirth on
cn_rth as the future Duddh.n
Samsar.1 lo lllndulsm and Buddhism, t:hc
cycle of beoommg - lhe cycle ol bi11.h,
death nnd reblnh - to which 1111 bein~
ore •ubjcct as lon4 •• they nre und,•r the
1nnucncc ol 1gnornncc (a,,id.,1v,, q., ) .
ond, In Buddhl,m, desire nnd hotre<.I
sailJ!/w The Bu,klhl•t monastlu communlry.
ordnlned as the Ideal h)' th,; Budtllta .
•\lnny now use the term 10 reler 10 the
"hole Ruddhist CQmmnmty
li"mt~•,,Rto In rnndui~m. one v. ho hn.,
rc:1chcd th~ lourth ~tni:c nl life
{a.•dartunu) and rcnouncl:!l the v.orld,
O<Jnccntrnlln,ll ,oldy on the atuunm,:nt ol
hberadon.
sat-elrit-,111a,ula (litendlv,
'heinl\-(.'01lS-010u_<r1e~.._1,1;,._,•l Re(~rs lo the
c1unlitiCJ> nf the Ahsolutc ( Rmhmnn)
rc,·cnlc.d Jn lhc SLlh.; of mokltihu
,cct A rcll~ous A,n•uf> tlutt t:m\:-1g\:.b and cuts
luodf off from lt,i parent rd,~ion
:SOC1olot1l'lllly, they ore small exelu~ive
itrou(lS who often Insist on spcclf,c
mcn1t>crs-h1p quohfic::tlJOn.." or cnrcrio nnd
mnku h,41, dcmon(b of foUowc,..,. (cf
'Jcnominurwn' nod <.1hur.::h~)
-,;human Hdl~ous '11)i.!cl.1li~L u~ually Jn
hunter~thcrcr orul s0cu1tH~&. \\he, uct~
as a spokc..p.:rson fut 1he splnts. often
)!,Jing tnu, tr,tllL..., und bctnt ,_,.,.,,..,._..J
!,hari'a The l~l•mic 111,h l ·'" ,,.. Jcn,..,J
lr1>n1 the (lur,111 011J Uruluh t'I \' I
shu,·kh flltunll•. ·olJ mon l J,lomt~ tttlc ol
rc..P\,'1t ~h 1;0 to an,- M:lltOr nun rn
r,·l~h1u,, ~~lul or pollt.lcttl II(,• In
Sufi,m, It rdcrs tu the lc.itlcr nf n Sufi
order
0
~hi i. !,hi'n ~:imc il\l'O to th°'4..: '.\ho
10110,.L'<I 'Ali the ~on-,n-Jo,. o( thc
prophet MuhurnnrnJ .,nd hft suo~n,, :t-
lhc tntc, dhlrtd)' in,pirc..J ka,I•" in
l,;lrun, <b dlbtln<:1 from Ult nt.1Jortt•
Sunni.§ "bo follu.,,-d the J"Jllltl:III
lcadcr,,hip 11f the cahph..<
$hn,ti (llumally. 'hcannit' ) Rcicro In
lllndul~m 10 the«, sc,rlpturc• lhat un,
rc~nk>J •• divindy rc,•Cfllc..J havint
hccn hcnrtl hy <:crtnin n,,/11& lll , )
Slum.)'ftttt fll1ernlly ,,111ptln"""' tbc vo1J )
The Muhavann BuddhL" COn<-ert th.ii all
CJIUlnt lhl.nj\.\ o.rc cmpl)' <•f uny <:ndurln.11
essence, they are no1hin4 hm their
•rpcnrnne<:
sign Sec '•>·mbol'
•l<mtd/to (Sllllsl.nt, Pall : khundnJ Tht-=
elements that toi,,thcr 001,sutute
personlllity. In Buddh.,,m, what ,s
tboudit co be the eternal soul. or
permonent geJf oi nn ,ndl\odual t<
C!Oll!->idcrcU to bo tn fnd nothinie cl\c
be.ides lhcsc lmP.,nn•ncnt ,lwndlu~•
smrid (llLcrAII)'. 'rucoUectlon') Hindu
i;coonda11• ll<!rlpmrL"<, Jcri.-c-d fro,n tl1e
,'!/tnua /<t ,.) scriptutcS
.oteriolot!)' The srudy of the mean, of
attainin~ sahoUon or lil,cratlon
otn.tctumllsrn Thc•iry dvnnd Imm tl1~
Ytork, of 1..t:, l•Stmw..., whlc.h •ttt.:.n11·.a.• tu
txplalu ,oclal phenomena >ll4'h w.
relitliun In term_, ol ab,,troc't rclatlonal
Mrucmrcs th,n .,n: ronst'"l""u:d tn ~t1c'--t
th" undcrh,n,ll ,truoturc. thnt In, d,-er
l\lthln the human mind
hufii,;m J,l.'.lm,o: m) M.achcn, ortanu"'d ,1m.'C
the Mu.Idle ,\,!c• mtu "'" ltMJ liul,
ordc~.
:,ukh:irnd In M~haynnn lluddhi\Jn, th~
p.,rndrsc 111 "h,ch ,\nutol>h~ t q ,. l
n:.,1dc,
~urutn The sa~·mD.,.., unJ f\.C!UO0'I or tht
proph~t Muh,1mm.1J , ._, n:'--•orJ'--J rn the
/l<ulitl, l<t 1 ). c,tabllshcJ lo l•l•m "'
lc~ll, 1'ukllnj\ prccctknt.
~un.ul Mam Th~ majorjt,· lum1 oi 1,1.uu It.•

m,lln lc,,~hln~ b th111 out:'• life •houlc.11,c
hn.J In n(."<.'<>r.l•nc., with the lows and
1cach1n11,, c,f 1hc (Juran 1111d lhe e~nmpl.,
..,, h) the prophet ~luhnmmod
tabo<, :Somccltin!! ll"" l• m,,rk~J off ns
~crcJ nntl lltttrdort.! dru1~ruu:..
r,lluyyo llwldmt usctl hy n Sull order u;, a
n:treac or monasurrv
Thlmud \ <'OmJl<lncltum of J.,wi~h la",
r:thhtmcal romntcntaru!s ond "-tOrics
lllw,cmung iJ,e trnditlonnl law
umcru ,\n aspect or lllnduiani lhut
C<!Jl~'Cllltalcs on the dh Lne ""c~y nnd
eresrh·e "°"'" of 1he slwk.n. iemlnlne
•'I'«"' nf mrimc< ,!ods, e«pedolly Shh•
In ltuJc.lhi,m, Tantri"n Is found
primnrily In TlbelJl.n lludc.lhlsm nnd
1,,..-onccnt.mh-'•' prlntnrily on the din.-t:I
ap.trl<!ntlal aspecu. of medtuulon :tnd
nrual There ls n 1endtenc)' IQWtmls
s.:n,al S)'Tllholo4y In bo,h I lindu and
Buc.ldhl<t tantm, •nd thl• hns som.,rime•
mnnlfos1cc.l ltsclf In llcentiou* &Cl<l"'I
pmcu(..~.
Tao (lilcrnlly, '\\'oy') The R~allty thal #Ive,,
nse to ,b., universe m Toolsm It Is
prescm In e, et)'th1~ and is 1hc way or
all thi11~. In Confmn3n rhoul!h<. it
mean• the path of humnn behnvlour and
momhty
wriki s.,.., 'jttila ',
tmllllla llltera.lly. 'suchness') Tbe Absolute,
,be rruc na,ure of all rhinl!S.
CtiV.X.rkku/ Tru.ta in or reliance upon CO<I;
can<ldcrcd A cnrdlntl) \'irHIC 00 the Su0
roth
ll1.111nllllUJW RcUgJou• prnctlcc• L'Cntrlng
on lll:IJ\lc anti the perfonn:inoe nf
miracles.
the(!Cracy .\ system of 40"emment which
rcllonls C.od a.< ,h e SO\'Crcll!n ond di,inc
law "' I.he In., Cl{ the land, in prncrle<:
GI.OSSARY 5 1/i
u.u,,Jly lllCUILS O hictool'"JC)" ('I, .)
tbco<lic) The .iudy of the orll(ln anc.l pl:t~
oi "'11 ln the world, c•pcclnlly ,n ,icw <if
,t,., ,i1no<lncss ol (:od
thcol<>I\)' The •tudy of rcllii,ou, hclicls In
order w ""Plflfn 011d Jusufy t hcrn; I•
froJ11 uu cmic (q.v.) viewpoint
LOtcmLsm R"11,nrdln,! nn onlmul or plant ns n
hcncfocrnr or MCChtOr of a family, clnn
or <ribe.
trilut)'<< The M•hnyan• Buddhist conccp1 of
the lhr~.., bodies of the Budc.lhr, (M!e
'Dhlom13k3)·•'. 'Sambhog;,koyn', nnd
'Ntrmno:1k.'ly-o ').
ulcmn Musl-im religious profe!Ci"-ionnl, expert~
In the l~l•mlc lfoly I.aw, Shnri'• (4.,•,)
and ltlnmlc Juris:pncdcnc-c,fiq/l
w,unc, The b111mlo community.
11,xmay<m a The rilt: of lnltlatloo at which a
yo1mj\ male 8rahmin L'Utes up the sacred
thread nnd i~ fonnally lnitfau:d into the
llrnhmin c:ible
oon u• U<•tl) The cast< •Y~W111 In llbtdul,m
u,c,j,/ MyMical pas_sion , ardour or ec.sta;y In
Sufism
vm/i ,\pproximnte <'<1uivolem of the En)\hsh
word 'saint' in Sufism
yoga Clltcrctll)', ·yoke' ) The path fO God.
Th-ere arc sevcrnl alternallvc fonns of
llus path In lllndulsm IMnna-yof/(1. the
palh of .sellle<s oction, l,hakti·.m/la [q.,•. ),
Jflttnn-yog<, lq v , )
Mtlu'r Sec 'bat in'
.....,.,. The fonn uf mt<lhntlon In Zen
Bu<ldblsm lha, seeks 10 acblcvc a state ol
thoul\111-free. oon,entles•. wakeftJ
11tk11tion
l\'TR! ll>l 'CTt(J'I likch· 10 Ix, the r<'<.'<'nl <.'Ollap11<. <>I ,.,,rlJ
C:an;rnunt,ni Tht~ mn, tt.:n·r,f.'. chi.:
Sec In ramculur the ,tuJy of thL• <object
t..h:clJnt: 1>r0Jcctcd l-tv U11rr1:ll for
In t\molJ Tnynbee, Tiu: Stutly ti{ /111,mry
Chrbtl.mlty nnd Buddhbm
~ 'fhL• ,uhjt"'t Is Ji-cu•sc.-d In W <: Smirh,
c,, Natucr, Tb<: M"'1111~ i,( the Mrutrc\a
Tt11r,,rtLit ti Hf,r/tl Tlu!<1fogy ,cl· m
Mt-ih', p. 2J
r•nh:ul•r ch•J>tcr 4 7. Ahhnuith It 1, po•~lhle tn mak,r
J. Jillr thoAc \\ho a.re fntcrcM(...J, ruy owu
comparntivc dc,criptlon,. nf th1:.,:,
relWou, h11ckl!rounJ h, U.1hn'l I hnw
ci.-pcrlcncc~ Sec. for eumpl... , UnJ.:rhlll
mode a ,pcclnl ,,ud)' or the Bahn't FaJth
.\l\•tU&<.'UH11
nnd r,f Sht'i M•m and h•ve puhli,hcd •
numher oi wnrk.• on thc<e subjects I
'1. The f..,l tho1 rd~1un b CMentlaU) •
hurn,m <11:tMty CII.....,,, I th'-"'loi\l.ul >UCh
ha,·-, al,., IK:cn much intcrc,,t,-d in the
.._, K•rl Barch (who i;tro~y hcU.:,cd in
M>Cinl hl•tory of rclltion• and on the
the lde-J thm sru,·11Uon CII<> only .:nmc
<li~or~U"@l qu~~llon of ho'\\ Qn~ from God'~ ncu,·ity and nr>1 humonkind'•l
opproo.ches the study of rdt,Uon
10 coll nll rcl14'0n {.-en CbrL,tl•n
4. Baha'i Is or putlculnr Interest amnnt the
rchl\lon) unhcliel. Cllun:I, nogmatt,:•
new relitlons m that rt nets in many woys
•• a bridfle bcrwccn the rcli~ons of the
z.
vol I, port pp 29')..J:?5 3!7
9. ·Two tmportant cblltllctertstics of map,
F.nst and West (s<-e chn.pr~r 2) It ,. olso,
sbowd he noticed .\ mnp ~ M< the
AS mcnuon'--d lou~r hi this tntfflt.lu4--tlon,
1cmt0rv le r<>presents, but, 1/ correct It
the onl)' new relJ&lous movement tb•t lS
hM a s;m,lar stnu:rure co the h.:mrory
hcittnrtln,I\ to es111bUsb Itself :ts an
which occount.< for IL• usdulne1.• If
independent rcU~on (~ee for example lls
w~ rcOoot upon our llln~uai:e,, -..c find n1
tre:ttment In Barren, ll'orld Chnstian
bc.t tboy mu-'I l>e con,IJcrl'd ""'-" w
Enc,,"C:lt,pcdto ).
map~. ,\ word ts ,wt the object II
S The" mosi careful nnd d•r.ailcd asw,,mcnt
tt!prcsenL• Konyb.slu. Scr.-nt:c and
of the prcsen1 sucngth and fuwrc 1trnwth
San1t;1•. p . ,SJ,j See al"O J Z ~m1th, Mr>p "'
of the world'• rdlgJon, -.""" In a,rrcu,
11ot Teniwry. pp 21!9-JCl'I on thi\
11orld C/Ll'Unw1 E,~..,t,;pcdtu ln tllli
,uhjc,n "ilh ,-,g,,rd to rrlh11l i-,rle11
M>ur<.'C (M!e Table 4. p 6), it Is t-Slimated
lhat Judabm, Christrnnhy and
Buddhism, while mcreoslnA III nboolute
Tm. Ccl~cf.M' or Rt.t1u10~
u,rm•. will in foct d<.'t'linc as• propnrtion
of 1hc world', pop11ln1lon, while Th,. 3U,tgcstu,n WR> fin,t mnoo h~ 1\.,1,,,n
lllnJulMn 1,1:tm 11nd the Boh•I Fruth "~I Marett .'1ocrr,mm1 qiS,mp(<! F..U. , I' J
lncrc""" hot.h In nb.olutc nwnbcr• and as 2 On th1> ,uhJe<:t, M;c W C Smith, Th,
a proportion of the world'a populiluon .l/m,1111,1! and End q/ Rclt,!/ltffl, pp bl~l
But 1t should be noted that li:urect's .l Examples include the lsln,ruc r<a..:IJ<m
frtures 311sume a srrai~htforward agnlost idea.• '111,!UlCStcd hy hbd1II
proJect1on of pas1 trend, Ob,·iou•ly, tlunk~r,; •uch •• Mohammad .\rk<>un and
mnn)' focton, could nifcct thc,c .\btlnlkare<:m S<>uroush The <JUC'lll\>n 11
pro)Cction• One o( !he most importnnl Is J""11 .,,th Inmon: de1,ul In chapcer 11

~ 16

4 W C. Smith, Th., .11.~111ir11? 1111<1 £n,/ <If
Rd1,¢wr1. pp. 19-74 Smith has propo,,<!<I
1n<t,'tld 1h01 -..e think of th<' relf~1mas
r.1,h of the lndl\·l<iu•l •nil or 1hc
oo,io1ng rel!glcn1S 1rud1tion
5 Tb.,• Qura11 ,. oon,lder~J by Muslim• IQ
.,.u,1 in a hc,l\·enl) fonn that has e.xlSled
for all nme The queouon 01 "hcther
th,s hea,-cnl)' r,rotocy~ o( the OurOn,
,-.11,,.1 th, !'mm a/,K,wb . the 'Mother o(
thc Book' or I he 'Mother Book', Mis
cttru.~d or uncre•t...-J was ()nc of the
ma.Jor J.tiicrent..'C9: bet" l.'CD the Mu'tll.ills
:u,J I.be Ash'arls. r""f"'Cth·el)', In eariy
l<l.1m IIn Sunni Islam, It was the lauer
,iew thnt prcvmlcd) In the context of
chis Jiscu<slon, thL• may be compur.>d
lo the daputc bctwcoa Chrl>t!An
thcok,gtano about the t-.o ruuures of
Chru,L See 8urckhatdt, Sacn:d Arr, p.
119 n 1~
6 \\" C Smith 'Some Simllanties and
Oifferem,e• between Christianity and
lslrun' Thero Is, howen,r, In Shl'I Lslam
• con~"'P' of • pr.,-exlnont
Mnb•rnrnodan Light thot ts the Rcallty
of Muhammad and becomes
luncdonall)' and "l)tntua.lly equivalent
to the Word lncamotc in Christ; see
Corbin, llis1oirc de In p/11/osophle
1&lam,que. pp. oS--8, Momcn,
/ntroduc:tlon 10 Sh,'I Islam, pp. HS-9.
7. Bun:khardt, Sacred Arr, p . 116
'- See discussions of the dellnllion of
rdigion In Berger, Soc,al Reality qf
Religion, pp. 177--80, Spiro, ' ReliaJnn';
S1~rk a.nd Bainbridge, Futun: of
Rdi1J1on, pp ~ .
I/ St.>e Suirk ond Batnbrt~. Furure qf
Rel~on, pp. 7, .l0-3.
2 RELICIOS E.\.~T A.'11l WEST - 1\ GENt:R.ll.
Sl.11\'EY
1 l~am In panleular bas creatud long lists
oi ihe Name.. and Attributes of Cod
Many o( these •re to be found in the
Quron
l l"dona 1,0-J (8. 1-1) ln \\'oodword,
Mitlor A,uhrow111cs of tile Pali Cww"
pan 2. p. %
J This is sqmewha1 difiereot to the usual
pbli0<10Phlcal usaite of the tcnn dualism
to mean the exi.<tencc o( twn OPJJO<lin#
NOTliS ( 1'1' l!\ - J')) !147
r"'11111~ of to«i and C\'11 , or th"
Ji,1lnc1ion l>etween mmd/~oul anJ
hody
4 This ls " m•u~r o( dl•3,ilrc~mcnt \\ith·
111 Buddhl~m. but c.:·t1rtnlnly MllllC
promlnom scholars who are also
l11cm•clvcs 8uddhls1s, such as Edward
Coote and Chrisunns Humphreys. hove
Cl()nsidercd thet Buddhism does po,;11 an
Absolute ReAlhy; see, for example,
Conze, Bucldh11m1, pp J9-IO. I 10-11
•nd llump.lm:ys, e.vp/()ri'II/ Buclc/1,ts,n,
chapter 11.
5. Thi$ IS of course the famous distinction
ber"·een salva!lo.n b)' faith (stres.sed in
Lutheran and Methodist Protestantism)
:and ~alyation by wo rk:< (nn:s.s.:d In
,Roman Cathollcl&m) In Christlnnlty
~lost Chrtslinn, hove n<.loptcd • posl!lon
thot combines both clements. In Islam,
also, there L• the concept hoth of the
lleccsslcy of follow!~ the Hoh· Law
( Sharl'• ; Qur'cm 2 ·26 ) nod or the
boundless mcro)' ond groc,c of God who
""'n forg,w all sill> (Qur"cm .l: IJb;
J9,54).
6 :Na.tarJuno, Madhynmika Konka,
quoted In Murtl, Cemml Pllt/osophy q/
#Juddh1s111, p. 233 and n
7 Pronounced 1gnynnn'. with the fint ~n·
,n11:1nl, and 'pn,gnya· \\1th a nasal ' n'.
&. It ~ intere,ung to now thnt In Sufism,
which as I M\'l' noted abon: ls an
-,xpression of monism that occurs in the
West, the principle rlroal ncrivit)' i• al<4
..1milnr 1n tha, <lf the monlM rcll,I\IM• nr
llhc East, thn1 t• rcpctllll'C chanting
<foolgi>ed lb leoJ to nltc.red ,uitc.s of
consciousness.
9 IM. Smith, /11tnx/uct11m w Mysrin..<m,
lflP 16--1/l, Porrinder, My.sriC'lsm in /ht,
'll'Qrltl's Rdlgim,,., pp. 11(>..7
10. Perhaps the be.t account of thc&u
mystics lo to be found In Undcrhl11,
Mysw:ism, ..,., Index emrlo:,i for I.Web
illldhiduol mysuc. .see also ~I Smith,
/ntrnc/ucuon ro Mysrfci.m1 pp 117-1().1
Porrinder, Mysri.ci,im In rhc Worlds
,R,;ligions. pp. 14S-S3
11 &-c Afflfl, Tli, My•tu.'<ll PhilOJllJpliy of
Mult.}1d Dul /b,ml ,lmb1, especlally pp
.54-65.
12 On 1h1s see E. IJ. \\'hlnfield m the
lf)rcfscc 10 Jam,. unca'ih, pp ,·11-.-;
1.l See, for exnmplc, chopt~r R. p 19;?,
SI', );llTES (Pl' 41 Ill)
Claotl,("1,!u)'U l '1x11HJJuu-l , h IJ
1-1 Th1: mn-,.t "-.,mpNhc.n,t\c ~lUJ\· ,1( 111 ·
llnllnJ ,, M.1"1i,,,>11 Tl,.. J>,~,>1nr1 ,,I nl·
1/01/,11
15 \lu,11cn lntmduc:tum to !-.h1"1 /,.low 11
1.H
tu ~-.: (.orhm <.."r~u,,UJ /nu:,~ou.,rmn , 11P
111s-2ou, 11.ut~u. ,.\t{/",_sm ,.m.c./ n'-ma6m,
l'P ~~ ! -~
17 lhck, c;.,,t ho.• Mony \om.-~. ,._.c
<'JlC</1,lll)' l'I' I) 1 to<,
t,~ i-;,_I') 11wphct \\110111 the .\lmillht" oml
rl.·t.:rlt~'- Creator IMth pur,>o,., ed co icnd
to I lu: peoples of the ~arth 1111th lk:t.'!n
cnttustcJ -. Ith ii \1,.,,.5-1~, nnd c hJrJ!cd
t<> act In o manner that ,.,,uld !>est m,-c:1
the n:quirl'ment~ nf the~ In which lie
nppcnn.sl. C1<xl'• r,urposc in ,cnJin4111<
l'mphctit unto men u. twofold The Or:r.t
l• to hooru1c the children of men fruan
tJ1c Jnrkncs~ of lt!nurnncc. and guide
them w the llllht 11f true understnndlnt
The M.'CClnd I\ to ensure tbc peac.! and
tmnquillih· ol mnnkind, nnd pro,;Je all
1hc mc•n• hy which the)' '"'" he
~,tnhltshcd' (llaha'ullah, Glcnmt\!!•, no
34, p 7'1)
1\1 Baha'u'Uah . Tuhi<tS o/ Baliu'ulluh, p
HU
21l Codrtnl\ton In tu• work The
Mclanes,ons ruhli,hcd in 1/l<l 1 wn,
ch~ first to r~niZ.4! Lhi~ j)hcnomcnQn
Sec Sorbeuk. f!d14fo11 in l'nmiuw
SociCI)'. pp J 7-6.
3 THEORIES OF REI.IGf()~
Mun amt /us Symbnk<, p 76, quoLcd io
Moni\, A111hmpofo~1cal .Snulie., nj
Rdl,fJirm p I 70
2 11"! ,\lakiri,!I qf R<'l,,:um, c,p Pl'
173-.?<JJ
., Tits OrtJltro mu/ Gm,.111/1 q/ Rdu!fo,1
esp. l'P li.?-2111. Z5l-'IIJ
4 'Thu l'lai:t, or l:hri<ti111111y omonit 1he
World Rellitlons'
5 Tl1t Sn,dy tlJ' fl,story, vnl 7, I'll 7Z..lfi
6 lliuk C""/ lia.• Mcmy ,\'om~.• and
l'rtlblt·m.t,i (j &Ltg,,>r'-' /'lurnlu,m S....'C
abo k.unn.1 1 Rcn~tm. Rclwn..,.<tnt un.d
Clod
7 Sec the ""J>OS1ti1,n o( the ph1l11s1>phw
,,..,...,,,..,. b)' beyycd 11,xs.:in SMr in
\\'hnlm,1! Thc World'~ Rcli11iot1s
'lm,li111ms, pp I If I :?00
ll \\•Iii•, ' IJ.-ulo.i,, Aulhorlt\' •ti.l th,
lk."\tlt)f'rncnl oj t:ub1C' \tm,\.!JUtnh'
t.J s..:~ 'hllr'p\:
( ~,,mp,,n,1w1. H~lu,tton f'r
177-'I, l>udkv, Hdti:1,m rm r,,,.,t J'I'
1/,-.11 \\'~rhlo,-,k)', 'Mnrl•urC \n,1
\ fkr'
IU Sha~. Cnm1•irulto\: H.,·/IJluHl, r ~711
11 Sec In portlculur \\" 1: 1-imlth ,\
llunmn ,·,e"" vi lruth nnd (,c,mr,.,r•11,e-
l{dl1t11•n
I.? S..... fouh ond lld1,:f' nnd T/w 11,,om'Uf
mul F.111/ •tf Rclu?1tm , Pl' n•• 7.1
lJ Th1: St:\\1.0nHu, ,y1u.:n1 br..:ok~ UCJ~u in
olht.:r Jit\:..:dOUb abo \\111.:n 'tlwC U)II\C
"'"a>· from hcxlic--. (.,( lntcmu..'"<1i1U: ,11~ U1
clthw- dlrecllon - to\\ard.5 ,u!>-awnut
p,mkllc• <or a:,Jactlc phen<>mt'lla - th,
Nc,-,oninn lo,-• w,,Ju111ly ccos, to opplv
nnd rdatlvlt)' onJ qu,11uum 1,,,.,
ht-,umc the unly ,.., of Cllplalnlnl!
ob,,crvotl11n.
14. On oomrl~>.11> om.I the onai.kqW1<:1c:_, ,,1
the nnalycicnl model m 1h41 ph~""'"'
•clences see P 0al'ib, Th, <:,..mi.
8/lle,mnt 1:<1~'11:olly pp 21 14
1.5. Elmd4.~. Pdtttrn~ m Comporrll.ft~
Rd/41m1 A llW<! •umma') of F.11.kk'•
tbou#n 011 thl. subj,-cL can be loon.! ,o
Dudler, Hc/«111on cm Tn.al, fJP 11."-lfMJ
I It. Fmch <md lk/1,;/ p ,1JJ
17 flt'n:«Nu /mpcrntroe, r x,i
lli ll?uu ,s /lisloi:>• 0 , p :!;1
4 Tl!£ REl.tt.1oc:, EXl'=t.t
I Otto T/ic /doo •!I' tJ1dlul> J'P l:?-11
" Otto, lblJ.. pp S-i .
•1 Otto. lbld, p. t,
4. Sc,·cml •.-rttcrs han, J.,.cnht.>J • more
jleneml vel"'ion ol chis phenomenon, no1
,pcclli~nll)· roloccJ cu rclo~tuu,
cxr,c.:rkn~t..:Ji St:i:- M.111>ln\\, Rdagtottl'f,
\Qlu11!1t und Pcuk·E.\pcnnu:.:a, anJ
La.,kl, £c~l/lll,\' l.iwn~ have po1utcd OUI
that many oi lhe!>c '"'"""'' can l>e
repmduced l>v th., "dm1m,trauon <>I
drul!S This o.<p,-co is Joalt with m mon,
dew1I m chr•rrer 7
5 I am ht.:rl." folh,"tnat Oonu,·an ,
/Jucrpn:1111.t! Rd1Jl1ous E.~1<,.., Pl'
J-10. -.:ho m tum ha..~ hh d~·npdor1
on J:ame\, The- \ 0-ncneR ,/ Rclu;:,mi.~
F.."P"Ml,TK~
t, Jam<, Tll, \uricllcs <ti Hd,p,ous
E..q)t:nt'rlt"\ f'P . .?21 -.? .

, /aw,11 - Our Chui<'< /111µ,.,:,s•ions <if
!°111111"111 Cullfi'rl• IO /,r/om ( 1970), p
37. quoted In l)onovnn, /111c:rprc1I,-,.:
Rc/11,'1<,i~, F,.rµt-r,,~1ec. 1> 18
~ Jnmes, The Vonflks qf Rc/14,ou,•
F.,«JJ<Ttmt'(>, I'll l7J, 2A9 In hi•
ctr<»ltlon of \nlntlincs,. Jnmc~ q1101c<
tin Pl' ~8'1-') on episode thnt N..'l:Urrcd
w .., ltugu~not \\Omnn \\hen s.he was
whlpp.-J for lier fa.Ith "-''Y slmlhlr to tl1d
ac.'O\lnt of ~hula Sa<llq. quoted her., on
p 95
'I Brandel,$\·n~r. 8/ack ll~mlm in Scorch
qf Ood. pp. J4ff, quo«-d in Parrlndcr,
.ltsstic1am m ,he World's Rclig/0113, p.
ss
10 James. The VoneUA!8 of Rc/141wus
£,cperi<'ftce, pp. 380--2.
11 Ibid . pp. J%--i.
I:! \Van, The Foich ond Practtoc qf ol-
Oha.oal,. p 61
1., ~le Mer Ee khan, sennon 99. quoLL-d In
Uappold, Myscu.-00,1, p. Z41.
H A. R. Mood~. life q/rer life. pp. 60-1,
quoted In Ma'sumlan, lt/e qfr.er Deach,
p. Uh
1$ S~cs suggested by Grah1tm Wallas in
The Arr qf ThouJl/11 (Nuw York,
llarooutt, 1926), ,umnuu1zed In BaUIOn,
S..,bo,,nradc and \'c11t1,, RdlJlW11 ,md
rJte lndJ<Jfduul, pp. 9~9
lb Batson , SchQenrnde and \'ends,
Rell,I/IOn and chc lnd1cidual, pp. 102-7
1i See chap,er I, no<c S
l!I L11l<c 9:5?-60
l'l lfarve)', The Dynon1111s of Pantw
CbJLoting'
2(1 .~mtmyur-dh_\'<lna Stm·"· In Cowell et
al BuddhlSt Mahayana Te.~ts. Pl'·
lbl-'19. See also the 6)'nopsiS QI dus in
Carophell The Mask.• q( Ond i.,.,/_ .1,
Oricncr,/ .\lyth,i/u11;.,•, PP JUJ-20
Jl Untso.n anJ Vt!Olis Tlte! Rdt~itJti,..
pp. J~7
LXJ)("r!L'11C.:,
.5 PATll\l'.1\·~ TO R£1.1<:1,ws I::XPERJf.NC:f.
Weber, Th,,: Slx:ttJIIJ,t\· of Rcl,,:wn, pp.
15.?-i.
2 ~lrtou::n. lntnxluctun1 to SJu·, f:ilwn p
240 and ii~< 4f,-<l Sclf-tlQ.l!cllatlon was
•l•n ..,en 1n m,-d,cval C:hnsilan P.umpc:,
,.._.., oriidv, f'l•~O•nl• h)· R ~I Ion,.,.
In 11,sun~, lfor::,,'<:laf)<t<,lfu ,If Rd,11i,m
mu/ Ethu.·a. It LS of lntcnl•t tu note that
NOTES (PP. 114-1.l4l 5-19
In both 11ru.e•, tile offich1l religion
Jlsap1,rovcs of ~uuh popular clhplny• of
emotion (sec pp . .390 nnd plotures on p.
107).
J Sec paper!' In K Werner. /,0<,,e l)k,i11e.
4 t' or • comporntivc ncoaunt of the
tduc,uinn rc<1111rcd to hccomc a
r<!ll~ous f)rofcs,lonfll, lcnmcd In the
Holy t.m,, ,;( Judaism, l,,lam nnd
medl..-vtll Chrlsti.i.nlty, sec M ~t. J
t1sche.r, /ran, pp. .32-60
5 f'0r nn occount of bhokn, see the essays
in K Womer, /,,)Ur Di'1inc AccvrJing LO
Werner's essay In this book (pp 37-52),
the bholt11 path can even be found lo
Buddhism.
6. ShunJO, //o,u,n the Buddhist Samt, pp.
-H-S,J50,J9S.4~1.47b, 7Jz..-.3.
7 Sandeen, Tm, Roo1R of FmtdCI·
mcnwlil<m, traces some of the links
bctwt..·<m these two rnovcmcnl8 in ninu..
tccnth•ccntury Westen, Chrl.ilonlt)'
8. The Boho'ls hove been stccrfag lbe
dlfftcult c.-ourse betweeo compromise
and confrom.atioo wi.th society m chelr
attempt.~ to reform snclely; see
Beckford, C11l1 Co111rot11.-r~s. Jlp. 117-'l
&okforJ d111,siflc, the•c ••
'rcvltnllu111011' groups In hb typolog)
9 In Lrru,, •uch 1troup, u, the fldu'lyan-1
Khalq a.nd tho MujahlJln-1 Khnlq
incorpQmte<l o ,!reat deal Q( socialist
think,nl! ,mo 1he1r man,Cestos s.,e
Kcddic, Roms Q( rhe Rew/um,,,, I'll
:?JJ - 9
10 Sec nnicle 'Ascctlci~m (lllndu)' by A S.
Gedcu u1 lluoliUJ,l>, E:ncylopaec/1<1 ,![
Ritl,gum ond Ethics.
1 I. See Subrawardl, The 'Awartf-u '1-
Mn'urif, pp. •H - 11,
I:? On rhc Old Order An1i<h, sec llosccdcr,
. \misl1 St)(.•icry; on lluttcrl lC~ M,.'i."
l'c1cr,, Ali Tlilnt:• Commo11 01ht•r
,lmUM groups Include the Dt>ukhul,un<
..r t:unnda l>cC llnwchoru, Tire
Voukholx,rs aJ Bnti.slt Colurubw)
1:1 Sec Cam,cl, l!,e li1<,//11nJl,?1 tier ururt-
11.·mhcrl/18cl1<--n T.:mplcr in Po//1•ru111
JSf>S-1'116
11 llcckfurJ, Cu(r Crmrn1tx·nm·~. Pl' >!!'--i,
ut1U. tbt. ~rour l hc 'rcfuj\t-' t)'I"' In hi,
typulu~
IS The~e arc •lmllnr to tbow oe" n,IJl!low.
movcm..-111~ cla,.sw,-J hy lkckford, <:11l1
C<mtm'1\...-.ic.<, p '!Ii ft.< ·release· 11n>ups
5~0 ',OTF.S (l'I' 1,11 - l!i.:?)
In hi, l)l>lll"lt) lie ~'"' 11, f11tthc1
t",amplc» frun~"<.:nJcnwl ~h:JJuulon
rh~ tt,,111«,h foundatlt•n •nJ S) nnnun
II> lhc fnn:m•N m11Jcm write" uo1 thl,
nrrr,i.1c.h ar"' FruhJnr St'hut1n, 1-t.:ro.i
{1rn.:ru.m 1 \nttml.e ( .oomnr.,,\\-Hnl)' lknrl
Corh,n onJ S-.:.~·yi:J Iltt1'\M.<ln N11111 Slot!
the cxpu,ilh,m of dH!II opptta.1,h hy tht.:
la.,1-11lllt1cd In Whalinl(, The \\'r,r/d'.,
1!,·/1J1u11,., 1rrul1C1mL<, Pl' Ill 1- 21~1
17 1'.estMIC' e,prc,..ums ul n.1,-,on c1111 b,,:
founll In SC\'tral ol thesi> rnuh~,,y,.. Cn
~h·nc ion 111 rraru,mliu my,lic:.lffl1 nod
c\'OO~ch.,m
18. On /ic..".}~·lu•-"», sec Katlloubi,.,.l.y «nd
l'lllmer, II nL11\l!S jroll1 Lhe l'htlolwlur..
1111 mantra•yoita, &•~ Mishm,
t),rldnm~1111I• 1!( Yt1.110, on dl11kr and
nt.·mlndxu 1 st.."' Nnk!tmuro. '1\ Stru<:tuml
,\J11tl)·•IS of dhlkr and ,.,,,nbutsu'
I 11 for J..-scrl11Llon:1 auJ furtl1er c.xaruplcs
..._.., Underhill M.v~rleL,m. ch:1pter S.
6 l'\m1. Bf.UEf ,\l{D co~·v}:IISION
.lames. The ~hn•tie, <if Relylrn11,i
e.-r,ien~ I'll 2~6-7, so~
:? Runt<>, Rca.-lqr,, Rc/a!T<rl,;,n and 0"'1,
pp 201- 12
3. l'rlcc, 'Belle( 'in" onJ Relief ·t1,a1'"
~- W C. Smh.h, 'A Uuman \1.,w o( Truth'
Smith Identifies the firSl with a l'lntonlc
Vl<:W of Lruth and the second with 00
Aristotelian vie" Sec •lso hos The
Mc,m,n,,i and End of Rcli1l1on, pp
1b.l--k A nurub.,r of other writers ha,·c
rdcrr..,.J 10 these aspects o( folth
5. Park h.,. descnbcd "patruuchft! faith
11.nd 'doctnrutl fauh', which parall,,1
these two aspects o/ fa11h, in Budd/11.,
Fairh mul Suddc11 F:l,/~/11cnm<'fll
C,. \\'llfrl-d Cnnt1<dl Smith 1,,. Jl('tllllcd out
Lhllt part of our problem iJ. lhc fact th,ll
thcru I• no nrh form <'<>rr<'1>P<lltdln!\ tO
the word 'faith' Tbertifor~. If we uc-.iept
hl-• JMs,rm of th~e rwo conc,,1•ts Into
faith nnd helicf, we an: <ull ,n d,li'kulty
when II c<mU!~ 10 ,·erhal fom1!;. ln
~neral, the M>lutlr>n has hccn to use th"
\'ttb 'bcllc•c 11> thi, vcrhill form o/
'fllth' Thi> 1,,.. <-'<>nttlbutcd tu the
oontu..-.fon ol dtC:S(; two t."On<..-cpt~ In th<:
pa;I The Mew11",I! and F:nd 'I) l!d11limi,
Pl' I b.l-4
7 Ayouh. Rcdm1pnw S11lJ'<·ri1l11 m /slum .
~ W ( ' h1t111h , r,1~ .\/,-.:rn1,~ mul t u,I c..,I
R,·l1J;1tm, p 1/,1
11 l'hllhr, ·~hJ\h>u., lld1cl, mJ I 11111u,1.t,,
(fanu,:., ... rr I \~•-t
Ill lltrl,cn C: Ktlnrnn, Comrh111-•,,
hh.:nttf1cn,1u11 ,tntl fnu:rn111i ....uum
Thl'l"t PrtK..'t:''4.:'" 01 \11ttudc C.h.,n4t
JuunuU ,j r:,1,,JlM.•t l~Juti,m 2. It'~"'~
Pl' SI ()0, ~umm.ulz'-"J in Bal Mm,
Sch<k!nrndc t1nd \'cnui Rd1J!111n un,I
tltc /11</-.lu«/ l'P ~-µ,
11 f:nk Eri~on, Ghilrlh1HKI 1111,l ,<;,,,;•1<rv,
Sew York 11150, end ·1dcnrny on,1 the
Life Ci·clc' /'it),·lir1/,,~1ca/ /"'111<•. 1
1?5'1. >,ummarl1eJ In BatM>O,
Schucnrudc anJ \ "cntl~. Rdll!IOfl w11.l
tile /11d1<.1llual l'P f>i-71
I:? fnwlcr, Slallr• t>f l"wth, Ml<' a.J,o
~ummnry In Botst,n Sc:h•~nratk anJ
\'cnlls, Rd1glm1 wul the l11dt<-11l11,J. pp
71-5 .
IJ Run10, Re"-"'-"' Rdau111.,on and c;,,.J
L~ Jame,,, ,I Plurc,11"1.,c l'11Kll.'f'w, f'P 17t.,
J21h.1(~. Some Pml,lm1.• "' Ph1/n,.,,pli_r,
l'P 223-5
15 Kuhn. The StMJcllln: u/ fic:lc11t1N<'
/!1,.'\Jl',/1.ttk,ns, pp 1--31 , t,<,-.k-1, 'I:?- 13!1.
144-Sli Th" SIJltcmclll truit the mo,e
frcm one parndlgJ,1 10 nnorher ·mode c•
on fallb' occun, on p . I SIi
16 \\'lute, Mcw)ustr,ry; se<> m pan,cular pp
1--lJ
17 Kuhn. Tho Structure 1,/ Sei<-nti/ic
l!c...,,lutmru. pp. 10-11, 52-oS, i7-'l2.
15&. The second edltluo ot <he book
contams • l)OSl-'Cnpt with a section that
is o( partJcula.r lnccre<t (pp l'l,._:?11,1)
When t"o !l,roop~ c,f 5efcntJs~, hold
lnMmpauhlc th<-oric,,, th~ Jtffcn:nc,,
bch\tcn th1.: t'4·o h nut O\.'C:r lo~c anJ
tcbunlng (•uch di/Jcr•n"'-'s 1<oulJ ht,
eru.11)· rc.oh·<.J). The Jlffcrclk.'(es ttre
O\'Cr the mearun¢' 1hat •~ anocht.J 1n
('<lttlcular d.tta or rule< - th~ J,ffen:nc,;
i. In lnnflu,il!c Sin,._. m,-..nlnC I• • ,aluc
that I• lndl\'fdually •Pf'licJ 1hcn, •re no
ncuu,tl rule, for rcaclUt\l! <kc1,1ono Th..-
onl)· "ay forwllfJ 1, tluoo~h pi:r>11a.ivn
of one woup t,y the othu Thi~ nuy ho!
wmpctrcd co rcli~ou, ooo,cr..,on It l•
che oommunity rather ch<1n lhe
lndMdunl• thnt mnkc, 1h, dfocuu,
Jcc.a~iOil
lk Pcrh14» 1•nl} tbs 1.,., c.ntur1<"1 ol th<.,
R'1ru.an 1.-;mpuc pru\-1Jc a Mm.tlat ptecur~
 Non:s (l'P l SZ- l 75 l 55 I

,,( rdlgious rlumll,m In the West On 7 TUll',\RJ)S A SctENTll'lC UNOlR.sTANllL~G

the lntdlcctual con.sequences of tW RJ?LIUIOOS EXJ>EI\IENC!F.
,..,.1wous plurnll,m, see Berger, Tlw
l Buur,!u1_g11on , ,\/,~red Srwc~ ,if
H,.,.·nml lm1)1:rn1i-o.'
l'I Sw, for e,mmple, the oppo<lllon to C<>n."'-"'"'""L'ltS, pp. <1- 1 I
2. Quom.1 In Jam,s. Tl,c l't1rie11c,s ,if
Jc,u> fmm ainnnii the Jv,.1<11 rdll)lous
Rdi,llw1.1S E:rperi,.,itt, p ,)AS
lt'Jidcr. ond the "Pl'lt1•itlon tf>
Baha'ullob £tom L!lamlc rcltgWU>
J "The first Yenr of che l, lf~ of the Child',
I' 204
I.ad«~ Thi~ 4uesuun I• discu,scd
4 Por more ,letnlls on the child'i; mcn1nl
funh•r in ch11ptcrs I~ and ll>.
de,dopment, ..,, t-•1nge1, The Essc,llfal
~1 The foUo,.in~ points arc mautly drawn
l' iol!et; II . Werner, Cumporar/t.-..,
frulll Rambo, l 'nckr>1and1n,! Rdi,,liflw•
P,,-;;-chtJl(lf/;V of Mem<tl Deuclopm..-m.
Cr.1,1wnn,1,1
5 Bcllnh. lk)'011d &lief, p . -15.
?I Sec. (or uamplc, Chana Ulhnru,'s Mud\'
6 fbid., pp 20-4 5.
'Cogn!O\'e ,md Emotlonnl Ankc-ed•nt~
7 This espcrimcnt i• described by
of Reh1!1ou.• Com-crslon She looked ac
Knonmaisu and lllral, 'An Elccir~
the tmponance of rela11onshi!l"' to the
encephalogr11phlc Siudv of the Zen
C<>O\.Crtlon pR)C'(.'SS, intcrvic\\-ir~ and
Mcditarion'. •
performing psycholollJcal ccsts on
se,-enty people: fony ronveru to four
I! fbld., p -199
9 Knsnmntsu and Himi, 'Science o(Zuen'
different groups (Lbe 811h•'I J'alth,
JO. On 1«1mwlltf nnd tL-chnlqucs of br~'lll!t
Ju<laism, RomAn CtlthoUclsm, and llare
conirol used to achieve tlltcrw statc11 of
Krishna), and 1hlrty people from
con•clou,ness In yoga, sec ~Ushra,
Judnlllln nnd Cnthollclsm wh<> were
ncu,·c ltfolong members of chose
Ftmdanumw/s o/ l~lla, pp. 17.'.h'l7.
208-24
rc~oo., One major Anding was Lhnc
11 1\nond, Chhine and Sin,l\h , 'Som•
con,«nlon wa. DOl scrongl)• correlau.>d
Asp<:cts of Elcc trocnccphnloAraphlc
,.;111 a •earch for oognlll\•e meanirlg but
Siudles In Yogis'.
nnher \\'Ith emotlonal Issues ,n,-ol\'illl\
12. A !)O<ld review o( thl~ phenqmcno n anJ
problem•tlc refaiionships with the
the experimental ba.sb for h ls to ~
hnhcr, an unhoppy childhood, or n past
found in Ho, Richards and C hute, Vnu!
ht.tory of ,llsruptcd 1111d dlstoned
Discrimfnalion and Swrc lkpendem
rdaliotishlp,.
22. Stockman, The &1.ha ·, FaillL 111 LearnirtA St!e, m particular. Overton 1
';\lajor Theories of S1a1e Dcpendcm
.~menoo, vol l , pp. xvlll-u; \'OI 2, pp.
Le11rnlnjf, pp. 2SJ.-.J 18 In this ,·olUJne.
92-104, 249-55: van den lloonoord
IJ. R. fisoher. 'A Cllftoivophy of Ecswuc
The Ongms of the .Baha'i Cmnnn11n~
and McdiUltive $mies'. p . 2\lb.
In Ccmoda, pp. 29,..J4 , 286-7.
14. 01•erton, 'Major Theories of State
23 Thi• annl1·s1s is =de on the basis of
Dependent Learnin~·. pp. J06-7
>tud1es on the Nuoo tribe of 1.he Sudan·
1S. Snco.odio. eye movement tnoreascs.
&umann. 'Conversion and C:onllnul1/
I.\ hilc
the ju.«-no1lccablo difforon"" In
On symboUc universes. see He,ter and
sensory input decreases along the
Luckmann, The Social C.msrrucrfrm qf
ergotrophlc pathway. The opposite
Rcali,;y. pp 1 J0-16
OCCUl'll a loot the trophotroplc pmhway
24 Eaton, The Rise tJf l•lom and Ilic &,,go/
R. ~,schcr, 'A Canogrnphv of Ecstntic
F'ronder, pp. 2(ilj..9()
a nd Meditnth·e Sra1es' pp. 288-'ll ,
25. Thts tlt>oriplion Is UJ.ken from Allport
and Ross, ' Personal Rell~ous Hi Thi• /net can oo mcasurNI
cxpcrimuutally nud i. cxp,-.,s(.'(( .,. th~
Oritntatlon and Prejudice.'
26. Ibid , p. 4J~
sensory-Lo-motor (SIM) ratio. ~·or
metl1ods of measu.r~ment, see R
27 Batson, Schoenrade nnd \'en11,,
fi~cher et ol., 'Personality Trait
Rcl,g,on und the /111/it>fdntd, pp. 11,6-l!
Dependent Pcrform3ncc und~r
1'$iloc:yhln'
17. Human b.eln¢, may be tl10ui,,1 of.,.
creating llJrpcrlonct through their
 :!'1 ~urht.."\'k Udl.41mt rn /'nmUet.~ .\:t',c,: ,,..,\
pu..-.chcd httcrprct.atlon {lhJI l••.11 I he
c;..•ortlcnl le, d ~ ul the .k!ll\'llY lU Lhctr
,utx,,rw~ Al th~ kvd ,,( dnll) nn11Jne
""
.10 l\uhn.
')(,~
rl"· Stm<•tttr,· ,4' Sn~rtli/tt
hum.,n ~mt, ,uc too la~ c~u.:nt tr\....__ R,,..)/Utttm..,
u• 111ccrpn:c chclr !'i-Ub..'<ut1c-11l 11ctt\·lty m
;1 l.J~ nurnflcr ,,( "'"'"""
l t, ~t l+i"'ch1.r ,\ (;flnogrnphy tJ( ~A.·Matu: I> Tm. 'IJMno Ill lh \Im
.u11.I ~ll.,htuU\\: Stuu,::., fl .!'H
i..-.;,,."t.m~ttaro l )><mlilt,ul. rllr, I '" Th<-.
I.CJ Sec R ~i,c•ber. urlffin ,tnd L1,.~.
I 1K1111shr11k pp lo~ (,
1-ltoloit,cal Aspects ol nmc on Rclntt on
2 Tw, Tt.· C'lun~ I. I. n.,l.,pt..:d frum JrH.:.\'1.:ral
m tMoocll l'srchu,cs·
trunslnu,m,
20 CkikOlan, 'll<!uutomatt1111inn and the
J Tuu fr ClttrV?, !, t1tl:1pll..J from '4.:\t:rn,I
\ lnlk f.,cpcrillflC,,0
tr.an!'ll;ulon~ St.-e .i~, p. 19.?
~ I lllld ., r 3:?'1
4 See the fuU tlJM.'U>\lt1n am.I tabl, In
2! St.'1J, for ~.k..lltlJlh.:. Lill' cl.J)Crlc.utic of
(;la.,cnnpp. llttdtl/11,.m , rr 10~-',
w.rn<>r .\Jkn J1:.crtbcd 111 T/te 1\11,d"""
<;ln<enopp·, tnMc 1, hnw,l on ,\nJre
1/umcm. All1:n dt!M:ribcs "'' c,pcr11:1, ce R,ln!nu. L:\l,,mlu ua 1>ltt/,,1,011h,,
tha1 he ,1.1tc, tlC..-currcd bet" e<:n NO
IJ<>u,l,/11111u.:, Puri•. l'l~ I p Zh-0
note~ In ;1 tkcthon:n <)'mphony
S I ·,/mw I! 1-1, ln WuoJ,.anl. .\/11~,r
Qur,1cd in lfo)")pttld. Mys11cism, f'P
,\r11luil,w1c., q11/tc Pc,J, C.mon . J1llf\ :!, P 11,
1.12~1 &,-., al;.,, Cohen <111J Phl)lp,,, The
b MtthaW.,ILk'llln,t!ntha-1,ha,Jtru 19 qunwd
Comnrm, E.-.pcrinK-c, )>P J<,7-'14
In Gl~napp. 811d1lhl801 p "-'
23 On 111),111, """ Cuhcn and Phip~. Tiu,
7 llnrvcy, Art trumd11co,m trJ /t1111</h1.,m.
l'omm<1n Experience. pp. I 41-{)6.
p. 103
24. l)elkman 'l>eautom•1Jza11on 3nd the
S &.,., uhnptcr Z, n I.
\1ysuc Expcr,cnce'. pp .•l.'l.'-1
25. See. for cxnmp1e. Sc Thcrcsn's ossertion 'I Murll, The C:tmtrul l'ln/osoph_v •l
Uudd/1ism, p• .?lZ
·A., to memory, 1he •oul, I think, ha.•
10 Harvey, An //ttroducoon to 8uddlu~m.
none lhcn, nor ony power t,( d1inkinj\,
p. <I<).
nor nn: the M:n,~ awoke. but mthcr
11 B:th3'u'll:1h, Oktmtr~s. no 16. p b2
IO•l', quoted In Woods, L'ndersttmdln!!
12 Ibid., nn 1~1, p .•Hb (italics •<ld<-d)
.\h-su<:1.~m, p. ~5(>.
13 ',\l;Ju'l-nohn Sdc.:11on• /rurtl 1/1<
26 Tl10 classical "Ork oo 1he spill hraui was
Jone b)' R W. Sperry and hi• assoclat<.,.
ll'nNll/lS ,if ~\bdu'/,&lw , p W 'Tru:
runJnmcn1al r,rlnclplt cnw1d:lU,J b,
nt the Onllfnmla lnMhu1c of
Balrn'u'llah . 1.1 lhal rdij\lou.s lruth "
r-...,hnul<>~> Sc<> Spcr,y, 'Ccrch·rnl
not nlm,lut~ but relath c • Sho~hl
Org,n.nl~atlon nnJ Bchuvlour";
f.ffendl G111d1mce /Qr TrJ(/11y and
C•rnllll~. Hogen und Sp.,"''• 'Some
Tomnm,u,. p 2
l'ullotlo11al Effocr.< of Sccuonl~ the
M '.\bJu'I-Roho, c,lt"d in \1om1.:n
C:crehra.l Commlssur~ in Man' /\ u;cful
'Rcl-.1t1•,iim·, p .203 Hah,'u ll•h.
summary can be fnund in Spe.rrr, "The
Oka.ru111!H, no l. pr 4-5
Crc•t Ccrehral Commissure' and
IS Quoted from Majhsl /Jtltor ul·.\nu,ur, In
Onmcin, 'Th" Two S,d,-. uf the Rrnin'
Momcn, /ncrrx/11Nm,1 w Slut, Jsl«m r
27 Th.,;,,, a1U1lv1cs cnn he uikcn further, In
14h.
that many. u{ thl'M: (wLuri.=s th.,t or1:
16 rtnhn'u'llnh, Glcc:ntHll!,>t, no 21, PP
hdn,i hs1<:d ~ l,,a,.tcm ond Western or
49-50
bclonj\lnl! to the 'Jormnanc' or 'nun·
17 fl!111Jlf.l'(.'<,1r/ G11u 'I 11
d(ln11na111 hemisphere, are also lentun-s
111 Swm11ut1 .\'tkuyt1 J I IN a,.l•p1~-d from
that nre commonly 11.ssoo,nrcd with rhe
rran;l.luon.& m Ccmzc. Buddldst n:..,r.-,,.
mnsculrne und feminine patterns u(
p. IIJ() and Tlic /J.>11/r •I/ K1nJrcd
tho~ht, •nd with yin and ynn~ In
S<<\111'!.~. wl .1, p 10 I
Cltl ""-"' Tuo"t phllOM>J'h)'
19 M1wh1mtt ,\',kayo I i I •dnpte.l irom
21> Ss-e ,11$0 Smart. 'The Work o( the
crt1n.sl.1tlon In Tltc Coll<'Cftnrt <ti .\lul,lk
Buddha IUld the Work of Chrl;i', pp.
IA'"lll!tlr Suy111A1• l 115 -6
lb!>-7
10 Cvnlc, Bu,ltlh.s-,n, ft 172~ llnn·cy, ,\n -1:1 Baha'u'llnh, Olc11m11,1t•, nu. ll:?, pp.
/t11nJJucl1A)II 10 &ultlh,sm, p l?<,. 161-2 (ltuhus aJ,l<.-<l).
!I Julm I H -1-l. S..-c note 2 o( this chopicr
2.? Qur\m 22 S, ,1? Q, 17:70, 38, 7;!
2.1 Qur'im .?·,"), (d 6$.
!~ llo,r'iin J 14, 7<lA0, 43-n 9 Str~H.I\ISG, SAC:tllfl(Jt il.~11 S.\L\'1\TIO:,i
!5 '.\bJu1-Balui, /'un.• 7blka. l'P 60-1.
&,e Freud, Nc-u:, /ntmducwry /.ecru.re11
!6 Mandttk)•u L'l)llm~Juul, In T/ie
011 P,o\:/l(>-1\11nlys,.,, pp 221111. quorcd
Cpo111-.</iw:/s, p. bJ
in Bowker, Proble,m, ,,JSuffemll/ in lhc
!1 John 14·J0
Rd(glon., of th<! lforld, pp 1- 2. Marx,
i.~ Qur'ort S·19
The £s.sennal Mor.<, pp. 2 ~.
!(I Qur'on I~ 38
:?••411,f!utUtm Nikctyu part 2, chapter 1-1 .
,10 &ha'u'llllh, 11,ddm Words , l'crslun, nc,
i.n The Book of Gmdu«J &0111,i!s, ,•ol. J ,
?9. p. 43
,H Dhamnwpoda. p. 170.
J Exodus 20·5, 3 4:7, /\'umbcn, 14·111
.1:? 'Samsara (the phenomenal world) is
4. ~e for example l><.uU:rrJ1ll>1ny 'J:1-8,
nothlnj! essenttallv different from
Job -1:7-?; 22:5-JO. 24:1-2.S, Psulms
X1n~onn Nin·:mn is nothing cs.~mially
7:1() and Qur'an ():J<,0-1 ; 7:9-1 ;
'11fforom from S,,msuro' (Nn&<1rjuM,
J0:26-8,
Mulumadhyuma-Kukartlw 25 l'l, p.
5 . See for exnmrle Maitri l'ponishad 1,9
I.Sit) .
(q1101c.-d p 222) and Brihud ArallW•ku
.1., A dtsllnclloo is made bcN·,-co Nirguna-
UJJ<ml•l1ctd 4:4,:?;J In Tlic TMrt1:c11
Brahman - the impen;c,nal, unknownble
Prine/pk t; p,:uui</11.ld.•. p . 144
Ab~olute; and Sai!una-Drahman -
6. M:is.,Rcld has sut,gest,'<I tbat the u:,ual
Brahman as manlfoted In the.- v.orld
tmnslatlon ol «n)'illl a.~ 'noble' i~ in fact
The llltt~r Is W1'll gl, en th~ nrunc ol
n misundcn;tnndin~ It is u<uolly
hh,·am, the Lord. as o pcrooo.il Deity
•11Mested thnt undcrstandin~ thi:,;e four
wllh atLrlbute~ Brahman mu.,l not be
,rut.Ju.. sc.ts one on the path to Nt_r,•nn..1.
con~ "ith Brahma the Creator. o ne
But Ma,dldd •uAAcsl$ th•t these truths
of the gods of TTindulsm (Md therefore
were oulv understood by thOS<l already
om: or the m:a.nlfl-stocion, of Brahman)
on the path to Nin'llnn and thus thb
This C!Qru~lon Is nrn<lc ""™' by the
tcnn should be minslated as the ' Four
foct that BrlUUllrui is sometime,; found
~up,crmundnnu Truths' (Di'1m,·
!II tt>. nommative form w1thout tl,e final
R(."O('/aifon in Pali Buddhism. V(&B.~im
·n· - Brahma - the only du(erence be1nt
but see In pnrtlculor pp 5-l , 174)
then that the f'im has o lol1,l\ 'a' and the
Others prcfor tllc t.ronslallon ' holy' or
sccand a shon 'a, tll the end
'sacred' {see llarvt?)', AH /ntroduc:uon to
~l-1 Ehadc.. Paucnis in Comparorioe
Btuldhism. p 23 and po.s.«im)
Rel.Ylwn , pp. 110-J 6 .
7. Masefleld rrnnslotcs 111"1,\'0ll os
35 Tumlriy« l'pwushud 2 .1. in The
·aupermund:nnc· bt..'Ctlusc it is tmly th0$.c
L pwn.,hads, p . 110
"·hu nro nlrcnJy on Lhc- path tu N"ln.:tmu
.11, Ton ~ Cln~ -12, adapted from severru
wh1:1 cnn follow the E14htfnld Pnth (,ce
tran<13llnn.•
note <, 1100,e)
,l7 Then: cm, •ome dJfforcnccs about v,hnt
IL Ru<lolph, Gnosss, p 58. 'The all wns
.. m harpu, '" the O:ly of Ju~cn,cnt
within the inronceivnble, lncompre-
and after thb "'" chapter 10.
h(·n ..ihfo. ,vho is 1.:xnhl'tl t1bo\·c nny
.,i,. ,\ci,, 11frJ1e,\pos1/es 4.1:?
thmll\111 , while rhc htnomncc nhuut the
.)Q Qur'tm S:I'>
Father produllrtl anguJ,h a11<1 terror .
~o Qur'an .l 3·-IO.
1\rul the un~ulsh thickenc<l likQ • mist,
41 The main e~c,.,ptl•m here is lib.:rnl
~o r.h,,t no~ c..·ould ""'-"\!. Tb~rcfont error
l'r,,tc>tdntl,m "hlch " pv,1-milknnlnl
j\3in,-d ~tr.,n4th Th~rclor.- de,pise
In c,utlwk (,c,: chapter lUJ anJ
crn'>r' Thu~ 11 h vdth her· ...:h,e ha.,, nn
~mpha!ti.tt'.l sac.l.J.l progra\.
root, ~ht· cnmc inm 1-H..·ml! In :a ml~, I•
41 llaha'u'llah. Thl,ld;. 1¥ 8ohn'u7/cJ,, p
i¢nonuu..,)• Mth n:l)ltrd tn the r,11h"r
MO
lilnL't: .Jic ( n,,1, I 1,, •h" prq'"''"" "orlu,
Slil ~CIH.S{PI' :!Iii :!.ll,I
fur~uulm.~~ nnd four:-.. 111 onkr thul :,,ht
ml\' hc~m•c tho"" "ho hdi,11_1! to th~
\tltl<t (1, c•· ..••·ntl~ hcln,t of clu.:
111h.-n11tJl.nl' km.tdoml .me.I t•1h.c them
u,:.i1111 t:•l('IUH (In m.1Ul'r) The
lur,tc1tulnu.1t J1J noc '101llC huu h<:11 u\
"'uh the hnhi!r ..1l t..hou~h It cumc Into
lli:111,e lx."l.!.Bu~ 4l( ll1m \\ h:u et>mc., ml<>
"-:l11C "1th111 Ihm is knowlcd~ (e,no»~l
u hti..'h \\;ti, mntlc mianifoql thRI fo~l·
luln, ,, mill),1 11-: dl<•nh-ctl ntHI th,
futfu.·r hl: knnwn !'.i1nl'e tlu.• ft1r~t
fulnt.''"' CAOU.: fntu bc.ln4 bL't!(IUM! tht
t iJtlh.:r wrui not knO\'t 11 1 lh1.:n from the
mumcnt v.hen the 1-'nrher t~ knoY.n the
t<l~tl'ulnc•, "111 no lmutcr cn<t loloi!
llnmmndl C'.odcx quut,.J m Rudotrh,
C,m.,.,.~ JI R.3 SI.:'-= ~•lJo B \\'nlkcr
Gn,,Aut·r~m I p. U,
1
1 St Au,lu~dne hdd this •lew. """
l'lmitln~a. ()(Id, Fn-cdr>m tmd Eu.I, l'P
57-11, A T Davis, Encount=r\l! &:d
pp 7-l-5.
1() ',\hdu'l,llnho, $(Hit<' ,lnsu,crcd
:?72-t
QLU.'~~11'-JrUJ, pp,
11 Sec Gnft1n. God, Pou,cr and Eotl
cspco,olly pp. 275-Jlll, and idem,
'Creation out or Chaos nnd the Problem
or E•·H'. In S 'f. O,wts. Encotmcen,'1,11
£1...1, pp ltJl-16.
12 &-c for cxnmplc, Augu.<1lnc City nf Ood
ond Aq,doa•, Summa Thcoto,i,ca.
4uowd ln Gnfftn, God, Poux>r tmd Ecd,
pp 70, ~5.
13. for an accoum of the opposinl! sides in
thi• contrc1\'cn,-y, <~-c Orm~hy, Thro<!.~·
m l<lomtc ThoW:hr
14 s...., for cx,unple, al-111111, t,/.R,il,u 7,1/dllt
.Wtar, pp 44-7
IS. I I'c<cr l :1>-7
H,. Quran 2: IS<,, 2'J.2
17 &:e I lick, Ew and the <Jnd nfLow, pp
20l-50
111 Sc,; quotntu>n irom Baha'i scrlptu,,.. r:m
p 20t,, jOut o( chc W0115h,:~ of
nuthlngnc>, . ' S.,c ruw the Short
OhhgfttO~ l'rny~r In &.ho'u'llah
/'r<-OffS ond Medttmirm.!l, no I!! I
19 Isaac m the Je.,.i<h-Cbnstllln crnditln·n
lshmucl 1n 1hc Mushm tn1d1tion
211 Rha,g<,1.,ad Gita J. lll-12
:?I R/""1(,.,.,1/GlwJ 14- lt, l::ILulcupnnds
funhcr ou thl• function of .ac:rtfl"" .In
tribal n:llition• 'Into modun um.,,, the
l!ralo-Al<a!c roe(.-:< ,iacnfk'Cd horse, io
thi; ,uprcmc l!u<b bl' th.- ,kv The
hh"4.· L~ id1,.;ntil1'-~t ~uh rhc c..~)'lomo~ an..J
th~ ...ui:rlttclna o, U ~vmhuh1~ t1h1u ll,
r-. prrJflt1n.. •) lht..: ;lVI of 1..•rv1111un'
(Puttt·n,• m (",;mpur,dl\.'C." Hd1,c1tm
I' '"')
2;! II I llustMn, quut<-J tn U~1J,, l'utl<nUJ
tn <..m,1,an1t1(:i. H.dut111r1. ,, !2
2,1. 1Jh,.r11,w,I Gllct I .:?S
Z L Allen, Tiu: lltultl/u,'tt f•/u/n..,,,,h•• , p \'•
25 /Uwl,l!trt.'fkl c;1w 2 ft:?, ft t, t.N 71
2'1 J\M...'ttl..t ti/ ,\Juum C11nr14..·f I JJ 1 t.tlN•h.J
In 1101,polu My>lil1•m , J>P J.1'1-1
~7. 'Attar, Tiu. Cmtf1."Tt.'1U.:1:. ()j clu: lhrr.1.",
p 12'!
2~. B.,hau11.,h X1tnl1+/f/"" • p J
2'1 Blwt111twld CJttu 3 ;?~
JO. Juhu .,r
Ruy~hro,.'Ck. Th, , \llomm-.-nt of
the S11lntual M<>n'l(ljl•, 2 <•~•.S, 4uot,.J
In llappolJ Alv1>ttl'llff11 , pp 2Si-'l
J I Table,,. vf &l1<1'u lb.JI, p, 16i
.1Z. Isaiah S..l:-l-S
JJ B•h•'u'llnh Gletn1tt11!•, no 45, p 11'1
:l I Romon• 3·23 al"' I Knill• ~Hh and
&.-cle•,astc< 7 20
35. !'or a ml)d"m li~ral Chrt•tlan Inter,
pretal1on, .!.t,.;C Kuo4. On ik"ln..&? a
Cltns11<in, pp 419-..16
Jt>. llebreu:s 9 :22-1,
J7 'The Mes.seni:t,r of (:od s:ud "Xohod,
"ho die• ond hn~ 30mctbln~ ,:o<l<I for
him •Vith Allllh will (,<er Ukc to) ruurn
to this worlJ t!\'Clt though he- ~t:rc
ol!cred the whol.: "orld and aU that L, ,n
It (a_• an Inducement) except th~
martyr ,.·ho dc.<lrc~ to rerum anJ be
killc.1 ,n the «·orld for the: (C,dt) m,r'it
nf manyrdom lhat he ha~ ~en ., So/uh
M113/rm, vol J. p IUH, no 41,J.1 &c
!Ibo Qu., 'u11 J.170
J8 l'or "" ~xpositlon or till!, thtm~. -..,c,
A)'Ouh. /{ed~mprtt:<' ,\tt[,,-rHUI., IO
paruculnr pp 1'17-.?lto
Jl'I Althou;\h thi• I• In fact , rather d<>uhtful
hlMOri<:AII) &,., Mum~n ln1n,du4 """
/sk,m pp 23, 4,1, U •nd not.,.
tfl :Sh,',
·Ill. ll.iha'u·llah. 01<'.aml\l!s, ,.., J:!. l'P
75--1,
41 Reckfonl. <:Ulc Corurore=•·•· pp l'J I
4.? Sukhtnxa111:1yulua, m C.on1.e. Butld)u..<11
&'t1ptu,e,, Pl'· 21?-I
•IJ MujJ/umu .\',,.,,.-~, . In C..n,c, Ru,ld/11,1
S<.'rlpwr~s pp . .?.?4-5
41 (lur'un IJ.J5
45 l.,uke 17 .?I,.\\'
# i:n,krlull. ,11,•.n.-..,m l'I' 4:?.~
li \td,ndapanha. m Go.>nze. H,utdh,st
s..,,rn,,..,._ p. 1~ Sec a lw l 'dnnc I< J,
'" W""'1w11nl. \lrnor .\111/i.i/,,,1,as qf rlw
p.,J, 0111011 p;,rt :2. p 97
I~ \luJJhlnw X,lw.m .? 7'1. pnn, JZ, tn The
Culk1.•,..,111 t/ .llu1<1/c L.:1¥:th St>_Vll\llS,
, ol .?. pp .?2Q.-.30. ,'>al7l.\1ltm l\"1ki1,WJ
:2 1>-1--S. in Conze. Buddhisl To<t•. p 6'>
4Q \itlll,'ll ·Pt111k.J 1 I. in Conr.e Buddhi.<t
Tat.,. pp t.t>-i.
10 Tut PR0Mlli£ O P .\ Plcn·RE S,\\1Pl'R
:;._.., Table 10. 1 on p . .?43 aml Donkard.,
,.1-11.?-14. UI \\'es1. l'"1i1ocl Tais. pan
~. PP- ;\.3-4
:? &hmm, Jast J 1 13- 1~. in \\'es,,
Pahluvi Ta,.., pan 1, pp ?JS, 2:?0- 1
,\ '"'""''- l'urona 4 24 ,25-9, quoted In
O'flahem·. 1/uufu Myths, PP- ZJ6-7.
s.,,, abo ~ Pumoo 12,2 16
4 The Buddha's addre,;s in ,he
Caklwmm-SihanlJda Summa, Di/1.lia
.\'IADVO J IS-b , in Rhys Oa,·id,,
O..~u.e• ci the Buddha, vol. 3. p.
73-1
o0t Zambasta
S. Emm~rlc k , uuu n , ..•,.
22 1<>5-o, p .315
b Isaiah 9 ·2 . f>-1
i \latthcu, 24 Jn-1
r. .\l· &~hawl Mishkl>t al-.~la-<11hlh,
3.IHO
9 ,\J.Nu' mrutl, Ktwb aJ.Q/wyba, 4uotl'tl In
Mum""· lnrrod1wnon 10 Shl'1 ls/om, p.
11,9
10 $h~i Effendi Otrecrrws of rhe
Guam,an. n<> 112. p 42
11 Oa111d 1.?•2-.3 Jt,hn 5 !ti-? Qur'u11
75 6-15.
12 Pwlm., 'J 7-b, 50,.l-4. John 5 21>-9;
Qur-'an 22:J 7. oO,J
D Jod I ·lS; .1/uuheu, l.1:J<J-11) Qur'a11
<;~ 1-5
H Sarkl,nn• Buddhti« Buc/(gro«,ut• 'II
th.r Bu~"~ Rrtvlunm1 r 'H .
Mendd»ohn A )lc,,,wuc Buddbat
,\»oclauun . Scnprurnl iu,,llflca.lk>n for
th,s rc,smnn c,un be found m a
M•hayana scrlp1ure Mahasanntl)OW
Surrn (Ta,,.,,ki""1 ) sec Buddh,.ot
.\luho)""" Stums, rP 115-1(,n Sec
,wo Zurcllcr, Pnno.: 1toonligbt , PP
I.}..:?.?.
15. l am h"r" lollov.m( the cypoloty
irolll,~<•-d bi J1111 l>omer, 'Tbc Me,u1tnll,,
,,r the M.iltrcv• Myi.h'
11> Forth" interprcoulnn sec llan«>n , The
n,-,.,.,.
r>/ ,\l)o<,u/ypllc (for nn.,icnt
1'111dl a.nd EJdy, r,,.,
KuU! Jii De<,J Cfor
snclent Iran ).
17. \\'=Inger. 'M1llennlnh,m With and
\\'11hom ~fayhcm
18 Ribeiro, 'lln,zillun MC11siaatc \love_.
ment>•', pp S<l. .f,()
19 Shepperson, 'Th" C<>mpanuhc Stmly <>f
MJIJcnariruJ moH,mc0.15', p 4-4-5.
20. lh·<-m1ycr, Folk /Juddhis1 Rcll!l>On. pp
;?S-7. 82-5. %-JOO, 104-S. Ide.on
'Messu,w,r, s.,-;oor ond Revo>lu<ionat)·',
rP- 114-5; Ch.on. 'The White Loua-
Mohrcyu Doct:rlne'
21 Ta!. Millenurlm,ism a.rid Pro.,;unt
Pol1l1cs in \ 'iccoom .._.., In particular
the tbeoreucal dl,,cusslon of the role of
the Malrreyo mnh. pp. 27-IJ, and
descriptlon of the millenllrlan re,·olt,
pp. 1 l.l-4-4
.?2. Tambuth, The /Juddh•,c Sumr,, of rhc
Forest, pp. 300-H. Snrklsyanz •
Buddh•,i Baclc4rounds of rhe Bu:rme..se
Re<:<J/utwri. p. 161; Ada.s, Proplte,s rJ
Rebel/ion , pp. QC)- 102.
23. Momcn. fntmducuc.m to SJu·i lslnm, pp
35...(,, 41>--00 passim. Wnu, "The Muslim
Yellrlllng fot a &vlour·
'.?4 Mumen, lntroduetum w S/11'1 ls/Jun, pp.
105. 109.
25. P Smith. The &bi and Baht,'i Rdi,,ltllll,
pp. 42-4-1; Mom~n. The &,In and Baha'i
Rt/lJ!imlA IS.H- 19-N , pp 91-151
~b. Cohn, Tll<' Punrutl of the .lldl.~1nlu111 .
ldt!m ·~leJJc,•<11 Millcnnntml&m ·, pp
J7~ '
:?I Mom~n. lncmducnon 10 Siu", Islam p
10:i
:?S O,.·crm,·cr F'olk BucJdhU<t Rcl11!in11 I'-
/>.?, N•;tlcr. ·Mc,mlng., ur
the Mnhn:ya
Mnh', p. Jl and now M ; Furt~, Pulttlcal
,,;.,paganda and Ideology m Clnna, pp
4-50. 1SJ-.(,!,,
29 Morucn. lncroductro,1 w Shi'i Islam, pp.
1117-.'<, 109, 11 Z
JO. Sarkiwani. Budd/11.,r ~r,,unds oj
the B.;_mu:sc l!t.'<-'Olullan. f1P 93-7: ><-'O!
also pp. 152- 9 and ,\dlls. Prophets oj
Rebel/um, pp. 101-.?, for others "ho
claomed 10 be the Cakk3vaw ns a bas1<
for TO\'Ok.
Jl S.uki<yanr, B1uldhtst &tck4rm,1uls <Ii
556 Non.s 1"" :?s•1 21,k1
llu.· /Jun11eM: RC\•1/unQn, l'P '!l·.'.!
J.? !'hit IS the mruu thcMS Uf liAJlJ.:cn. 1'11<'
/loot< o( fundnmc,1ta/u;111
.\.l , krs ,!f the .lpns1/c,c Q I -:)II
·" C.urhin 1/u<uJJrc ,Ir lu p/11/os11pl11c
,flllww11u.·, pp 10 ~ 7. Mom..:-n.
/,ttnM/Ucfl()Ji to S/U~I ls/om, p. 22.7
JS. I' Smith T/1<• 811/>t un,I IJ<1/io '1 Rd~mn.
chJpter. 1-:?
.l6, On \mhahh•',• utulinmcnt tu
hmldh•hood and his \\'cs1em l'oradlsc
11nd on ••1•1111011 throui;h fillth In
,\mlrnbho, ,cc the two SuArhnt.•<111·
,,,.1uu1 In /Judtlliu,1 M1.1lia}"'"' Sum,,.,
p11rt :?, pp. 1- IOJ; ruul the M1J11RlW11a-
lw1a Sum, !Sutra S. fel,hu J J())
1rnrn,l111ed In 'The uand of Utmt>t>L Bibo',
ohnptcr 18 In Chan,!\, A '/hx,sul)• <If
Mol1covm11 S111rru,, pp 91-IO I
.1i. Lanutllc, '.Mnnju!\ri\ Bimh.-uun. 1<:rudics
m, rltc M)t..liti.'n«.!s «!f Mrovusn.
3ll Cohn'• ,u~cs11on ('Medieval Mlllen-
ortanJsm', pp, ~2..J) that this Is due to
the doctnne of reincarnnuon falls do·"11
because Buddhism has numerous such
sects despite nlil<l holdinJl to a similar
doctrine There hnvc been o fow minor
millcnnrhm mo,·c:mcnts in lndin, sec
Ada,,, f'roplic/8 oJ' Rcbdllon, pp. 1'>-:?S,
105-9.
J9. Vivckanomla, C.:Omplete ll'orlul, vol 6,
pp 185-S
40 Momen, lntmd11crio11 In .'1/n"i l.~/i,m, p.
21,<J,
H O,•crm)'t:r, '~l\!'S1<1'-'ng..:r, S:wior a.nd
R<>Volu,lonary', pp, I IJ.-5
42. Ibid .. p I H Sec nbo references In nutc
zu <LOO\C,
43. L. t'estl~r. 1-1 W Rleckem and S.
8cbacter. 111,cr, />toplm.--:-• fo,I,, I\156,
cited m Hm~n. Schoenrndc ond Vent!•,
Rdi/lit>n llnd tlw lr1<l1'1'i</ua/. pp. 205--'>
l-1 ,\nothcrcxnmrlt, c)f ~ucli rnt1on:1l1taunn
Is l\l'on ltl chapter 14, l'P Jl>l-!'i
45 llatson Schocnmdc and \'c11,1s,
Rclu!wn 1.1ntl tl1c lluln:ulut,I, l'P-
ZOZ-17 See nl'IO pp. 211>-17 cm chc
,p,;culntion thnt Chri'llrul c.lo.minc ttn
the 5l1Ultm o( C~hrl,t onJ hi,
n.:"urrccuon \\ l.lb born out or Lh\:
co~nttt"'c d1~.Mmttnt"t! crc,m.:tl h)· h,s
c.nu:tflxl,,n
46. &-e !lurrli.l~c. Nc"UJ 1/mu:n \'L..., &,rt/1,
Ill parliculor pp IOS-lb B:nkun
,1rc,scs the Impact 111 ,oclal 1 nd
1."\J(Hu;,ndc ~tn.:.).~~ urn.I
urh'--.,u~ In tht
nr,~afllll~-t ._,f m1lh.:nnu,h~• mmcnh,:ma
,n 11:nrih J\menc• In th<: I h1fl, tn
C:n,nbl, ,If 1h, .1/11/nonurn. ""' 111
pnrtl<'Ytnr I'll' 1.W ~'l \d.i., l'r,,rihct.ii
Rcl,d/um, pp. 1/\.~'I rdut,11 ..,m, ,,
the -.IJi.!IV hdJ R~illtuuptlon., 1l10lJI
llh:.\i.' ntO\c.mcJ,t\
47 U.1.rl<no d,scnh(;. three ,w~, 1n the
social m<.-chonl•m of rorint "nh
rollL'CIIW .,....1.1 UJ)hC,l\'>ll nnJ n•tural
cJiMi\u.~,-,. ( 1) J.mrn~ ct,ntn•I ~> h m,
v.hfuh try to pn:\c.nl, t-ontrul, nr. 1f ,hat
foil,,, C<JfflJ)Cl.,.81< victims r,,r
..,_,lal anJ
nutura.l J.JM1Mcr3 1 (2) thc1,r1c, o(
mbrnk'-", wl1ich if th<: J.tma~, 00nu,,I
~y,t~ms pron! ln.ad~t1uaw.. are 1:thl1: t•,
1:.xrlllln such d,sastcn. In term., nf the
tmdinonnl workMcw "' thnt society, c.,,
ahemauve worldv•c\\tt - ,( th.: -.r:N.:ud
itr1.:...~ urc MO int1,;n.w and prulon~.J
thot the •tand11rd tl1L't>rlL'll of mlMalu.:o nf
t.he soc,ecy are no loo!!er cn,dJl>lc. th,
worldvit!\\ o( the 'iOC1ccy I, put mto
quesuon. In thi5 loner s11uat,on
ahemative \\"Otld\.;cv.-s han: 11 ohan-.."'I; ol
hccnmiog acccp1cd Doth pr, ,
milleaniullst and po•t·mlllcnnltlliM
\·icws (even lf nut cxplielt.ly phrlbc.d In
ruUl\lous tcl'lllS) oomc LO lht fore at such
• time nnd rtceh·c y,.,cJc$prl!ad ath~nu,,n
(althoud, I.be number< ac111all1·
rnnicipaumt in 11uc:h m<n'\!tlle-nt., are
not nlway, !\!'Cat) O.rkun h11.1 hknuhcJ
such pt!rioJ, In Sorth Amcnca on tl1c
l~~O.. 111?0.., l'J.ll),. ond lhc j><:noJ
between I </(>(I 1111<.i I <)7!\ llarkun
Cruetble <tJ'tru: .\hllrn.mum pp. 13'1-1>11
11 ,\RC:llfTl'l'f:, \ll'TII ,\\11 Tllf S\C:RIJ1
Eliode, />am·rns /11 C11mp,mmf.'<!
Rc/141111, . I' I
2 ',\rchct1'f'lll Iden< arc pan ot the
inJ,·struct1hJ~ 1'11tmd.nion, 1,t 1hc hum:1n
mlnt.1 Jun~ fl'!t)Y.:.liofo4.,y wtd RdjJJ~,,,.
Jt.;1r1 l'>~. r 1JO Sec ••l-r.o qt1uCJllio11 on
p &I .tl.;,c.
J for u JctaJll'd C..'1"tU,1d-.:r.i.uon o!
arch-:t\·pci., ~cl.! Ui:tdt: . Pc.uu:rn~ m
<:om"J)f-r,101..._: Ri:11.,tmrt
-I Folk t.1J1,;'\ epic nnd k~cml" an.: ot, ... n •
dc,tnuJ.1.uon of a n,yth MrippmJ!; it nf ""
r4,,;h~ou, a,J)\:t:t"' "hlk th 1n( u othl.'r
..JlnU>CUth.-e, rv, .-ample Ill 1nur~I wlo,

n,uionnl cptcs and M> on
~ 1,;liaJc /,,u,s/r;i mu/ SJ·mixlls, pp
l:?(l..21 ~-c nlso f:liodc, Pu<ten>s In
ContJ)(Jr'Oll~'C Rdu:um , 1• 11,2
tt }:liaJe;t,. 11,utt·ni,s an C:onapnrnflt.'C
R.:l~1ur1. pp. 1Cr5S. 109-11, 12'h\O.
i 11',d.. pp 9-1-c..
, Ju,f.c,s 2 IJ-lJ. IO<>: 1 Smnuel 1;3-1;
12 IO
'l Sc, Comp~II The /km um/1 11
TJ101J"1nt/ J'U<U
10 On the p.,mllcls between the •t.ru<eture
of this m~·th and the srructure of rites t>f
l"L'=••l!e. see pp. .?bl, 284.
11 On the sun~ and solar heroes and the
lmkln~ of lhl• to ''e!!CUltlon ~ oce
Elh,Jc. Patt<nlJJ iti Compa rwiw
RdtJlt0n, pp 127 135-a, 147-5 1,
- I ~. For ..wr!e;. of •uoh ~s. ....-c
enrry on Tammuz hy T. G Pinches In
H,mlnj!s, Encyclopaedia qf Rcl(l/ion
and Ethws; ,nd on ()$irl• hy L. II Lc,kn
In Eliadc. Enc:yclopcclia qf Rcl,a,o,. Sec
cnuo.-m of lhls <"<incept In the aruolo>
·o~u,g ond Rl,,ing God' by Jooathrul Z.
Smtth in Ellade, t,11cyclopcclw qf
lk/1,tiAm
12 For nn analrsi, lmkind the heroes in
Jroninn epic lltcraturc with the myth oi
tfa, ,·c,i,:tntion jlod. •cu Kmsnowulsko,
'The He roe~ of the l mnlnn Epic T11lc'
13. s.,., Campbell, The llt'TO u,uJ, o
Thoosa,ld Faces See also note 48 In
this chapter
l-1 le I< p<>rhnps no occident thot Easier, the
l..,.,mmtmnrntion "' Ch rhil '~ rcsur~
n;c:don, ls ~cl In the ChriMJJln c:t)i!.ntlo1r
lD Ql!~'W" lmm'-'11lutel)• nfter Ille •Prtng
<-qulnox. "hlch marks the und of the
earth's death dunn~ winter
I!\ Manhcu- 17·2-S
16 llhos/awd c,w 11:9-13
17. A n:f.renoo to th</ ~i~ht Joun1c~· and
Mt'Cnt oo<,un in the Qt,ra11 ( 17 I ), hut
lhe mnm detAJ!s are tu be f<>w1J In
numerou:, tradnional a(,,.-counb.
l'> Ru! Veda 7 IOI 3, p 175
l'I l.au-s q( Moni, 9:33. p 333
!fl EHadc, Pu.ttc-n1.t, m Cr>rt1J)(troo,x:-
Rd1111un, clwpU:r 10 ::ice al,o quowtiun
from E.llade on p 21>'1 abo,e.
Z l FJt,,J~. Tlte &.crcd ond c}u; Prtifanc. p.
96. A completely dlfiercnt ,1ew of ritual
oomc,; from the wmml!s ot i-,iamund
Fr.'Ud lie interpreted some ritu"15 ••
NOTES (PP 21! 1>· 2'JI) !'i57
the commemoratfun :tnd re--c.:ntt.e.cment
of ,he orl,ilnal Oedipal crlrue (seep 62)
2.? 1\1mcr The Rittutl Pm<.,i:IQI .
2.."l flint.le. Pnth.~n111 tn Comporotiw
Rcl,1//un , p . -!lb /\hhouj\h Ell•dc
discourngc, •implifk':ltJo<IS and fonnu-
latlons. they do n~verthele~ help us to
elanfy what ,. .l\()lnj\ on dum11t the
course of rclieious rituol
2-1 ·Ont of th~ fundnmcmol C.'<mdltions or
h.1pr,lnes. ,.,i tu km,w tbu1 C\'crythlng
lhut unc t.10<:s ha. Ii meaning 111
etcmh)". Burekhnrd1, Sacrctl , In, p . 'l.
25. This account ls dtawn from Kull,!.
Eternal L.ffe?. pp. 123--13
26 J Cmin1l1ian11 JS,3-$
27 Muri< If, 1../l
28 ,\lattlwto 28. 1- 16.
29 Thi• lalcr de,clopm"m ol the myth to
indude Peter confirming that the tomh
is empty is a !lood cxample of the
cunc..ptwil jl;1p 001,.·ci!n ws and 1he
world o f the"'= fo01an11mL •uthors It
may appuor to bu of oo partlcul:ir
slgnlllcaoc" w this oge, but for the
world or the Nt,u, Thstame,u aULhors It
w:is o( l!,eac lmporuioec to cs1t1bllsb
that n man had witnessed the empty
tomb, In Jewish rcll~lous law, tho
t~Limony o( .a womnn wu of no
account.
JQ. Luke :?4;J- 13, 15-16, 30-J, .l~1l,
50-1
31. John 20:1-25 .
32. Frn11D1cnt !:.14-12, in M R. James. Thl'
.1\pt)(,-ry-plml Nc,r Te.i"wnw,u. pp 'Jl-..1
33. Thi• BL"<.'OUnt Is dmwn princlpruly frorn
\\'•mer, ,l/1mc vJ 1\/11/cr Sex. chnptcr.
1-J, 6 and 16
J4 Oalaw:ins -1·-I 011Janans wa.s prohahly
wrincn ln 57 er
JS .•1-lltrlr 3:31-$ £\'<en in thl.' •·cry lat<'
Go•l'CI r1cconltn~ to SI John ( 100 CE or
lnterl, "' Ont.I the •urprisln4ly harsh
words or Jell~ to hi• moll,cr-- ·o woman,
what bu,.e you to do with me>· (John
2,-1)
36. There •re i;ome C'.athollc scholars who
,.,m,,dcr <hat the ,\mmnio C<».pt:/ ,if.'it
.11"11)10...,, r,r.-ccdcd Murk. but C\'CII
tbCM: are ogr~'Cd that the secuons that
we are dealint "1th here. the narratives
o( Jesus' infonc,·. "·ere addt:d :11 • later
dstc wh~n the Aramaic Go_<pcl was
t rln$latcd into Ore<!k. the onl)· fom, in
55,; NUT!-;S ( l'l' .?'!.?-J 1.2)
Y. hteh II ,un·iH.'~
3 7 Tlw R,..1sed 1,;rond.,rd Vcrs,<>n of th.,
8,1,1,· ,Ill•,< t,och ohemorh ca Schul., r1
ho\c r,mntcd out tbut Lhc \\Onl u"-,!t.l (~,r
·, l~ui· u, thl'. urt4lu,1I llchr'-'.W, •,Juu.,h.
011..ly tuCJJl!'I. o \'Ount unmurrlt!<l womo n
\hht1U~ such U VOUtl~ \\'Ufl)OO would
hit\~ rn.-;,n npecu,d tn bt, J •·ll}lln. rhl•
•nic llPt p;irt of tht.• mcanm,4 D( the word.
which ~'(1Uld e11u•II) how h.-<:n
tr,uu,tnccd H'!I 'youn~ ,,0111,m· further
tluuht I• pl.,c~J on 1li. "hole wn<...,pl u(
the \·lr!lJUll~ or
Mttr)' b~ I lw lr.ltdnj\ ur
Jc,u., •n~-csti; 1hrou~h J11,cph
(Mnuheu- I 16; l,uk<! .l 2.l). which
would not ha\'c hccn rclcvom i( wr1u.-rs
or 1ht Go«pct, hod h...t,cwd th111 Jo;cph
"as not thtJ fothcr o( Jt.:.~us
38 l.a.ic1l1 1 H.
.w St,., OOle 37 or WIS ch:,p1cr
4\1 Mark 3:31: 6:3. ,\ICJfrhC'W 12:46.
13,SS-6
11 Wllfller ,llooo of All fkr Se.-.:
12 Mumcn, lnrrodu.cticm ,o Shi', /dam p
2J6. There are al,o
e,rnmples vl~in or
birrhs In mhcr religions. Zoro;u.tcr Is
reported u; have been cooccJ\'cd
throu4h the drinkln)l <>I Hom• D)' his
mmhcr (Z(ld·S1H>rt1m In Wcs1, PuJ,l,rt.-i
Tu.-cts, pare I, p 187; D,ll/1.,rnn./ Dinik,
In Wtst, l'ah/m,1 Tc."•• part :!, p. I 64
anti n,) Sec abo 1bc accounts of the
conception of lb" Buddh.o "hlch Imply o
,1~n conception br s1oiln1t that the
Buddha entered his mo1her$ womb
(mm 111.>r right •ide (Pye. The 81«/dhll,
pp 109-10) In the rdi!t111n of the II.ob,
the preCUl"$Or or
Bnhn"u'Uo.h (the
founder or
th" Baha'i f'alth), his most
promlncn1 disciple, Quddu~, w,t.\
rej!iirded by the Babis as the return of
Christ In this connccllon. It 1s
inlerestin4 that one of the earlic~t
hls-torics of the mo\·cmcn, refers to the
vl'ltln birth or
QuJtlus, seu L4mbden.
'tpisode', p. :?6. n. 35. f"or other
examples of - , ~ blrlh from primal
rtliAions, see Camphell Hero u,ilh a
T/1011.,,nd Foc~1<. pp Jl 1-14
13 For •uch on nnaly,ls of tho Chrhunn,
uory, ace 11. J Rkhnrd.r, The Fmll
Clni.,11,- (s.:c lo particular pp I5-1 c,,
99-117)
~4 I am here follo•in4 ,he oplruon lbo:se or
~cholars who maintai n thnr the
ll«=VJm.•<1 Is o 1,,i. .,,,rb I<' t51• L)
nnd <hould rrvpcrh 1-.., ~,,n,11kr<-tl .._,
one o! the l~1rt111l&>
~!\ llh<1,1,~ro1u.il'l.rw11, 10 ~~ s~ lt>!W :I.\ ,,
· ~- 1011.\.,\'J 1(1
lb This L•mccpt of unplldt r,,h~on "~
8n,t brnuAht 10 the 11t1cnuon of ,d,olar,
h)· ~:d"nrtl llnllcv (ihc lmpllc11 Rd1a,1Jn
1>f Con1tml""rn"· !'i<,.:lu,·') In I 'lk.\ In
hi, r,IJ)<'r, ll,nk,· dc.-..:nl><;,, a numl,., nl
"xnm1•lt.r-. c,r tlu. pht:nnm\:nOn On~ of
thew I• the Em1)L,h 1>uhl1c huu-.., ('puh')
8;illcy r.lc,,cribcs we ~)"1111><,tL,m u( •ud1
foctur. o.- the t)l)<l of A)A.'11 In v. hH.:h th•
he;,r Is t,1:1"\\!d, the 'pnc.,tl)· ml-, or the
londlnrd nnd bar ,r,,ff. 1hc: rule> lflr
monly wndU<:< In the puh nnJ 1h<1 nrunl
of huymj\ n>unds or Jnnk., ~ .. ""Lil
CbCJ 4.:-llSC' with 0\:\\ \:UO~\:Pb~ ~Om\!
scholrus haw fow,J numcmu" uampl.,.,
ot 1111pbc1t reb~1on In all aspc,;<> ol Ilk,
"'bile others doubt 1Ls c,mtcnc, or
import.'\OCC?
4 7. Frcd.,riok Wdhoum. cited In llailc,
'lmplicll Religion'. p. 70
48 lntcrcslingl). George Lu~. the
dlrL>ctor of one oi lhc most ~ucccs;JuJ
(ilms of all ume, Star Wa", ha,
ncknowl~cd hi• deh1 10 the work.~ of
J""cph C 1mrbcll on th<: ..,L,r htl'O
12 Co~WA.ft-'TIVE RELIO!Ol"S I hSTURY
l Bll<Jl.lt.n,~"1 Gua 4 7-8
2 Thal 111, If" e exclude lbe Buddha "hob
Included lo lbe ltn;, of avau,,s m sc,cml
i lmdu 511urc01<
3 Sec also Barnes. "Ch•rl~ma and
Rcl,,11ious l.cndcrsh,p'
4 See II J Rlchm-.ls, The First C/111,<tll,,..,
pp. 21-<,
S. Sec Mn.scOclJ, 'The Muoi and lht
Moon,cs". pp 141>-7. l 5tl
b. Sec O\l:ha NiJu~va l ll~fi , Swwmpara
284-106, .·\,u:?1,utJra N1Jtcn•a J:J.2 U .
St1m_yu1ta N1kt1_\'0 4 11 i( qur,1~-J In
Ma&efleld, Df('ttu: Rf..'t:.dtdtt>n tn Pu/1
Butld/11Stt1. pp 151-1
7. Mattltew 13 1-.1<1
II Qurhn, S:b.~. IJ JI}.!
IJ The Bah. &1<-,.-0011., jmm the Wnnn.l!•
<lithe Bab, pp Z l-2, l:?..1-4, Baha'ullah.
Tolilct_. q( &ma "u 7/nh, Pf' 2-'~, :?SIJ
JO In buunlO m,J,dr,n, the cr~ntor n! th~
 'i()TF.S (l'I'. ;IIZ .1171 ~5')

lo0IJcn 1.:alJ " n.tm~-J as Sam,rl and nm IJ K!:La.ilON A.'lll tTIIIC~

,\:iron
L F 1.lr A rurdh.:r J1.wu....\.lOO o( tJ1L~~ points,
11 M11S4:tJelJ. "Tbc Muni ond rhe M,,omes •
see Urync, The / 1l11lmmpl11cul and
l'I' H 5-tt, l'v-,. Th,· Ruddhn, pp ~7
The,;/fJ/!u:.II Ftlundnnons q( i;.,1,..,s rt>
I! \\'cl>.,r. The T/1rnry nf Sr,cml orul
145-7
&•<>ttmnw, Or~'<,nl>«(itm p ,\.:!'I, for the
:? For "11cumplc nf . uch an ~urn._-n,
"11..1, f""'·""l!c d..-,.cribtng churlsmauc
"e<! fie\\ , God and /'111/0;;,,1,h~
authorl~', S<.'<: l'P 319-.l..1.
3 Kchllx ,g, ·srn~c nntl S.,qucnco rhc
IJ ll>IJ . pp .l.\-i-5-1
Olgnith,~ lk,·d opmcntol Apprr1.1ch ro
H On the holy. see thl' Je.scriptioo of the
Suclallsatlou', In ffu11dba{,k of
~-.enrral <Xp<:riene<: o( relll!,lon , pp
So<:falil:Ollot1 1'h<'fJlj· anti /lc::.,irch, cJ.
',i-<>Z. anJ al,.o Ono. Tit< Id,.,, oJ the
0 C'.oslln (Chica~u. 1%'1). pp 347-480,
Ho>/:;
and ·~tnntl Sra~ and MoralizRtion The
15 Thi> th~'llu, b gr""ll) ,xpruuk-J In Kau,
C,11n111,·c-Ocvclopmcnwl Appro.ich', in
' \!odds, MoJellne anJ Mysr.lcal
Moral De,,c/oprncut and /k/11n,four
Tratnmf
Thctll'.)\ &.carcl, and S<J<.•tal f~sw:,,. e<I
If> .\s prophesied in Mtmheu, 24·.H ; Mork
1l .,o.
Luk.: 31 :?Z
T Llkorua ( New York. 1976). both
quoted m Bar.son , Scho,,nrade and
17 Qur'on ,l;l 22
Venus, Rel1,!11on and che /ndtt>tdrwl, pp
Iii Gol.whcr. 'On tbe 0..-vclopment of the
ILIJJth', in M1ud,m Sn,dwa. vol 2, pp
62- 7
li- 251. se., l.n paruculf.lr, pp. 1!~125.
D J Emsbcrtcr nnd G L Manaswr.
'Moral O..,vclopmcot, lntrins,C>'F.xtnn•ic
19 Schacht. 011.t!rns of M,mamnuu/an
Jr.ms-pnujetlCf! pp. 58-1, I
Rcllgiou, O rientBUon, ond
ID<,oomlnnuooal Tt!ochl~'. Generic
:0 Coulson. A 1/i.iwry qf fslami<" 1,o.,,, pp.
Psydl0/011.)• MOIIOJ!rtIT)hs. 10-I , 1%1,
41hl 5~7. ltt-70.
23-11, quoted lo Batson, Schoenrade
21 South. "The Conco,pt of Shari'•' p 58J
21 fb1J_, p. 594 .
and Ventis, Rclil/io,t and rhe flldiVidual,
p 66
13 This pn!C\,SS Is describ..-d Jn detail lo
5. The folln wlnl\ pa•sng<,• :ore indic:,tln• of
Calder, Studies ui £orly JJusltm
the ethlc:AI tcachlngs of the ,•ariou~
Juri.<J)rudence Sec espeeially pp
~ellgion• lllndul;m Laws of Ma11u ,
I61-<l7 244-7
see for example 10.W; Buddhism
:!4 ,;,,., .\ctar. Muslim Saim~ and .lfvsri<:•
pp lll-2S, 3Q..S I - ' the Dho.mmapoda; Christlanlt\' · The
25 For Jetaili of r.l1ll prOC<>S>., llo!o: Mo tncn,
Sermon on 1he Moum (Mauhew !i·1-4/l;
Luke 1,,2Chlll); lslatn Quri,11 1i 22-40;
J11truduc,oon to Slu'1 ls/a.rn. pp. 6'>-1!.
The BohR'I Faith: n.,h11'u'llnh, Tilt
ii H - 5, 77~1
21> For example. liishrun thn al-Hakam and U ulJk,i "'"'""'
6. &:c fctguM>n. \\'Or and Peace oa tJ1c
~l uhammad ibn Nn'man. who were
l\vrld's llel/il101>:<, pp. 52-6
prommen, disciples o f the sLuh Shi' i
Imam. Jafar ai.-Sodiq. ,l!c ~tomcn,
7 llu,41,cclo. • Christian theologian of the
fnlroducoon t.o Shi", Islam p I, 7
Middle .\#8, for cxornple. coo<ldered
17 P""1. ·srm.T rtbm onJ Rdtgiou.,, Change', t.h~, heretics nnd 111iidcls "ere denied
the proteclion of humnn liiw nnd th:11
l'P 139-11) Oo oral tn1nmu.s1on and
" ' " ngnhu1 thctn w:u JusuflcJ Sec
the llu,dJty of onll te.tts, """ Lord, The
f't;:r~uson. HM ,md l\:&-c. m the nt,rW'•
s,~cr Q{Talc,, and Goody, The /,n,!1c qf
I<eli-t!ums. p. 109.
"'nolll! pp 1-4-t
I, &-e Enc:,<:lopa<-dw of /slum. ' lljohod' h)
1~ Croc..-..:, Ti..YJn<I e Sror1,1 d1.:lla Stuntr
crefiu, pp -1-S, c11<:d in To)•nbc.:, An E 'fyo.n
'I llaha'u1"1h . Talilc1s of B<Jia'u1/ah, p
llbt.onan '.,, Approui.'11 Ill &lu!um, p. b .
21
2<1 E:non. The Rise •If Islam and the /k~
10 Sharpe, ( ·ndt·r-"wndtml Rdi,!mn , pp
Frnnncr. pp 167.....,
10-l-6.
30 Wan. /slarrnc Ph1loROp},.\•a,ld Throlot,?y,
11 V.,t,14'1T>1u,m.v 2 34; J .C.. 7:2 , :22 ll>-17;
r so J1JSlt1to.1>::?l; 1:125-6; 10 35. J7, J9-t?;
31 S.:.: chapter I, ond \\'hllc , .lfcta/listr") .
lU,, 11-13, 17 21
!;6() NOn.s (Pl' .'1411 JIii I

12 In \luslhn counlrit-. Jc\\, ,md 'Julnl•m'. 1-:c."'f1lt,R,.V ""'I

#1111/t
Chrt .. 11111, \\l'r"-' nlltJ"-"\.-<l to mmntuin ((k,Jnlmu,A, Surrey \\'\\1. I'll ,.,.,~, p
their '""' rdlj\im1" (,tll>cu .. 1,h :i
•M.'c.:~111lo11uJ P\!"4..'CUI lon) In 1-;~l"I, for :?7 t:.l\\,11J• nn\i l'nlm<r //,,/y 1/nmnd rr
cl:tmplc, (.!u1>tu: t:hrt.-.tlnn!'t t..•on... 1.!ttuk HU- I
,omc ,,. IX' c,111 of the pupul.,uun .?Ii Ibid , p 120
nhhou,ilh Mu,llm, hm ~ rulcJ th• 2'l IMd, pp l.?7-1,
""""'~- for I ,:\(Ml yen,-,; In Sl'fllll, h\"
'-'·on1r.1~t \lu~hm" hnd ,•lr1u,1II)' l~cn
dlmlnntcJ fron1 1J1, 1wip11l1111on fl>) I l l'l.1"ll,\lff"ITAll:.\I \Nll Lit•fllAI.Nt
mwns •mili '"' the lnqul>1llm1J "'ltbln
Snmc mn\ prdc:r th,·
unc hunJr..,.J yi:.,r.. .,r
th" Chrihllnn 1
lo \l'iC
1md11,onnli-.1 or 'con~rvau"/ r1thtr
h:nn

reconquc" of Spaul When S1>a n,sh

than 'fuml:um:11tnl1M I hnu, pr1:f1.:rr~d
Jews were RccuUl from :ipain on the 1
mll to lLW trudluunahs1' bccaUM: thl,
nr,ccnth century, ii ..... prlnc,pall,· ll)
\\ould seem 10 exclude f'n,1t,1..1n1
Mu,lim ooumncs tbo1 they \\C!nt
fundnmtn111l~,1s. "ho tend to he raJ1cal
IJ lt)roastrinn~ were ohcn g.i\cn 1ht: nntu,
ond opposed to tradauon I asn aware or
of l'"<Jplc of the Bonk but lt11ulUA and
the cnunttcr·•~ume-nt that the- term
Buddhists wen, W.Wllly relcl!atc'tl 10 the
'fundnnu:nt.,11,t" hn~ hl,rorh..'1111} t"""\'."
realm or puly1hclscs lo Musllm JcAol clo,cly l<knllflcd with rild.k41
lCXt~.
Protc~t.a.ntbm ancJ mn} th~rdore if,,4:1.:m
14 'The second Tnrnz I$ In eon,ort whh the
10 wm" to lie lnappropnatc 111 • more
folio" cri or nil rdlgJon, in n ~plrit (1(
~\?ntral «,ntext Overall. tl '4...~01,, tn me
lricndllness ttnd (cllowohip They
lha1 1hc 1crm I• nnv,, In pnpubr u.c
that un: endued \\'ith &lnl'Crltv amt
rnlthfulne,,,. should :tsweiate with ·,tll the h.:inl! ll-.ed inn murc, /!<ln<rnl ""' ah.,ut
nthcr rcll~nn. and 1, 1h~«for. the
~ 0 rl~s run! k.tndrcds of the .:anh "ilh moru •ului.blc word Sb,parJ
JO)' nnd r:uJiance, inasmuch as
('"~undamcntaltsm" Christian and
<'Onsor1ln~ with pc<1plc hath promoted
lslumic· and ·Jslam and IJcolo~y')
and will t'll1ttlnu~ to promote unltv anJ
suMe.~,s che term rcJectlonl\t
,'<lncord, wllluh In tum nr~ conduciw to
ncotradllionall•t' One feel• 1h01
the maintenance of order In tbe world
"hntcn:r n.th:onrngc sU'i.:h n tt:.m1 m.i,·
anJ to the rej\eneratlon of nMions'
hon~ l~ more than caunkr•rnililru.•4...J h~
T(ll,/cr~ nf Baha'u7/nh, pp. 35-6. sec
Its unwieldiness ·
nlso pp 22, 87
2. for o sur.ey nf fuodmn~ntallsn, •~ros,,
IS Kung 11ml llu,d,d, JI (J/ob«I Ethic, pp
111-.JI,
the world. m Easkm us well o., \\'e,tcrn
rd141on,. sec Cnrlan Swdw.• in
to lhiJ.. pp. 61-71
Rdyi;m,,. Furulam,•ntali•m nml ~lru1\
17 Oe,iesis 1.Z-.
ranJ .\pJ')lchl~· FwulomL nt«lll"m~
lb Qt_,,-'an 2:2<J
Ubl>< rc,:d
19 llnms, 'C'.ctu,>A oo c;rip< "ith Budclhi,1
J. tor tK"<.,ounu, of thc'i:. ,,c 1uktlai
t:n,;irnnmcntnlism'
'Ro:marks "" Tr.ul,unnal"m In hi.um,
20 Ste. for ~xrunplt: , Jlarrh, 'C\:ttJnJ,l tb
Rciutlou< lli~tory', ,\min ~•me .\.,P<'ct,
C:np, with Buddhist tn,troum~ntru•
of Rchl!inu< Rctnrm In th~ \lu,ltm
bm'; &r...-, Tl1l Dn:u.111 r,/ th~ &mil and
Middh.: f .1,,· , \tun11,:11 , lutn•lrlt ntm to
fox, The Gr.murlll •if tlw I A '1lll(' C:}11i.i
S/1t'1 l•k,m , Pl' 115..{, s.._, •I..,
cm Chri,mtn1t)' and lhc cnnrnnm\.'nC
S,rnJ,~n. Tl,- l{ouu. of f1111</u
ond Dnhl I '11/,.,._, ""'' ( 'nn/ 11n 1h,
rfk·tttu..l1~m ~nJecn h.ui. ,hu.wn tu,-. tb..:
B;ihn'I Faith 111 th" cunicxt
c.ul) l\\en11cth-<ccn11111 fundam<nt•l"t
.? I Edward, ,,ml l~1lmcr, /Ir,/)• Gn,unrl r rl'H')\l!mt..~I ,:\re,._, out oa , and cunt1nu1.-d
St,
th-.: ~~lnc..~m, tH th~ n11lknnu1lbm ut
.?2 Jhlt.l . p 541.
th«.: nfm:h.:-.:-ttth ,,:-cntun
.?J Ibid , p <,.\
\\" l. Kini.!, \ Thn1111,ut;I /..i,,-...:a.-\t..'"'l',y f'P
.?~ lhlJ, l'I' i.\-4
S.l-7
.?~ lhld • pp l,.'l-'I
5. Harr, l-'undumt..•,111.i./1:-m, rr -10--~o

Th<'f< lire a numt>er 01 different dci:,ces
of funt.l.amentnh~m. n, one e ltt.n!me ll..re
thu~i.: '4h,, a~,ccr1 only ch~ \l!t'\' lttl'rn1
,nt.crrr1.:uuon uf •he: ~plttrll! wltlh: nt
tht: othc-r t,uJ .trio! lhO~c "Aho :arc
rrL')U(L-J l<) .IL~'t:pt .I <.'t.'ffilJn lli.'/!fL'e O(
q'fflholL~m
"· .\t k-a.<I tTih)illnMII)' th<!)' ho,c h<.-cn,
•hh"ugh there I• n,.,,. a mork,~1
n1u,cn1t111 b:1c,k to lhc wnm, iitound o(
C.:hriMlanlt)'
; Barr, Fundumcrua/r$m, pp. 4'1-50,
i!n,,-.,, fmn fn tht> Ft11th, pp J-1
'> ll~, frnn m tlu: Fu11h, l'fJ 1 ¼-'1J,
•> l ha," here ,uhdl\·ld<d fundamcnmllst.>
mto two qfoup~, traditJoru1ltsta nnd
rndlcak ..11,1., ~cep,ng libcmls a. one
trour Olher "rite~ ho-., crcawd e\'co
more ~uhJinsion.-.. See. for aample..
Shepard ("Islam and hl..--o)OJ!y'). who hos
.te-cloPL'<l a t~'J)OIO)tr ior Warn with
t.: 1tht ~-uhdn;sions Sec !llso Sm a n's
1,,:lil)Stiic.auon 1n Rdil!r.011 a11d the
ll61<m Mmd, pp. 523.
10 .\hhoudi. oi """""'· maoy Prolestl'lnt
churches, cspcclaUy the CaMnJ.su.,
lnL"d to base the "hole of their Chureh
<1rueture ond ntu.11 on the &blc
II Th~..., 1w11 group~ c,l)rrc,-pnnd
appro.!tlnUlttly LO Smart'• cLts.tflcullons
c,( ~eofouotlnllonalllilll 1111d Neupu,1-
1oundauOIUIL:.ot rl.lSpecth·ely tsee
:>man, Reli,lli"n and chc Wcst<'m ,llmd,
l'I' ;\:?~1) The)· c,om:,l")nd III thrw nf
Shtpard'• cla"lfocatinns nf lslamio
UOtJps· tb~ l.ffldlll<>iLilbts L"Orropnrul hl
hi- reJcctlorust iraJ11l11nall.u. and
n:Jecuonbt ncotmd1t1onalht:., wblfo tbe
raJ1cal, corre.<;pond to Im R.1dieal Islam
&,'Qup (5ee Shepard 'Islam and
l<k-.1~-·,
1J Lcfobnli! nd\'ocatcd a return co lhe
troJ1t1onnl forms of the Cftthollo
~hurch. lo panlcular the uiun Mass lie
clal.med to have several million
10ll0..-ers and sympnthoiers amoot
Roman Catholic,. 0>pociully in l'mnce
l .' RA..h;id Khali(a on3lywd the Qur'cm
•·ilh a computer and di.M:OVC"rt.-d tha.t
Ulc ~nun, book r.,voh·c-d Mound the
numlx:r nintteen and l15 multJplcs. Ue
"'*3rdcd lh1> a proof of lhc mlrac'lllous
nawre nr the book and asserted rlutt
1,lam •hould be 1-,as.J on th" Qi,r'cm
alon.,, "hh • Jo,..ng,-nJinC of the
NOTES (PP. ~1,5-.17 1) 56 1
Trod,oon• Th,s hos heen stron~v
nJvoc:itc'<I hy pmpon~nts o( hl• Iden• fn
"'111ntrk-. a. for """" •• lh, 1rs,,. £11Ypt
rond M.iln)'•lto
H :-iharl'atl. durhtJI the pcrioJ )'-"It rrlur to
the 1'17Q R,,·olutl<,111 IJI Iran, "rote
ruh·0<.-aliJl!l a return to Isl.om By th,~ he
d,d noc intend the trndltlon1tll<l Islam oi
the ulcma hut ru1hcr • radhrnl
n:lntcrpn,uitlon \\hll.!h he ~..,n,l<kred 1u
be orl~nal Shl'I l•lan1
IS. &!,: i\k11tar, 'The \'lnue., or
'l-'1rnJamenrnlLsm'; llerl\t!r. The Hen:tu:al
lmpernnw, pp 116 118
Hi &c &rger, T/11: lkn-tocal /mp<.'TOII'-"' ,
.:•pccially chapter J
1i Sec nlw Barr, F'urnla,'1-«:ncul,-tfm, pp
J 1 b- 7. (or a re/,:rl!IIC<! lo the manner lll
whtcb fund:mtenu.llst coereh•eness
opertlles today in the Chrlsunn world
IR Sec, tor .,,nmple 1he acuvitics of ~lulla
:Muhammad llnqlr Mnjli" In
se,·l!ntecnth-century lrnn: Montcn.
Jucroductum roSh,·, Islam. pp. 114-17.
19. See Sansom, Jt.1pun pp. .)34-5,
Takakusu, Essennals qj Buddhist
l'hilowpJiy, pp 17&-81
20 &e Lu,tick, 'Israel'• Oan~crou•
fundamc:null,~tJJ'.
:! I Jon.tad, T/1c ,v...,,, Christwn RiJllit
1981-1986. !:In>'-'<!, 'Th~ }!oral MaJorit)·
and firm 111 the Fa,u,, pp. 171-3.
22 See Rabner 'Observation• on rhe.
prohlcm of the ",\non)'mnu•
Chri,tinn '"
:!J Sec for eumpl" lllck. Cud ltWI .llw,y
Xumc1> and Pn,b/,,:m$ ,.,_r Rcltglm~
Pluml&.>m
.?4 Ourin,t the mnelee.nth centur}·
however. • nmd.lmcmalist position wns
not 1nuompa11bJ(' with soclAl rofunni•m
Sec p. Ji S for • i-.J hie reason for tills
~ olw Bruce, Finn Ill rJw FIJJtli, pp
12-13. H7
25 llruce. 'The Moral Majont~··
26 See Caplan ~~1udics in ffehAiouJt
Fundamenwlism, pp IS-19. Bruc,c .
F,m, in th,: Ftnth, p IS!i
:?7 It ,hould t,., noted lhot, 111 prrocuce
Khomeini had to rttrerH from Lhc
lheorcucnl pos,tlons ad,·ocntcd In his
writln4< and Iran stlll possesse< mAn)· 01
the politio:il in<atutioM dem·cd from
the \\'c<tem rolltloal ~)·stem• thnt
Khomclnl ""Jc»p!,cJ
562 MITEll (l'I' J75- .1N.I)
. -, F,nn in tlu.:. ,...111tl1 . llll 7~'>
~k Urm~-.
~I ~\: nt•h.· 2 I obtw1:
,l U Thu, , •11:~ oppcaf1' to hnvc hi.,t.,n
J!roundcJ 10 t ht: 4;vt:IH1' ,,( th 1: 'Mun kt.!)'
Tn•I' 111 l)ayton. l"cnncs."-'• In which •
,-..~1cllc.r w:,s pr<»,L"\"UIOO for tco~himt thc-
thc.in of evolution h sc1:ms 10 hove
"-'"n Oro, fonnolly advnnccd h)' II
Rh.·h:1nl Ntehuhr in ·Fundumcntn11sn1'.
In ScliA,runn tm..:\1.tlopocdm q/ tlll
i">t)(.~OI Sc.dt.•nt't.'H, J,P 52(t-7
.ll On tbl• focl<lr vi SClcnL.., un<I tht
J'latLslbllU) of 1lw rcU'l)ous "orld, le",
,cc P lle.r,tcr, Th~ //l-re1100/ lmp<..-nnw,
Pl' 17- ~Z. 105
3 l h mnv nl«• oo ••Id thnt nlthou(th
f-untlmncninlh•~ ;ire not •!lnlnM the
1nu.Uuun.nl Ncwtonhtn view <>( 2te,11cncc,
lht.•rc ttri: muoh more ~ub&tHnthd
(!round.• for n ooufllct between modern
n,Jauvlsuc ,a,e.n<M! anti fundamtntalL\I
tboui\}11 . But this Issue hos hardly vet
hcen mukled hr fundamcntall<t writers
(•ec pp 4/13-4)
JJ_ (lnrr, Fuudomcratulf81fl, pp. 93-6;
llruL'tl. f'trm 111 the Fwt/1, p. 121>
~ I. QuotcJ In Asbby, Mcxkn1 Trends- m
Jlmdwsm. p. 103
35 Momen, lturoductto11 co S/ii:'-i Islam, pp
79--liO, 159-60. 18S-7.201 .
36 Borr, Fundnmen.taUsn,, p. 91 , ond .I\
Walker, ' Fundnrucn1ull•n1 ood Moder•
nlty', pp :?03-4
J7 Sttndt.'cn, Tile Rw111 r,J
Funtfomenta/1,im, pp. xl-xll and
chap1ers 6-IO pa.,sim. but see in
pnrticular pp 152. l6J-4, 250-69
Marsden, F,mdumtmmlism and
Ammron Cu/1ur<'. pp 199-205
JS E Dnvl~ •urvc)"cd 1hc m<lmbc,..hlp ol
the Muslim llrotherbooi.l, • funda-
mentalist Mu.,llm j\roup ln f;zy-pt, uvcr •
period of fife)· years and round that the
typlcal ncti\'e member was on urban.
mlddlc-dn,,, wcll-<:duc,,1ed proress,onal
f>e™>ll - muoh the:. snmc ,!,lroup choc
libcrnl.5 c~ime from· E Oovts, ' ldcolc,gy,
Sucttol Cln.s ond lsl•mlo Radicalism In
Modem E~pt', pp. 141-5 and tables
l>ec olso Atnselle. 'A C,,S., or Funda-
mentalism m West 1\/ric.~·. pp. !ll-Z For
funher C\ido.>nCC or the m1ddle-<1Jass
t>nckw'ound of Mu~hm fnndomcn1nli<ls,
M.-C. the <11urvcy In Muns:on !!ii.lam tuul
RL'<l<Jlutllm' pp •>5-H
.'111 &-.: 1111)111.,. 'C"Jlrthl\C l.<,:ornll~ :,"i.:.
Wl1km , ·p•~chol.,tu,,nl tltfr.r,nllall"n
and form• of 1',11h11l,>j\y' .111d ' \
CuAnll1\·1:~Styk Appr.uu.-h lo CrQu•
C:uhurnl R<:><:Mch
JO It i11 1:a.,y lo ':M.'.C ho"' -.lily r,omr r.f \ It:.,
su~h l9S <,.·ommum-.m or nnuonulb,m.._.
lhn1 I• strond)• hd,J hy • .trnup , I
f){'()r(1.• Cftll ht,._'<..'(lllH; tht h11,i1t (<•t I IW
tk"\•clopnwnt of ~u..:-h n Olt'.OL1Juy Harr
for tXDm(llc hint> 01 punalld, bct,.cut
fundumum.1111-,m .,nd tht: Cullural
Rc,•olullmi In <.:htnJ ""
f'untlumrntult!m, , p J27 The Tai'!""
po,nt tn ~,m1lnri11c, l>cn.ccn fttnJ,.
mtntnh,m nnd $(.-culur nalktmth"°m tn
1\trkcy In "Thank O.,J \\Vrc s.,,...,,iar• -
11 llof•Utdlcr, ,\11tt-1n1cll,-ctuult•m 01
,\11wrl<.w1 /.,\fc , pp I JH-9
42 Bur, f'undumc,uaJ.._-,,,, rP .,J 2~'
-IJ Wukin, *"note J9 abo,e.
<14 Barr, F1mdamCT1wl1sm, pp '1(1 .H'I
nnte 1 Bn1t.'C, F'lnn in 1/1c Fo,1h p
l ~II [),wl< found A dlsprororthmotch
lnrge numh<:r or cng,nccrs 40lon~ the
lcodcr,,hlp of the iundamcntallit Mu~Hru
llnnhorhood l>ce now Jl:l 1bo,e
45 For further dlscuMIOn of tlus point. s.:.,
P BelJ!(!r, Tlte f/ercncal /mpcrollce,
char,1er I , Bcr,l<lr, 8eri,,r and Kellner.
The Hrimdc8• Mine/ pp 75-7, Hfl-;?,
165-7
•16 Sec J..ahldjl, 'Coostltutlonallsm aoJ
Clcrlc,nf Au1horlty', pp IJ3-58, Bay<>t.
Iron 's Ftr.,t Reu,,lumm, pp 6, 57,
13-'-5, 174-6,2()6...7
47 llcim~ath, /11d1un .\'011011'1/iffll and
Hindu ,',m•,a/ Rr.fonn pp .117-21,
ForquhAr.,\fod..-m Rdis!k111J4 ll,,wmrn1.,
;,, lndla, pp. J ltr:?J
411 Altltouglt In foct the Shrt hrandi h»
not alWd)'" o~'C\OptLoJ thb o.nd ltM, In the
pnsl, claimed thal part. of the (Juran
tha1 confirmed 'All'~ claim to lcader<hlp
were ~uppresscd by the early callrh•.
see Momer1- l11tnxluc·t1<-m tr, Shi'i f11k4,n ,
pp N,lil, 172-3.3.l3nott 1~,.13'l1101c
5.
~<J Ooldzlher. in his ,mpornutt study of the
ll1J<litlas. the oral 1-n>Jiuo~ rclaun.t 10
Muhammad (Must,m Stud>e1t. ,-ol 2. pp
1i-251), •how~..i how th~ concern• nr
Inter ~encr:uion~ of \1u111lim<t -.ere
wriucn bouk lnro ch.._, time of
\luh.uumad thrt>u!\b tllt crceU011 r,( the
 N01ES (l'P J/l.l- .)1/.)) 5(,J

l/odtt/1 1i1cra1urc Sec pp ,\;?5--4 nl1<wc StK"i4'r\' owl (;ult«n: and whh ehc
~(I Par111ld w thl• tcndcm"· for the 'c,fflcll;I am!'-~""'"''" reh~on· ofTuv.h:r
wnpcun.-, to havt.· fnncu \i.hhln them In 1/omo Rd1Jllt1MU1
tbc \1< "'JlOIUt or tl1,• t,t,ncrull!.ln tJ101 ~ The major "•'-"'Pllun u, tit!, I• tl1c
wrote rhcm tlown l.§ (!f'()Ce'tt blOh.?.mt!nt Chri.\tlttu \V~M Lu modem timc_llij, where
th,11 Ill] h.btory b t'<)OICffifM.)nll'\' hiMOI')' mam· .,r these mnj\lcnl nnd occuh
(Set' p J.,~ uho,·c) clement$ h,I\·~ lx.~n t.erar.ued from
official C:hri.ilnnhy But rhl• 1, •
phcnorn"-·11011 of r~Uif.tnt lfmctl
J$ Ort ICL\L Rl!UOIOI> .\.._L> POPlll.AR 5 . Sc-, R. PnlAI. 'Folk Kcllglon folk lslllrn'
RilJllK>~ lu " !fade, Encydop.:d,u 'If Re/~torL
(, See lhe prohJlm,on oo dMnalion and
On wb~thcr monks In ThcrnH1cln
on the nuribution or 400d and b<1d
Bucldhi,m a.itually µractl..., the official
om.ens so cerrnin cvcnrs These may be
relidloo. see note J below
found In the oolkctions or prophe1io
.! Waardenburl), howc,·er. nrgucs that
trodilions, cg. ol-~•"·l, Mtshlutt a/.
since there i• no orwmj1cd relij!ious
Mc,sabih. ,ol 3, pp 955-61.
lnslltuuon in lslnm, thtiN can be no
7. On ponuas (chanced spells) In Burma.
·o(i11>1ar rdiglon lie pn:fo"' tbc tern,
see Spiro. Buddhism and Snc,e1y, pp.
·oormnll,·c' J D J. Wuordenbur&,
14-1-SJ, 2~i2. on ma!\lc, spells ,u1d
·oflJctal and Popular RclJgton as n
amulets in Sri Lunka, •CC R F
Prohlcm in Islamic Studies', in \' rijhof
Gornbrlch, Preocpt tmd Prt.wtwc, pp.
lllld Waardcnbur4, Ojficial and Pnpulnr
191-2 l.:l.
&l~i<m. pp J;i2..(,0.
8. For e.uuuples or tlus. see papers br R.
J Rlch!Utl f Gombrlch di>likcs the WK> or
\ 'nn den Brock, J A. Hui$man and C f.
the term ' popular rtli&lon' a,, he fed~
Bouritiu• in the fir<t l!CC1ion of \'rijhor
wt thb ln1pU,"' that there are rcllgious
nnd Wnardenburg, O.(fi<:ial and Pt>pulnr
•irtuoso5 who follow the official relWon
Rc/i,flion
whtl~ the popular relig.ioo IS a lower
9. Sec Edvard Lcbmann , 'CltrlnmM
form for the mosses only (',ombrich
Cuotoms' In I lnsllng>, bm·yalopmxlla of
asserts ,he 'offlciul religion' I• the
RelW,,tt and £1l11cs, \'OI J , pp. 6<'8-1 O.
rcll&lon that 14 prc11chcd nnd thn1 all
The dating or Christmas was also
ba,e, In fact, pracll,ed tl1c 'popular
prohably inOuenaed hy n de«ire to
religion' from the earliest Jays or
repine" and compete wtrh these
Buddhism. Gombrich has used th~
festivities marking the winter wlsuc:...:;
terms ""°4"Jtive' nnd ·afiecave' religion
as well ,.. the ftc<tival of Sol lnvlctus (on
to dcSC!ribc this difference The lirsr
25 December) commemonncd by the
dcnor.cs the prnfo.-..,ccl n:ligious buUcf
\'ery widespread religion or Mlthralsm.
and the St.-oond "hfil pt.'Oplc bchO\" 11.•
See nbo 'Sol lnvietus' in Bliade,
<1101.1$ they believe, "the rc[Won of tl>c
EP1cyclopctlia 'If Reli/li1m, vol J.:l, p
heart" (P r ~ and Prucnce, pp. -1--7,
408.
Jl!l-19). Whole most of Gomhrich's
HJ. For 1111 exo.mplc or rndicol fu11da-
pomis arc mac ";th regard 10 Thcrovodo
meo1.1llst Yvntlng on Chrisuna.s, S'-"' Tltc
Buddhism ( hls """ or •tudy), his Plai11 1ruth obouc Christmas
poshlon docs not bold across a brooder
(ll'asadenof; Worldwide Church of Cod
ran~ of religions. Perhap,, the rl!:ison
t'.1986)
for this Is tbc austcrl~· of the dooltlnc of
Jl lnck,c<l, rhe c""""'P" of unlvcrsol!zotlnn
Theravada Buddhism In L~lam. there Is
and pnrtl<!hlnliutlon could be inter-
clearlv both an nlilcanl rcl(4lon nnd n
preted as the social cquhalc.nts of tlie
popuiar religion and both cxht in
pro,.,es~e, described bJ Jung and
empirical rulhy Therefore, I h•vc
daboratcd by Eliade (~ce p. 269).
j><on<t.i,-d "1th tltl! w.c or the terms
12 On the concept or p,1roch1alizali11n and
·offi<ilill rellglon· Jnd 'populllr n:11,llon·.
unc,•er<0li111tion in lndlon religion, ,c,,
Th""' L, also • parallel here wltl1 th,
Marriott, ' Lluk CommunlliCJI in ttn
krnt5 'Gn,,11 Tradition· and 'Little
lndl1tcno1t, Cl,tli<allon' , pp 1')3-:?0J
• Tradnion' uSt.-d hy fwdfield m /'ro-v,nc
5t,I SOH,li 11'1' .1'1.1 I.It )
I.I. S1>1rn. /J11cltlll/~11111ml ,i;.-.,,..1)•, p . 12
1 ~ s.,., nOhJ 1 of thl, chnptcr
)~ ~·f1t fllOr4J (HI lb'-' OleJIOII"\$! o( ~ lrYnn••
" "' l'P Ill,\ I. ~ HI
Jt-, Thii.': rt'»llOll"t! \\,t"! lt)\l'tl hy 7(1 pc.r oont
ul UIL'll a11J 5C, p.Jf Cl!lll t,f \\OltlCU
S!'irO, IJ11tltll111tm 11ml StJt.•1..:t)', JJP· 80-1
Ii ll>1tL, 1'fl 11>-NI
I.~ lhld ., 1'1' S~ -111
10 Tan1hlnh , Rutl1/111•m nnll tit<· Spmt
()u/t,, , l'fl ~7 I)
..?n Sp1nt. l1utltUu,,,,. u,ul Svc.·1tty Pl' 7.l t-1,
I llk,1
21 K 11 Uo111hrlcb , />n:<.<!l'I u11d Pnu:11~-.,.
fir> .1.'! 4-5 \ta,,er,e1c1 h"" r"'-sented nn
inlerc,1lnl\ h:,,po1he•I~ M u, why
Thern,·adn llud.lhl,t• 111 nrnc:tlce pul'&ue
morit ro1h,r thnn ~cok1114 Sln·itna,
\\hlch Jo.:1n11c \\Uulcl •lli»,sl i.hould ,,.,
thdr ult1rn•1c l!<>J,1 11., nrgu"• L111t1, In
fact, tbe tcachin!l uf the Nikayas, the
Thernvndn ~•cred $Cnpture, 1s that
a11111nmcn1 or Nlrvnno I• onl)' possible
on hc11rin~ the Dlmrmn prcnohcd by o
Buddha Thus, the best that prcscnt-d11y
Butldlmts can do ts to tty 10 ach;..,, c
~uf(Jt,.,nt merit 50 '" 10 he reborn In a
lime when the nest buddha, Mrutrcya, is
on earth teachinll (l>i'Ci11e Re,,<!k<tio11,
pp lJ'l-4--1). \\'hlle thl, ii< nn int~restl n~
thcorcLlc11I point, the books of
Uombrlch, Spiro nnd Tumbtoh do not
oppear to pre>Cnt much evld"1!ce thal
thls Ls, ln foot, how motlem Thernmda
Buddhists think
22 See note 3 or thi~ chnpter
2J Qur'cu, 11$,.W.
24. Qur'a11 S 92, ')<), 7 11111.
2S. Qur'an 7 : 187-8.
2b On the wocratlon o( sn.lnt.< in Islam, sec
Goldzlbcr, Mushm Studii,s, vol 2, pp.
275--341
J6 RELIOIOS, Powt:.lt ANO OoVlRl<Mt.q
Bcr,llcr and Luckmonn , The Social
C(>rultrut•tion ().f Rcfllity pp 711-85,
110--H,. See nbo r 4S'I ln the pre.<:nt
work
2 ller~r amt Luckmonn, The S<>cial
C:rm.stri,t'lion <tf Rca/11.v, Pr l lS-20
J. lnfnrmarlon hrochure from Cnrc <ynod,
lnic !QI().;, qu1>1ctl rn .I KingJ,orn, "!'he
l'hcotoity 0£ Scp.irntc Equ•llty A
Crtllcnl Outline of th<> ORC's Po.,tLlon
\10 Ararthd"I' 1 IO t•ru~4,;_,k,·, ( .'llri.-t"J,Ul\:
~\r,wl~, Aptu1Jt4.:td I rr t'Wf~7
Tiu: \\01'1"- o( .l~,-.u, 'kC'f'l(h,·r lh t::t\~r
1hc chlnt-. duu aR C,n.· H r'•.. and to <:C'li
chc lh111i:s th•t nr, l:t•.l'a (\f,,rk 1;! 17
l~ulb.! 20 .?S) cth: 01t1:n u...~J to Jtt111lh
lhl~ MOlh!\:
5 Mom<!11 . 'Authorlt)• ,md Of1f1():l,,1flr1n u,
1\v1:h·"-r Sh,'1..m
ft Se«: John~tt\n nmJ Snm~on ff4 lt11111n
Tiu: M£.,'lt1JR 1-Xmc. ,.,.,htt h{ Su,h. c.·ru/1
7 M,irx, T/1c £,,...,,,,,,1 Mu,•, pp 2'11,-.7
I! \'L..,.cr 't 110<>(1 Tli, f11at ,1,._..,,,.f,/\- ,if
tlcc Work/ <:otuu:,/ ,,j Cl,un;;li.- , 11 11<1
9 IJt,Ju,'1 \forl,J ,..,1 1'1, I' 327
HI 11 nppcar;. 1n lw>ok l, chnrc« I, "' hi•
hook , The !'Indal Cmuroc:1 (Sc, fl<ll.,h.
'Ch-II Rdl,i,on In Arn~rl""'· 11 .\;'1,1)
II The 111"'1,ru Mudy of t.hc ,ubJ..-ct v, .11
lnluoMI by Robl!rt lkllm tn hu pap,:r
'GMI Rclltion In .\ncerlca', publish..-.! ,n
1%7
1:? There Is dls011rccmen1 nmont schnla."
~ riU ng in this ficlcJ ,i.omc maintatrunl
tru,1 C!Ve~· sociccy has a uh ti relJ~on
\\hlfo others consider thnl II b.is only
11ppen,...,d In a few !,(>Clelic;,, e~toll\
those where circumstrulc.,._ P"-"'ent •
relU!ion from futnllln4 th,• rok
13 llnmmond, 'Cult, ond Civil Rt!lil!i<>n ',
pp. 12~-4
I~ l'roponcnt> of the It.lea.< of Durkheim
(s.:c p. ~ ) wlll malnc.aJJt that the
('<)nci!pt or the <acn:d deri,ex £rum our
expcncncc of i,oclcty EYcn If
Durkheim' • chesis i• cruc the
cxpcrfcn~ it,;cl( rt.:mulns private anJ
P"n.onnl uni~• cxpn,,..,..-J In •omt "•>·
WIWlily thruujlh one of th" "°"IJIJ
exprc.s,oos of rtU~on uudln..-..1 In
chapter S
17 lu,LIGIIJS A.''ll 0£.',0£R
See I &rmud 7:J . Solomon him<.elf"
rerortcd to hnvc \\Or>hipp;:J 1hi•
jlodJ,.." Sl."' I Knw• l 15. for• ,un·~,-
o( this the.nu.:, st.:c Olo1hut3li, Tlic.:
G,,cl~ uncl God~ ti{ Old t;urr,p,:,
French, TIC)'Qnd l'OU"<..,-, pp 4.l-Sh
2 C.1mr,l>cll, The M,.,.,.._. QI (;,,,J, \'OI Z
O,:cin~nml Mwlwlozy M. r
J Tht..~t' C(,,nc.h1-.ion~ hn\·c bcc.n n:ac.:hcJ
OIi the bn,1"" of nb\cf'\Atlnns o( rr1nt.al.C
wccal gruuptn~. 11nthrup<1lo,Uc111
 rese:1n-h an100)! remote 1rtlxll l\roups.
1he studr o( myths. and C1rchneolol\1cal
c, idea~ For ,, survey of this, see!
freneh , &')'111ll /\,.,,._.,., pp. !S--l?Z nud
Diner. ~\IQth,ers ond , \»at\S()mL h O"JnllOl
t.... ""1J Wilt the c, ldcnei: ls conelu.,1,c,.
ho" en,r, and these idea, are disputed
hv man,·
4 &'<.' rescnn,h r.,,oned In Gillil\on, /n ,,
f>i/J,-n..,11 Ii>i<'<'
5 Stt· for CXlllllplc 1hc line o( •!llumtnt In
I Corinth,uni, lJ 7--13. J 1Ymotlly
2. ll-14
f, de Bei,u,·oir, Tlte Second St>x, pp.
4bS-'l
7 Lav~ q{ Manu 5: Mil, p 19S.
S RIJI \t-da, Mandala 10, hymn 85·26, 46,
pp. 26'1. 271. See nlso Lau,s of Mam,.
3, 55-o, p. l,S
<J For example Oraupadi's role in ,he
Mahablramta, rummnrited in Thomas.
lnd.1w1 Womrn , pp. 128-11
10. On 1he equullt)' ol men ond \\-omen, see
Qur'an 33.35; 4b: l3. On the flnancltll
tnd.pemleoC<' or women, see Qur):m
4·4 .32
11 Coulson and Hinchcliffe, 'Women and
L11w Relorm in Con1empc1rory lxlrun'
On women in Shi'l law, $L'C Fcnlows and
,.,nlow•.'Women In Shl'I Flqh'.
12. t: King. lfo11wn and Spintuality, pp.
39--U
IJ Kullow,ea, 10:1·6 in l"ina),c,-piwlco: In
Rhy11 David, and Oldenherg, Vin(.()'O
Jl>xta, pan J, pp. .125-6
14 fully <>nl•lnL-d nun, (bhikk,.111) only
exl•I 1n Ea.tern Buddhbm: Chino.
rum,a nnd Japan In We rest o( the
Buddltls, world, the ruu
ordlnauon of
women c.1the.r died out or n~,,cr cxL,tcd
In modern times, pressure to nllow
"-omen's ordination ha, rcsulled In 1hc
1>etting up o( orJ<:rs Wat loUow pan. o(
the lull d.lscipbne only; in effeoi. the
nuns are no,i.ces only bee Harvey, Ari
lmroducno,i 10 Bu,ulhism, pp. 221-1
15. On the female arche1ype in
Christianity, sc.: Daly, Tiu, C/111n,h arul
the &co,ul Sc.-., pp I 05-23. For Islam .
s.t:-c S:ihbe.h.1 \Vi.mum in tlle JJ11.slhn
L'nconscious
Jt, John Bromyord, quoted in Hamilton.
The L,b<TUrirm q/ ll'omm , pp 50--1
17 I Conm/iian.. , 7:1--11, 2!>-8.
18 Rmnan.o 1 21>-7, I 1Tmmhy 1 10
J9 1 c,mn1/11ans 14,34-5; see also I
1\moth.v :! I2
20 Gulatwr,s J .?8
21. U King, ll'or11c11 t111d Splntualil)•
pp.•19--12.
.?2. 'Abdu'I-Bah11, quoted In l,;sslc,nout,
Buha'u'llu/1 wul the N,..,, f;m, p . 141. A
more deh1ll~d look at the Baha1 wrilinj!s
re,cal~ 1hnt ~-qunlity doc, not nL'<la•
tarily mean that men nnJ wanu:.n
should pcrfom1 wo stunc rolos. Tho.Ir
Inescapable- blologtctll dlfforenL't:$ m~an
tha, women ore lncvl111bly more bound
up wiw the be:irin~ and early nurturin!l
or <>hildren, Women ore olso regt1rdcd M
havln(! grcnter morru courage and as
be.Ing Mauncbcr advocates 0£ pence
th:u1 men Por men arc reserved certain
rlghi,, and duues; for example.. sup-
portm!l tbeir wives and membersl1ip o(
inc Uni,-crsitll Hou..<e ol Justice, the
highest legisla1iv<> body in lhc Baha'i
Failh. These rc.malmng ditrere.ncc.s are
rcgru-ded In the Baha'i wrttlngs os being
negl~lble.
23. These three approaches arc described
in Fiorenza. /n /.f<!fno,:v of Her,
pp, 14--36.
24. S<o<l U. King, \V11me11 nnd Spfriru.ulity,
pp. :! l 5-:!2.
18 R£1,ICION A.'-0 TIit: ARTS
1. On •rmbollc un1,·cn1es Md their
conscrucoon and mainumanoe. ~ pp.
405-6 and Berger and Luckman, The
Socw{ Construction (if RcaUt,,,
espe,olaUy pp 110-46
.., \\lum W<.! mo\'c from our O\Yn MX"icty to
lhc In a new rutd differcm society, "e
expenence wha I Is c•lled 'culture
shock' Pon or this is the shock ol
realbinl\ thnt wha, we hsd thou.chi ol as
'rettlit)'' L, rcg:,nl~-d ns incoherent nnd
laughable by lhi• nc\\ society, whlle "~
are uruoblc to unden.umd the nrl>ltrnry
meanings 1hat It bas atUtclled to thlnp.
S<1me will be bt!mused b)' "hnt is /!(llnf!
oo '4·htle others mny noc even realilc
thM the)' are foUlnit 10 undcrs111nd the
symbolic unh·ersc or thu new .oclcty
J M.tn.lmd Rel\111011 wt,lrt, pp .?!>-74 \\'c
may liken thl, to !he twin pr~oes.-.es of
'fohh In' •nd ·heller tha1' that arc
described ln chap1er 6 llumanity
SI,<, '-IClTf::i fl'I' 15'1 171 l
J~hu.:.h\::Jo 1t.......:.lf from the olJ .u1J mo\-,c..11
forward ~ptro!uoll), hrc.,l<lnj! n.,w
~round 1hro11Jlh '(,111h in' 1 h" """
~ound " then onlcrcd, con~._,.,..,,,lin'<l
onJ ,~msolidn1cd thron.th 'hdtef 1hn1
formulathln,. •cc ol,;o thv puultcl•
vdth ,c,'-"ntlfk rc,tJluiton, JJscu,~L·J
tu cbuph.:r b nnd the •ltcrnnUvc
Uc"'"'-1nptiun of (.:.rc,nu,·ity on p ~J.
•I Thh td<"' t• drawn from Oun's <'Ou,-e pc
01· the holy :I~ n1_vsrm'mn tn.,,n(-nc/um ct
_1,,.,..,;,,ans Sec p $1; nnd Otto, Th,· /(/<YJ
~ tit< 1/ul.,· ,._pcclnlly chapccrs ;i...i,
5 ln.J.:,.J, 11 ,vulJ he nr'l,\.wJ l11at llilc
tk&cnpuon ur
!Im pru,,,,"8 applil!ll u,
anvonc "ho c~r~• In cr~ll•c ""r~ of
Jll)' ,son - 111dudJng .cll!nttnc re,,.,an;h
Th,-oreucal physics Is now involve<! n OI
q) much in dcscnhm~ reality A~ in
QfcAtinK o reality, o conoepwal unwc~
- It .._..,, ,u;clr u• m,p,,,.,ng ru, oroor oo
the physlc,u world rallu,r thw1
d,sooverlo,! some Inherent order.
ere.inn( eoherent pattern;, o(
relotlonships ro1her Rndlnj\ out how
thint-" work J\y. such thi" is n oreatnn~
oc,
We c"n ,we somc1hlnll of ,t,,c
turnfylng ru,p<.'Cts of tlta crc3tJvo woxk
In tbc following !luttcmcnt oi Alben
t:Iru.tdo. '.\11 m)' aumcp<S to adapt the
lheon,ucaJ foundallon of phrslcs 10 thlS
( new type oil knowledge fa lied
~-ompleteh· It W116 as if the ~mund had
hccn pulk.J out from undor nnc, with no
Orm louncfotlon tn he &cltn nuywlu,re,
upon which o ne ~'tluld build, Quoted In
Capra, Th.: nu,
uf Ph:;-.1,,,,, pp. 61-2.
b The work. of the aru.-i should be, JI>
l'"t:rarcb st01ed r.,l\ardlru\ writers. not a
comrlcte 1denu1y w11h what it
represent• nor ~ cnmplc,e dificrencc,
rothcr It ,hould he .,., the rescmblnnce
of the ,on It) the bthcr - there ~hould he
cnoutfl there to uweken In u~ a
rt!COll!lillOn Of what We aJrcod)• knO"'
but also enou~ w help t1, to see what
we ha\'e no, prc,ioush' ~ Lem:r,
frnm Pcm,n,h (ttlln, \lorris Bishop.
Bloomin~ton, l<>M,, p l'l'i) quoted In
~lnrtl.tmJ. Rdl/li•m Oil In, pp 1 l~
7 LeSh,in and Morg<:nJu E11istcm ·, Spott
mui ~"" O"a/, '• :Sky, p. 11•1
b Ibid .• p 17:?..J
'I .\ <.: Moore. lc,;noJ?roph.'" nf Ri'liJ:irms.
Jl 26
lO S..:1.t ~numntu,w•mv. ti, muita "tf
Hmhlllt.t.t k·o,10J;rupl1v, p (.J. thHc ~
11 1 h< (,,llu"'lllll ~'"~" lf<llfl llurd,hnr it
nhhouth "rttr'-'.n m ~ d1f1t.:r~o1 ,•om~ 11
nuv 11'! ni r,·1"',·:rnC\ lwnh co cheo mM i,;
fmm CU1i"-'<tnk: a.rt tu l"-ooic i1rt m,J co
1hc. 1110\t: 1ro111 tht.: laucr ,., rc11rl.$n
t.1tlc,nal an 'lu the cAtc.:llt th,u 11plrttu.1I
L"<m~CWUbne\~ 4rov.~ le~, ;tnJ lht:
cmpha,1, of lauh " ,ht<>cK-d to th,
hi,toru::11 chanu:ler o( tht..'
t)l."C'Urr~n~c nulwr thnn ,,,
,rnnuud
ltii
quoht) 1h, rdt~ll'-' 01,ntalll) tum,
owoi• fr<lm th, <h!mal archcl\1)<,• anJ
uttachc• ll~d! to ht.torkal c:unttn•
j!cnctco. "hlch thcrca.fter ore ,vn,...,1-...t
In a n.ttur:ihMk tnllJlO<,r that IS w "'~
In 1he manner thnt Is mn<t oe<-c...,ll>lt to
o rollccuvc, ,cnllm<'nWII}'' (SO<T<.-d ,\r,
p 67) Sec olsn pp 3211-22 ol>mc
12 A C. Mc,,,rc, l<.-m11'Jlruplo· ~ Rd',11"""'
pp I 0-I~ Coont,ll'!U\\3my. f'~urao fl'
S,-oh.pp lbS-7
1.3 There have l,e.,n nunor CJtcept>On.s to
chis. such as the fttscos In the Dunt
Europos S)'tl:u!O)\ue or the dcpicttnn <>I
Muh•mmnd and other prophet• In
Persian ounatufd &.'1 /\ C Moon!',
lconograplty 1>/ Rdtglo1ur, pp 210,
22-l-7
1'I Cleiie.~ arjlues that It wu, 001 th:n pre·
Renatssance atflsLS " ' Cl'1' lln3\\UC of the
twhnlque o( pe~tt,·e nnu lherd1>n,
unnhle lO produce the n::tlf•m ...r the
Ren.a.iASanc~ Rather, thv n:nllMk·
or
rcpre>cnrnll<)II the pb)"\lWI .. 1,>rlJ .....
u( Db lntcn<•l to th~ medJe, .J llni>t.,
"ho "e"' U')1n4 to creak th<! """n.,d
world. "b,cb ,s a world of nonrrol
rhythms und caden""' "here the later
preoccup:,uon "1th spoce 1111d •pec<n.dc
r,rpe.ir11 s.:n,uous onJ ,-u!Jl~r Mcdle"'J
:trtlst. d,J not dO\ dup these tc-.,hrm1uc,
nc,, b<.-..'llu.c they were UllJlblc t<I oo "''
hut bec:1.1.1.-..: the re>ult. hlld no mcan,nii
for th_l.!m lndet."d 1nv mu, ~mt!fll •n that
Jlreccion would ho,,: appenrt.J a
hctrn)·al nf thl!i.T nrt See ClelJi"• ,,rt ,·1
/{<1111wn
1!\ Ct,c,mom,,.,,my, 1171y f:.x/1ilnr 11,,,,u. ,if
,\rt>, P -IS
I b lbtd • pp 1,:\-SJ
J7 W"tlJ~•-
J..,r,-rory Rdam:uy. pp i-...51
I 'I Alhcrt (,le11,..,. hns J1 ....-cmed a cvcltc
pnuem in wh,~h the,.e t\\O "'PC'"'
art,

the n:_lw,>us and the S<.'CUlnr. 1thcrnate
In tmp<mane,, In the \\'est nn ..,,.
""--cular Jurln~ 1h... t:im" oi t.hc Rm11im
lmpirc u11til the est•hllshmcnt .,r
Chnstlttnltv, then titer\! .,tb • period of
rciltlous art "h!ch 1,.,,,.,..i untrl the
R.,n,u-,.'lln<,! (Rltho~ the first ,!gos or
11, Jcmhc coulJ l,e seen in the r-.clfth
c.:nturyl After sen~nal «ntur1ctt of
,.._~..,J•r an. there were, In the mil.I·
nt.nf.'.h.::c.nth C\.'.OLUE)'. cnrly al_gn.iC uf •
~wtnt hltd, 10" ru-ds trrulltlon;1I llrt (In
the J..-slre of the cubist.< 10 mo•e a"•Y
from mere r"l'resentatlon) and rclW<>us
an ttn the work., or such 11ni~ts ""
Dclll<:rmr). Sec Gwlzes, 'An ct Rel]Aion'
t0 An ct R.:l!111011 Others, CSl)e,)ially of
the Pbllosopbta Pcrconls school •uoh a.s
t:oomaraswamv (s,,e ll'hy £xh1b11
\fork.! o/ .~rt~. pp. l10-.?7) and
Burckhard, (Sacrcd .-In i11 &>st and
ii;,.,, pp. HJ-60), SC<! In modem nn
onl1· a steady d<>sc.-ent from the hdgl11JJ
of trodltlonal sacred an. Sec also
Martland, Rell/!1011 BS An. pp. J9-20. E
Gombrlch. TheSwry qfArt, pp 128-JO,
H'>
19 REl.!taO~ IS TU£ MOllEB.'i WOIU.ll
\\' C Smith, The M«mitlll and E,ul qf
&ltgion e.<p,.'<llnlly pp. l')-74, 1~\ll
2 lbltl, pp 19-74.
J Hle-k, Ood II.OS .\/any .\'wfl.1!8. p. S. See
also pp. 72-J above.
4 W'llson, &/igion m S"'7t1lar Society, p
14
5 This lln i& baM:d 011 Shiner, 'The
Contx-pt of Sccularlzalloo', pp. J07-J 7.
b. Cf Wach. The Cornporortw Study q/
ReltgtQ1\8, pp. J7~ Wach Includes a
fourth 'pseudo-rel,~on - biolofljsm. the
<>ult or Ufo as sueh or the sexual drt,·e, l
haw no, lnclud<>d this here e•, ollhnudt
,,,td<.-.pread tn th~ w.,.t, it hru. not yet
pro, o.xl lllr&Ct1"t: tO the rest or the
"orld. nor does it seem ,o me to bo,.,,
~,,, taken on the charaeiertsdcs of an
ldcolot_v, outlined below John Smith, In
°"""1·Rcll/!10f1,I, also gi,·es hurnanLsm
as a 'qua.,1,n,hg/on' I h11,·~ no, lneludL'tl
tht. In m)' !ht clth.,r, b..uu..:, like
b!ologism. h bas not Ctn Ii.,, modem
formulauoo) nch,end the level ol stat<!
endorsement and cencralltY n~ the
NOTES (l'I' H5-50JJ 1167
tdcol~· o( tl soo1Ct)' ln che ~tme wn.y
that the thn.-., tdL><1logJc• cited ln rhc
tcu hn,·u There ttrc rnn.ny 'iit:holo,rS;,
ho1«ver, "ho do rcgarll It w, being ou u
par wltb th.: the mnjor reli~()II> or the
VIOrfd.
7 &-., also the conc.,pt <>( • .,,.,11
reliition'.
pp 4.?~ and R<:llah, /k:,'011(1 &:lief, pp
16/l-AI,
S. Much of thu next thn."C pa,utraphs I•
tllmwn (n,111 II Smith, 'l'o.unodcm,.m·~
J_mpact on the Study of Religion'
~. t\nthOn)' Wallace In Rdi/linn; An
Anthropn/a,)ic,,I \fleu,, 1966. pp 26.I-S,
<11uoted in Stork and Bainbridge, The
P1tn,re o.f Relflllon, p 430
JO. Ekr)ler, The 1/crcdool /mp,:r«dw. pp
22-5.
11 lb1d, p . 68
12 The Qur'rm nnd the main colleooons o(
Tmdition5, both Sunni und Shi'i, make
It qulte clear t!Mt physJL'ttl Oll)itlnjl :ind
war I• wh"t is lntcndC<l by Jihad. Sec
Qur"t<11 2:217-9. 4.75-6, li:39, 9:29.
13. Cuppltt, Thkilll! Leaw of God. p. 9
H . On this subject. see Ber~cr. The
HN'CTiccd /mp<'TTiriw , pp 112-17.
lS. Th" Rr,;t MPf.'CL\ of mo,fom cechnol~·
t.hnt ti,.,
lsl.1JJilc states lmporwd lo the
~lg)uccnth ancJ ninelt!c:nth c~nturfc.s
,ended to be mlllutry technolO!)y.
16. On most ol these, see llour:inl, Arobic
Thml/lht i11 cl~ Libero/ Nie
17 Neely'~ lliscory QJ tl1t Porlinm,-n, QJ
Re/,g/nns, pp. J9-10
Ill. C.h.,ul11ted from tablcll 1t1 B•rrctt. lll,r/J
C1Ln.stlw1 £,u:-J...'10pcc/1a, pp. b. 71i2-5.
The 0gure for Europe Include, the
USSR. Bamm's flt,1rcs for mld· l %5 arc
used
19 R.1rre11, ll'or/d Christian £n{'.)·dn,x-di«,
p /j
20. Ibid
21. For 1961:1, set< Smith lllld llomen, "The
Uaha'i hith 1957-191!.'i', p. T.! For
1995, see The Baha', World, 199-1-5, p
317
22 \1'hallng, Rdi,:ion m Totlttyii lforld pp.
1-44-5.
:!J. o.
H"carcr lo \\oallng. Religion 111
Tud4y's \\\)rid, pp 60-71.
24. M A G T Kloppenborj!. '&me
Rcllcxi<1n• on ,he Sn,dy nf Sinh•I=
BuddhL~m·, In Vrtjho( and \\'anrdcn1'UTg.
Off,cinl arid Pn1ndor Rd(/!/1111, p 4<l'J
5(>'< SOTf.S ( l'f' So,,-!\ I I)
l!'t I.In~. Htul,/111-,11. lmp<:rtcJi.m w11/ llur.
JI ).)I,
~<, lk"<:b,ri, 'llutltlhi,t Rc,·h·nl In b<t •rod
\\\.~t·
Z.7 l~1rrt.·ll , \\iJrfd (.'ltri.... cu.w 1-;,w',)'l.'lo7,•tlha.
p I,
2H \VorlJ Mhi,,lonRr)' Conf~rt!nCt.•,
F.Jinl,u~h l'llll, quoted In llorrctt,
lli>r/1/ C/1n•n1111 ent":1'\'/r,po/111, p ~
~(J llnrn:u, U'orltl C/Jri>.lttUt F.m,,x..•lt1114.!dw .
I' h, 0JJ1114 /l~ur., for tnhnl rclilllllnMa
:and ~hnnHrnh~ Some wuulJ !kll' Lhctt
Sl1111tohu- ,boulu ah.o oo addc-u IU tlt""e
ftA11rc.s 1111& woulJ rn:1k1: the total- 125
mcllion In 1900 ond I IJ million in 21K)(I
,o ,\yhrnnl :!hortcr, 'Mric:nn Kdi!\ions' In
lllnncll~. ,\ llwu/1,n<ik of /,1<1m.l!
fklri.i11uu,, ll, I;\(,
,l I U.1rrctt, lli,rW Clrn.stian f:1t~-yc/oµed1u,
J'P. J70-I
J2 $wk nod 11:unbridJle. Tile Future qf
Rclu:1011, p. 2: see also pp. 45-1-4
.lJ Thr< clussllrcAtio11 is derived from
Pdrs1111, ' Expantlin!! the Religdou,
Spc-otrum'
34 Clatkc defines nc" rcllglou, mo,cm-cnt5
as t hose emc~nfl in We~tem 1;:ur ope
since c. l~S. see Clarke, Neu, Rel~w11•
MO'l1e1!1c-r1t~, p 1, Such • dcfini lion
would c¥cludc, among othcr1i, th" 8"h11'I
~·11,th, Th,-owph)', 1111d Mnrm"nls:on
JS. \\'Uson, Religion m Sc'<lulur So<.-t«t)•, pp.
21-39. Barrell. World Chnsuan
Eru:ydopediu. pp 7&}-4, ,ee flguree- for
'cot.ii p raclism,i. Chrisw,ns' 111 u,blcs
J6 Robert Wuthnow, 'Rcli,tious M<>,·em<>nt.,
and Counter Mo,·cnH:nl.!,; in North
Amerio•, 111 Beckford, Neu- Rel/Jlit>tu.
Mooen,,-,us, p . 1. 111 the Canadian
ct:n.su,, those hsted as ha,·m~ reb4Ious
sfRllauons 10 other 1hnn the ma111 nine
rcli,!!lous l(roup,, rose from 2.9 per cent
o( the population In 1%1 10 r,.2 pcr c,,nt
in 1971 Ibid , p. 11.
J7. Quoicd In Barrett. World C/1rismm
En<-yclop,.-Jitt, p. 711. II one subu-nc1'
those to,·ohoed In Transccntlent111
Medltlltlon and vnj!11 (who mnv nm ha,·e
oon,tdc-rcd thcmseh·cs :a" ln\•c,Bvcd
n,tiglou,ly, a, di,cu-sc,1 obn,e), the
total Is !\ per wilt, Ai•·lng 1ho ,.,me
pcrccnL4!lc for lhO>C ln,·ulvc-d In """
r\!IJ~luu, m1wcmen1' ,u. the pre\'lou,;
source
38 ~1nrk and B.11nhri~c. Tiu. Fu111rv: q(
Udi.almrl ,ct: t:'.'1f)C~1atill\ rP 7~•,s,
,l:, I-<,. n'I- I.?
._\q lkckionl C1tlt Cmttro1.\t r.eu.·•. f1'
lCM ~. Hi~, 11t.\ 4t ~t. .-t,n lli1tkn
.\lokuw rd' ta AftHtfllt·, "'' I~U-1, ~h.a.rpti
('ri,k,..wrrdou: Rdu:11>11, l'J! Ill.\ I
40 I-or J. tJcta.llcJ de.'-C'rtr\l•)O ol thi.• IOIH: r
Wdrktn~1- of u '-mnll \.'Uh C,oup, 1i1:t
l.Atil,llhl, t 11/I, \\.hh: h
0
/l,H,n11'(fo\,
dco1,rlhc• th~ ,.,rly yvar,1 o( the
Hnlliwniun Chnr...h 111 tli. Un1u,d s,.,._
11. 1'hu. ,.... flr.t tlcM:r111Ctl h) lknton
Juhnwn Un Chnroh 1nol l><:ct'
,\uu.·n<:un S,K:1olo}!ka.l Hrt U.."te 2~
IIH~l, pp 5..'9-49, <ummara~o:d In St,,rk
and Bnlnbrtdi:,,, furur. t/ R, lui1or, , l'I'
.?3, lk-<,ll, 157-<. I .?'10 I .'16.~
12 1'h~ 111.,111 ""'k
In thl, •'-·' ho., h,:.11
done b) hUc.h rcscard1t.J"r"I at; Lout\
Jol)•on We:.t and M•n!.1ret Thaler !>roi:,;r
f'or a rl'Vlew of Utl• rna1cnal Md the
m,,in •r,llUments oi ruch ,urrortcr,, ,JJ
the nnli..cult mO\.'C-tncm. sef: Smfl.•r onJ
Add1.s, 'Cults, f'...u..irdon, und Cotllumch-'
n.nd S!n~r ond l..alich C,'u/t• ,,, Our
Midst
43. Barker, Makin,! t\f " Moani,·, pp
121-lfl, 232-59; Beckford ru1I
Conrrm.,crsic~· ,ce e~pcciallv pp
?S-102, 124 5, 199-.?(l.J ~ ttl•o the
Mnreh/Aprll 19/W (w,I 17/no. JJ 1,.-uc oi
$(1<.'tcl)' dt!dlcntcd to ' Bm.ln\\ ..b in~·- Sec
In particular· leader by James
Richaruson (p 19); Dick .\n1huny,
Thomas Rohhins, Jim MoConh,·,
'Lc~itimntinA Rcpn,,.,,lpn' (pp .W-1:?),
Anson O Shupe. Rc:,gc, Spldlllllnn nntl
S4m S111tall. 'Cul1' of Ami-Culusm'. (J'P
U-6)
4-1. Shupe and Bromley, '1111ches Moon&"-'
and tMI Ma•..ellcld ('The Muni ind the
0
Mooni4!$ ) h:ts drautn rm m tcre~tinl'!
p~ralld bet\\ecn the pr""'"'
R~u..~ntiMS og,ainit thc.: ·Mount-.:.s onJ
du, pcn,<.'Cullon~ .,f the Dud.Iha.
45. Anthony, Robbin< oml McCorih,·.
'l..egitlmatlnl\ Repression So..1<'1_v 17,
no. 3, I 9',0, p. -10 ThcSc author- 111,,,
mnki: the r,oin, th>! part t1f t h o P'""'"'
of lcgittm4tin~ rcpro<h>n in a
<Upl"'M'dly upcn unJ 1ohm111t i<><:ICI)' c,
to mcJfc:i!Jz.c ll1c pr<,bkm Bd1~-, "" Jn
tht! nc"' rellAtous mo,·cmt.:nl.ot arc
c ltt..s.wd ~ hnvlll)! n nu.-d,c:al pmhlcm,
~lonl\ with drui\ nddicu alcnhnh-,. ond
 NOTES (PP 5 14- 5.17) ~,<)

"then; ~trJ..-d 3S ~oelal undesirables they wen: flnha'i~ 1.1ml o((crini 10

Thus their human f'll!his rnn he ohuseJ
In rht nnme of hclpin~ them wll h their
m,-Jk,11 r,n,blcm
41> $lark anJ ll,tlnhridite, Th,• Furor.: uj
#MIii"'"· pp 23-1, --16--<>7.
~ ;'
11<:.:kJoru, Vult ()otltr'(l<l<T:ru,8, pP. bZ..J
,~ Bnrrctt. II orld Chnsrtan l>ncyclOJ><.'<lin,
n'>\·erse rhe 11Qtlon lf they aclol'(cd Islam
:--Cc Tl,c Baha'i \l'orltl, vol IA, pp
24'>-lJO. ,·ul t<>, pp. 4.?-'>, l:?8-8:?
5..l Ruben \\'111hnn" , ' Rdlgluus M<1-eme111~
ond t:uwucr·Mon:mcnts In Norlh
Amerlcn', In Beckford. N,...,, l!c/11/ioos
.ll(cx.-..~11,.,11.11, pp. 17-lll

l'l
"lhlJ • I' b.?J
\
5-1 llndden, 'The Rise nm.I Poll nf Ameriwn
Tclcvnn,!elism'
~ lla.:kcu \\.~ Rd,g,rn.,~ Mon!1m~u,
.. tu 55 Molinowskl , Afo~lc, ,'k·,ence and
s~-.:na. p 2 l!cUgi,m, pp 190-1.
51 D.,.,un,ent .uppUcd by the I ronrn.n
Embassy. London
,:? The Baha'i tncemallonal Community CONCLl'SION
has published numerous dc,cuments
I llerg<,r, The /Jere<i<'lll /mp,'cl'Utwc, pp
tha1 •ho" 1h11 the persecutions nre 122..J
purcl)• rch~iol.lS in noturc These
2. Wnn, The Faith tmd Pr<K'tlCC of al-
tncluJc a number or ollloial coun
Ohw::ali. pp. 54-5.
Jooumtncs shov,i"ll thut action bnd
b..>cn mken againsc 8:tba'ts 01\ly because
 BtBl , l ()G R/\ PIIY

b.\Cllt.ll SCRJl'Tl RU! ,\,"'D J\lm lOllffAT'IVl'. 811<$cwl·G1Ja , I• /c f,. 11111a

n:.,.,.., Bh11kt1,c<lJu1w s.. nml 1•rahhup:1Jn 1,,,.
York, Macmillan, 1')72
'1\l'<lu'l·Rrihri Pon,, Tu/ks. !Olh cdn.
T/1c 8/ia,4!<,tiuw Purtuta trnru, Ganesh \'
Lomk,n, lluhn'l l'ubllshln!l Trusl, l<Jt, 1
Toil)lre Ancimt lndinn Tmdltltln and
- The J>romul/lali,m qf Ut1kicr'll(1/ Pct.u.-c,
Thlkil fk/roeroo by 'Abdu1-8ahl, Durilll!
My1hol<>4y &rk•, ,..,1,7 11 Odh1,
Motilal ll.1nn,,.ldn-s, 1976-1!
his \'um ,., the l '1111cd .'itotcit cmrl
71.., Bible Re,1,c-d St11ndnrd \'<.:n<irin, 1"71
Coll(IIUJ rn 1912 Wl1mtc1c, Ill R:ihoi
c-ditlon, cxct'{ll "hure Indicated.\\
Puhlublug Tru.\l, 1982
Authorh,ed \'ersiM
- Sdl!l:tl1msfnm, t/1c ll'rltirl/lH!f 'Abdt, 1·
Bah,;, Lrlllll>. Manlcb OaU el al llalfo ,
The Book pf Grodi,(,/ .~,",j!-•,
tnin~ £ \1
llare and F L Woodward 5 w,ls
Baho' I World Centre, 19711
l,ondon Pnll T~n S<lc,My, l'>J:?-7
- Some A11su,cn.'tl Quessimts, Lrans. L. C:
The Book of Kindred SuybUls, trtn~ C, ,\
Bnrncy Wilmette, Ill • lt1lui'i Publi8hin.it
I Rhys l)avl<b and f L Woodward. S
Trus,, 19M
,·ols, London, Pttl, Tut Soc,cry, 195<>-n
Onb, Tt,e. Sclcccw11• From rlte ll'nrin.qs of
Chong, Cam1a <:. C. A 1roosury qf
tlie &:,b, lrtllls llubib Taherudch e, ul
Mnho:,.m,a S11crrw ~lec,.ansfrom cl,c
Haifa, l:lahn'I World Centre. l'.178.
Muhu.,a1,mk111a Su1rr, l'1m=1ty Park,
The Babylonian Ta/mm/, trnns. l 1::pstein
Penn~yhnnla Suite UnI,crMt)' rrea.,
London, Socino Press, J 9311
19&.J
ol-&~3wl, lbn nl-Fotnt. Misl,kitt aJ..
Tl,c Colkcuon vf Muh/.le Lensi,/1 S(t\·1rui.-.
1!<1s«b1h, iron• Jomes Robson 4 vols
rrnns. I. B llomer 3 ,-ols London
Lahore, Sh. Muhammad ,\.\hmf, 196J
Luznc-. for Pali Text Soc:lcti•. 11154-9
&lha'u'lla.h Glctmiryjs From tlu, \l'ruings
Conze, F,dwarJ (tram ) 8Uiltlhi"1
qf&il1o'u'llul1, trnn,. Shoghi Effendi
Sc.'npturl'R llurmonJ,.,·,,rth, Penguin,
l..ondon, Baha'i Publishing Trust, l 94<>
1959
- l/1drlen ll~rdt<. trnns Sho.llhi Effendi ct
ol l.c:,ndon, Bnho'i Puhli,hin~ Ttu>t,
Ctmtc, Ed\\11rd (ed.). Bu,J;l/lu,t Th.""
T/1roUJ1h 1/u, ,\J.1es. ()xfonl, Oru:.,orl<I.
1%6
1995
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Cowell. F. R., F Mo~ Muller 1nJ T
ttan,. Shoghl Effendi ll'llm.:ttc, llal1a·,
l"uhilshln~ Trust. 1987
Taknku.,u (Iran, I Burl1/h1M M"~""''
Tu.~cs &crcd Book• o( the f:u,,t , , ol ~·1
- Pnwers tmd Mcd11a,,.,ns ½• Ole.ford, Clan,ndt111 rn.,...,, lbtl·I
8«h(.'u71ah tmn• Sho!lhl Effendi I\.,,
Th<' D1111.r111n,1pu,lo Will..-< Ju.m MiL'C<lrU
cJn London, 8nbni l'ubli,,h1114 Tru)t,
llarmond.<\\orlh. P~nj\um. 1'17.l
l'>ili
KulanfVowko cd nod tr3n< \\" 8 lloll<>e
- Tnblct• qf&Jia'u'lum R,,walcd q/1.:r
IA,ndun Luz•c, 1?70
c}i,: 'Kw,b-i-Aqc/as'. trans Hohib
I.AA.u·s <i Munu. unm; C Ruhh.:.r ~ncr'-.J
rahcnadeh et ol Haifo, Baha'i World
ll<10k• of the f:;.m , .. ~ 1!\ O~forJ
Cemrc. 19711
Clorcudon l'reS>. 1i.,1,
The 11Jw110,,&J Ouo tmn,. JW1n Mo-..,nrn
The .lfa/u,1,haruw, cd M11111natb• S Ihm,
llarmond,"<>rth, l'cn¢uln. 1%-1

570

lb ,·ob t:.uamu,. II C. O.i,,s,
IMl~l 1l05
n,~ \ f,lhahharom a l l'r:11np.1 Chandra
Rov, ,,..,..._ Kisan Moh•n <,a~uli I~
,111< C.1k-u1ta. Bh.1rnta l'r<~s. tf!IU .,5
o·n.1lwny WcnJy ( ,mns ) 1/indu Myrhs
llarmonJS\,onh, Pcnguln. 1117S
fh4. (.lur'u:n AU tmn.shuions are the
author-·s 0"'1l
Rb,-. Da,id.•, T \\ ( trans ) ltuddlusr
S,w,1.• Sacred Book, of ,h~ En", ,·ol
J l Oxford, CLm:nJoo Press, 1&81
Rh,. Da,!d,,. T W. nnd C. /\. t~ (tnuu.)
l>wl1>1/ws qf th-, Bu<ld}at,, .l vols. S.1cred
Book.~ oJ the lluddh,sts, "()Is, 2-4
L<>ndon. Henn· frowde (vol• 2 nnd J).
Humphn,~• Milford (•-ol. 4). 189?-1921
Rh), Da\'ltlio, T W and II Oldcnbcrg
1tnu1•.) 1'1t1«)'1 Texts, partS l anti 3.
Sacn.,,J Bool,.s or the East, ,·ol,. 13 and
~, Odwd. Clan,ndon Press, 1885
The Ria \.'cda tnms Wend)' O'Flnhcny
llannond,worth, Middlel!Cx, Pen!luin,
JIJS!
&Jula .lfusl,m, crans. A. II. SiddlqL 4 vols.
LAhorc Sb. Muhammad Ashraf, 197.}-5
N!Oi\ht t.fiendl God Pa;sses 8),. Wllmcnc.
Ill &h3'J Puhlishin!l Trust, 1970
- Gullk,nccfor Toda,,• and To,namxc.
London. &ht,1 Publi,hin!l Trust, 195J
Too 1\: Ch1'¥t- ,\ ,.....,. 'Thi11Slatior1 will,
Comml'nta,y, tnms. Ellen M. Chen. New
York. Puagon House, l 989
Tuo Tc Chm.r!. tranS l) C Lau
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Tao Tc Chon,j, min•. Stephen Mhohcll New
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liumondswonh, Penguin, 1%5
Warren, Henry C. (tmllll ) Buddhism ir,
!'rum/arum.. llarvud Orit'rual Series,
,·ol J. Cambridge, ~!-, Uttrvard
l'm,·rrsny Press. l '>Oo
11',,st, E \\' (tran.< ). Pahfmn Tc...-,.•. p,,ns 1,
Zand 4 Saared Boob of the East. ,'Ills
5, lk and Ji Oxfonl, Clarendon Prus•
11.liO. 1,11s2. 1.i.n
Wood,.ard, f L (lra,u.) . .1/uu:,r Anthofogu:s
41· W Pol, C.:Unan, pan 2 :laereJ Books
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Humphre)' MiUord, 1935
Bllll,10'11\;\PIIY 571
0 1'11 Ell \ \ ' 0lt K~
Adn,. Mich,tcl l'r<,1111<1~ 11f lldidll<m:
Mtl/1mttn1111 Prr11et1t MIJIXlll('lllS <'1!<t11tst
d1c f:umpro,, C:ol,mwl Order
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ll'itd1cs, Druut,,. Q,../<lc&I-Warsl1ip1x...-s,
tlltd at.lu:r l'tu!ans in AlltCnL'iJ niduy
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Muh.umm11d A;,hn,f, l 97'l
Af.har, llaleb (ed.) 11\,men m llu: Middle
East: l'ero,:vrm11R, Rcolincs, o,u/
S~let1 for Lilx-roti-011 Bnsin!l<oke,
Macmill•n, I 91JJ
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Debate New Haven, Yale Unh·crsity
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&Jc'C'CIO»s./rom th., l'ull C111w11 u1ul 011
lnlJ'Oductory f:SS(ly George Allen &
Un..,in, London, 19$9
Allpon, Gonion W nnd J ~I Ros.<
1
PurNOnal ReliAJou:s Oricnwtion nml
Prejudice', Jounu,I of Pcr/Jf/mJ/ry and
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Su,gh ·&me ,upeou of
Ek.-ctrocncepbaloMaphlc stud,~ In
ro~1,'. Mec:1rrxmce:p/Ko./<J/lraph,1• and
Clinkal N,mmphys,n(nft,• 13, 1%1, pp
~52-6. also in Ton, Altered Srwes qJ
C'..nwtciousuc1ts, ,,p. SOJ.-6
,\11.son, P,cct ~- Tiu; Coll f./.( rJ1c /Jcscrr The
&lllut)• Ltfc m rlt~ Cl1nstia11 Cl1urc:h.
London, SPCK, IWH
 572 TIIF, l'llll'>OMf.NON 01' RELIGIO~
Ariomnnd, !;aid Amor '1'rndluonall,m In
1\tr«.·nucth \.en h.1r~- Iron', 111 From
l\"ot11m11l..sm to Ret.'Oltm0111u11 1~tt1m. cd
S t\ Arjomnnd Alb•ny, Sime Un1vcir<l1y
.,fNc" York Pre,,, t 91l.1, Pr> 1'15-:?J:?
,\.>hb~. Philip II . Mucu:n1 'lh,mls 111
Jluu.Jm,•on New York. Columhln
L!11lvcn;lty Pre..~, 1'>7-1
'Atlor, Fund •I-Din ~arid ud,l)Jn Amor 11,~
Cm,/<.'11.·11cc qf th<· /JirrLs, wons Mkhnm
l)arb:mdi nnd o,ok 1):,-,~
llurmondswonh l'cnj\uln , 19R4
Muslim &mt1-11 111uJ My,tics F:pL~odCI<
fn,111 1/1<: TutllaklrtJt ul-,\u/(>"1'
(M,·moriuls <if the 80111111), truo, A J
Arl><erry. London, Romfod,l\c & Kej\an
l'aul, l'l66
,\roub, Mohmoud Redcm'(Hive .';1ifferin..i m
l•lurr,: re S tudy qf the O..>,:,~rfo,w.l
, ls/X'Cl$ of 'l,~1ura' 111 7\oelwr Shf'1sm
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Badlce, Julie. An Earthly I'arodise: 8aM 'i
Uo1i.ses of Worship arou,id the \\hrld.
Oxford, George Ronald, 1992
The IJaJu,'i \Vt,r/d ,·ol 18, 1979.-SJ; vol. 19,
1983-86: 1<>9-1-95. lln1r.. , llftho'I World
C.:nire, 1966, 1m, 1996
lloll~y, Derrick $. The Ma,1-\l'om,rn
Rc/c,t/011 111 Christian Tlw"IJ/11. London,
l..c,ntnrnns, l'.159
BoilC)', Edwnrd 'The Implicit Relli\ion o(
C'.ontempc)ml')· Society', Re/fl/ion l 3,
1911.1, pp. 69-83
Bnlyuzi lln$11n M /Ja/ia 'u 'I/ah, the Ki"I) of
0/o,y. Oxford, Oeorge Ronald, 1980
- Muhammad and the Course of Islam.
Oiford, Georlle Ronald, 1976
Barker. Eileen Tile Makovi of o Moonie:
Cl1oice 1,r Broin-1\~shini! London ,
Blackwell, 1984
- Neu, Rcl(J/iou" Moo<:nmlls: ,\
Prrspt:<:tiwfor U1ukrstu11d11,g ,'>lx'i<.:(Y.
C'.omparnth-1, Stu<lfo~ In l\cU~lun onu
Society 3 New York, Edward Melltm
Press, 1'#12
Barkun, Michael. Crucible q/ the
Millfflnium. the Rumcd-0,xr District-S
qf N,v lnrk in Ilic I 840s S)·rncu.~e. NY
Syrouu.w t:nhc,.,.l1y l'n.."I•, 19116
Bltrnc,, Douj\las f. 'Clwtl>mfi ond Rtll~ota
Lcadcn,blp. An llbtorlrol ,\nnly•ls',
JtJu.ntal.Jrir t1u, S~'k.'71l\lic Srudy qf
Re/I/lion 17, 19711, pp l-18
Barr, James Ji'twd<unn,rolism I.Alndon,
SCM l'r..::i-.,1 I tn 7
Bo rrcn, l),wiJ II l"'1 j \for/,/ C:hn.11<111
f:n,';'>-.:lu1><.~lm Nelrot,1 OxforJ
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ll.1rth Krirl C'hurc/1 l>o~num,., tr•n• 1; T
Thomson llarulJ Kr1,i;11 I!'i w,t,
t:d111bur.1Jh. T & T Clork. 1'151,
U0>tll.lc, Ro~~r Tiu: ,Vnum Htl,.C:11>1,. 1!(
tJrt!k.tl: n:..rords tJic ~·10/oitv q( tlu:
ln.rcr,x.'t1ctrot(1Jn ttf (:1ot'1c.t,11r»1A, c,.n,
llcll.'n Schba &lllmr,n:, .ll1hn llorku"
Unlvcrolty Pre,.• 197/s
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Rd/g,.,..,. t;.--p,..,..~,.,..,_
A S-..1
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Oxford Unh·cn,l1y Pr<."!, !'.lb.'?
Bauson, C DanM. Patncln Scho.:nrudc t1.nd
W l,arry \'enlls Rclt111on and the
lrull~duul ,\ Su<.ialf'o)-.:h,,/1>.I/N.'<ll
Pcr~,1C<triw New \'ork, OxforJ
Un1,•cn,l1y l'rcu, 1??3
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Couunulty· lslamlctsauou amonA the
Nuhn o( Mlri. 8,dlenn ()j the Bnt,.h
Socier:,•jor Midtllc Ea.stern Snulics l:?,
J<),~S. pp 157- 71
B•ym, Mongol Irru,'« Fir<t R,..,,ilwinn •
Sh1'i•m and t/1c Ot>IIM/tuuo,w./
Rt<H>iunon qf 1905-1909 New York.
OJ<J'or<l Unlwrsity l'rei.s. 1991
de Beauvoir, Simone The S.:t'Ond Ser: A
Snu{v qf Mooeni \Hmum, tran~ II M
Parshley. Lond<m, Jonathan Cape 19SJ,
rcr,r. 1 'l7Z
Bec,hcrt, llelnz. 'Buddhbt Re\'lvlll m Ea,1
and West' In The llorld ,If8u.ddlu.•m,
cd II. Bccbert and R. Gombnch.
London, Thames & Hudson, 19!\-I pp.
273-$5
Beck, Lois and Nikki Kcddie (eds) ll'onwn
in 1/1e Muslim World Camhridl\<!, Mas• .
llnrvnrd l:nlvcrsity P.-.,M, 1'1711
Heckford, .l,1mes A Cult CtmmJW.ffl<'ll, Tiu,
Socw,al R~spvnse w Neu, Rcly:aaus
Mo<>L'111"1US London. Ta, btnck
Publlcntlon~. 1985
Beckford, Jomes A (•d.) Xev Rrl'4wuJt
M~'Cfn('7Jf.• and Rapid $,,eitJI Clunu?(
London/Pnri•. SnAclUNESCO l lllifl
lklhlb, Roho:n &,'O,ul &lief NC\\ \'11r~.
IIMJ1<:r& Row, 11170
- 'Civil Rcl~lon In Amcrlc:i' In !sc,.truUt,
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T>r,roo/"" 1/1,, )%7 Pr> 1-21

lk~r. l'<tcr Tlw 11<.,...,,mJ lmp.:Nu/e.:,
(}mt,mp,>rol')• Poss,bt/u,,.. qf II, l1.111m,.,.
,\Lhn11t111t1n London. C'.olllns, l'l/10
- Tl,.- s,.._.,,,t
lknlit;:1· qi Rdutum (Rm
roNlsh,,J as Tiu: s,,,,n.,I Cmw1~·•
tkmcrus ef u &x1"1<>111<.'u/ Th~'<>t;\' Ill
Rd\111011). llnnnond,,---ortb, l'cnguln,
l'li.l
S.,~r. Peter, B Befl\<!r a.ml II Kellner The
1/omd.-.«• .\fond llnrmoodsworth,
r.-rutmn. 1974
S.,rt,,r. rocter and Thom•• Luc.kmnnn The
So<.'IOI C.:.mstru<'tWII qf Rcnlity,
lbm1011dsl\·orth, Pen.l(uin. 1975
Bem·, Thoma" Tl1c Oroom cl ,Ju, &mh
San fmnclsc.o, Sierra Club Books, I ()SI,,
81mhflum, Raoul Snutm~ on rJ,c MJ·St'-'rics
qf .\lnoajwm: •\ Orrmp <>J EtJst , \,iiaJ,
.llllnd..olu..i 011d thdr '/hu.llrxmal
.Symbol,sm. )ton~raph :?, n.p., Soclet)'
for the Sl.udi• of Chinese Religions, 1983
lloun!ui!!non, &rika (ed.), Rclitinn, Alu.'Ted
Struc., qf O,nscumsnes.• 1, nd Socu,I
Chans:e. ('.olumbus, Ohio Smru
l'm"'"dty Pres., l9iJ
Bowker. ,lolw. Problems qf S4l(cn,~ 1,1 the
R.!/Jgwns of~ l\urld Cambrldg,;
C.mbrldge l'nh·erslry Press, 197S
Brandon tl C f (cd ) Tl1c Sat,,Qur Cod:
Comparn""' Sn,dks m ,he r.onc.<711 of
&1/'ll(ltt1>11 prcS<~11cd co F.d1.em Oli,x:r
James. .\lru,cbeslcr, ~lllOclumer
tnfrcrs11~· Pre,;s, 1943
Bro•:n. Noel J. and P.crre QulbUer. Etlucs
ar1d ,virnda 21 Afom/ lmplicatmn.• 'If a
Global Con.-,c,ou,m-,.. New York.
l'nlt"'1 Nol.Ions Publlcntlons, J')<J~
Bruce Stc,e. F,_rn1 in ti,(' Faith . .\ltforshol,
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°""'"'· 198-1
R,duiwm In ,J,e .lfodcm World: From
Cathedrnlil to OultR o~mrd, Oxford
L:nivert<iry Press, 1996
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fundaml!J1tnllsm In S,'Culor Suclc1y' In
Caplan, Srudu:$ in Rel~wiu
Fu,id«m,...,uulism , pp. li7-9-I
Bultmann, Rudolf. .\(yth mill Ki,r:,,ima; A
Tl,eolo1!1C'Ol De""-«,. ed H W Bomch,
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Butclth,ird1 Titus Strcr.:d J\rt m Ea,,1 and
W.,.t; /t,i Pnnctp/.,. and ,\lctlwd&, trnru
Lord Nurlhboume. London. Perennial
Books. 1%7
Burrell. Roben M Ced.) lslamw
Fi.mdamrnralism Roy$I Asiotic
RIBLIOf:R.\PII\' 57J
&mlnM l'opcr, I Lon.Jun, Roynl
1\,,in1lc SocMy. I 9!19
BurriJj,\c, K .Ve,,, Uccn.-..,,, .Vt:tr &,rth
Oxford. Rlnckwcll, I%'I
Byrne, P1:1cr TIil l'htlo/oOphicol cmd
Tl,ml~tt~d Foum.l,111011.• o/ £tl11t·~ ,In
lmrocluctlon w .llor«I Tlt,,ory und Ii.
J<clono,1 to Heli,i!,ous /Jdu:j'. 1,m,don, St
Mamn's Press. 1\192
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Soctcrks. A,na and the .IIWdlc Eu.<t
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Mytholog,•; Occidental Myt./11>/ogy;
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F1mdnmen,a/1sm London, MncmilL1n,
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Copra, Fai1Jof T/ic Too of Physfc:11: Ao
Explorutwn of tl1e Parallels t,eru,e.,,,
Modem f'/iys,cs and Eastern
1\f1•sti<-a.<m. L..ondon, Fonlana, 19&1
C nrmcl t\lcx Die S1cd/1m//('II dl!T
udrtc,;,uhcrgisclw11 Tcmp/1..T in
Ptt/astm<, 1868-1918 ii,,.,,
lckttlpc,lili.,du.:.n wad intcnlhtlo11llk11
Prob/enu,, irans. Perez Lesben.
\'erl'lffen1Jich1mgen du Kommissl<>n fur
Ocschichtllc hc L..1ndcskunde in l:laden•
\l'ilncmberg, Scrlco B, vol 77 Snnl,!lnn,
W Kohllw.mmcr \'crl•&, I 97J
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Rclucw,u Arct,b,stu,p. London, llo<ldc-r
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Cn,.,- &. II ll?uu L• flist<11)•" 2nd edn.
Hammndswnnh l'en4u1n , l9R7
C111u11, Pc~ (ed.) Equul Cir,:i<s, ll'om,'11
und .\fen rn 1/re Tklha'(C111nm1m1ty Lo,,
/\ngele,, Knllruat Pre,,, l 9lj7
Cruon. llok-1..am 'Tbe Whit~ 1.ot=Mallrey•
1:Joctrlnc and Popular L'pnson~ ,n Ming
and Ch'in~ C hinn', Smolol!im IO. l96Q,
514 Tilt Pllf.1'0Mi,NON Of Rf-1.l<ilON
rr J11 ·'-'
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llll)luc, Mouton 1'17'1
Waardcnhul)\, Jacquc,i C:IWl~l<l(J
J\pproocl,u ro rhe Sru<()• qf Rtlt11111n :?
vols Th., llnguc, \1001011. 1973
Wach, Jonchhn Tlw Cornpcrrc,tla: Study 1,1
Rd,,qions. New York. Columb1•
University Pre.», l 956
\\'runes, David. Art /nrroduccinra tn /,./11m
C:tmbrldgo,, Canihrlcbt<> l'ni,·c,-1ty J>rL.._,,
JQQS
\\'nlkcr, A11drcw Fundnmt:nwli.sm and
1
Modernity Th~ Rc.tomuon Mo,cmcnl
In Britain', ln Caplan, Sn,da.:s In
R"111l1ou., FundumenmJi.srn. J'P
l'lS-21()
Walker, Benjamin C..o.<11ciim1 It~ /Jiwir:,·
/Ind lrifluenc.r \\'elllll4boroul)h,
At.1unriw. l'r~~- 1'}M.l
Walh•. Roy 'l<foolottY, ,\utborlcy aml lh<'
l)e,clopm~nt o( Culuc ~lo, cmenr.,
SocilJJ Resrorch 41 IYN, pp m~121
Wolhs, Roy (ed.) -~·wn,:m,sm I.A)ndon,
Peter Owen. 1?75
\\'11.rd, Keith Cone<7ns qf ()..,,/ Jm,<11,:s q/
tfae O.oin, m Fkk Rd111im,,. Trod11u>n.•
Oxford, Oneworld. 19'18
\\'a mer, Marina. 11/mll! of All lkr Su: The
Myt/1 cmrl ,lie Cttlt q.f the Var,l!m Mar:,
London \\'cidcnfcld o.nd \/khnl'6n.
l'l76
\\'au, \\' \ lom,t,,m,0 Th,· Fmd1 unJ
f'r<W,..,,tlf ,,J.Qhuwl, OxlurJ,
Ouc\<Orlu, I 994
1,lamu.• Ph,losopl,y urMI Tlu.-r>W4)'
Islamic Surw)·• I Edmbu~

t.lmburi!h t'mvcrslt)' l'rcss, I%;?
- ·The Mushm \'enminj\ for a Sm'iour
·''"'"'u<
1,r E/trly ',\bbasod Shi'ism'. In
Br:anJon, Th..• .Stro1,m.r God, Pl'
191-~{)~
\\'d,.,r. ~ID- The l'ro<Ufranr £(/1ic on4 t/tc
S1>1nt q(C<rpimlm11 Lc>ndoo. u~>or)!e
\ll•n & l'n\\in, 1976, onginnl edn 1930
Tl,l Socil>I<>()' <If Re/Wan, tnm, E.
Fi"'1hoff lloown, Bem!<,n Pres.•, I <l6J
TIie T/1<00,• ef Social u nd E:conom le
On!o111Mltl011, tram. ,\. M llenJ.,rson
and T P11rst1M. Lond<>n, \l'lllinm !lodge.
l'H7
\\'eUcr, Roben P {'norie• and Dk,,:rsotic~ m
Chi'14'se Rd&gocm B.uhll;stokc,
M,ocmJJlnn, 1%7
\\'erblo-..,ky, R. J . Zv.,t. 'Marburg - And
.\fter>', l•,umen 1, 19W, pp. 21~0
\\'em~r. Hemz. Comp,:irom,-e Psycholo,zy qf
lfcnra/ Dc,,c/wmcnt New York,
lntemot,rmal IJnl\'Cl'lilty Preis, 1957
\\'cmcr, Karel (ed ). Lot,c Dt,,ine, Srudics In
8/iakli and lkt'<JCiornJ Msstw""1t,
Durho.m Indolog!cnJ Serles J. llicbmond,
Curznn Press, I 99.l
Wcs'\inger, C,uhcrlnc 'MJUconlallsm With
and Without Mayhem', in Millcn11ia/ism.
lJcss,nJu;, tuul MU)•hl!ln, ed. Thom...
Rc,bbtns and Suson Palmer London,
Routledge. 1997, pp. -17-59
\\'e,,tt,rmnck. t:. Ritual and Bdief m
,llorocco 2 \'Ol•. London, MllCmlllan,
1<126
\\'halin!l, Frank (cd ). Conrl!lnp<>mry
Approoc/11:s w chc Study r,f Rc/1/l/,m :!
,·ols. lkdln, Mouton, 1984
- Religi,>n m Ttxluy's \forld: Tlte
Rcltgwus Smuirion qf che \Vorldfrom
1945 t<> the Pre,;,,,u Day. &:linhur)!h. T
& T Clock. 191!7
- Tm, n ;,r/d's Re/f#f'11a Trudlnons·
Cum,,u Perspcct,wa ,n Rtll,llious
Srudoe~. Edinburgh. T I,; T Clari<. 191,.1
\\'lute, llayden Meraluscory: The tliscornx,I
/ma.l!mooon in Nanerceruh,Century
f;urope Baltimore, John• Hopkins
UIULIOGRAl'llY 5115
l!nwcrsic)' Pn!SS\ 11)73
\\'ii cs. Mnuric,c Tlw R,•,,11Jk111,11 <tf <'hn~ntu,
/)(,c:u,ro,• London. I-CM Pre.,~. 1971
\\'it.on. Ilry,011 ll 'Au Annly,1• ol S(:,;1
Dc\dc,pn11:1-c', ,1\,11crk."Un St.>doloJ!tcal
R...·vlt-w J4, l95CJ, pp. J..IS Reprinted In
Ne,.·,rum, Th,· ,<;c,c,,a/ AkonlrtJ:.• tlf
Rc/U!ion, pp :?~7'>
- Rdl,'!im, in Sct"Ulor Soc/cry
llnrmondM\'Or1.h, Pcntuln, 1()6(.,
- ',\ Typology .,f S...~u.·, ,lrcl,iuc.-, de
&ciul<>gie de J<dl~oun 16, 1963, pp.
49-6.) Repnntcd ln Rohen.son,
&x:iolo/ZY t>f Re/lg.on, pp . .361-8..1
\\1r&gcnstein, Ludwig 1,ccn,.,,. cuad
Co~rsao,JttS on Acstl~tics,
Psyc/10/<Jg.• 011d RelyZloua Belief. ed. C.
BruTctL Oxford, Basil Blackwell. 1966
Wltkln, Hcnnao A. 'A Co!lnltlve-Style
Approach to Cr<>S-..Culturnl Rese.orch',
lnt<;rnanonol Journal qf PsycholOJ!Y 2.
1967, pp. 233-50
- 'Psychc,logical Differentiation and Form.•
c,£ Pathology', Jounwl q/Abnormal
P~')'Cholo,zy 70, 1965, pp. Jl7-36
Woods, Richard (ed ) t'nderstimdin/1
M;}'Scicism London, Athlone Press, 1981
U'riti1t11s from th~ Pl,ilolwlia or, dte Pruser
qf the ffcnrt, tmns E Ktldloubo••ky '1nd
G. E. II. Pelmcr. Lt1ndon, Faber & Faber,
1951
Yln.~r. J. ~lllcon. Rdig/011. Socier;y and the
lndkJtdtwl· An lmrod11crio11 w the
&,ci,,lol!:V qf Rcl(l!io11. New York
hlncmill,m, 1957
- Tltc Sci1:11tffw Srudy qf Religion N~w
\'otk, MacmJllan, 1970
Zaehner, Robert C. Mysticism Sm:red and
Prqfcmc; An Enquiry 111,0 Some
l t1rlct1es <>.f Prcwto--J\'owrol E..-pcnencc
O>:ford, Clarendon PrC1\S. 1957
Zechncr, Rol>cra C (cd ). ConC'lSC
E"C)-CIOJ)(«:dlo q/ /.,hl(r,g J.'tJW1s 3rd
edn. London, tlutcill.on, 1977
Zurcher, t:. 'Prmce MooolJAht'. Tou,,g Poo
68, 1982, pp J-75
 I NDEX

Th,- fndr, i• nrr:in~cd wurJ hy \\Ord; therefore 1,e,,.fni Al'l'C8'' l>cforc I"'(>!< fmrie• in hold
1,,_knotc.: ilJuscrntion~ ond th'-!ir cupuons, cncric,;; m unli"""' rnd1cat-.: mnu:nnl ~uh che •tiouk·
wymhol. tnblc-,. mnps Nnd cllnclincs \\1H.:r-c nou,:... m n,('r<.: th,u1 c>ne chopr..:r ;ippc1r on th"
same p..t~ In the nol..:~. the &-ct.•ond t..uch nob:: is dc~tgruh.-d by b

""'"", .l 10. J 12. 558-911 IO Oaw ln human bcln,¢,, SJ<>

,\ht1.1sids. 1, 29, 12(>, l511, JO.?, J.lo, J(>.}, -1 2J lioorouoo, 235, 2Jll
,\bJuh, Muhummnd, 4'>1 nalure of the bumB.ll helm), 205
·1\bd11'I-B.1ha, 16. 127, 110-1, Jl7. J29, ori~ns o! the v.orlJ, 20II
.HS. J4!1, 4M sttt-clut-<tJ1atllUI, 235
ahlucJon,. J ti,, 119 suffenn~ 2 l5
abonj\,ncs/Aburlalln•l rclwon, 55. 70-1, 70, truth, l 9J
J57 ad,~ml;t/revolut1on1.>t l>C(!L>, 75. 76
•borcJun, 4JY, 497 Africs/AJ'ncan rdl~on. -«>, -l'-, SIJ, 71, l ?-1,
,\brllhon, , 200, 2~5. 226, :?JI, 278, 27?, 16?,J62,28J,507
.?bf)-J , Jill 4<15 Afrltnn an, ~!)Q
mfj\l"Jtlon or, 3 IJ, JJ4. 495 and Chn.1.fallll)', '14-5, 158. Jb6, JIJ7,
.\brohuml~ rcli~lon.,, 7 4<>6-7, S06, 507
.<ee also ChriscJrmlti·, lslnm and Judaism In Glu1.na, 506
abr<."1CUOn, 17J, 174 lnlluence of, 15&, 31>11, 3117, 41Jlhl
,\bshubhyn, 260 cmd lsLtm, I SS, 3116. 507
,\bsoluu, Rl'llllty, J.l-1, 339, SJ9 noiur" In, LIO
In BuJdhlmll, 33, -16, 97, 19~5, Z07, JSZ, nc" rcllglou~ mo,emcnu., 5l6
54711.3 oumertcnt 11,lte, 507
or
contra.st \\Ith oonocpt God, J.:1-1, 5.16 p<:=·cutfon r,(, 1()(), ~(11
cvcrythin~ J':l1't or, ?Oi sec a.J.\Q Airo-Amcri~ rcligt.U<I
In llimlul•m, JJ, 97,193,207, WR, 240 Afn.,an church. 9-1-5. ,l<>t,-7
And human bcin~. JII, .17 59. 72. '17, Mro-.\n1crican rcli)l)un, ISi!, 179, J<J I,
205,JJ'l,343 39'1-10.l, 100, 401 -102 507-h
knm,lcdge ol, l9B-'I nft<rllk ..,.., d1.11h, lff1: ofttr
nam"" nf, Jl-1 •'Ai• Khan I\', Prine, Karim. ?61 261 4.\fl
7:?--J
as nour11.t..lf1onlp/H.'l10meunn. l!Jllit.-uhure, 71. J .:?I,, 2'15. 1:.1:1
path 10, 73 ,\hmnd1n-n, .?62, 266 J.JS 51).t 50$
in pcrcnnl~I philONor,hy, 7J Ahm,-d. l,<,ilo 451
relWnu• ,icv.r,ninl, 111.1 .\hrimnn (.\nj\r.,-~lnrnu). 217, .'i.lR
in Taoi,m. 33. 16, '17. l 'll. I <i.l •1-.\h<n'i, Shaykh AhmnJ, .)0$, JIii. •li.1
see a/.,. llrahmnn. Dhnrrnakn>·•. moni•m J2~
Nirvana, r .."llny Shml)':114, ,m,J .\hum-Mo,dn, 5J~
l n11mncc Re:al11y t1ji'l.v1, 1z<>
o.bsoluu•m. see monism l\l8lloJ!p3,·n, Kini! 25-~
.\hu Bakr. Jos. JlU, ,l 17. UJ, 4./J alchemy, 1-l
\dam .•}.), IZ'i, 2!1-1, 211\, 2h5, 1.l<,, 4:l6 'Ali Imam :?<kl,.10!\, JIii J 16, 421 45'}.
./-lll,$43 47.l
Adi Gmnth, 106. 1,39 bu.•oonJ of P•Hm• 29.l, .?C/4, -N2
Adler, Mar~t. -151 dJSp,ne o,·er succes.."JO" to \luhummaJ,
ndvk.,..,.,ncc. l-1$-6, 147 l 4 J 11. -1-1,l 5-1-!, 5b2n 4,-,
.\dont,, 11J \Jhnnce or Rcl1t,on, arul (;t,,_rvi111on .,~
,uh·a,ia Vedanta ,chooL 39 ,)5',
Ah<,olut" Reality, JJ, l'll, 193, 205, .?01$ Allport, Cordon \\ .. IC>.1

&Im,. .!~~, .!SJ. •W 5. .W<,
,Jt,n,J ,tote,, <>I oon:,ciou,.n,-,.,<, 11)5, IJ7.
HO.n5
•rou.<31, cmooonnl, 17(1-l. I 7J. IiS, 176.
IMl
au.,tcrill'-'3 rroJuoo, 1 O.S
d1,1nung produces. IO'I, t:lS, JJ6, 1.\7
J.anc,11,1 produces. !Jt,
Jtut,, proouoe. Hill, 175
E;i,t.,m Cnon-thdi.th:,) r"114Wn.s cncourn4c,
.36...l7, l ;9
cl'/,!O{fOJ'ICpa!.hv.>i)'. 17J, 17-1.175
tr.'qucncy o(, I oo
h)'J>er-lhvpo-a.rous:tl. I7J. I 75. 177, 181
hYl"-"""til.ulon proJu<J<'>, 1(18, l(l<J
mc-.ltwtlon and. J<,, J7. lOS. 10!;. IJS.
137,176.177, 1711. 180
m,-.ucb,m and, lJH
n.iur<>-pb)'•lolOf!iCll.l cruuU!cS, 17J-5
l"'lhv.3)> to, Ii-I
m :,banwn,, 4li
;oun.-., oi reU~ou,, uperieuce, lZl.
lJS-<>. 137
anJ l:iut'lsm, I.lb, 393
trophotrop1c pathway, 173, 17-1, 175
,\mbtJkur L>r Bhunnw llttt11)1, 157. 159, J<,()
.\merican Church oi the Sul)..Genluo, 518
.\mcn.:a.n Indian reUgton, see !':auw
.\mcrlcan reUglon
.\mll.h. H. 75, 75. lJZ, 37?
.\mlt.abbA (Amlda) .Buddha (Ilic BudJ.hll of
lnfioJce 1.Wtt). 9. 40, -IS, 1.?S. l-19, SJ8
calhn,t on ntlllle of, 125, H2, 538, S42~
ob~-ct o( dc,·otlon. 46, 261
r1:prek\n..uttl.on1 of 1 102, J l ~I, 260,
Wc,,u,m l'llr,..11,.., or. S<'t! Sukhn,atl
lid" OUI() Puro, Land BuJ<lhhm
.\mlt.a>-us Buddha (the Buddha of lnRntu,
We), 8« Amltahha
.\mogha.lJJhl, 260
.\mrlt.ar, 277,314, 4 72
amulct.<.47,J:?1.J,3.'>ii-9,J90,J9J 39&, t5~
.\nul-Mpll.>~•. 75, 257
analytleal Jppruochc, to study or rchgloo,
i1 i8-9, 80. bl
,\ruJnda. 2.lJ, -s.37. 4-11
1ltkltff&ID1, ~ (tF&(l(Ul
unatw, .?9. 2:?<l, .?JS, 395, J96, SJll
ancestor \\Onsblp. see- an~cc:tr. , 1cncradtm
o(
an c•t<>I"' 40 I
IUl<"-'>tnl Rgurc• (IO<cm>), 17, 70, 70
oui{cnng rei.uli,, (rom •cuons or. 215
"""r-.uon ol. 43, 1-1 , :!69,J47
ani:ci,., 9i. 135. JJi, 19'1, 204,470
,,n,coo (anil)'U), 195, 39S. JW,, S.l8
•mmals, 3Jfi, 3-1-3. J57, J6R
..;aaf'lii« of 40 I . 4(1:!
•nrmi!lm, 511-(.0, Hl5. 269. J56 3~7. Wi,
5,"18
.\nnunci"1ion. 292. 292 .,173
\R><:lm. St, 14.l, 191
,\nthuny, St. IJ
aolhropol~·/anthropol~,t.<, 3 52--8, 78,
INllt:X Ml7
h0,.?1>11.404
0.111l,&,mlusm.
persecution
=or
•ntl--<.·tllt 1110\COl<!Ul, !114, !IW
JuJ;,£,m/.lew",
ttpMt.b,uJ, 41)()..7, 421 42 1
Aphn,Jiu,, :!7J
upo.:.olypuc, SJS
A1>0eryplw.. J8J
Apollo, :!92
np0phatle tlrnoloi!)I, 211
npo,.tlcs, *"' dlM!lph:s of Cbrlst
.\postolic Succession, 1111
npotropruo reU,lllon, J'l,t SJII
A11ulnos. St Thoma-, 1J, 191, 220-1, 462
trruham, sec orlw,
archnlc relJgions, 7, 71
archet)'J'l(!S, HS, 268-77, 56bn. 11
dcfinluou of, lbll, 538
and Ellndc, 266, 2611, 269, 294. 528-9
function of. 293-5
nnd Jun~ 64-5. 6-1. 2%, 471,529.538,
55611. 2
types or religious
female, see female archetYJl<"'
lord of physlClll and spiritual worlds. 27S
..olar hero, .?7~5. 271 , 2bl--l. 337. 534
•un god/sky god. 26')-7(), :no,
272. 286
unJ"ersa.Vlocal, 269, S2~9
archltectut<!, 2, 167. 456, 461. 465, 472-1
IMwnlc,97, 418,456,473
Argument lrom U.:.Jgn for t.bc ~st<:ncc o(
God, 190
arhat (tJTal1a111), 9,229. 249, 395
.-\rlyumtna, A.J., 492
Arjwut, 275, 346, J-16, 360, -110
Arkoun, Mohammad, 546n. 3b
ArmngeJ<lon, Battle oi. 25 I
Armenian church, 12
nrow.ru, cmodunol, 170-1. H6, lbO
hyper./hypo,arou.al, 173, 175, 177,181
nrt/ons, 2, S, 27, <>2, 321. 455-71
African, 41,0
arehetypc> in. 64
Ouddhl,t, J 1, 462, 464, 46'>
Celtic. •145
Ch lne!oe, 36
t.··on\'t!~·s truth. -16?
dfoct of modernity on, 1f<O
end of the world in, 25-1
(unction or, 103, 455-8, 470
hbtorlclll Jc,doprncnt of rdll,\luus an,
455, ~&:?-71, SJJ-1, 566n I I
loonlofanioonio, 2().J , 321, 46:?-.'s, 1(,6,
46 7 , •171 , 53..l-l, S66n. l I
:,l!c o.I1tu Icons
lntcrrcll_tlous mfluoncc oo. 461
lslnmic, 2(,. 97. :?73, 1:-6 462, 4M,
st,6n 13
M,wr1, 16J
m""'1anlc fi,tun: In, 249, 254
noturc of 4(>0, 5Mm.(>
naturall,tlo, 321
n~.....i for, S:?C,
non,Rgurntlvc modern I l' l
S'lN Tllf. 1•11t;S(>Mtl'ION Of IU.1.ltJIOS

l""rfnmuuhc 11111un. of, 160 At•I Jm .llO. .\ I.?

P"'"r of 5J.? MICt."', ? 17
pnltlnl rdoll),m. 17
rdf)llnn nrul ::<I, ,)6 .. S'I.- 74 ~Ml. !\.\2 lln,11 .?7U
roh. 0(1 m crcnunt the symhnlh! Buh. the, Jr,
uni"'"'''· 1
l~S. 45 1-<'2. 1(,11, 470 tiackAround n(, )IU
mle ot, In 1x•rulur rollj\lon 45~ "1rth nf ,129
r~b~m1."'"'""l.1r, 111 '\6(,-7n IN 1-rc.ik "llh r,lnm, .1,~1 )II)
Ht:m\t.;<ancc. Ji I , ..thZ, 4.t,S-'1, '71 clnimt oi. 2~<>. J(J(J
rq,r=nbttlon:ol, •11,2, •<,<,, 167, -11,1!-71 , confcrcne<: "' 8.1(1.1-,ht .109 .1111, J.!V
47 I ,Sb(," 11 crluci•m o/ rd,;.ton• lco,le,..., ,11~1
rlwchm nnd cn,knro m, 4(,5, 471 d,'Clarnuon uf m1,,1nn, ,l()5
R1•"1r1n Onhodnx, 200 llc,1n1crlon of Hou'< ,,r, 517
,lrnd.tnl)' wtlh rcllitlon, -1$9-110, -lhl, early 1111111,try of, JO\I
m S)'lla,l!{)fuc.s, ;\0-1 , 4b-l forcruruocr of 1:1.ihn u·luoh. ,11(/
rnli>monu, rule of, -ISk fon,runn= of, Jll-l, .J W
sc, u/!jtt arol,11ectun,, calll~ral)h)'. dnnce, M founder. JO I
hymn.!l; Icons. muslc. snn~ holy pince. ,)H
.1r1ifa<:ts, 4{)() and Leners of the l.lvmt, JOS. JJ(}
nnlst,. 459. 41>0. 465, 4611-70, 471 , ~,<,n H ruart) rd<>m of, 2.l 1, J2'J
A11•n 1i.1mnj (ll lndui>ml, J71 .•l82, 31;.}, mr~on,J10
4~.?, !,01 oppu>1Llon to, JlO, JlZ
,\Jyans. Ii promise of future saviour, J 10
Asuhorn. Sl10ko, 515. S20 public declamllon, J JO
"-"''"~krlto, l 93---1 reformer, 24 7
asccm/desccnt, SJ2 ~hrine r,1, 15
ascctlc,~m, 9, S?, 6l. lHI, 121. 129-J0. SUlrt of ministry, JOS. JIO
206, JN, -119, SJ!! used symbols of Judaism, Chru.Uanlry and
A.,h'ott theol~. 142, 191, 224, .)6.), S.l8, Islam, .,os
5-12, 5-17n.5 BabWBabl mu,em~n 4 16, CJS, :?S1, :?94, JJo
Ashoks, Emperor, I, 11, JO, ,10, 278, JO.?, persecution of, J21, 371
-120 Bacchus. 292
Aslla (!Wa ()evala) .•'OS, JIQ Badasht, confHei,ce or, .309, JW. J:?9
Astane/Ashtoreth/AshU1roth/l.su1ne, 270. 8aha (glory), 198
433, -133 llaha'l l'o.lth/llah o'ls, 7, Ii, IS- l o, 102, -I ZI
llSlrOiog)', 3/J7, 397 adm lnlstra!lve 5tructurc, ~21!, 499
.~tronomy. lS l. 4112 drt In. 41>2, 41>4
1\w1urk, Kemal. W l , 498 asceticism dbappro,eJ c,r, IJO
; \t/O(<n,-Vcd<t, 208, 422 stllLUJc to other rcllg!on.s, 34!1-'I, 560n H
Aunan, J7, J9, 97. lJ S, J 71, 205. ZJ8, 5.38. attitude to women, -146
53'1 au,tedOc,. forbidden, J 08
Aunan-Brnhrunn, 208, 5~ background of, b th.:lstlc, 197
oroncmcn 4 107, Jl8, 119. 14J, .?J0-1, 279 brl~ bt!tween rcllglons of East a.nil \\'e~t
All'-', 273, 291 5-16nA
ollltudc de,·elopmcnt (Kelman), 14$-6 dahn~ a.l)Qul &ha1u·Jlah. 251. 2'12
Jltt.ltudes, rcllgloo,, 120,121, L?.l, 125, I.JO, etin~ultallon In, 4?8
134-5, oonve-n-lon w, 16()
nudlllons, JJC, declslon-mnlun( 111, 428
Au!\U-,Lln•, S 4 1J, 158, 220-1, 462, 5!\<ln .9 detachment rn, 220, 228. 228
Aum Sh lnrlkyu, 5 15,515, 5.20 dc,<lopmcnt of, lJ8, 330, 311-1
llW.teritlc,i, 107-8, 12 1, IJO, IJJ , lJ:? ilc,·~Jopmcm projcuta o(, 355. 499
iK'C aim, fasun~ tmd self-na,tcll•tlon e,wlronmcntal concem, JS/!. J5'1
nulhorlt)', J31 cqual1t)' of ltlcn and woltlcn, \Jll, )l',,l,
lcgtumatl"n uf. 404-5, 40~'1, 417 448, ~9'), 56Sn.22
reduction of, of rcli!llon, 72, ,"14 , 179 csc:hnokigy, .?4J
Aux,liOI) Board member•, JJt, cvulutlon of reli~uns, 7J
Avaloklteshvlll'D, 24'l, :?(.0, 2bl, 4 30, -150 1.!Xplnnuuon uf wli\.t'~1 nocuu: ul
nvntnr, (lncc1matlo11"), <>, 101, .?(JC), Z4? promlM.-d future 'lt'i<><ll~ !61,
249,303, 3 12,5.)8-9 rasun~ 111, 107
t>Vidya (human il)nomnc.,), 3 1 JS. l.?7 flr.t 1>ublk mcntiun u l. In \\'c.1. 51 1
207. 222, ZJ<I, S.W foumlc r nf sec 11Aha'u11ah
a~,..,J«,ru, ,!-10 fundamtnwl"'c/llht:nll <>rtnion In, J/,ll,
o~c. SJ,!W,"9, 120 159, 41\.1 Jfl.l
uial :,J\c, 71 GulJ,n ,\f:p 111, J.S.J ••'\JO
 IM>EX S.'19

l.o!Jcn Rule In, ,U./ ./ J')..J(I, I J I

holl pl•~-.:, JI 4 CJt.llcs or, JJU• •HJ. JH, J l s, .129
1n~ o( the fendnmc In, 4SJ cx11:nul opp(><i\Uon.,HO, .)1.\. 551n.l'I
l.11<S u(. Jll f;rst folio"~"" ol. .'IOS, JIU
klld<:r.,h1p ol. folio" ,,ig
death .,( rurcnu1ncr, JOS ••lO'>, JJCI
&ha'u'Uab. 317 fulfilment or pru11ln.-clc;, abouL e<uulug of
~lamJ~tatJ<>tlS of G,ld 111, ZOO, 5.1:! \J\·lour, ~51, ~6?
future. :!51. Jl:! lnccnul 0111>0SIU011, 310, JI~
m ~ '"'-crcmuny to . .,.\1)1 leodcrsh111 o( ll:iha'I f 111th follnMn# dcruJ,
man~·rdom ht, .?Jl, 232, ..'71 or, JJ7
m,-JJtaUun In, -IJ Ille or, JQJ, JOJ.•\04
mct.tph) slC• of, I '17-'I oppos..'tl kg,11ism nnd litcrnli,m c,( l•lam,
mllk·nnl:t.hsm in. J61 J-11
mf,,h;ri.tl')i ncu,·ity o(, -IS6 J)(!.rioJ or .olltuJc, ,\OS, JIO
and modem work!, 4'19. 501 r.,gnrdcd •• n reformer, ..,hhmntlc,
mMA>tlol.om forhidJcn In, I 31, 1-17 hcn:1lc, 323
m<>nll!!rut1)' c.udaln.,-d in, 1-17 r.,jecci,,n of, 3 13
n.11un: of human h.:ln~ :?OS, 218 ••,.,rifk.-c c,(, 2..)0
ruicurc o( uw phy•lc~I " "rid, 206 •hrlnc or, 272
no n:liglous professionnl•, l Ji., 428 .cnn or mlnhtry, 305, J07-8, 310
non-in,,:,h·emcn1 ht porll"'1n poliocs, -I I'> .._..._,.i symbols n( .fudllism, Chrisuonity and
numerical <be 49'>, 5()4, 546n.5 Mom, J-011
,,n•.,,,......r hum.inkind, 16, JS-I, 359 writing, o(, J09, J 11
O\·crlap, in ""Orld\il!W "1th other n!'ligions, l<("C Bnhn'i l'olth
151 Bahim, J05, 310
·perfect F.ircmplnr' of, ....-e 'Ahdul-&hn Bnhiyyih Khsnum, 442
f'L'l'SCCUtion Qf,3Z9. 517-18, 517, 569n.52 &hmm Vnrjo,·nnd • .?43, 24f:l-.9
ropulor ond Qffici•I rcli!llon In, ,1'll Bnilcy, Edward, 558n 46
rniycr ln, -13 Bakker, Jim, 521, 521
prohlbluon or holy warlklllinJI, 3•13-4, Bolontma, 409
J-16-7 Balfour °'-"'lorntlon, 4<l4, 49.'i
rreistin~ or teaching., or. 158 llnll. John, 257
rc~don of, by lsfam . J71 baptism, 156, 157, 2liO
and relRt1rn,m, -12, -IJ, 7J, 196, 197-1/, Bapt ist churoh . 116, U?
552n 13 boqa, 236, 539
ntunl, m, -U. J'll bur mitzvah, 284
role model, for women in, 442, 44.J-I Barkun, Michnel, SS(m.46,47
sacnfice, 229, .?JO, 231 Barl,a:,m, St, J.l4-5
sah·auonlliberadon, 43, 2J7, 238 8"rr, Jomes, 364. $62n 40
scnpmre of, 10-I. 198,499 Barrcu, Dn,id, 516, 546n S
t«>Cio.1 c<hics ln, 354 Banh. Ko.ti, 191, J8J, 546n,8
'<Oelal orwimzaUon Lil, 352 ban:akh.235
soetal re(onnlsm In 126-b. 127, 330, Bast IIC8 o( the Annunciation, 47J
5-19n.l•b BasWdes, JJS
6pread or. J29. suo. sos. sw al-Basrl, Hasan. J28
t-rmbol oC, I n. 191l, 529 lxum, 1J4, 539
teacbln~ on ...:onomlcs, 127 d" Beauvoir. Slmono,, -139
temple (llou,e or WonJl,pl, 42 , -l N , 52') Beckford, James,\,, SJ2
time, space and creaLlon. 43,210 Bcdoulns, 114
umelJne o(. 329 begging. 395
unit)' of rellglo0>, 42, -12 bchnvlour, 5S, HS-ll, JS7, 202
'u,, In. J-tl, see a/s,, human being.,,. bc.ha,1our or
-.ew or e•il and 6uffering. 4J, 218. llZ, belld, &7, H 1-S
2Z3 <1cqui>luon oi, l-l~, 1~9
,.-orld p.,ru:c. 16, 38-l concept o(, 22-l, SSOn.6
<Ct: 'AbJu1-8aba, Ba!ta'u1lah. •J11>U!lll of, .?2-1
Manlfestatlous o( God bcllefs. 5, .?2-1, 27, 54-5, 6 7
llaha'l lmcmaUooAI Community, 329. 501, lleUoh, Robert. 7~, 77, 169
5690.52 bclon!\int, """""' ur, l OS
Baha'i Wurld C.,ou·1:, 15, 128 Beltib, 273
&h1'u1lah, 16, 10:?, 211, JOI, JU9 lk:.11nrc~, bCe: Vorn.oM
birth or JJ9 &r~r. Peter, llZ, 534-5
clwl<n&c> Azu.l, 309,310 8/~~ul O,ta, 201, .?26, 2.?7, 229, Jl>O
cx,nJ<,mm ICJ1dcn, l>t" n:I1!\lun, J09, and Kt1'hnu, 201. 275, ,1UJ, 31:?
s•>O Tilt l'llt SOMENOS o• Rt.LIOIOS
(/111111<1<"1" /'11ru1111. :!'15, IO'J Hrul"t' , Sb.\'l".,\7S
l>ht!JUM ( h\'om,), :?!. 15t, lluddha. the (1i1J.lhnnha c;,mtam.1,
l1h,J111 rtH~lon/«...-rs 'l,,W, Ill I 70, 17•>, Shakvnmunl) 11 30. :?O.l, JC>I, .:?!>I
;)(lf ·IJJ 5.1'1 .W I -
a,,J ort. 272 4M, SJ I ahcmrnth o( tic.1th, .?.111
rnth fh "l:Ah't1{IOt1 In 1.?·L l.?4 . 1.?~ calmnc,,/l'<llllcntmcnl ol .I IS 3 15
11/wktr w,1111, Ill. 5·15 rondernn~ lcail,,. of f\'1111,lon IJ/1 111
llhnrnt. 271 crltl""' rjr llrahmln•. ,\11'1
lihnn11,, llhnm1a Mah.,mnmLlla, .'Iii:? dlsctl\er ,,f n pnthwav, .?O I
RhnroU"O .hUlA Sllnjlh ••177 cnlil\htcnmcnt or,
'I, 201 ,?O I .!7.l, ;?71,
llhrun11"0 .lannta l'any, 511 I .10~, ,111(,-7, ,lll/, HC,. 166 171
llhme Vtnul>.1. '101-:? c:c-1,tcncc n,.'"lWt
for~nutncr. JOS, .1/11
hJ11lrlr11R. "" 111onk.<, lluddhL•L
/Mk, 14, 22, .H , JIii .?O'I, .? I 5, .lr,S, J!a•'c 1e11.chmJ! j!rndually, .lCl'I
.111-1-5. 4 '1(1 and lhndu1'm, JI~~ • •l-11
ohonlnU\ ,,I', I1/.l h1,lv pl~cc.\, ,}I./
ml·rnt11C)' or. .\75, 37'1, JS() hl"ntlO<-d with Ulum:tte Rc-aJlty. JJ
lnw'l'rc1a1lon of, 365, .)7h hie or, 11, 3()2, J(l.l JO-t 311 ,114, ./JI
liulc ha,i, for \:hun.,h structure In, Jb7. morn•11e of, Ho
'lt,ln Ill c,pposhlon to, JI(), J 12 , ~6kn H
.._,.. t1IS<> 1/ebn.,u, 11,bl~ an<l N,'«! posture, of, -IM,, 4 70
Tt.-stam<-"nt promt>e of future ,a,·i1>ur. 310. 312
llinibi<am, Kinj!, 311 puMic, dL>Clon111on of, 3Jf>. 31 I
h,nh/chlldb,nh, 46, 47. 205, 2S4. 285 rej!arded ns • ,.,former, r,chlsmatlc
•l-lllrunl, Ahu or-R11yho.n, 77 heretic, mlllenninhst !<!!Ider, 266. J.?.l.
bl~hops, Chr!stlan, 13, 11/! 53.i
Btsu, 336 repre__..,nwlions of. 130. ZO:?, 202 20-I
Black Ocath, 24-1 272 , 274, 3-15. 46-1, 466,470
black lhl'<ll<!A) , JS-I, -ISi, ./97 rc,,emblc.< sto~· of Chnst., Z7 l-5
Blnek Stone, :?79, 280 suin or ruml,trv, JO<>. 7, .J Jo
lllake, WIUlam, 110 struAAJe with Mara, J05, :?71, 274
blasphemy, 59 subsututed for Cod, 40
Ila tredllodbl tree. 20J, ;\OS. JIO, 273, 274 , vir&in conceplion 01, SSt1nA2
464.466 or
W11nderln~, JJO, .ltJ
hotll,isacroas , 9, 22'>, 2-10, 26Cl--l, WO, 334, won;blp of. 120, 40
J40.4J0, 441 , 450,SJ9,542 s;.-c olso Buddhism
Bon rtllg!on, J&, buddh«-dhum1<1 .?02, 2-15
bond111!c, rell!\)oo as, 16-1 buddhas,9,202-J.20'>,2-19, 260
Jlonn.,y, Charles <..:., -192 8uddblsm. '>-12, 15, J?. 69, 139, J'IJ, 3'12
'bom-agaln' experience. 93, HJ, 255 Absolute/l1uruate Real.11:y, JJ. 46, 191,
.._,., alsu r<lbtrth 547,d
bountlarlcs 11nt!lgonl8Uc &llltude towanl.,, &<:.1. In, -I.lb
of ethical 11ctlon.•14-1 • .l-16-5.? Ml In, JI, 462, -16-1. 469
of sacrc-d •pace, 277 11..,;oe1ioism dlllnppro, ed or, lOII, 130, I;)()
'l,ruckctlng', ...cc epoclt<! In Cluna, 9. 11. 23, 44-5, 257, 2511, Z59
Brlllurus Kunutris (RnJn-roitn), 502 262
bt«iWIIKVJ.l')'U, 129-JO and <.'Ommunlsm, 50J, 506
llrnlut,an, 6 , J.'.l, .J7, .'.19. J9J, W7 :NO, -1-11, concept of faith In, 141
SJ?, 553n.JJ cou,•er,,ion 10, 25, 157, 15'>. 11"1
oni,n.,_.,. with, 97, :?OS, 23S dJnCt! ln, 458, -158
llruhmln>, 8, I Ill, ll&, J(l9, 336, 42.?, ~28, <lchlcs ltt, SOJ
SJ9 derachmcnt, 227, 218
Bmhmo Snm•J. Jll2, 382, <1:!.?, 491 , SU development o(, J..10
brain, apllt, J 711-9 uwlroumcnt.al wn<.'tCrns. 3~8 ,lS'J
bmln functlnn, 99-100, lb'>-70, 174 ewhatology/mlllcunl.ill•m, .?4.1, :?56, 2~7.
bmlnwru.hln~, IS'!, Sl:?-14, SJJ 258, 2()(J....6 I. ?62
Branch llil\ldJ111ts, S l'I and eLhlcs, J·M, J..19
lirnzll founder u( ..,.., 8uJdh•
Afn,-Amcrlcnn religion In, J9-1 J'l''-I03, Four Snhlc Truth>, Ace Fuur Sohle Truth•
100, WI , 507, SOS and Glohnl r.thlc, J!IO, J'12
Roruru, Cnthollcom In, J'H, J</<J-103 l!nOMl<ll•m In, t.H. I.Ii,
hrcnd, ~b. tfJS, I tR, 279~(). 2115 J\JI 'hl"orlc religion· 71
hrcntlnn& "'"rci,..,., JS, tllH hul>· pince, uf, 21R, JJ4
hrondc»ting, !\21-2 humnn On""· n:aturc of, 5Jt,
 lNUt.X 5\11

Jal""''""· 11, H. J Ill cttlt'llll.tr. rite> rd11t,-J 1u, HJ!-

k,um.11n,:?15.J-17.JS9 .,,,1(, j\..Jl(lcn..lJ(IJIZ, !-.5!>-9n Ill
bt>.!r~!lon. ,..,._, lih.!mtion, in UudJhism onllphsf,.,.llph,ue. I t-15, .?5, I .?<>. 41\!i, !\-14
bfo after t.k:lth In, .?.\J aboll11011 Qf, -11.J, IWJ
m;Q!..,.,,pdb In lludllhuu '"'<luntrl~,, . .J81S. J'<!rlW o( ftr>t four, 4 IJ, 420, 42,,
,IW, ,WJ. J9S, J9(1 call tu prayer (,ulhu11), .is.,
\ t,Jillc ll'a.v, '>. J JO ealUgmphy, 102, 458. 464. 4b.5
n10n•,uc1sm 111. J.ll. 1.,2. 13-1, 1J7~ In Islam. 2b, 26, .W. l ~. 27J, ?'IJ, -15-0.
moru,m m, 40, 193-5 -1 57, 4 5')
ntonl.;. s,:., monl,.,,, BuJJlu,,1 cnlllng.ltnlJ.~lon 59, 89, <IJ
ff\\ <i"UCb.m ln. 1J7 Cahin, John, JJ, 225, 41:?
m,1hol"I!) ol, in I.he Weo.1, J97~'>. 502...J Camoodia, 9. 50.)
s;,i,k ElghtlolJ !'nth• .?l b. 216. 5.'lb, 55.ln 7 campanoloib', 4Sb
nuotcrt>!'J! ;izo,. 7. 5()./, SOC,, 54bn.5 Campbell, Joseph. 2()8, 296, 4JJ, 558rL4S
nuns tn, ~o. +18. SbSn.14 t:andomhl~. 175, 402, -102, 5117, 5(18
raranormal :tcth1ties Ill, 97 cruu1ab1s, HU, SlS
purubrr onJ offle1al relWon In, J9 I. 3 9 5. camllladon. 456
,W7~. Sc..ln.J cantor, l <H, 456
rcbJnh In, 2J9 cnplta!Jsm. 59, 6.t, 7:?, J73, 424-5, 478.
re\ 1,al of 50, 502 -1;80,-lllll
nteslritualhm. 45, IZO cargo culr.s, 4~9. 258
...i,-...tion. 46 • .!J8,SJ6 Carr, Edl'aml ll .• l!J
ocnptures. 1().1, 104, :?IH, J75 Carter, l'reSJdent Jimmy. 421
scli, illusory nature of the. 29 etlStesystem (Jati. tltlnw), :?5, 12 1, l S9,
..,~ aho anaua J47-8, ./08,541, 545
S1nlwese Ruddhh~ "'""' Srt Lanka tl~wblllzatlon of. 24~
1,lw11dlkAS. :?115, :!JS, 544 Hlndul•·m ktJtimawr of, 407
wclol reformi-01 In, 128, 4 92 malntt:nunce of. JI!?, S01
•r1rtr.s In. 2111. J'IJ. J9J. 3 9 7 rejection of. J41, Ji,2
prau of. JO. 11, J2. 50. 50?, SOS, 510 Calh• n, 134
<uffer!AA anJ evil. ?13, 215, :?H,, 216, CalhoUcl>m, &'C Roman CatboUo Church
?22. 217 • .?40 CaUmb(!, 402
•ymbob oi, 172, 272, 4b4, 466 cellbacy,J45,-136,446
llmcllu~,u CdtJc ru~glo11, 276-7, ~65
m '""udcth <>cnrury, 502-6 ccnoblw•. lJll
,.arf.ut 1t11d killing, .!J2..J. JH, J46, J./7, ~-crcmonlcs, 5. 2J, 526
./10. 502...J certnln ty/<lertitudc, 5, 14.l. 2Jll, J78-9, J81,
111 the W"-St, 50, 502...J 4185
anJ Y,:Omcn/1._,minlne lmiigcry, 436. 4J7-8, /tee ulso unC't.'rl111ntv
-1-12, 443,-152 ohaln of mutually dcpcmlent origination.
""rld,rcjeouon of, t>l see prat1l)Vl•bamtUpada
worlJ religion, IJ9 c/1J1km, 23!1
-.., al...u anaua, Buddhn. the, llua-Yen, Cb'an Buddhll.m, SI:<! Z..11 lluJdblMn
lulnn•. MaJhynmlkll, Mnhuynnn, chanting, 47, 104, I J6
M,um,ys lluddha; ~lchlrcn, N,rv:1na. olmhntrru1,J6, 104,108
l'rnJnoparomlrn Pure Land. Them,'(tdrt, producc-s • lwrcd llnte< or c.:msclou..ncss,
nhctrui, T'tcn-, al Y$eara, Zen I 118, I()(), IJS. 136, 137, J7R, 54in8h
Bultmann, RuJolf, ~,. 189 t!httos. 220, S?b
Burckhrutlt. nws. 150. 557n 24 , churu.m• (Weber)
51,6n 11,IN of rdil!luus leaders, 58-9, bO, 77, 155,
hunru 45, 28 ? ,40I J 17-1 '1, J21, 426, St:!, 515, s.u. SJ<)
jiff' uJM, Cft.."n\ALIOn un1l (U0\;1'111 ritc.w rout lnl,atton uf, J 19
8urma.9,Jl.257.2S8.J91,J9J,J9S-7, churt.,mttUO rc.lig,iOlLi OX1)L"'r-ie-llL"C, 9,l-5, 109,
J96, S02 121, 12S, IJO
humtn~ btah JO-I. JOS, J06, JJO chnrb,m.itUo mo, ~mc.nt., 95
81..J,ldo (&mural <.».lu), 2JJ charit). 121, 127, 1:?<l
lluu Son Ky nuon 257 chw.tlcy, 436
B~·akkow, J.32-J vhUdl>lrth, """ blrthlchlklh,nh
B""'n IArJ. 4611 ch!ldr,cn, 74. 14:!, 14~. 147, 11,7-79, 340.
Bytantine Empire, JO, 416,420 J'l8
Children or God, JJ2 262, 509. 510
r.ahhala "'" Kal>b.'1a ohll111.'im, '"" mUlennlAllsm
C.Chlml>6, CO2 Chlnc5e n,ligloru/C:hina 7, Y, 2..1 4J...5, 46
Ca1Ji3.-,m1 !Chaknmtrtln), 25/'i, 272 71.257,424
 111m..~S1nr-. IJ, I t
~-.,ld•mllon.•. 2,'. 2 1'I, .W2
Chin"'<l rnlk n:11.c,c,n, :?.1, 4,1, -IS
11nrmc1l<1n wtth T•oi,m, -1-1 -I~
111,m.,nu•I ,,ic and ,.,,•.,,J, $/U, SIJS
r,ro,..-c,..-.:h:1n_1 1n, .\h:2
,pines and gho•ts 111. 2 11,, :?/'I
>l'f'l!lid "'· .l.?
,ufrenn,e. In. 4•1 2111, :!19
"''c 11/,,,, OudJhi•rn. In China wul l'uro
LonJ lluddhiSm
Chui)\•! ·., M:hool, sn l'urc Land Uuo.klhbm
chols-.,, rndhldunl, 14--5, 1>1, 71, 155, !bl,
11,2
Chrl>t, 1!. 1!5, !5-1. :!<JS. JOl, 3-IS, 402
appc.artlJJt!C or, ~09, 2H7
h.,ptJ,m or, .103, JO!\, .J<>7
birth ol, IJ
hrc:iklnt of S:,hh:uh, .)O'). JJO
...,mmum<b anniC-8 or 11~1l, 2()1)
crullll'lxl1111 ul, """ tlnu,1r1x1on, Chrur's
d,d no1 mnrry, 44b
Jis<>iplcs of, .cc dlsclplcs, of Chris!
dlsres.,.>ct to mo1hcr, :?'ll, SS7n 3S
extern,~ oppo,,lllon, JJO, Jl:?, SS!n IC,
nsh n 5yml>ol uf, 319, -1(1-I, -1(>1
forcrwmcr of, 305,310
forty d•)'li In wilderness, JOS. JJO
furuJ;1mcn1:11i~t view or. ,)66
lmcrnlll nppo6ition, JJO, Jl:?
und Jcwi~h roli~h)us Icade,., .'I()<), 429,
-Ill
Judaic bo•l• for 1<nchin~. J08
lifo of, 302, JOJ
•• millcnnlnli<t leodcr, 266
nature of, 199, 3:16
prcnching in Cnlilcc, 309
promi~c of luiurc s aviour, JlO, 312
p11hlic declaration, .)/0, :11 I
a., 8 re.former, schismt1dc heretic, 247,
1 holy places of 2 7R, J14 J l 7
323,341, 5:14
rejc-ci<'<I hy Jews, 251, J 1,)
representation~ of, 102,464,467
see a/i,o icons, of Christ
""""1lbl"" archecype of vel!(!t.11ion l!od,
271
rcsemhles stnry of Budd ho, 275
resurrection, ~ee resurr~-ctlon, or Chrls1
return of, 24J, 263, 26.3, JlO. 312, J64-5
role of, tn Chrls1tan11y 203-1
sacrifice or, HJ, 17l
a_, Sll\1tlU r, l l 9
sl4" ol comhu\ of, 246
swuon of, 199, S56n.45
SW" <>f mint.try, JOS. J07, JJO
.iruAAJe W1tl1 Sawn, 275, JOS
su!fer111~ of, 171
tron,O~urullon of, ;?75
In the Trinity, 19'1, 200
,·1~1n birth CJ!, :?1)1-:?
,·i.u,ns of, 137, 2S9
'Word of Gcxl' lnCAtnlll<:, 25-1,, 204
Cbrl.r Pun1ocra1or {Uul,er~•I Su>erl!lj\11 ),
1(,, ?72
C:hrtsi.,Jdph1111i- :?:;t.
C:hr,-ilnn Coaltuon ~.? I
thnsnru, p_.,,,te\ fht~•lo'll, J~S
Chrhtitln Ht..-con,t.n11.!tton1,t\ •.\71
Chn,llnn ~1'11~-c 75, 77 I H 511)
Chn,dnni1,•/t:l1rl<linn,, I .?- I 1, l:'i t 7, 2 t
22. 74. 11:? 20.~ •.w2. 11>1 11.l
art in, 451,, 41>.? . 4M -'I
n«.'<:llc-1,m In, 12'), 20(,
bilptbm In, l!\6, I S 7 .?llO
'born..wtttHf C.XJM!ricuc~ tJJ, 9.l
...~ also n. lwrtb
und caplu.lL,;rn ,uul t.."Ommunl1trin1, ~~ I
ohuruh-,tale ...,puratlnn In, 4lb, 417,
56-tn 4
ulv1l reUwoo a rc1>lac"rnen1 for, ·12~
oonoopl o( (r._-., "UI. :?:!fl
wuooptwil shift In, 411<,-i
oom•cr:.lon to, 1(,0../
demo!\l'uphlc; shlfl m -1 116-7
c.lttachn1t!.nt ln 1 227 1 12,S
dctcnnlnl\m tn, :?.2-t
di~ppc/111lJ1cc or true rdWon .N~
early rlfl 111, J 17
unvtronmcntal 001K1crns. JS-8 1 }59--6(}
C!IC!hatol<Jfl)•, ,UJ
L'Clltalic/,.'\ jyaJl>t !\l'OUJ"' of, 178
foslil\JI in Western, 107
female urohctypc In, .?76, ;?91 .,1, Z'l 1
fbh • •ymbol of, :11'1, 41>4 46 7
In former oommunts, "''untncs, 497~
foundcr of,""" Chnst
fundamentalism 1n, lll.'C fundmncntali,m
ChrlS1i1111
God of. 6. 37,186, 1117
O<>ldcn Age In, .?S.1
Golden Ruic In, 34./
OrL'<:k Orthodos. 7, ,)2 .3.1$
ns 'histnrio reloAton'. 71
hymns in, 456
incanlation, in, ..JM
,mn,!!es of ihe feminine In ./$2
im1'3Cl of t:wcnllct h aenturv on, 4'1-1-A
in India, 50
influence of, 24, 4%
lnt1uunc,'S on. 50, .387, .)Rli, 311'1 .l'lt--.1,
,W4,J99-IOJ
and Islam. J-IS, .l 71, 560n l Z
iuncran1 JOumeymo.n 1n1 a 'priman.
c"mer', <,<1
in Japan, 45-o
llht,r:it, IUt, ,loll, .l 71-2. 37S. J7!>, Jb I
life after de3lh on, ZJ..\, .?Jt,
lo,e in. 12, .14.5
martyrdom m. 2.l0-1
mlsslonury actlvnJes of, SU, 4116. ~%
nnd modcrnltv, H'>, 4114-6
monnMlcl~m in, tJt , IJ.?. tJ'>. :?rl!J
munf,rn In, Jb
mrmifiuauon of ,he 0.,.1, In IIJII, tJ(I
mvstlwtl 1rodi1.1on In, 12, .li,-'I SO, 13'!
Ml)'th~ ,,,. 2')(,
nn11,1rc or rhc human t>t.:Jn4 tn, 2t.M
 ru,rure of uw ph, • ..,__,1 worltl, 21111 ch illrnrlons. founded on rd~1011 l 29-.llJ.
rd1i,ou,, mu,·cment, SOS-'1
a., """' :?10
nwn.coical sue. 7, 49<>-7, -t<li,;, 5()4, 5-tbn 5 clatn.iynn"", 97-h
oncntal. IJ I clan. S./, 55, 7 J
OOll11Ll1 .in in. :?04, .21!,, 2JI, SJb class.::,,, soctal, hU, 71, 72, II 5, .?44. JS I,
,,nhoJo, J',, IJI .,n
u-,rltrs 1n worlJv1e\\ "Ith a<hcr rehj!1uns, clennUlocss, 121
15.? clenn~ln~ ,plntual 157
Jl'lll.Ul dl.'IDCIUS UI , .)1,\1, J•/1-J, J94 clotblru\, l())l, I So, 157
r~,n. ,dt-mlhcuon o(, IUS C<Hic)Xn<lcnt oru\inatlon.""" 11mt11.)'U·
P•uhne lcm,n. .21> 7 $(t/UUIJJ(UW
p,:r<c-..•utlon of, JJ. Ji l coercion In con,en.1011, I5'>. J(J()-1 . 161
i>"l.:m,caJ hte.mt.urc lll, b1~ c~niuo,ll'oogniuve ~tructures. '-12, 'm. JO(J
rvpul:ir anJ ofllctal rell!)tOU Ill, Jh'/..-90 L"*nithe dlssonanct!, W, 2(1,,\-4, ,\91.
pu.,,1-Chmd= WS<.'OW'S<!, 451 556nA5
IUlJ po,.cr ;;truoture of .ocicty, 407. ~li oognltJve St)IL'S, J 711-11(1
a.nJ pr<·Chnsunn ~ - J90 Cold \\'ur. 4?1
r.:tum of Christ. 24-1 uollt'C'Uve unconscious, 6J-~. l>J, SJ!!
tiluals 01 • .?7'l-SO t:olomblan Exposl<lon, 49.2
sacrt:d lime~ ~1i-b c.-olonluitionlcolonlrulsm, 48, 161, 16.2, 25!!,
.a<:nllce in, HJ, 2:?') ?<>4.3&1,49(), S0<,,516
mJ S.'l!vation. 230. :?.'l!H>• .?Ji:i, $36 comrucntllrv0 5.)\1
5'.'CU oi, 5 I b Comollssloo 0!1 llllttlAtl Rights, 517
,eeullln.utlon of, 480 commluncm, reUgious, 68, ISH, 47'l
sdccuon of text (or Ne.a 1'estument. J83 Cotnlllon Consent .\rgwncut for eilitcnoe
,cb'-tlag,,l!Juoo lo, !07. IJU of God, 189-<JO
.tnd ..wwlty. 446, 447 .iommunt~m, 152,416, 426.491 , 494 •
<Octal toal of, 210 497-8, 526. 546n.5
social reformism ln, 127. 128 Buddhl~m anil. 5()3, 506
.o,,lal tcadtl~ In, JS:! as !deolog_v/pseudo-rellglon. 55. 424 ,
,rrcaJ of. 3. 24. so.
381, SOS 460- 1, 526
,ymhol ui (the cross). ,,;re oro;;..~. the rel!Afou.~ oppl)Sl!.lon m. 37.l. ~JS-9, ~24-5
LheOdlcy. 220-1 communall>m. 12!,
ThlrJ \\'orld. 49o-7 <.'Ommunlw.rll!Jllsm, 76
timchnc, 1J L'Ommunlty, 111>. 121, 281-1, 512. 5JS
1c,lcral100 of Judahn1. 371 crcauon o( Ideal, 126. 323-1, -t8S-7
tradulon ln. Jb 7 IIS mediator of rellglous Cl<pcrleoc.-c,
uru,·cn.al appeal of, IJ9 10')-10,123, 12b,l:!9, JJ2
'u• ln, J4~
\'le" of c,11 anJ rufforlng, .?18, 220-1 , 222
monastic. JJ0-2, IJ-t
rcllglous, 59, J23-I
, kill of llmc. 209 communll)' (ummu), 15
auJ war and kllling. JU, 346, 409, <e'Omp.:isslon, 135, IJ7, :?23, 229
-110-11 oomple:dt)', 7'1, 81, 82
"'" ul.ll<I Cru<ade,, conooptual rrarue\\'Otk/acbcmnm, 5, HS--9,
anJ women. U6. 4J6, -14.'!, 44!1 151, 153, 166
"'OrlJ pnor to advent of Ml\'lour, .'!46 con<.-ern, for others, 15-1-5, 16-1
"'"rW re~lon. 139 <.-Onfcti>IOn, of sin.,, 119
r.
"orldvlcw ... JiH oonnnnnllon, 156.284,JN7
- t,1,,., Chnst; churoh, Icon.•, llbernUon eonfrontntlonl~L sccr~t ?56-8
theology Mary, \'irgltt, l'row,;umt Con(u<!tnnb.m/Confucius, 23, H, 45, 45,
ChrbUanhy; R1>1ru111 Ca.tholle Church 205,426
Chrutuu1.<. J!.9, 3'll-3. 563n 9 and Jnpani!M! rcl,tlon. 45, 50
cbureh/Chureh, 539 ipread of, 32
Chrlsuan. l3 t 407 rcacltlnt,sor, 4~, 61, 2JJ
ti ...ciulog,cal """'-"-'Pl, N, 139 Co~l!'t'ptlonoU>t church, 139
Church or En~arul. 139, JZ.J, 49::!, SJ I Convess Party, 3 77
Cbun:h of the lloly Stpulchrt:, 271, ;\ l 7, cun~c..'iou:st1CU, 62 1 64. b 1
173 see also alten..-d Mtttcs of consciowmc,.s
or
Church Jc,,"' Chru.t of Lhe Lauer-Day Oon..~rvath·c Judnhm, 12:
Saini. (Mormon.I, 1J. 11,t, 256• .?b2, Coru.tlUltuJ~, Emperor, 12 IJ, 158, ~11,,
4%. SIO 46-1
Church ..r South India, 256 <.oOniultmlon, 128
c,,,;1 n,ll&loo, :?%. 425--6. S.W. St>-lo.12 <.'Ontemplatloo, 35, JU, 41,ll 41,9
cml righu; 44S ,-omtt.K.-cption, -l-..'\9 1 497
•..,n••·r,l!<:n1Ah•·,ritt:111 thoul!hl, ;\7'l~l 'loeul kn<,,.1,·,litc', /.II
•~•nnr,.ton rdWn11•, 71 151 .I 1$.\-1 popular.•1114
157, 11..1. 5$011 17h rclaHon•hlr, 1,.,1.,.ccn wk111lfw ,,,ul
oftcr, I 5b,./, rdll\lou, MJX-ct, <•I ~;?~
e,cp,·ricll<'<: nl 9.l-1, Ill,. 125. I~(). 2!'-'I rchl!l<>n """ of ,-,crv I ~.?S
imh,;Jual, 2·1-5, 151>-'I ')'lltbolltattt>n 11nJ. S;? 1-S
11101,fsof 151'-l>l, 1511 IS'> lfl(>-1 Western, I~,
pmcc.- of, 5,14. 551 n 21 Cuppln, llon 1117 4'<'1
""'IHI J>SYCh<ilo,tv of, 117, 15.l-/l Cvl>l!lc, .!7.1
oi "holt: iociclic.~ 1 It, 1--..1 C)'hemt.JllC'°'. ~\
et1m·cr$1(mis1 ~'CfS, 7-t-5 cycles
•-onwrt,, rcll¢iou.,. 24, ;?S, I05 life, ><~ Me c)·ck
(!~111.,mswanw, ,\n:tntln ll 7J, 4 70, t•f PMW'._,.• Jnd decline -1.\, .? l u
55011 to. 5<l(r7n 18 n:lll\fnus, 2.18
Co,m,cMmd, 190 time, :!Ob--'!
.,,s,no)lot1I, 207-1 1, 5.19 (!\'t)ru~. ~20
(:0.nmloj(lcnl Ari111mcnt 1ur &IMenee of
G,,J, 190 l}alrtl Luma. 261, JSS, ·H2. 421, 4 30,417,
cosmol<lj\)', 18, JOO. 102. L9'l-20.1.2J7. 503
JUS, -1011. 53'.I l>al~y, Mary. -150, 45 I
t:Jf~-cl of ~icncc on, 489, 526 d.1nce.224,225,456,45<'1, -IS.~
and m~tb, :?')5--(,, 4/,9, 526 ln i\fr1<':ln rei(l\lon<. ,\9'1, -1111 . 401 , -IOJ
of 1>nma.l reliJ!lons, 48 In Mrlcan-Americno reltl\lon. 175, 179.
,,·e~tcrn, .."lJ. 526 .)')9-100.400
co.<mos, the, 70, IJ1, 295--6, 526 In N111h1< Amencan rdl,e,ton, 356 4.'J,
In arohnlc rel14tons, 7 I primal rcli~on. 4 7
lu historic reli!llons, 71 produe«s ahered stott:S of <:om,cl,,u,ne-.,.
In perennial philosophy, 7.1 IO!i, IJ6, 174, 17?, 39'1, -l02. -l!\~
sacred pin~ polm of oN.IIJnotlon of, 277 l>ante All~len. :?35
Counci l of Trent, 13. 369, J69 Dar aJ.(.1,un/l)nr •l-llnl'b. 34f,
Counsellors l&ha'J), 1J8 'dark nll\hl of the soul'. 100
Coumcr-Relormnlioo, 369 Darwin, Charles, JJ, C>9, 363. .)76
Crall ~uilcb, 47') 1>3"1tfil3ll1a. ~ . 271
vrw1ion, JJ, 36, J7, 210,223, 359-60 dats, research, 65--6, iiO, iil, !\..'4-5
myths, 207-6, 209. 220, 261., 433 see olso facts
Crealioolsm, 376 Da,'ld !prophet), J66
ct"catMty, '>9-HlO. 459, 460-2, 5(>6n 5 l>a,·td,. CMolJne and Thomas Rhv•. $412
Crca.Lor1 :Cd! God, as Creator Day of JudJ!<,mcnt, Sc'I! Jud!!emcni Dnv
creed, :?2 dead, the, conuu,1 with, 97~
crtmat ion.. 282 tlenth. 54. ll!S
cnsls.146, 147.154,2SS.317,35S-(),t9Q-2 Ufo after, 9, JS, :?33
rclll\lous. 9!PI, 100 Aboriginal rcligluo, 7J
Cr0<...,, B<.<n,-dc1t0, 335, S63o.50 Baha'i ,tcw of, 4J
Cf068, tltc, -12, 106, 172,173, 278-9, J19. Chrl&tlnn •le", 2Jo
319 con£1rmauoo of. 97-ls
cruclflxlon, Cltrlst's, JJ, 171-2, 230-1, 250, anJ lla\OlOUt fil\un,, 259
277-S, 2117, J 17, 556nA5 and malevolent splrtu., 2 lh
Crusades, 1, IJ, J21, J,16, J,11;, -109, ./2J, mi·th~ of, 268, 27.l
./!JS,520 ne;,r.(lcnui ex.per1erw,,s, 97-'>
cubism, 471 and r~urn.~tion " tht:.nu, or rel!J»on, ?~b,
cults,S0,-116, 510,520 532
In Bm2II, J9-I, 402-J, 507 rites of. -13, ~6. 105, 21i2, 211-1
JeflnlUou pf. 77 131>, -11;9, SI l-12, 539 S)'ntbolJstn, 27'1
tli£(<:.re:n(..~ betwctm, atu.1 &,CC.ts, 77 tuboos of, 47, 147
<Jf Mory, 21/ 1-3, 3119 Jc:1utornawo1lon, 176, l 77 1711
rcj,-cllon of, hy soclc1y, 514-15 .,r
Declarution of the RW•ts Man onJ of the
cullure, 18, 25, 54-5, 58. Ml, l.SO, 459. 524 Citizen, 517
1:ri•b In, 151,257, 4'X~2 'U.:ci11n1ttun towarJ a c.;tobJI Ethl<1'. J-l'l-$4t,
uultural hln•, 21-2 JSl)-J
t1.1ltur.1l L"Onstr.alot.a, l J J d,-oorum, 4 ~
culture c.hock, :-<,Sn 2 deeds. H , 119
lndbtlngul•hnhlc from rcllglon, .'.?S JcOniuons of rcligion , b. 21, 21>-h, JI,
lnOucncc of. on J,-..crlpduu ur rdl!llon, -12, !i.:15-7
73 Dclknuu1. Arthur, Ii<,, 177
J,·lllcS, 5-6, I t,,?..._l Dha1mmu. M:...: Uhnnun
,\fn<'All, 4<,, 507 Dl1tu11111oµu,lu, :!07
.\lncan-.\mcricon, .l•)'>-\02, 40/ Oba mu, (Db.un11111). 1'17, 239, 3,.11. 3.)9,
IJl MllnU.tJ<: ruhglon, 58, 5 ~. <JIHl 1 3''7, 111, ./ Ill. s.w
.\Jtcc, 2 17 th.., Butldh4's t<uchlng, IM. 201 • .)JO,
In BuJJh1,m, 503 5.l<>, 5.lli
C,:hm<Sc 4J, 41,, 150 meanings n(, JU~
'-,"'()fll.~f'b of, 61 , 11 Whm,I of, :?72, 4b4 , .J C,(,
Jcwtk>u to, ~o a.~ l,1tlm.llc Renlh), (,, Ji), 46, 20.)
f,mole, l.?O, J:?O, 217. 4J:?..J, ~JJ, 450 Dh11 rnt'1koya, J..l, .\9, 191, !'IS, 202, 20J,
f<nlli<), 26()..70, 277, 4JJ, -IJJ 260,539
:ap.,nes.,, Ill Dba.nu•p•ln, ,\J,g;iriku, SO:?. 510,51 1
m11.k 432..J dh,kr. !:)<>. 1.3<,, IN, 178, SJ<>, 517n.8
\ldanc•l•n wo-~oJ. <, Dhyanl-Buddhtts, 26()
urttlns o( e1,11c,,1>1 of. SJ-5, ,58-'.1 dhd~"'tlcnl Lhcology, 19 J
,>1h1!Ml""8 ur. II 'I di•l'-*lc:u A<>•li,, l<2
MlJ'O. JS'> Olona. Prince<> or \\'ale>. 269
rr,~Chrtstl.10, J90 Dl•ttlo Movcmcut, 451
111 prtmal rcli~ons. 46 DJg,-.mbMo (JninismJ, 129
proplllnl.lon of, 41>, H . 71 dignity, JSJ
,ub.tllutlon or. J90 Oltttl<rlos I, PatrlAroh. -196
"'iffcrint resula. from nutkms of, 2H, 22-1-5 D1011ysw,, 461
sun god/sky goo. 269-70, :no dlsutcrs, noturnl, 213, 211! . .?2J, 224. 225,
,cg.,w,1<1n. 21>.,_70, 271 26-1, 556n 47
,.on,hlp a{. 7l OL'(ruf before ro11ling of Sll\'tt>ur, 24.'l
..-c also CadfD<,J"· dlsolplcs, 305, 310, J17
d<'J<i cu, 17i . of Christ. 102, JOS, 310, 288-9, 290, Jl 7,
Jcmocrocy, 411 . 425, 480, 4'l0-1 32()
dcnomlnatlotu. N , 77, 139, 539 dlMlipllnc, 35,121, 123, 129-JO, 131, 4 79
dependence, 142, 145 &.'C alM1 sclf-dl>0lpllnc
J,-pnn,lon, _,,a1. 60 dlscontlnultlcs. In undcrst•ndln& rell~ion.
d1:>11~nalli.11lon, -1711 ~7~
0...-nc•. Ren<!, 191 , 211, 471 Dimli IC5t.lval. -177
J,"""1ntla-nt, SJ~ dlwr>lty, rcllgl<lttS, 811, .168, J 71-:?, 375
Jc,,,11'1:l! rq,rc.sc'<I, 62 dlvinoticm, 47, 49, 390, J98, 563n 6
JCllpair, 100 divine commond theory, 3JA-'1
J1:tachmvn1 JS. 107, 121 130, 132, IJS, OM ne Right or Kings, ~08
t~J. 2?2, 226-1,Jqs, docLrinal lonnulotioM, 2
"<.'e also sell, nbondonment of doctnnc•, n,liginu.<, 5, 142, 143, 156, 197 ,
detcm1ini.sm, 142, 22--1. SJ.8, SJ'"J 202, .122, 324, JJ l , 456, 41!7, 5 12
Jct.'TTllUllt!t 11pproaches to study of religion. Chri.sdan, 22, 292
77, 78-9, Bl nnd fundnml!ntalism/libcrnllsm, J68, ;16'),
O.,VllJatta, JJO, 312 .HO,J82
ck,·clojlment origins of, 62~3, 71 , 74, J J9
C<lgnlth'e, 146 and women, 436, 449, t 50
moral, 146, 341-2 dogmn, 9, 74, 100
perceptual, of childn-n, 167- 70 Dome of the Rock (M""'IUC or Omar). 271!,
P5Ycho-soctal, 1-16 532
wctal nnd L'OOnomlc, 355, 4·99 Donnhion of Achamwus, 1.11
spirirual, S«I! spiritual development Dot,glas, Mnry, 55
Dc,;J, tbe (Satnn) dove, descent of, J0.1, 305, .107, 310
in Christianity, 129. 206, 206. 217 drama, 456
C hrist's srru&l)lo with, 275,305 Draupndi, :?9-4 . •142
defeat or. 243, 25 t ' Dreaming. the', 70, 70
E,;hu Identified with, 402 dreom•, 64, 159, I TT, 185
rntiooalizcd rcligion's view or. 60 mediate religiow; experience, 110-11
,ufferint results from 214 217-18 ,·eridicnl, 110, 110-11
and ..-omen, 445-6 druA,•, 108, 175, IR0-1, 481, 518. 54/!n 4b
work or 257, 371 Druse, 415
ZorO.'l.<trian concep,s of. 217, 217 du'a , 106
dc-ilt, 199 dunilsm, """ thei<m
dc-·orion. 14, 123-5, 126. 137 duolism (hein,t who oppo.w,, Cod). 217,
reliljious attitude of 104 120, 121 , 202, 539-40
202. 260-1 , 292, 464 511 dual'ism (in ph,looophy), S39-IO, 547n .J
ii\16 flff, 1'111,:-1O\H ~()l> (H KELI (,1(1);
tl.Jokh,,, .? I1.t, .? 11,, :? IU, ,Jt,t,
Hurkhclm bulk, 7 5J S.\...S, h0, J J() 4.?,(,,,
S/,~n 14h
Uutch ltd~m, Churvh. IOh 7
Juty Cttnluofnn, H
ll>Lm. Bob, It>.?
Enrth ~h>thcr, 27h, JJ7
E,t,tcr, 1 n, 'h'I. ,,.,1-'. 557n 11
f.11,tcrn Onhodo~ C:hurvh I:?, .l.:? 1117 IJU,
I,\ I. 1,\11, JS•>. It,,.~, 1%
F.n,h:rn rdl,tlon~. ~~ rnm11~m
c.1unt h.1hll• ..-, fooJ
F.cl<h•n. Mehler 1k, ,J9. II, 'Ii I i'I
._..,.(,·m,nl•m, 355. ,l!\7 4!\I
._~.,...,~fllriru.11ity. 35S-6
~-onomh,,. 6, ih
Ju,1 wt>numlu orJ~r. J50, ,l.'il
,..,.111.,y, S, '1-1-S, 1J6, 173, Ji4 171,, SS(ln I 7h
<'C'tllliCC, 95
eQUmcnism, 372, 451 l'l.?-.1, -196, 4'1~9.
SO:?
F:oo. Oanlt:n or, 20-1 :?l/,, 1,\6. 543
education J, 1.?11, J40, 456, 47'1, 490
determin11nt or reli!!iOUS ac,1tvil)', 115-6
n,li~iOU'I, 22-..l, 455-(,
suffertn~ f)3rt ni spintunl. 214 221-1
ofwnmen, 121',.448
Cl\BUtarlonism, 126. 128, 407
eiig. cosm10, .?t~'l ,!OS
E!lYJ>t, ii. 412
euletll! \1slon, 67, 6S
ru/,111. 67
et ,v,.lhlm,A, 67. ~
J;insreln. Albt!n, Sl,C,n 5
Ellade. ~hrceo, b5, b7-S. !;2, 528. 55-ln.? I .
557n.2J, 563n.11
and myth. 266. 268. 21>\l, 269, .?70. 29-1
Elills. 312
Elim foursquare Gospel. 75
crulc approach. 77, 79-&0, 540
cmouons, 94-5, 1!5, 123-1, .319, :lJ7, 4.SS.
lo!l-70. 529
empathy in phenomenology, l.>6
empire,. cmergeo~'c 71 or.
empiricism, S6, (IS, 77--bl, 540
cmpun•u. 211
i,ec ablu Shuo\'ata
Encu.n1.11dos, ~O:?
tt1Clllp,,ulatlon, .lSS-6
cndogiuny ta000>, 62
~n«:m11.:3 1 cxtcn,al, J48
<11crgy, c.xpcrlcncc or. ll9
tnhgh1cnmeltl, Q, 115, 113, 20-I, 205, S.W,
5-11
or the Ruddhn, 'I, 201, 204,JJO, 271
ln1cllL-ctu11I. 135
throuth cwteric undc,sumJlnt, 132,
,n Zen 811ddh1<m 9, 1 ()J
EnliA},1enm,·nt the JJ, 12-1, ,1.ll), ;\l;O 470,
H5 , ~A-:!, 49.l
en\·ironrueni,,1I ic.~ucs 152. J.'\8, 355-61,
151, 501
t:Jllcrurus, 214
cplcyd<:•, I 5 I, I~~
Lpl,tenwl,o,t.,, JI 1- IJ, 5-lll
, ,7' b,"'i
t:fki<:ltt..' 1
l~11.t:1I Rt~ht, for \\'urncn .\nu.:1u_lrm:m 1
.17,1 I
C<JUAllty, .l 12, ,\$0, .l!\ I
of ntl·n 1uuJ \\ ,mt.:n, l~J, .,!t4"1, \~l It.,.,
4f)f) 1 ~h5n 2Z
'-'rd, l.'tu.J ol ,m. 2: 12
crcmltl,m. 5111
t:r,,hklll,II .?7J
t:nksc,n, F,rik. I 11,
cl0Chntolo11.v, Wi-11 2.?0, Z I:?, 5 Ill
ddiniltnn 1>(, 212
~, ,, ul,a,i mlllt:nnlnll•m
t:.,hu CE.tu), !02
f_,M:ucs 1.\ I
cth,c,. :n, 6.\ 1>4, 74, .1;1~. 5,111
Rahn'l JQ<j
hnnndarft,S of cthlc:11 nctiQn, .1~4 .\11,-52
<:<mhu,ion u,och1n,!s a( 44
environmental, 35~1
4lnbal ethic . .l49-SO
humanist rtl')\ument, 3.19411
Protl!.<tnnt cth1c 59
reli~mn and, t,Ci, 122-l, .'l.lk-111
reli)lion as, 41,,~
sncial, JS2-3
t:thiop,an church. 12
cthol()j\>. buman • .l
cllc approll<'h, 77-9. ~ . 5411
Euchnrli.t ( llol)• Communion). Jti. Sb, It:?,
10S. 27<>-bO. 2~S. Jl'I. 387, 5-lO
nature 01 465, 4()1,
liuth>1>hro JJJemmtt. 339
eva~llsm. i4. 93. I l!,. 121. I :!J-5. 12-1.
139, ~). 550n J 7n
linked ,.,th
fundamentJtl.15m. 125. 31>9,
372
Unked with otillcrutlallim 115
telctangellsm. 520. 521-2
evongt:lisb, 125
E\'8n!lel1>Uc .-\."<><.'latlon, 125
Ev.:, W-1. 2 HI, .?ijS, 436, -136. 4.Jb 44-1 ,
452, S-13
e,11, JJ. 34, J7, 00, 2IJ...?5. 243 52<J
t~lfari \ 1c'-' 01·, 22+-S
Baha'i vie\\ or. 43, .?oS
~'Omba11JnS, '4, I ?0
<lceds, B<T deeds. ,., II
J.,nu,I or. 214 220-1
e.ltl!.tcncc of I 90
cxplunutl<1n, for 21 1-2~
acuon of Gt><Vgocl• 214 224-5
bc.,1 ar all f>O<Sll•lc worlds, 2 l t ?.? I
"'-'"'"' und effect 214. 21 ~
denial or t:,:nuinc .,,11 214, :?21)..1
In wll hcln~IOil" 21·1, :!ti-JR
tjlnontr>cc 214 21~17
mhc,.,nt In human h<:lnll", 214 21 f,..:?(1
m,..,lumL,m for ~plrltu•I 4ro,.1h 214
.?:?1-t
,._,.ult r.r hum"'1 froe ,.ill , 21 1 :?:?Cl
Hindu ,·1c" nr, :?24
 INOF'X 597

mdral. 2 lJ weal«nlng of, S,l.1

n,11un,I, :?JJ. i l)j tlp.crlmcntmlon, 159, 160
"vrkl.. tbc M:)Ur~ o(, 1.?tJ d p luUon (for ~ins), 11?, 143, :?l?'J, 23 I
c\11 b.lng., ..-, lk\'ll, the dpr1ess1.,n, frc,"<lom or 416-10
t:\·l1 c,-c. JQS .._•.x:uluttlon, 8'>1 QO
e\vluil()n. 11 tzcklel. lJ7
Da,...lnlan Lheor, o(, J(,J J76, Jill, 48?
ur «IWon, 73, 169 r,,ets
.,....1uuonnry theorlc,s, 69-7.? nu,,hO<ffllog)• aud, b5, 79, Ill
,1rchal., rcllj\lon. 7 I a~ n.:prcscnuitlOmi of rc:!tlity. Sb
c•rli moJcm rdtilion, n -,also dnui
lmtol'lc nil,glon 71~? faith, S, 14, :?9,80, 87 141-5, 191 SSOn.5
modem n.,liglon. n dtOullion uf, 14, 540
rrtmlm·e l'\:llglon, 70-1 dcvelopmc111 o/, 146-83
acliuo<·coc.., 74 , J48-9 clement or •.ah-ullon , 35, J7
actcsls, 540 'fruth-ln'fbclt;,r-Lhht', 141-4 , SSOn 6,
\'.XJst'"-nUullsm, 481-2, 482 , S-10 565-6n J
c.xorci>m, 124, 516 immediate ond lnrulUvc, 14 1
<Xperlcncc. rcll,¢10U$. 2, 4-7, 17-19, :!I. 27, lmelleetunl, 14 I
:!9, 87-1 16 lnnguuge or, 148-S I
.ihcrcd suu~, o( cons,clou.m.,.s, 170, 39J l"lll'" or. 2, ISO, 152
-.." also consctoo.ncss, ohcrcd suites of ,i;ruvatlon by, 125
communAI experience of, 105, lQ<>-10 Slel~ Of dflVClopmc.1\1 or, 14~
communication of, S. 81 and irupcn,lltlon, 144-5
<!Uhunal and socl:11 factors dcumninlng, wcnkcnlng of, 3?2, 566n.J1
87, 114-16 fal t h!ulne!IS, 44, 142, 145
descriptions of, :!7, 87-92, 69-92 Falklands Wor, 41.2, 415
dlvcrs1ry of, 68 Fall, the, -136, 444
l:.nt.'Ountcr with, J2:? (alllblllty, IS
cucnc,e of, 68 fnlslflabtllcy, 66, 81
features or. 88-9, 11»-7, 40-I Falwell, Jerry, 52 J. 521
sc1unt ln.,ldc, 66-7 famlllcslfamlly life. :?3, '15, l!iS, J'/7, 41 I,
1mporum...- ol, 88. 155 512
of the lndMdunl, S.10 /aoo,2J6,SJ9, 540
lncffitblli1y of 11»-7. 17(J-J, 177, SJ7 fanaticism, 321-2, SZO
lll4-dlruors of, I00-11, :i.10 Farid al-Din 'Atwr, 227
nature of. 87, ll7, 166. 28."-6, S.10 fnstin~ 10S, 107, 108, 119,2 12, 237
r<crsonal nature of, 4 0-I, 428 "°urcc of religious exp<!rlcncc, J:!J, !JO,
ncurophyslol"f!Y basa of, 176-8 132
oc.,urrence of, &7~ (ate. mnscery o,·cr. ~
p0... , or 4 04 Fatima, 276 1 29J-I, 29J, 442, 443
pathways LO, sc• expcriencc, religious, Fatlmids, 29-JO. 258, 41 ~. 4:!J
.,,.,;al aprcsslons ol 'fcclifl& of reality', I 77~
psycholot1lcnl model or. 'l')..100 fellowship, 12. 109-10, 12J
recreatl(>n of, 6 S<>Ul"CC or religious experience, 121 , 129,
ntual In, 104-5 132
sclenti!\c, unders1nndl11g of, 166-<'ll! femnle orchetypcs, 444
soclnl upres.sions of 116--40, n s. 40-I, In Chrlstlnnhy, 276, 29:?-.l, 294
42S, ~63. 53<)..l, SMn 11 earth mO(her, 276, J.'.)7
•'111ldlty or 138 In Roman Catholic ChuTch, 276, 2Q2-J
""""'1 lnflueocc of. 114-1 b \fll'!lln M•.r,• n.< 276. 276, :!92-4
tvpes or, 92-9, 179-80 fomn lcs, see women
charumntlc. 9-1-5, 109, 121, 1Z5 130 feminine, the. 432, 441!, 452-J, 552n 27
commluionir\i, 93, 120, 121 123, 129 fcmlnl<m, 432, 435, 447-'1, S2'>
conilrmlng 93, 98, 120. l;!J. 123, 132 r;c-crcnlion of rell1tion, 4.l2, 450..2
conn,rsion. 93, 98, 125 feminist hermeneutics, -ISJ
mY~tical. 95-7, 121 130, 132, 1.17, 159 feminist neo-onh00<>ll)', 4 50
parnnormal 97-8 feminist l<Qciolo!!Y or knowledge, 450-1
r~nerntivc. 92-1, 120,121,123,125, fcminl~t srudy of rclition, 4.l2, 4-49--SJ,
l:?9, 132 "36
rdi~ous crl'!l• 9"-9. 100 feminist theolol!,y, J54, 450
a unifvin( phen<>mcnrin. :i-1:? F'~nclon, Fnm~L<. 4 I
unh·ef'S'ality of, k8 fertility. 5. 208, 276
<-c.111C1t)' of J ',() ~ods or, 269, 277, 4JJ, 4 33
 59'i TIIF rlll.NOMtSON 0~ ltt,111,IDN
t-c..,tlrU~t.:r, (A"Ltn .Zb.l
,.,,u,.1, 4J. 4~. s.~ .WI .I, ~(,
(ctc,ltiMO, 1115, 11,5, 5 IO
fuli'h•an, lkl>, SWn 'lh
f1clJ.j,,,.,ntk1M,,f1dJ-111Jcr,cndcnco:, ,11•1
f,/h.u ,le ,wow, 10:?
·1111.iJ plct, . .? IJ .? IS
t 11,rcn,o:, Ell,abcth, 45 1
f '"' cnu...,, I '10
t·1...,hcr, Rulon\!. 170, 17.)-1,, 177. 11,0, IHl
fhh, ,yml>ol <jf .II'>
R.1,i.,Uauu11, .<e< ,df O,,gcllruloo
t 1, • .t. Koa.h·•. ,lh!\, M,S
f,~ltl. uh11ng,• uf u,1011g h•hl~•. 157, II,:?
"'" u/><0 fu•tln,l
forenmncl'!I, JOS. ,)10
fo11u11c•tclll~ ChlncM?, 4.l
fountkr,, of Wt-.rhJ rcllgluu", t<>4>-.?0J1 200,
:?tl'l, .llll-l6, JI?
births anJ c htlJhoods of, J(H
hreak wtlh pte\10lll' rchAtoo, J09 1 ..HO,
.HI
crhlual of rcllgltlu, lcodcr,, J09, 4.?Q..,1 0,
kll
distrncthc Ii,..-. of JI l
dc,·ouon 11f, Into p<1rodigma.tlo models,
J 1''1-.?0
llr>t dlscl1>lcs of, .105, J I 0, 3 H,, 5.12...3
forerunncno nf 304-5, JJO
c1tcrnol <>1>po,ltion, .lJO, Jl:?-13. 311,
lnOucnce of, 5.lZ .j
intcmctl OJlll')Cith,n, JJO, Jl2, Jl6
lives of, J03-16, J/0
lord oi phy,lcol ond spiritual worlds, 27 5
11111,\nulon o f, ;110, J l.l, .JN
ptlriod follnwin,i dcmh of, JI 7-20
pcnod of solitude, 305, .110
prewntotlon or teochlng,,, J-011--9
pmml!lc orfuturc Ml\'lt>ur, J/0. 312, J16
public <k'<llnratlon of, J/0, 31 I 12, 316
rcJ!nrdcd •• rdonncrs, schlsmntfc11,
herctiCII, 323
rcj~-etlon of, JU
rdntl<>n.,hip to c,u,hlishcd religion, JOs-41
return of. 2..1 i
role m<1duls for followers, JJS--6, .144-5
n• M>lor heme.•, .137
IL< S()UTCC o1 spfriuml lil!ht, 272
stnrt ol ministries. 304 .105, J(l(,-.8, ,110
tonchong of, JI 9, J:\I
aim the Bah, Bnha'uTu,h, Buddh•,
11<'<'
C hri>t, Mos"" 011d Muhnmm:id
Four Horsemen of the J\poco])'l)Sc, 24,1
F'nur Nob!" Truths. 215, J/6, 227 5.19.
SS.ln r,
fowler, James, 146--1\
Fra,·ahi. 1?9
fre<:will, il. 7b,21!i, 539
evil ro.•ulrs 1mm, 2 H , 220,221
freedom. 1.28, 164, J!ill, 41~11)
rcliA]ous. 511>-lfl
F'r~nch lkvolution, 414, H'I, 47'1, 517
Freud. Sij\rnund, r,t~l 62, M. 64,214
.,.,9-40. 411. 470-1 , 4J\1, 55in 21
t re,,, .1!)1/
l·rfja) f>rU)cf\, S.12 , SIi
~ri,nJs 11/ the \\btcm lluJJhbt C>rJ,r. ~<rl
fr,cuJ.,11111 nct-..urk., I S.!1, /11'1
t~.J'lfJ
try, t:h,.,ht:th, 1(,
fu11cthl11.tlb111, S.1 -!I, %. I Ill, <,z,1, S Ill
crillcl•nl> uf, S5, ~I!
(u11J1unc.nl.tliMu/rund.U1H.:11L.1lht,,1 !. 1. 1 1'1 1
125, l'll .11,.µ.,~_ !\Ill. 5M>n I,
:11,:?n. Hl
n1ULudc IO\\ tuJ.., '14."lt:.n(,."'-" •.lo..\. Jh~ ••,7,>-7.
5(,.211 .•IO 51>.?n .l2
chnmetcn,tuA 1,f, ,J(,.1-75 . .}(;Ii, 56111 •1
ulllluuc lownri.1• rc4iU011> <IJH·J..,ltt, .11.,,
,\7(1-.?
ntllluJe lo\\ Md. -.enlth, ,l7,?.,\
ot tltU<!, tuworJ., wumcn,J48, l7.l-l
mutudl w<:rimlnatio,... ~ . J70
pohticul nultuJc of.•l<,h .172 I
relitlous crndltlon:o, '.lt,7-'I, ,)(,ff
bCrlJltur,•. 31,4-5, Jl,IJ, ~2'1. ~IJl~ln-~
soclnl nnd polltl<1al <tM~-.,, J72-5
Chrhtian. 50, 75, J<-3, JM 5, J(>'l, J70,
.)71, .\73-4, J71,
11<-t."-"-"' of, 5(,0..1 o S
Euthyphro i.likmmn, .l.19
"' an~cllc:il, 3(,9 SI, l n. I I
cx<llusMsi itotudc of. 3-l 'l
lsl•mlc, 36."'l--l, J69, S<, In 1 I, ~l>:?n .'\/;,
S62n ~4
linked "1th .,vnn~cll•m l:?S
media portntynl of, 520
mllleno.riani•m leocb to, 25'> S6lln J
and mndcmity, J63, HO, Jbll-Z
pc,;ltlon of. J66
rndlcal. 369, 561 n 11
rcsurgenCX' of ~8 1
rctreot lntf>, 185-7 S.14
.ooial back4f(>und o f, 317
S()(:inl oofonition of 37>-<>
socio.I monifcstnllon• uf. J7S
ond socio I refonn, 51, In 2~
stcrt:Otypcd vie,., 363,376
traditlon,li\l, J67-9, 4<12
in IN>dicionnl wcktics, l'I 1-2
worldvic.,, JR.1, .)84
xcnoplml>I~ fund,,mcnt•ll•m 371
fondnmenUIJl•m-lihc'l'llll•m tlichotmm•, ,\.1.l,
,"\63--85
hlstorieol csplnnatlon c,£, 31!?-5
<0c:ial and lnccllc-ctu•I ti.i,1, of Ji<,...~
see t,/,'1(1 fund:uncntnHsmflun,lnm,mali•i.
ond hl:>cmlism/lihctlll•
The f'urid<m1<~1111/•, JJ .,1,.,
funeml ntt:,1, 21;2, 139
St'< alsn dcoth
Gabriel, \nl\,:I, 2<H, :?'>2 ."1().1 .l05 J-07.
JIU
(,;ilo. J5 7, 43.J
Amn, cconcmuo, 6
Galileo, /J, 476. 1~2
(l•ndhl, \lahatma 1.30, 4.!.!, 4'12
 INO~.X 59')

ll•u,-.ha, 53J hbtory "'· .:!O'l-10

G.utll'~, th.-, 157 ,1~11f1c.111<..._. oi, "" • symbol, 487
Gaut.anu. 9 11( Sikhu.m. J~)
c:..-.:ru. CllfforJ. llO Juffcring rc,uli. from net Ion,. of, 2 11,
g.,nJcr, 15. I 15, 432-54, 4 15 , W>-50 J~J-5
Jdlnluon or, 4,l2 •• sun J!oolsky Jl(KI, Z6'> 70, :ao
C".cn~\"'1\ 411 union o( th~ ,-.,ul wilh, 38
G,~ Si 402 unlvc.,..1U1y nf b<:lltf In, 18')-'10
Gcnmuw, 'l'>, 3 41, 426 unknm,ahlc, lJJ
Gha,ua, 50b \\111 or, sec \\~II of Cod
JI-Ghuall ,\h11 ll•mid, 96-7, 2:?1, 423 worsh,r of, -12, 54
11 1, 5-}7 !\Odd1:!1.<IOoddc..s, :?OR, -IS I
Gh'"·' Fe-::uval, Chlnc~, 218 ~Ckis, A:C d~hic~
tt,nm 219 j!Old, 282
t;hulam-Ahmad 21>2 ('rl'lldcn A#, 2()9, :?-12, 24J, .?44, 25 I ,
,:hulat, J:?~ ::?52-3, 255-(,, 2M. 270, ,'12. 3J0.
&,ft.<. f'l'lrltual, <>4-S $29-3(), 542
Gki~es, Alben, 46S, S66n H. 18 Golden Lily Pond, Hindu 1cmplc, ll
Glorious Rcn,lunon of 168'1, 479-80 Colden Rule, .)4,\ J-14, JS I, 352
,dass<'lolia (speaking In 1onAues), 94 109. Golden Temple at Amri,sar, 277. 472
124, 125 Ooldzihcr, Ignaz. J25, 56:?n 49
(noslsf!lll06ticism. llS, 121 , 132-5, 136, Oombrich, Richllrd, 39-1, 395,398, 563n.3
IJ8, 430, S-10, 5:iJ-ln.8 good, moral, 22-1-5
""6molof,?)· of, 2 I 7 goodness. 220
medle-·al, 320 govcrnmcnt. 251, 4/W
new of suffenng, 216-7 relationship wllh relWon, -105, 408-9, HS
~06uc (manlpulallonis1) sects, 75, 76 see also Mate
goab or LI,,.. .tudy or religion, 82 gr.,.oo,JS,JS. 7-1, 125
C,,d,ll)<,11y, .3.l, 36. 37, 42. 119, !20, 190, elernen1 of salvation. JS, J7, 4 1>, 119, 123,
J%,4S3,-IS7 125. 237,238
appeasement or. J 18 foll from 218, 220
aurthu1~ of, ll>l>-9, 187, J&S, 18FJ-9, Omh'!l!l, Dilly, 1i:;
216. 547n l Ortm th Gun, Salub, Hl6
~ntficeno..> ol. J2J, 125, 142 Great Olsappolntmem of 184-1. 263, 364-S
of Chruuanh:y, 6, 72, 186-9 Great Lavra monasrery. 131
beliefs about, 22. 187,187 Greatest Name. 1911
concept& of. 6, JJ, 38, 59 , 70. 536 Greec.:, 7, 433
origins of. S4, 60 Grc.!k Orlhodox Chrisllanlcy, 7. J2, JJS
contras, wllh concept of Ulumau, Reality, groups, rellglous, clnssl.flcation of, 138-40
JJ-1, 36-7 growlh, spiritual. 214, 221~
M Creator, JJ, 187-11, Hill, 206, 208. 209. gullt, 62,164
220 Gup<a t::mpltc, 30, 422
dcfcnts fon:,e, of evil, 218 Gurney. Joseph, SJl
d..obedl~nce 10, 34 guru (spiritual guide). :?J. 95, 134, 138,
'God created In Lile £allh,,', -l2 428, 5-10, 54 I
Gre.tcst Name of, 198 \\'001cn ns,448
Identity wllh, 97 see also ,plritual ,nosier
lnlcrvenUQn or, m world, I 25 Gush Ernunirn movcmeul, 371, J74
of !Alam, 6, 14, lSb-9 Gutierrez., GuM.avo 1 127, 488
of JuJAIMD, 6, l!j6-9 Guyon, Madome Jct1ru1c Mnric, 41
Kingdom or, &.-e Kingdom of God Gyat"°, Tentill, 503
kno,,.ledgc of I 9&-9
unobtalmbll! hy human;., 211 /fodith , '°"" TrndhlOll!i
10\'e or. 301 ll~r, 465
IO\'e of for hum•nlty, 142, 361 11~1l0 Sophia, 461 , 472
mont!Jty n.,.....
from commnnds of, J3S-9 11•.lJ, !OR, 279, 260, 280-1, Jl9, J99, 445,
u noum"'10n , 72-3 .541
obedience ,o. :?2S 11(1!, 1 36, J 74
perwonol 5, 33 llul•klrnh, 120,541, 5-13
prayer 10, 106 al·llo llnJ Rusayn, 41
problem of thcodicy. 21J-25 llant>ali school, 399
prnois of cxi<wrwe of, lll'>-91 llanh, \'cncrahlc Thich Nhnt, JS9
rdationship ,.i,h, 72. l 15, 123, 20-I Tlanuman, 20 I
cancels effccu of sin. 125 h"OfflA, lfll
1,00 • Tllf' 1'll~'IOMf.SON Clt' Rfl.lOION

h.Jr,lb1C.S...lii. U.t-hh.:u:1111.!fll ur, 77. 5S7n :! 1

11..uu Kri1rohn~1 Ab )1',,kt u~
1:ultkn ·'*' 111
ttoltl..:tt Ruic ln, .l-11
2$2
lk,n,.ktn, 2.J.?,.._J tu-.tor)' or, h
hJnl1un" v. 1th 1h1.: Tou, .,(l holy 1,1.,~'<:;I 1,(, 27~ ,lJ./
lfi1rta:hofm.:, Ch.11lcw, ?.?O 1rnpll.Cl u( l\\~nth.:ch t.>ltllUt")' on -1•r-, '-'Z
h11,1",4,.~t. ~ htnU\,::f\(:+.;
ll,1!-1,ln. lnuun ~).\ bll ChrMlon11y So
Ut1.Mtfi1J fll0\1;nwnc ( lln"IJhn), IZ, l.l 1. ·15h, on J1tfll1J1e>u rl.'.lt~llfl. S4t
4>1<,, 1•>S .u1J 1,1nm In l11J1.1 111.'1. ~lk
lie ,.t,.,m <,.,J ohnll 111:tkc 1UJnlfcs1, ,l/0 Knlkl i\v111•r lu "<l Ki!llu Avator
hcntcn./11c•trng, 411, () I, l:?-1 125, Jl)Q, SI S, knrm..1 In, 215
SIi, lcnclcrlhlp ol, 4.?'1
ltcnhh 71,, 77, l:!'4 l.:~h"'m ln, I~
hc11\cn, .\!\, 37, 2JJ I :!35 6, 2.37, 2J8. lcpumator ti( i.:.13lL •>~•tm ..t07
25~ , ;?5')-1,A) lih<:ratlon on .l~
llca,·cn'• Gutc, 5 I'), 520 hie oft<r dclllh In , ;!.1.l, .?.lH
llcbr<-w IJ,1,/c, 187, lli9, '15, :?0/\, :?<l'I, 225, marrl.1,:C In 12.?, I Ii
~>~ ruc'<htntlun In, 111.',
tlomhmm (>f mon O \' «.!t 1uIturo_ JS.5-6 m,mbcr,blp of Z-1
Cud In, :?69- 70 mbs1on:1ry a1Jtlv1t)", !ifl:?
·u,' ln,.ll 7 mcmastcries 1n. l.'ll
llcgcl, C'N)org, <,9 rnouiJom In, 19-10
llci111cnhcrg., \\rcn1cr. 52b mystlOlsm In, l.'\7
hell 35, Ji, 19'1, 2J~,. 237 Nlrvnna In, .l ~
IMien le thoull)ll, W numcrtcnl •lw 7 S02, $114 , ~4611 5
llotu, 133 P'!ln, •df-lnntcllon or 108
I lcruru~, 270 parnoonnnl octh-itJ\:!I; ln 97
horcsy/hcn:lics, ,12 I, 322-.1, .168, :H0-1. pnroc.h1•litotio11 of, J?3
J7 I polcmlc,J lilernlure In, 6'l
h1:m11... nu-11cics, 211 1 54 I prte~I ly function, in, 111\
fcruini,,1 -151 rejection of, 157
hcm111.s, 1:?9, IJJ rlnmlism in. 120
hero-sn,1our, 2M,. 270-1 role models for women In, -1-12
hcros. Chlncs.:, •13 ;r<,Mwno-tfhorrM. 2112
llen.l, ThL-odor 4()4 «:rip1urc< 0£, II, 23, 375
l1el!)'<'ht~m (chontin4). 136 tl<lxual mornllry In, 117
llick, John 42, 72..J, 223, H7 1hrines. 22, 4 77
Hidden lmum, 24J, 250-1, 2Sll, 259, 262 <0ei•I Nhlc:5 in, J54
lriurnrchies, rcl~ml$, 2, 14 132-4, 31?, socinl org.1niudon In J!\2
322, J.11, 426, 440-2, 48.l, 53-1 socio! reformism in, 128
h1crocrooy. 412. 541, 5-15 IJ0013, 181
htemphany, HXI, 104, 541 ,pclb ln, 3S8
/1iltma1 , 13-1 sp,rt18 in, 2 Ill
HinduiSm/1I Indus, B--'l, 22-3, 17, 61 , 157, iprcad o(,.12, SOS, 510
2:1s, JOl , 120 sufferin!! m, 2:12
Advaiua \'cdnnto school. i;ce ,\dvalto ')""bol~ o(, 42 172. 5:13
\' edon1.1 school llllisman, ,187
artln, 462,464,469, 469 temples or.&, '1, •li2
osccllc,sm ,n. 129~10, 131, 4 19 rhci<m m , 39-411
atlitud., toward$ women, 437, 440 1imeline, 422
0\111.<ll"l, 201,249 and lOtimare R.,.11,y, 192, 2U7
Br3hmlnlcal, 121, 422 universal •J>rC•I of D9
donce,n,45!! ·us' In, J47~
dJ;.appearnm.oe o( true n,li~on, 247 and wnr nnd klllin,t. J-16 4111
ecumenical movement In. 502 wnmcn derict,'tl m. 4:\6
effect of muln-rcli~ou• society l>O, H7 words used for •ol,-:11,on In. 2Jli
efieet of rel1,l!ious bro3dcnstlrtA on, 522 world prior en achene of sa,•1our• .?44
and environment, 360 world n>hA1011 J,)9
C'leharol~y. 24,l llindus, 1', 9, '16
ethics in. JJ() <'<'>nflic:t "ich Muslims in India, I, ~O'l, 5J<,
c,·11 ~pmt.S m 219. 224 and Global f.thtc. J50, .,s2
fa.uni( in 107 h1Stonan,, ,l, k.l
fundament11lh,m In. 382 hi•tory, ~II. JJ2-7, .lk2-S. 532-J. 56Jn 5fl
iinosclci,m In 13-1 of pre-modem J'<.'OJ>lc, 2'4
 INDEX 601

n: h,1\l<>US , t, I , C><l. 2!,o-'ll, :?9 I S..'-" a/1'0 hunwut~ 111,d tnJh iduals
bc'1••~ of rellJl!oa (a.mJcrni.., di;.CJphnc), hun\Rn niuun:, ~ ~. 20-1 -~, ZZ7, J-'R
r,."--(, 111 &hnl h11h, .?OS 21/i
tlllkr, ,\J,,tph, <1<1, J40 In C..hn<1innlry, ~0-1
llof>t~dtcr, Richard J71\ n.1w-. tn, 5.Jt>-7
hoo.>tlt' 4M)l'OO'-'ht:.• 10 study of rcli~ion, 77, In blum, .?01 .5
,<41 humnn r111,t,1.,, 3·12, .l50, JSO, 4'10,
llolucuu.<I, 12,9, 4~ 5(,l,..9n 15
11,>lo<."IIUSI thcol~. 22-l rclll\il>us fr~'t..Jom, .SI 6- I 8
huly. ,h.,, 17. ?I. 27, 1()4 humonlsm . .l.1~ I , 51,7n <,
ka1ure:< of S'l-<l humonity, I, 2, 2l, .?II, 7.J
t-.'(' aI.., s.:rc.-J. tht: twtl "-X:p.:nc.ncic, dcQrndoUon of, 24.J-I
n:lt.!\iOUS domin:uion of n.uurc ...,55--6
lloh•Book,M,J~S lnu, of 111
...;. ,,z,o Bibi< ,md Qurim love of C',od, 142
llul)· Communion,""" Euchar\51 problems f•clng. JS0-1
lloh Lo,,.,:H, J7, 120,123.369 rclntlonshlp \\1th othen1, 29, 11>4
olieJ,en.,., 10. JS. 34?, 369. 4i9 relntlon•hlp \\1th physlcnl \\Orld 6
.., uJao lu"· und Shari"• relotlon,hip with Ulllmotc Rcall1y, 2, 5, 6,
ho~· man, Stal.ion of. 97 33, .?09- I 0, 343
holy pl~. se;, sacred places sr.n n·ed of symbols. HO
lloly Roman Emp,n,, 13, 41 6 unity of, 16, J54
1111')· Sptnt, Ji IIJ, 199, 200 sec nl80 human l,.,ings cmd mdhidullls
boh· ... ..,, J46, 409 Hum~. Dm·id, 214
"'"' aiM> jihad mid Crusade~ humility, 29
llol)' \\'eek, 21i Hungary, 405
llomo rel,gi08IU0, :?1 llurqolya, 259
homo,,auality, 394 446 44 7 Hll.fflyn, I mom, 143, 282, 293, 29:i, 442,
llonm, 125 477,541
hopeles,nc.ss, 100 Bab's ,ision o(, 305,310
rlopl the, 49-50 Ille of, 230
lion Shen-i, 24,l mnrtyrdom of, 107, I 19,230,230,231,
IIOUk of Won.hip, &hB'i, 42, 4H, S29 277-8, 332, 42.l
bou.."<:hold altar, 9 oommemoratlon of. 390,390, H7, 541,
llu:a-Yen Bucldh,.m. 9-12, 11, 192 542
Huddleston, Archbuhop Tre,·or. 421 Htc<hidnr, 24J, 24!1-9
human being:,, 6. 28, 47 70, 72, 462 Hu~hldsr-Mnh, 248
t>ehaviour of 60, 340, JSO Husserl, Edmund, 6o-7
choice oi world,iow, 149-51 Hussirc revolt1Bohemia. Z57
creation of experience, 551-2n 17 Hunerites, 74, 75, 75, 132. 372
effects of reli~on on. 18. 21. 2!1-9 110 Huxtable, J66
emotions] problems of. 155 hym-ns,5,36,92, 104, 139, 4S6
,..;1 t.he consequence of action of, 214, scea/JIO music
215 hyper./hypo-arousal, 173, 175, 177, 178,
e<il inherenr in. lH. :?1!1-20 181
evolution of relstlonship with God. h)'J>Cl'VCJ1til•1ion, I 0/!, I o<I
209-1()
gap between and C',od, ;196 f.Chinil, 208, 209
identical to Ahs!>lure Realitv, J7 .)39 lbli,. 2H, 217. 541
inner world of. 4 70. 461 Ibo '.Abd al-Wohhab. Muhammod, 3o.'I-I,
mediaton, bcfween, nnd the sncred. 6ll 399,42J
moU\-.rlons for action 153 lbn al-'Anlbi Multyi aJ.Dm. 3~. -12, 196.
and natural ,rorld. 35 7 42J,-l.SJ
n1ture of - human nature Tbo &,'ud, Mub11mmod, .,99
nature of ila"'8 ,n, SJ6-7 lbn T.1ymi>1·a, Ahmsd, .163, 399
primitl.-e, ll>S lbn l'boyy. 'Abd Allah. JIO 312
purpose of creation or, 554n 1.S lcon5'icon<>j!rnph)•, 26. 321, 541
r-sychofotic,,J Deeds of. 5-l of Chns1 26, J 02, 200, 272, JOJ, 2N7
rel•uon<hlp ,.;th a cranse<:ndent reallt)', 2, 456, 467
5, 6, .HJ rum.are of 462--.1, -165, 4<1S
separateness of, from G<>d, 36, J7 of \'tr)\in Mary. 14 105. 29J
social prou~•loo oi, 129. 210 see also a:n/an,;, Iconic
soul of, stt ,-;ml 'Id al -Adha, 281
,pJntual development of 223, 227 idem:11)' onsls, 147
(,02 Tiff Pllf.SOMESO'I/ or Rfl,ICllOS

ltlc,,lo(I<:>, ~II, l.?S, l '-1} I 521, M'"- "'"'" pa.,,.,_,~ rlh." uf

p,,cU<ll>- r.:lll)iuu.,, 211, 111 , 125 170 I , 5111 l11Ju..i1,-., :!4.1. !'Ill>
rdtAwn ns "odnl und Jk•htu:,.11, 11;.N ln,1111~hion lh< 1-' II 11,I Ill .H I J''U
fJ',!ol()it_\', (uO\:tlun o( Z'Jh 11 I
IJol,111)', 14 ~II. 27.1, 11>1 ln,11th1. (,7 l.l7
IJ!j1Vr11n,-.: ltWft./J"I, .H .)S, 17 llO, :?07, ln,tilullt,n" of
:?22 . .?J'J. 5~Jn H rdh\lon ,), <>. 1 12 11.\ J,i',, 17'1
MJll'cr1114 ,--.ull• (mm,~ l I 21 S 17 ,,.x;1.,l 27
IJtrlU 1
J(,7 _t) l11t4.·~Hn: aprro,01\/h-.:• to ,u.aJ,· ,.f r,.:l14Jon
llllt<rn~y. 4SS 77
IUumln,111011. 11p1rl1onl1 '>t•. t)C), HK) mccmlonnlity, lt7
10u1111n,ulon (l!ml>cllL,hn,enc 11( cnllll!ra1,h)'), lmcrc,»•lon I l'I. ;?,Ill, !711, 1111
"·5
2(1,
lllu~ion, "'-"t.' m11n·,
inccr-fn11h Ju1fl)AU< 511. '72, I ;'> l , 1'12 I
19:l
icuru:c•lhon)!Ctv. I o I. IO. J <I 71 in1cm1cd1an(!.,, 19<1 :w.,
"<'<' 1118n •rchc{ypc.< mcerm,-Ji3lc world.,, l'l'l-211.l
lmnm', 11, 1 l'> :?00 .?Jl, 29:o, '-11>, .l'l'I. lmemotlonnl .\n,h""11 hmldtn4 (l\nh,1), IS
4511 S II Internet, IS!!, 5Z2-I S:?J. S2~ S;?S
Khomeini n<, U J lntcrr,re1n(lon
Tul'lfth. 4 l'l 423 or h1<1oncsl dntn, 66
lmmnculatc Concepuon, Jq,2 hu.·rnl, I I7
lmmnncncc, 6, .'I.), 37 ru1ture c,f, 116
lmmonnll~· an Taoism, 44 phcnomcnolo.¢teal, 67
lmpcnali,111, 161 or scnµture, IOI, IOJ JM-7
'imr,llclc rchl\lon', 2%, 551,n 46 lnterrela1.edncs.<, l 46
lncama1lons, see ,,,ells lnct>lcrnnc.:, J2 1-2. 32 1
in~-ense, 105 tncrovcrslonlst/r,letiSr 'iCClS, 7S, 75
l!lebl l3000>. 62 intultlon 67
India, 8, S, 71,420,456,507 lnults, I 14, 219
agricultural rituals In, :?$5 lo, 20ll
nnhmsm m , 507 Iron, 27 1, J?L, 419, 426, 490
bhajans In, 4 56 1979 re\·olution tn , 2J I. ~56. !'15. ,'I0/1
Buddhism in, 'I, 11, 4?0 J36-7,J74.J77. JSZ, 41 9,42J
Buddhlsi empire uf ,\>hok.a In, l, 42() basis of, 128
caste 1,yslCm Lo, '107, S01 \\'""tern ri.oiponsc m. 42 l. 424
<.: ltrlstlru11 cy In, 50 response of, 10 West.. 4.?-1. -t'.!S
lUndu-Musltm strife m, I, 409, HO, 518 l:<!umemcal efforu In, 4~9
tndi:pcnd<ncc or, J54, 422, SOI KhomclnJ'» rel\lm~ In, H2, 4H 420
Islam In, 162-J, HS, -122 pcr.wcutlon o( 8aha'ls Ln, ?.ll. 23.?, 371,
mlll"n11rlt111 mov1.<rucnu. In. SS6n Jb S17-18. 517
partition o(, 409. 420 rdom, mown1cnu lfl -l'Jl. 49/j
rd'<>rn1 mo\'emcnts In~ 381-2 right.> of ""men In, 4-18
rdti!Jan of, ,we I Undul,m I f<llOl!U.O. UJ
Sikh,; l11, 41S 11fan, IJ4
and \V~tc.m culture, 41-1 Iroquois, 356
l nd,•os, n ..., 105 lsuc, 226, SS In 19
lndl\'lduall,m, 4(,~70, 479 /1JOiu/1 , Book OJ, :?:?C)
,,r
chQIL-..: religion, 24-S, 71 , 161 , 162 Ishmael, 226, S~n l<I
\\'urld \\'Ide \\'ch " tool o(, 522 ls,~, :!73
Individual•. 2, 6. 25, ISi, SJ(l-2 lsht11r, 273, 4Xl, 13,)
l>clk( or, JIJ6-7 ls•c;os (lnc... motinnttl So,:kcy for Krt•hn•
folch-tn. 142-1 Co11...,1ou,nc<•l, IJ:?, I SS Sl/2 50:?
lnntr world of 470, 48 I 5(J'l, 5JO- 11
rnor•I ohl~c ion, o(, 1.12 lslom, 14 15, .:?J, ,)!;, 71. 15.?, .:?to
rcl~ou, .HO-I amukt~ In. J'l!.-CJ, .1'13, .)'1~
,he self. 29, 71 1rchlcccrnrc, ,...,..~ an:-hit~ture,;. (,fam1c
works or, JS. I I9 Ort in. s...-c urt, ldttmi~
world r~li4ion mus, nr,penl 10, n'> au1tuJcs rowords other "'hi:lnn< .l4~.
IICe o/S() human l>cln~ and bumnnlty Sblln 12
Ineffable. :>-11 ~.,,11 111 proy~r 4»
lnfallil>il11y. 11,, 1!9, 90 95, 1'17, 170..J, 177, c<'ntral autlwniv In.•H J, 5JI,
5'11 s..,• aL<a lihnri'n
lnhcntan<.'e, and Sh•rl'a l.tw 121 conwr.1on to, 160. 161. 11>2..J
lnloauon ocremonieslrln,als, 'l, 49-5() Jeclaniunn on ~'On<erv:1uon, .ll,O
 I NllEX /,().}

Jc1cn.,c of••HS unJ ~t:Ku.t.llt,•, -I If,

J-.·cachm•:nt m. 2!7. ~~~ Sltl'o Mu.Uni. -.:c Shi'• MwJlm•
.k:~rounb,m ln. 1~-1 ..,.,,111 ethic.. In, JS,l
Jc-.Jorru<111 ot. J?S-8 ""'-"'" ul)\(mlmu,m In, .152
J;[/,r.·uc,: lx"l"'°"" officfal ltUJ Jk1(1ul..r ~,.it n.:fonubm ln. l 2R
n:Ui:ton "'· J()O, J'l.l, J\l',.-11. 56.ln ., &,, iL:t ltutt~nu \·Jew o(. -I l 7
di'cd v( mcJJ4 011, 5.?0-1 oplil ht:twecn Sunni anJ Shl'I l,lam, JI 7
crl<-,;1 nl \\'orlJ \\.u- I on, l'lS N•n:..,d of, ZS. JJ, 50, JJ6, 4.:?.J, SUS
.:.""1,uul<>i:), 2-IJ >luttun uf ~tuhamrnaJ 1n, 1<1<1-:?00
jun.,. ~.lb Sunni. see Sunni 1~I.am
la.,un~ ,n. 1118. I~ I •)•mbol uf (•t•r unJ Cr"'"-"!nl), .t :?, 172
lt,w,d.,r ,,(, """ Mulurruu.ul ,ymholl:wtion In, 187
Fri.la~ Jl~c...,, S:12 U11i<n1nn, In, JQ~
iunJ.intcnrnlb1.n in. St~ fundamenwhsm, theistic school!'t in, 2.J&
l,bml~ cm,-,hnc 4J..l
i:,tt1eh<'tslll In, JJ4 tolcrntion or Jud,11M11 and Clui.,ti:mlty, .l71
GoJ ui (>, th7, 1"8. ~<>n.l, SHn :\ tt11dlllun In, 31,7-'1
Gold~n Rule In, J·H t)'))(JIOllic• in, 77
anJ lbrului,m"' lndh1, I, 40'1, 5JR ulcm,a in~ see ukma
holy pl.ice,, of ?78, JJ.I universal •PP<-'•I o/, 139
holy '"" In, k• JLhnJ "u!I' In, 341!
hom.,.uualit)' problh!tl-J, 446 vieY. o( Lime, 209-J 0
, ~ of the feminine In, -ISJ ,·lslon ol a perlecr o<>clecy In, I 26. 128
lmp.tct oi ,,,.cnlic_tb <.>cntury on, 49b-9 1111d ..,., ,,nd killing, 3 43, 41 I
anJ 1ndt\·iJual choice, .24 .... ,rrtor In, • 'primary .,.,rrid, 60
Ulcrr&ncy ,1f scriJllUr'-" <If, 375 ond ,he WdV...c<tcrnunUon, 424, 491,1
intc,rln} with popubr rell~on, J'l.l. nnd " ·omen, JS.?, 131,, 138. 140, 44J, 417
J9h-9, J9'> 5oJn 2 \loorld-oonqU<:St u(, 61
JU\lh."'1: '"· ~ JUSth;.-c. tn lal.run "~>rid r.:il!)lon, 13()
i.... . i t c ~ In, lW-1, lZ.:?, t:?J, JI 1, sc<1 alstJ Sufum1
J:?5-8, 464 Islam,.: R<-<volut.ion, sec lrnn, 1979
lif, aftl.'r lkaJ.h in, :?J3, :?J/1 revolullou in
DtJllljc:tl clu,nru lll, J9J L!laml2lltion, 162
m41'tiagc in, 122, -1--16 l~mo'ill, Shah, .?57
martyrdom, lJ 1 bma'iCis, 134,261,261.430
mcdimtlon in, 108 l•rncl, ?./J, J74, 4:?Q
mJlicnniAll5m m. 2SS crL-uulon o( 5tnte o/, 49-1, 494,495
mtnloruuv oc11vl1y. 381. 4 98, 49'1 lsnaeli1c,1, :?:?9-JO, JIO, 313, J I S
mnderru.<m In, 4 'l0-I isolotioni!im, r;oc,inl. 128, l 29, lJ I
mona.<1,c\5m In, 138, 446 Italy. F~<clst, 417
monl<m In, JS-Cl. 236-7
m\"Stici•m In, 136 Jahul<n and Jnhulqn, 254
ltRI\Ue o( e\'li In, 22:! JahtulSl,lr, Emperor, 343
narute of man in :?0-1-S, 536 Jalnl,m. 7. 129, 129, 1Jl. 2 78
nanm: o( l1timote Rcaliry, 186 dccLv,uion on con~rntlon, J(,O
natur" of the world. Zo6, 2Z I ~,hies of, 3 I.)
num~rlcnl size. 7. 499. SO-I, S.16n.5 numerlc;il size. SO-I
obedicnc" 10 c•tahlishL'Cl ruler, 407 proh ihilion ol killing In, 344
rc,n,du.., in .•?:16 11exu:ality of monks and nuns in. 4-l/\
l"'"'-'Clllion nf hctcTl'ldru: grt,ua,s, J 'i I •11r1:<1tl or, $0$
pil~m•llt in, IO!l Jnmal al-Din 'nJ.Afgbonl'. S.,yyid, 491
pn11,mical ihcrarur. in. 69 James, \\,llio.m. 93-1, 95-6, 149
political d<?velOJ1m'-'IIU1 in, 42.J _,apo, 136
J'O'"Or structure in, 421! Japan, 9, 45-6, -16, 408-9 • 424
prayer in 1116, 106 12J Chri.~tinnltv 1n ~6
rrophcc:le!: oi Mahdi, 2SO-I. 312 ne,, relig.irlu.~ mo, emenl~ in. S 15
rt'JCCIIOII of 8.1ha'I faith. Jt I Japane.c rcli~ious sy,;ic,m5, 7, J2, 43, 45-6.
rejecrton of by fundammtAli.i Christion,, 21'1, SJ,
3il 8tt Buddhism. tn Jnpan cmd Shimo
reiOOous de\·elopmeni ,n , 42J Joros,i ndh• ./09
re~ou, re,1nllsm In. 9J Ja,p,.-rv,. Kllri, 7 I
nrual puncy in. 119 jtrn, ftt!C caste 1-:y1-1em
iamts m, .W'l-9 JchO\-nh's \\'1mcsses. 74. 75, :?56. 2C>.?. 4911,
and ...i,,mon, 2J8, 5.l6 5'(19
 (,0--1 TIii· PIIF.NOMF.NON or Rt:l,IGION

Jt:ru.1.ttkm. l.l, ?7H••172 . .,2..1, 49S und •<x1wl11v In I I<,. 7

J.,,.u, Chr1« '"'" Chri.t ,-Jn In. ~.?2
Jc"~- {'If.;\! JuJot,m 1,0,,i.l ,ll111:, In, ,l!i.l
JlhnJ (huh· ,...,),:?JI J~<> J-lfi. IU'J, 411'7, ~uci.il or~ni,athm in. :\52
541, Sf,711 12 MJ1t1ial rdonui,m ln1 l~~
11nJu (•df110"cr), If>, 5~ I ,on,il In, ,I SI,
J1a,. I :?9 •pre.id 11( 51/S
1,ammu.krt ,1S, ~,H, JJ.'I, ~-11 ,ymh<,1 o{ (Siu nr o,., IJ) 12, 172
JMUI>, 15, :!07, ;?.W, 5-11 thcolo~ of lihcn1tlttn llft
JJlmli1 J<>ll<I (the p11th o( km,,. JC<l.,ic), 411. tlmctrnc. /QS
S•II, 545 uhra-orchnJ,.,, .373
Jo..Jchlm1tc mnnmu.:.nl, 257 In chc Unll<.J St,m•, l~ I 517
11>1,'Q' .'31> u.nd \\omen. 11 1
John. C,o<'IX'I qf 81, :?Of). 2S9-?0 world pnor ro «d'<nt of /Ol\lour, J4~
John the Bnr,11.t, St, JO.l, 305, ,11>7, .JI() Ru.1 alMJ Onhodo~ Juda~rn Rifhnn
John of1hc Crm,. s,, 31!, 90-1 l'.17, :?27 Jud.tl,m mvl ('..,n-cn·atl,c Judui-rn
John,P•ul JI, Pop,;, J59, 10(, .lud,Ui lscmrlot,JJO, 312
Juhn of Ru).,.hTO<-ok. 38, JH judgcmcnc, ouspcn.lon ol, 6,~
.Jonoh, JM, .199 Judgcn1cnc D:I)•. .?O?, 21(), .?1 ~. 220, :?30
Jone•, Re, Jim, 5 14,519 2 11,251 25 1 .'12 SS.1nJ7
JorJnn, River, 1~7 .lunJ!, Carl. (l.'\-,5, 64 f,-/, 266, 2/il!. 'l'II,
Josaph31, J.W-S s,, 470-1 , 481,529, 5.'VI, S56n 2, 56.Jn.l 1
Jouret, Luc, 520 jurit,prudcncc, 123
joy. 5, 119, 90, 94 Jurf•t1, 36:)
Judni\m/Jcw,, 7, ll. 12, JS, 2R2, 301,312, Justice, 126,243,342,JSO,JSO
133, .i9-I In 1•111.m, 14,345, JS.J, 355
nn in, 41\2, 464, S()6n 13 socinl, 357-8, ,174, ,J()<I
dcclnrrnion on oon,;crvoLion, 3(,C,-1 ju•tificn1ory 1heori-., fl?
dmin!) lnqui<ltion, 161
e•ch•1ology, 24J Kn'bu, J09, 3 16 , 279,280
expec1cd Mcssioh, 250 Kobb•.lo (Ct1hb11lnl/Kabbali•u. 12, 133. 134,
c~tcrmlno1lon of, by No.zas, 49-1 495 495,54 1
ras,ing in, 108, 119 k.ichlnns, 49
fes1lvals, 536 KnU, Ooddes,, 114, 120, 120, 44-l
founders of, 301 Ktili YuA3, 243,312
HCC alMJ Moses Knlki Avatar, 24J, 249,249,261
(undamen,nlc•m, ;;20 kami (d1vinitie.•, 1piri1Jt), 46, H 5.J l
/!)losticism in, 134 llllmmic religion, 393
,,olden A# in, 2S2~ Kant, lrn.mnnuel, 72
Colden Rule i n, 344 Knrdcc, 1\Jon, 399
(',od of, 6, 187, 269-70 K.sren Telakhon, 257
Ha•id,c movement (llasldlm), 12, 134. kanna, 125, 207, 215, J39, 346 J47 Jli9,
456, -186 49S J96, 501-2, 531., 541, 5-12 54.)
llolocaust theolo~. 224 kava, 11!1
Uoly L•w o(, JO-I Keech, Mrs. 26..), 264
holy places of, 2711, J I-I Kelman, Herben, 145-'>
lm"!les or the feminine In, 452 Khodi/a, JIIS, J I O, 4./2
or
lmpao, twen tieth cemury, 49J.-4 Khallfa, R.-..shad, J!\9. 561n 1.1
lawo(, 61 khanfS/nhs. l 31
le,!allsm in, 121)..1, 122, 123,464 KhAriJl)')'U, 126
marriage in, 122 Khavr ol-Oin Pasha, 4'11
Messiah, see Messrnh Khoinelni, .\vmollah lwhollnh. 262. l7f>,
moni.s:m In. ,18 377, 37'7, 4 13, 420. 42.J, 4J!I, ~1,ln :?7
and Muslims and Christians, 348,371, and lh<-ocrncy, 374, 41 2, 4 /J, 41 'I
560n 12 khwr:m,.WS
nature or Uh11ru11e Reality, 186 luerkes,wrd, Soren. 41.>2, -lb2
numerical site, 494,504 546n.5 kllhn4, 410-1.1
persecution or,
9'l, J-tt), 3-11, 49J-I, 4 9S. prohlhitlon c,f. 34 2~1, J-H• J.17 :1-11
518 kindness, 44
Polemical literature m. 69 lun)l. Rc,•erend Martin Luther. JS~. 4\1:?
poly,tamy prohJbl1C<l ln, 44 7 iungdom o{ C'.od, 1211, 20,,, 236, 24.J. 262
prc,hlblUun ol klUlnA ln, 34-3 Jun4S, '!<:<' ~,cmmc'flt tmd rule,..
rejecuon of Jesus, 251 kinship. 155
muah of. 119 Klroh.r, Athanaslus. 133
 INIH X <,Oli

Klrt1-SIM!Ulka-Mnll<1. 258 111l llnJtH"n, 12.!

5~Ct
JS, .17, i.~,.
luto"kJ,,>c. 5, :?1, 21 1-12, I'>'<, 211>, 5-10
u,,1uc"1lon or, 'I0-1, !05, ICk'I,
hi li,I.Jm, 15. 12.!, Htt
In Ju<labrn, 12. 12.?, Htl
k~u,,.,1~ rcllgaon, 8
&.·w1t.:M~. 13.?, 13 1 le~lthu,11fon, rult~l<>n om), 4114, 405- 11, 11 7
lR l\ll06lid,m, 1:12, IJ.1 1,dl>nlt, ()uufrk-d, 221
wm1b1 ,,e~ o(. 11 l ldkro-.., Jf/5
r,.·J.iunt,0
or.
41-2, 111(,-7 l..cnnon, J1,hn, 4t,:?
rdi~\)R '<)llN<: L>r, 461 Lesbian ond Gay Chrbtlan Movement, IH
S!Jlle-buund, 171)-1, 176. ITT, IMl Leuers of the I.Mn~. JO!\. JJO
,·..tu'-' of, 2J 1-l~ LcntcS, du:, l lH
......m IOJ HIS, 541 L<M-&rau,._., Cl.audll, 56, 56. 57, 57, SIi,
Kohlh.,r&, L.t"'"'"""· I H,, HS, 341-:? -~4
Lc,·u1i:cr. Rnbbi, JN
" """'· rcll,Clons In, 11 . J l, JSS, 3'12
K.•re•h, Da.1d. SJ'> hoomlism/llb.crals, 7 ••)!>I>, .18..1, 38'1
Ktl'1in4, 271. :?'IS, 301, .'1:?, JI-I, JOO, 169 cha.rocte.rlstlcs of, Jo-1-75, J68
•••ur or \1,hnu, 'I, WI, :?49, JO..l, 539 atUluuc 1ow11rds rcligl.ou.< dl\'C~lty.
tnmfigunulon or,
275 Jil-2, J68, 534
., .. IU' .,12. J,46, 1()9, 410 auilude towards wealth, Jn-...l
l\tw• or ,U2, 447 al tJtude cuwards women, J681 J73
Nita,\#. 1./J mutual rL'<•rlmlnn1lo11.1, J61l, 370
~sh<Jrn,yo, J 4b pttlltlc(ll attitude of, ,l/18, 374
Kuan-)·in. 261,450 i,crlpturc,,, J(l:---7. J68, 529
li.ulu1, Thoo,as, 149-SO. 151-2, 110 l><khtl nnd l'Olitical 11ant--.i. J 7:?-S
li.uml>ha-~lcla fc.,t..-al, 129 P•)'chol,,gJcal bnsla for, 37/h'IO
Kiln~. ll~a.. JSO, 352 sociJSI background o f, 377
soolal definition of, 375-(J
L.ak.,hmana, .?O I , 27 J \\'c.~tcm lll>cral tradition, 342
WWI. IJI, 541 Ub<:mtlott, 5, 6, 33, /IQ, 117, 21.l, :?31-J,
L.-un~ Dttr. J JJ ~8-U
~ 1 • \.ndrtl"". iO Baha'i vkw of, 43
L..mg, Ian, SO I in Buddhism, l:?~, ZO:!, ZQ:?...,1, ZJ~, Z~O,
Lang Y~ ditnL'C!n, 2 IR J.)0
Lango. the. 5-0 '"'""P" from sufforlnl) uftcr death, 2.).)
~,:<- 2, 56, I H HI cscnpc from •uffcring while In 1.hl• world,
oi i11uh, 148-S 1 :!JJ
an icmln~, .oclolog)• 11( know!L-dgc, 450--1 In I llndulsm (mo/ul/10, mukn), 35, 235,
oi .crlp1ur.-•, 101, 10 1, /OJ ::?.lR-10
SLNCturall11 ,·lcw of, 56, 57 529 Jewish view or.I 28
Ma <)·mool, 45<1, 5:?<> or
m!llcnnhtl escape 11 1.h e end lime, 233
lan~ual!c-g,un~s. l4S-'>, ISi , .?'>J oblauwlcs to, 129
Lantern f'~th·al, 2 18 , 392 pn1.hw4y~ to, l!CC pathway-. 1<1 libcratlon
Lao-Tzu. 4~ . :?0 1 t h ~ esoteric undcrstnndin(. 13:?
uos,<1 t h rough trtmc.es, IJ<,
wt Supper, :?79.../10, 2115, -160, 465, 540 lihcrntion tht'llloll)·, 127, 12!1, 354, .355,
~" .?i,JS,61-2, 19<l,.:>02,J3<l ~ 70,4 16-l7 , -l51 ,4AA, 488, 497,511
God's, 34, ,?1J liberty, 16-1, :?JO
natural, see natural law lifo, 60, ~39
social 73, :152 interoonnt'Ctednes.< o(, 36 1
,tru.:turali.i ,-!cw of, 56-7 loss o f, 2'l, 439
sec a1MJ Shari'a mennln~ of 60, 524-6
/,4u:3 'lf ,\ lanu. 121-2, 276 4J.?, 437, 439 religious. 66, 163-5, Uri
leadenh,p,'leadel'!I, of religions, 317, 31<1, 81)Cio), 5, 4.l
4:!(,...,.11 427 lifo cycle, ritw1ls of. 43, 105
condemnation of by foundc-rs of religion~. ling:,m. 27/l, 4-17, --1-17 SJJ
429-J/) literature, 4Ml
'L.,.gue of th~ EIL..,t', 257 npocalyptia. 111
l<'llming Kabh.,list, lJJ
in monuu.-ri~, lJl polemical, 69
sute-depeadmt, 1 Uhl litur,!,)', I 2-14
Leboui<>n.4 1S, 420,421 l.ooke. John, 5 H\
Lccuw, Ocntrdus van <kr, 611 1.ollond, J11hn. 151>-<l, 1111
Lefeti-..-e. Archhlshop Marcel 31>9 561n 12 l~o. 170, 178, .H7, J79
~Ism 11'>, 12'hl, 121 430 lotus. 464 .J70 . 474, 1>33
6(16 • TUE I'll F.SOMF.:0-:O1' Ot' REI 1Gl01'

lm1,; 1 J 12, 22.), J7 I lon,c,,li.l,.J / 0, JI:!

111 llmlJh""'· ft, 'lhl'I lmnm \lahJ1 , .?~. .?t,i
in C'hri•tinnhv, I?, 21,\ 4, .1 15 11l•M.1h,II c.11iph 2!'\k
,,r c..><1. ;io, •.,61 M.1.hdt,t fflfl~t.·mcnt, ~57
In 1»1h of m)',Cloisru, 1,\7 Mi, hlni.lo. J'IJ
on ()llth c>f ricuol>.•m, I;?{), 121 \111IJ uf llea,,n 1115,.111.~, .1111 ,l_'></
In p,11h of ,octal rdon111,m , I:?') m.,lhnt IL<e,, ~.?S
~l\"flh\·, 112 .\luhrcvn Bml<lh• , 24,l, .H'I 50, :!~O 2.~:!,
L,iJ.,.• (k>.•JJ('I ()/Sc, 21>'1, 291 -.? 21,0 :u,o, ~ 12. !'\ 11 ~!>In ~ I
l .uch«, Mnl'lln , 13, ;?;?S claun., 10 IK· :!!'\7, 25~. 2(>2
l)inl\. l21>-7 ,1.\11 .•H2-.1 forernld,JII), )1.?
!)olden ,\I.(: nnd, 25t,
Mncuml>a " ulL•. -IUJ, 507 politlc,el use nf. 257. 25.'I
Mndh,11 Ii-'>, •l :!2 rn Tushlto heo\"cn. 254. 2h11
Mndhy•mlkn IJuddhL•m, I/ , 42, 196, J'l(,-7, vlolons or 25'1
197 Mujor, John , 501
M<1d1>nna •ntl Child, 1-14, 276. 461 , 465 , ~lakolm X lMnhk el-Shah:uc,), ,19!;
471, 531 Mnlmowskt, llrontslaw. ~, 525
see «lbi> Mal')·, \ 'ltJl!n Mnlknm Khnn. Mlria, 49 I
mhtlru.'1« (r~U¢1ou, ,,oU,'j!:e), 23. 54 l ffl<llltl , (1, 47, 226, 411-1, 542
Mndurnl, Tamil Nsdu, lutlla, 6
mo,l!lc.6,28,60, \OS, l+1-S
mantlalos. 9, toll, 24 t. 260.
Mandeans, 1.34, lJS
-1~,.
542
African, 401, 10J, 516 Mnnlchaclsm, l58, 211, JJ4, 436
In Chine,,~ lolk reUJl)on. 43, 4 5 M:,ol{.,u,tlon, o( God, t9S, 200-1. ~42,
cll nunucJon of, from rullJllon, 59, 60. 6 1 , 541111.l8
S(;JnA future, 24J, 251 . .?C>.?, ,)/0 . .312
In naturnllsLic religion, 511-9, 60 ManJushri, :?49, 260• .:?61
In DC\\ rellgtou,, 1110\'Cntt,OU, In Jo.pan, 515 .16, 542
mttntrill!,
In popular rcllglon, 60, .)87-9. 393, S.36 lllndu ( rcclwuon), 2?, 104, Hl8, IJC>
In primal reUgtoos, H , 41>, SO Tlbcmn lludJhlst, 9
In Tnolsm, 44 Maori,, ~6.1
Mct.hablwrata, 294, 29S, .312, 344 , 3461 M11ra 1 27J, 27'1, .'105
-1~2. -IJ.I, 522 Mn.rduk, 2;3
~lnllllbodhl Soolt,ty, 502, SJ I margln.tlll)', 154
Mnhnbodhl Temple, 4 74 St Mark, Gospel of, 1118, 291, 557-lln J(,
McJ1aparlnl""1110 Sum,, 410 Mnron,rns, 4 15
M,,hnprnjuputl, HO-l, 442 mornoiic. 142
Mnhnnhn,•,r, Cbnndrnmnnl, 157 In 8nhn1 fahh. 391, 44 7
Mnhuyunn BuJdhl•m, 9, JO. 11 , 20.l, 205, In Buddhism, 4 16
302, 5J8 In Cbri•tlomty, 44 6
Absolute Rcnlit) In, 207, 194-5 l11llintlulsm, 122
"'-"' also Shunynw In lsl.1m, 121 , IX/, 446
b<Jd/lilj(H""-'8 In, :!40, 260, 260 ln Judnlsm, I:?:!. H6-7
the Duddhn In, ?02-.l, 464 rites or, <IJ, 105, 2M
dlsnp~aroncc of true rullgJon, 24 7 mnntlll •rt•, J -IC>
Golden Ajle In, 252 Manin, St, 390
meditaclon ln 111 mnrty.rdom, 106, :?J()....31 2.12, 232.J :?95,
monkslmooostcrics in, 131 , 446 554n .•H
noturc of humnn beings in, 205 Mnrx, lvlrl, 52, ISO, :?l 1, 33')--10. Ill()
numerical iize, 504 ,·icw or religlcm. 421
ocher,worldly buddha.,.aviour<, 24'1, 260, Marxi<m, 28, 12'!, :?96, J70 Ji-I 411 4.?6,
260 47l, 5J7. 541
parndi<e, ;?J.,-..1 MAry. \'1rJUn, I 19, l44- 5. J90, 473
philosaphicul basis or, 41 1'17 archetypal fem:olc 14\ure. 276 27(,, 29:?4,
revolt, nmong, 25 7 442
sacnfice in, 220 Assumption o( 292
spre,1d or. 10. sos di.sresp,.-ct of Jesus to. 29l 55in.JS
theism In. 40 icons or. 14, 105. 276
Ultimate Renlity In, J3, 192 statues or. 144-5, H.J. J92
visions in , 111 ,-enerntion ol, 145, 270, ;?'11-J 295, 31>'1
nnJ women. 431-b nr4in birth, :?'JI-J, 5Si>n J7
\\Oriti prior to advent of saviour, 245 vision$ or. I l4. 1.17. SJO
Mahdi, 24,J, 246, 250-1 , 256, 257, 282. Mnrv Mnl\(lalone, 2/lli, 2/19, .?911, +U
JO'>. 320 Mary, mother of Jarn.:,,. .?t!S. 2i>9
 INllf.X f,07

ru..-aa1mc. the t.\.J. -1 l"i. 5~2n.27 ml'laplu,rs. \L""C- C>f In Mlrip1urc,, HH, 171
11.,.,nJ •Hlnam (S.,cn.J Mosque\, :!7'l, 2hlJ Roh~'I. Ill:?, :?.'7
.u,iu.. 15c;, ~ss lludJh,,1, I02
11.-.. Cbrtsttnn, 5(1 Ch rl~trnn, I() I, I02 IO.l
1111tn1•li•m 416. -12+-5, -19',, :-OJ hen, cn/hdl. ~-H
natn.m:hlll ...,..,,c1}· -IJ.l ,twrnrhy.ou• J. 27,.11, -14 , II.?, 7.l. 105,
1110ll1foc"I "1dely, ~.),\-:i, ./.'J./ Sb-I-Sn :l 17'>, lli5-.?07, 171, ~H
ulu'5 o(, -IJ5 Mctht><.lism, .l2:I, .123, J.?,f
m•tnhnc..l ~,i~,v ~J-1 mcthodol(>j\i~,ll 04fl"'ll<!ISIJI, 6X
''"""""· c.....,,.:1 'Ii s,. zss-.q, 2<i1 z..lo<>,
55 ,-<;n .l6
mcthodul(lf!ical J'OS1tM,m, 65
m,HhoJru~f. 52-iJ, i?
""''", lllu,hm), .H. JS, l'l,l, 21\7, 211 215, \llchacl, S1, J90
1111 !i..1'1,512 Mlchcln,w,lo, J:I l'iH J(,S, IJf,
munan~. 51,. 113 I If>, 170, 1&1 , 5:;()n 17b. da Michelini, Oomcnlcn, Z35
55-in 24 \llcrom,slan rcll~on, on mtanu
religion .u. 52-1-6 Mlddl< Way, the, CJ, ! JO, 160
\lc,'al .llJQ, J 10, .11J. J l5. J l6 mlgmtiou,, SO. J/0 31:1, JU
ptlgr!n,,.ge 10, ~.,. llajj Milintln King, 239, ,MO
)lo:Jhas 96 .111/ind«paflha, 2 10
~ 15'3, St'l-21 milkn n!nlism/milll!nnri•nl•m/c,hlllnsm. / J,
n:ll~fon onJ, -175, S 11 - 12, SH, 519-24 J<,-1-5, 516, 5S6n JR
m,,J,.:al work, 12& cn1...s1rorhic/r'°1!"'ssivc, 25<>
m«loelnc Mrkun, 101 C1HJ.M.:'.8 of1 264-6, 5S6n 46
m,-didnc men. -I~. 49 definition of, 242,539. 542
)k.Jillll, 210. 309, JJO, Jl.l, Jl5 leads: to fwulruncnlDll•m. 259, 560n .3
m«liwuon, ~. JS. 13&, 137,166,174. 2J7, links with evangelism, 125
-1,<,1 502 mnni k<tallons of, 255-6, 418
&ha'I, -IJ. 101\ i-t•millcnniall,mtpn.~millcnniallsm,
and l>ram funcuon, 169-70 255-'l,262
Buddhist, 46. IOR. 111, 112, J96 ond l'<'llgiou.• chanllC, :?&S
Chnsuan, 108 sec also J)OSt-millcnnlnllsm and pre-
In Eas1cm r<ligaom. , 1J6 17/i mlllcnnlali•m
rf/Ol>CS ol, ll7, 92,212 sta1c-~upponcd, 2511--9
u es.;-ap,sm. -181 MIiler. William, :?63. 26.'I
gnoruc p:nhways use, 135 Millcriu:s, 256, 263. 26.1
lllndu, 23. lOS mind,thc,42~', 51>-7,56, 56,6..'\--5,64,
111 monism, J7 !9!l
nwrophysiolowoal c honl!(:,, I 7J..S miracle,,, 9+-5, 101 , l.?4, 125, JS9-<i(J, 3<l~
produces llhcred &IDte of e<>ru,cjousnc.-.s, Mi,hkrn Q;ilnm, 102
.\&,J7 105, ll!F; 135, IJ7, 176, 177, Millhtll)},, 120,495, :i~2
1,q 1/;l) mi..,ion/callint. 59, /Ill, 9J
"!'read 10 the \\'C11t, S{), 4111 mi5-sionnncs ChrlAlion, J, 24, 69 156- 162
Sufi. 101! mis.,ionary octivity, 24, 126, 3n, 506
Zen (7,..en) 1011, 169-70 RBho'i, 486
m,.Jium.1. '17 Buddhist, Jill, J9J
~felan~an cnTJ!f) O\lh•. 4 S-9, 258 Christinn,50, IS6. 16.?, 4116,4\16
)felandlian sea·l!<ld. 6 lhndu, 24,361,
mcnmri~arion. liO Je\\ish, 4-'>6
men. 115. 1.5S Mu.•lim, J(;J, 4911, 49\1
.qunlnv of, ,.;,h women 152 JS/ 384, modemity/modemismlm<klemitation. 50.
41'l. ~99 565n 22 264, 4Ml. -lb.5, 5Z6
partner<h1p ,.;1,h women J~O 351 anlmdes towards, 375, 376-7
,._.,, also patriarchal society Chrlsrinnil)' and, 44"1
Mennonite• 75 1.,2, Ji2 ftmdnm<'lltalism and. J63, J7fJ, 380-l
mm.,truation, ~7 2!$-1, 2F/5. J81 impact of, on rdi,bon, 175-186, 526
m<:nt.tl health 164, IM alternative 1deolO/lJeS, 48'}-I
mental ~tales, map of 173-6 174 reli4iou., pluralism, 477
Mercury, Jf/() sl!<!ulartution, 2. 55, 3b1 471. 4 77-80
m•nt. 125, J95 J"6, J97 ~fl.In 21 Mam nnd 490-1. 490
\f<"<WI, 125. 24J. 251), 259 31:l mrth and, :?\15-7
fon,1.nld. JIO. 312 pt>'lt•moJ=m, ..S2, 536
~hahbctal Tzc>-1 claims to he. 257 reo1>0nse of croduioMI soolcues. 4'1<>-2
Dk><Wll,m. :?42, 516. 534, 54? m,,k;;ha., mukci (hberauon), 35.•l7, 134
"l"'lolb' of, 2S-H'>2 2.Vl, 2,J8 2.'940, 54~. S.H
(.ON TIIE l'lff'<OMEKOS Ot' Rf.l,HllOS

Moltrn,e, Miguel J, , 11 moou , ~-ymhol oJ lh ..·. .!Mi

1Jl l.'\2 ~i.~11,, lie, Sun Mi-un~ a11J M,- 11,il J• llaa
ntdllR..\U!ri~.
j~.,_ ,,bto monka 5 12
MtX)fllC/\,
~,.1t ·111nuuuon Cht,r..:h
111111m,tlcl,m, JIil 121 11(~.? 4 1<>-7, ~ I.? '\U
RucJJlli-t, 1.H U:?, 134, 1.17~ M•~orv, llm~. 17 1
Chrislia11 I:? 11 13 1, 1.:11,, .ll~ Moor<'. lll•h111, 1'1111I 1 17
orelllfon of on tdc,tl (.'lfllllmunil)', 126. 1.1 I mnrnl ~~"lc/nmrolitI, 2.-,, ·11, H, l.!l I.?~
l~Lunlc 1.1/l, 14t, 2?..1
link,. "Ith /lllf"'ICIMn, 13 I llJ1hn't, 1•r1
U11k.< \\Ith "'"'illl «lormo•m, 1211, 1,12 Con(ucinn. IS
money. nooumulntfon of, ~c) d~'t.'lino .,r ,2-13 2~5. S.H
Mouj\Ollo, // , IO I, 22<,, IM, J1:fl11illun of. ;l.lH. $42
onnnlsm/munl•lic (EMtcm, non.thdstl") L>hnm11, htls~ or, .?02
rellllJ<>ns. 7, 31-4, .19-11. 121 1<,IS, rt!lij!IM Jl nd .1311-li I, J?-1
177. 179, SJO, S.10 rell~lon ,,. IS
11lm III uehk\'c 111~11\ht, 137 trihol 1(,2
.IACCtiC'i"\m In. t :?() mural dc,-d.,1>n1fnt, 1 16, 1,15
UltituJc tOW4rdS thcl~m. 42, 531 MO~S o(, :l-11-2
h1 C.:hincsc ancl JRpancso rdiAlon •, 16 moral la.my, .)68, 370, ,16 I
compnrisun with \\'estem rcli4ion1, J 1-.51, \!oral Mnjoriiy mo,emcnt. 37,1, 5.? I 52 1
137 moml rc.~r,ons,hllit)·, <k'< r•spuru.1h1l11y
cnncc1>ts in lndMdual murnl
•ftcrmnth of death, ZJ.'1-l I mornlity, tl(X! ethic,
creutlon, Jl, Mom1ons. IS<'C Church mJ~'1!1.IS Chri.t ar thc-
end of &gc of darkness. ;\12 Lattcr-Dav SnintA
evil, 3,1 niortificntion cir the Ocslt. 108, 130
future world saviour, :?42, 312 \10«~. 301,.110
.,.crifice, 22f>-7, 22') burn mil bush, JO.I , ;105, 306. ,)10
salvation, 34-5, J7 life of 31)2, 303, .10.1
snffcrinA, 34 , 37, 214-25 mi~Btion of, JIO. JJJ, JH 3 15, 49S
time, J6, 37, 244 opposition to, JlO, 312
l1tlmatc Rcnliry/Ood, ,ll-4, 36-7, l 91-5 pronme of future s;n-lour, J 10
dcflnlUon of, 34, 542 public dc<tlnmtion mode to, JJO, JI 1
In Ea111cm rcliAton~. 3 ~ 1, 179 ~ton of mlni~try, 304, 30$, ,11)6, JJO
emphasis on meditation. 176. 179 M0<1quc or Omar (Dome of 1he Rock\, 271,
enoou.ra)le prQotic~ letodin!I to altered m0<1ques, 97, 12.1, 16 7, -16 1
stmes of consciou,ness, 17? motii• of religiout1 converston, 15.rµ, I. I 59
epistemoloA)', 211-12 I S9, 160-1
ethics in, 339 mudm I08, 2 74, 456, 4 66, -H O, 542
illusion of scparntencss in. 37 mueuin, 542
innuenc,, on \\'est, 50 Muh•mmod, 14, 15, 2.'\, 120,210, 3 11'> 44:!,
monastlcic:m in, 131 540. 5-17n 6
monism lo £astern rdiRIOns, J9-H, 39, appear«nce of, 209
17'1 Ascent co Heanin. 275
nature of hu.man beings In 205 hlrth of. 42.}
physical world ln, 3 7 chanj\ed d1rec1iQ11 of prayer. 309• •110
In primal religions, -lo-7 condemns leaders or rellAton, 4:!9, 4, I
rclau\'1Sllc perspectl\'e accepts, 42 dcoth of. 3\7, 42.J
ritual In, .)6, J7 fotuna dIUJj\hter of, """ Faclmn
In world reli~ion, 42, 1.)9 flr:st followers of, ,)(JS, JJO, 53.)
monist-theist quandnry, 180 Rill)u to ~fodma, .lN, 4ZJ
monks. 42& forbad monasticism 131 1.)1,
aloofne"" of. from politics, 4 I 9 for~runner, JOS. ,JI()
Christian, 1.3 I fou.ndcr of lswm .•10 I
Bu.ddhls1 (bt,ikku.~). ~6. 104, 13-1. 305, example of, for \lushm.•, JZ.'\
JJ0.3"6,39$-7 395 external opposition J/0,.) 12
c,,IJbacy of. -14 I, human hein•.•Wb
In MJlbayan3, <1-1(:, lnrcrnol oppositlan..110 312
monk In, a 'prlmar)' comer', bO Jud.Iii, ba;.is ior wac,hm~• • .108
111 Tberavad3. 9, 40. J.)J 391. <I-lb Justice, 34$
Jain, -14() life of. JO:!. 30;1
sc.tualJty aJDtlDJI, 4-16 mlAralion. JJO, .113, Jl4 ;us
see also mon&teMcs as mlllcnmallst leacler. .?66
Montonu.s, .?6.l NIJl)it Journey oi. 275. 557n.J7

r,.,riuJ uf Jouh1, 305, J W
rib\nm~ of, .?Ml
r,"nni~· o( tu1un: ~.,nour. .-110, J 12
ruhli., J,,cl•mll<m, .HO
n:fom11..·r. ~ 17
r~<tnl-..,J as a Nfonncr, sc.bh,mnc10.
h\;rerk. 32J, 5.l.t
'"l-'-'<ion o(, .llJ
''-1'r1....,.C"nta.hon( of, 200, 27<)
"-" ..-1.muns m, 42,J
·S.,1 o( tbc l'ropheL< 210
'-n.n·n the cmhodlment nl th~ pmctlce of,
.l.?S
•t,irt oi nunisny, JOS, 307••110
<WIOII 01 . J 99-:?(l(l
Sut'\.<m tniocd hack co. J27~~
n.•waler of lhe Quri>n, :?0;1-1, ,)S.1
-.,,...,, and children of, 446
Muharrnm, 107, IOS, I l'l, JC)(). 542
MuJ:alaka. ,?25
muJt3hiJs, +!$, 542
Munafiquo .JIO. J12
fflll"'ll'lf, 106
Muo1ier (Munzer). Thom:1S. 257
munl<'r, SC• kiUlni!
mund, IJ4 541
murs>ud. 1J4. 5-12
music• .?. 47, 104. 105, J~. 456. 526
'"'ok;,Jbymns
mw,1cal ll!Strumcnts, 456
Mus!Jm World ~uc. 493
Muillm,., H-15, lbl, 161, 5600 12
~ct \I.1th Wodus In India, 1, 409. 518
Ul India., 1, 40Q. 415
and Global Ethic. 350. 352
..-.,a/'10 Warn
Mu'lllZila. 191,220. :!Zl. .)63, 542. 547n.5
my:;.Lt.'n um tn!Jnl.-ndum ct Jaso M nit, 88,
40-I
my,uc:tl experience, 9'r7. 171, 176-9
M)'>tlL'ism, 17-18, 77, 92, l LS, lJS-7, 54:!,
!iSOn. l 7a
sch1~,..,01ent of allercJ ,tates of
consciOuSne6$, L3~, J93
In Chrl>tlnnJty, 12, 31>-9, 50
druj! my,-llcc,m, 4bl
Ut EAs«m n:llgio1u, lJ6, 171>-9
ln I.lam, 1 ~. 38--9, :?Jo-.7
..,.,al,wSufum
in JuJalSm, l::?, 38--9
ll.nkeJ to l\00>th:l~1. 135, lJ6
path,.·ay to MJ,·atlon, 121
\\'e,t..,m, 1711-9
M)'l'<IC!i, 2 , 41 , JS.-9, 97, 21 l
Chri>tian. 2.>9
Eam,m. 137
1-l•mle tSufi,), 15, 4 1, J!l-9, 2J(>.. 7
lJn111,,.., Lifo of 2.11>
Wmem.1.)7
myth/myth,, Z, 147..J;, ::?6-'I. 294, .?96,
!\'\f>.-7n -t
01 hlnh ffl round<:t« of reli(lons, JO.I
creaoon. 201!. 26.'i. 278. 43J
Middle Eastern. 2211, 4J3
INOB\ <,<I'>
l\1 l}1tL-.lnn, ~&
ddln11ion of. 21,1-1. !'t i.?
func-tton of, ?75 • .?k I t,, ,?qJ -5, SJ.?
*-'"'-•r.Hc a ~cn-.c o( lh1: hoh·, :?(~q
lnb:Jrponulon nf, into rchAJrnLi hl"hH')',
3:17
in1c1'1lrcrntlun of, 2114
Ju1111's ron~,ic o( M
L6,·I-Stm1,s.,'• on,ly•I, uf, $7
mllj\,1c in. 6 1
•111! moJcrnll)'. :?'lli-7
prc,crwd In •cripturc, !04
rc-ennctmcnt i,f my1hlcol "'"'lcls, ,!II()
nnu1ls repeat event!. of, :!79
.cructunahst vie" of, 51'>-7, S7
mytholol!liotion 29,1
N:w,rjuna. 11, 42, 196--7, 197, 302, ~62
N~"'no, 2J9. 2,10
'"3Jmnhadi, Shnykh lfadi, 381
names, chan~n~ of. 156
Nanak. Curu, 139, 186. 302, JSJ
Napoleon 111, Emperor, 312
Nara Naniynn, 3J6
NotamJa, 225
Nactoo of Islam, 498
n•clonallsm, 28. 351, 37 l. 426, 502. 506
as rcplacemcm ror rcU!llon, SS, 2%, 4 11,
4 71.480-J,491,526
Nath·e AmeriC8Jl religion, 47, 111, LOl>
dance In, 458
fa.tl.ru1 In, 107
nature In, 110. 356,357, J57
use of drug.-., 108, JIU, 516
,,1s1on quest of, see ,1.Jon quest
NotlJer, Jan. 17
ruiturul law. 338. 339
'naturol WL'<llug)'', 191
noturnlisuc rdi!\Jon, 58. 60
Nature, 4 7. 53, 185
<lonainiulon of, 355-6
forcesc,f, 56-9
01.,Jlaror or rcll!\J<Jus e..,perlence, 109, 110
prloul relfAlou und, 356-7. JS;
Rc~llty l<knclOcd with, 6
NatWNPllsm, 341 , 417, 126, -181, 4'14, ~95,
518
Ndyambl, ;no
o,;ir-dcoth Cl<l)Cri<>ncc~. 97~
oceromnocy, 387
nt·mbutsu, 12S, IJI,, 542..3
nco-orthoJox}', 450
nco-p,ag.,nlst movement, JS7, -ISi , 510
N,..,plntnnism, 38, 39, 21 I, 543
aeurorhY$h>I~ 67, 166, 173-5
1>,u;,. uf rcU~ious cxrcrlenw, 17(,-8
64
ncu !"OM!$,
produo,, relhlion, 62, 63
New /\f.c movements:. 509
new roeligious movcmcms, 7 IS, 153, 41<,,
-tllS, 50/i--16
OllftCk~ on, SIJ-15, 56/!n ·H , 568.-90.45
amhonty in, 4:?6
bramwashrn4, 512-14, 5J,l
f,I() Tin; l'IIFSOMf'iON or IU,l.l<ilOI'(

-..:.hurttt:tcrhttc~ u(. 51 ~ uun•. IJuJJhtat, HO I , l 1!1 'IMn 11

cla,,lnUJtlltlll• 11!, 5t~l l\1111 Shavkh ._Jlul1,b JSI, :\.,2
1,.._,o,cr1don w, l~~. 15~. Hi'•
dt.1frni1ton, SlU, StJin .~ I oh,,Jtcn,._,, 11 1.15, I I I
~rllUJ..'<:ns..: of. 511, .lW, 5.) I 01111uJe v(, l~J , 1711
1.:.ncJp:-iul.:aUon method-. of 15~ t, to th..- Ut.:Ll~ , 2.?~. 226
c""-:hatol~ nru.J. 1(,1 to llul, l.o" .l/1, .H:?. 17'1
~n former ""''m11111nl~t C."l)Ulllrh..·,. 197 nhJ<~U,11), /,!<, .H~'I, 11'1
In .l,tl'-'" 5)5 nbj,..,~ .._.,,c-J, .?, 17, 17
mllh.:nnlllif'lilll .mu. ~(.12 uhh,!;111<,n,. rcllllJoW>. llah,l , 1.l
muun,Ucl!lm ltl 1..12 t~cr\\ulol~cr,.:ll. J, 17, "o. 110. 17~ 171
numer1<!nl sl,c, 510, ~l>Nn ..)7
'"'"""·
(l<:d,pu.,J&7
compkx. I,~. l~l
1nuhft•rn1lo11 u(, 50.'I
""""' uf famllv In, 5 I:! urrcrini:,, In p1111111I rdl4)un,; , 17 .'1, ::?2f>
M><:ial MIJ>purt In, 94) Slc tt/1to -.H:rlfic~
ond ,ocktr. 511-15 Off,--,, or So.!,al 11J11l Ewnomlc tloaclc>1>111,n1
In 1:iul>-S,1l111n111 Mr1u:1, Sib jR,1lrn'I), l~/1
rdonn,tlllm (l( MX.icty, 1:?CH, offichJ rcllj\lc>n, II, 11!1, Jk/,-.10.1
In th~ Wct1t, 5 10-15
~'fnncn in, 115 '°""' "'· ,,o
rclnrlon•hlp ~t"'"'" end popular
N,..,, Tc•wm,,it, IOI, 187, 11!8, JS(/ rdl!!lon, JM>-'>1, !i34, 549n 2
,-,1lh,1c)' utlvoc•tctl In. 441> Ogun,4Ui
<'OO•-cpt of sufforh,g In, 2Z l Ohrm••d, 211
nature o{. J.1J Old r...,""''''"· "' lldmv
. 8,bk
M:lc-cllon of text for, Jb.l Olorun, 102
,..x,inl 1cach1ni• of, JS:? 'Om', I 72, S.1J
Vtrll!n Mary In, 291-2 Oneida Community i6
New Thought, IJ-1 Ontologio11I Argument for the ~"tenc:c of
nc,.spopc,,., 519 God, 190-1
Newton, Sir bunc, 471 ontologlcul hierarchic,, 4'l3
Nc>Hcmi~n pnrodlgm, 8 1, 5~11n 13 t>nrol~. 5-IJ
Nlbbana. tte~ .S1nnna open-mindedness 164
nihhnnic religion, ,lQJ opcrou,·c rchit,on, se.: official rolu\1on
Nlei1en, Council or, IJ, 199 opinion, dt,erslty of J68
Nicnmgnu, 421 oml tnaditinn,, 10-I, 123, JJ2..J 3J2
Nichircn Buddhi,m, II , 12 oration,~&:~ prcachi!UVonltion
Niuhiren Sh05hu Buddhl•m, Jil order, global, J$0
:S:iahola,, St, J90 "°"lat, sec sootnl order
Niebuhr, H. Rkhard 74 Onlcr of th<: Solnr Temple, 520
Nlcu~hc, Fr1cdrioh, 150 or~liolinn, rchgtous. i i 72. i ~
nihill,m, 195, 197 orlgln•I ~In. 204, 218. :?31, 5-16, 543
Nlk~phorm II PhokM, 1J 1 Orish11as (Orixil.•l, .,02
Nirguna-Rmhmon. 207, S53n.33 Orpheu•. z<>l
nlm10nAkaya, 202..J, 543 Onhodoit Juclalsm. 12
Nimtna. 6, 9, J3,J7, 97. 196,202, 2J!I, 54J orthodox rdi,iion. 14 I
in Buddhism, 35,.)7,.19, 111, 125, 191, nnhodoxy, 3,11. 543
2 16, 235, 2,)/j, 240. 2-11 , 260, J9J onhoprn.,y, JJ I
Mahayann, 195,207,229 O,,hala (Oxala), 402
Theru,.ada. :1-1. 193. 395. J96 O!-hum (0..,m), -102
in Hinduism, J4, 2JS Osiris 270.273,291
ldentlcol wilh Dhnrmok1tp, 203 Ono, Rudolf, 67-/!, 67 AA. 404. :\Mn I
Smnsara is, 35, 195, 207, 5S.1n.32 Ormman Emrlr,,, 172, 42.J
Noah.301 365,365
Nohle Eil\htlold PAth. 216,216, S..16, 55.'ln 7 Pac111c islnnd•, i I. I 61
noetic, S4J padmn, 172
non-relt~ous people, :!9 i,aJ!,ln rcll~on,, J/,9-9<), 390, .WJ, .w~. ll>I
non•the.iSm, sec mooism pain. s.;lf.inOlotion of !OS
non·vt0lenae .•150.•lSJ, 492 J)Aintcrs, 468-9. 5b6n 14
nf)rmauve rclWnn, ,;tt offki•I reliJJion paincin,i!, 36, 456, 465
Northern Ireland, 41 S, 420, 520 p.,1ircd opposhfons, 57
710Uffl('n<Jn.. 72-3 Pakls1J1n, 409, 42J
nO\el. the. 471 Palesumans, ,174, 120
nudhy, 11>2 Pali Canon. 11 11. 34, 330, .Wi J97
numinous. the, 67-8, 88 Pah Text Socle~·. ~02
 INDEX 6 1l

f',mdklma. (U1uoud1nhle<), JSI of ,\lrl""11 rcll)Uon, 100, --101

P•JII k.ueh, J,'6 o f ,\J111hni,t1,1,, 75
f"'pa~-,·lpop.:. ,.1.
1(17 107 1011, 4~b A"!\UDJl:IHS Ag.~ln•l, 5 II>
f'lipal •tal<·~ 407 ur Llllbt,, .n 1
P4ntb!.:s. '™' uf IJ1 scripture. 101, JM .,j llabu' l,, J.><l, ,l71, 517. IS, 517,
f',lra..li!lJo.•, scicntifl~. 11?- ~ , IS 1-2. IIU 511911 52
.,..rao.tL'«!. J~ .•n , 1!)<>. ::0.1 , !."lJ, 2.15-6, !.18 .,r tl1c Buddha, S<,f;n 4-l
M.:\.. ,,kc, hca, ~o un.l Sukha,·.1tl uf Chrl>tlru", IJ, 371
1~1rumurdk1, J.1, 311. :!07. 5,,13 o fJc-s , W,J71 , 49.l-l, 405, SIS
.,..,A11onnal upcriun,,c, 'l7-8 oi M<Xmie8, 51,'ln.4.I
"""'n"', -1-1, I It>
p.1nlc,&/1>11a, ::?117
of new rcllglou.• mO\ cmcnts, S 1.1- 15,
St>8n 4-l , 568--'ln.45
Jl<lrlrllrt!utllJ, .?38. 311 . 4M. S-IJ of SuR,, II, .)71
pun11<1. Hl4. 106. S,tJ of wl<chcs, 390, SH
l'arJA-nyu. 27b rcn.cus, 29Z
Parh.1n1cn1 or lwllglon. (JS?J), 4'l2, 510, pcr-011oll1y, 72, 1 17, JMI
/111 , 517 Pctd, S1 , 118, ~Sil. 289, 2'1(l, JJO, :113,J90,
Parll:ut1cn1 ol 1Jw World's Rcll!lluns (I C)()J), SS7n.29
349--52, J.19, 350-J ,\ •poer)'phAl c;.,...,.,,
or, 290-1
PanncmJ~. J() J)e)'Olc, 18 1, 518
parochlallutlon, :191..J, 56.Jn 11 Pluomoh, JJO, JI I , 3U, 313
Parsons, T•l~'Otl. 5,1..,S Pluu!J!(.-Ct< and sc,rtbcs, 429
pnmcipation auJ rom'C.r5ion, l5SJJ pbcnomeno, religious, I , 2, 4, 16-17 , 57-8,
ran-'JUJ, JJb, 5JJ 7S-'l
~ . rites of, -IS, 57-6, 105, :?6J, JSi, c:.Dassifle111Jon of, 61
543-1 t-quh-nlcnt, In d ifferent religion•, 25-6
iUljle,, of, 21, 1--1 (.,nture,, of, 67
St.'<'. all!O Initiation ®N:monlC$ meaning of. 56
~,hways p,<yehlc, 108
10 lloomtlon. s. 41 , 4.1, 118, 202, 531 phenomenology of religion, 65, 66-9, 67,
11« ,dst> pathw•)'S 10 sah at Ion 611. 5,13
I<> rrhglous """rim9'l, 8~-.: pall1w11y~ 10 uml~IJIIDJ! or, 611-9
...i,·auon pltt:nomt..ttlOU. 72'"'1
to s.il,·atlonlllb,:ration, 5, 7, J4-5, J7, PhUlp, Prio,~. 5-01
I 17-40, Ul . 163, J22. SJt S33, 5J6, PhlUppmcs, 4:?1
S50n. 17a l'hi lliP>, 01:wi 7,,, 144
c,hanncl the powc.-r or religion 428 phllol<>gl•tS, 3
dln,mflantion or. 463 pbtlo,,orhcr-mystlcs, 363
e-·olution of, IJ7-8, 323..Jl phi losophcrs
In lsl•m. 325-8 Greek, JJ9
purpo5<'S or, 428-J 1 m onistlc, J9
J"ltriarehnl society, 408, 432--12. 4'l.'.I ,ccul11r, 3S2
charnctcristJcs of, 435 philosophy, 3, 5. JI , 64
hlsiory of 4.32-5 Chinese, 45
power surn:-me ,·uluc In, 435, 444 Greek, 4:16
uses rcllgion 10 legJclmnto aulrudo m Jewish , 12
•·omen, --1--1$-6 phil060J)hy or ,;ciencc, J
values of. 435, 4-16 Pi3,tc,I, Je.·tn, 146, 147, 141\, 181, :141- 2
Paul, St, 259, 259 Ul7. 2"17-8, .317, 462 perocp1unl dcYclopmcn1 of children,
mis<lonary journeys or, JJ, J IO, 313 167-70, 176, 177
pcacc, 350.350, 4t'l-20. 451 Picasso, Pablo, 460
role of •'Omen in promoting. 4-18 plc•lsm, 12/l, 258-9, 4RS, 531 . 543
11·or!d, 16, 355 pic,.l n rnidiflnn. 416
Baha1 ,·1cw of. 43, ,) IU piety. 2116
pen,antry. 60, il in Christiani()', 14, 132, 256
pen1ncelpen11cncc, 105, 106, 106, 107, 119 In Islam, 14
Perunreuch, 367, 541 in path of ritualism. 120, 121
Pcntccoscalists, 12$, 139, 498 personal, co O$ni,ed relij!ion, 323-J 1
People of the Book. 34S. 487 , SbOn IJ rcplo""'1 by 1entime.nwlity. 321
People's Buddhism, 355 pilgnmq~, 278
P~rennial PhiJolorhy (philosop/110 Christian, 172
perenni8), 73, 1.34, 561>-7n llj l•lomlc, to tombs of ""lnts, 399, 399
perfection, 11, n, 191, 220 #<?also Hajj
pen14!CUUnn 7nrit, 95
hl2 Tllf: f'IIFSOMFSON ()f Rl:l,IGIOt,;'

plA\..~ \.U:tt...J, .2, 177 2it.), .,?(,S Pmhh11p.,J1. !,,. 1ml. 502
1'1uw. (, 7. ~Z(), !.? I. 1Jt> fll'Udk.._., nclll!lou, I .\/,. Pl ~I ~I
pkllltuJc, 11n11clrlo or .:?W ~1.'C Uis.1 Jl1K-'-'V°'t• JJYti("Ot.-r"
11ounu~• .?2U 5 I\
/>rnpl,t . ..15, 1'17, .'?07,
rlurnll,m rclll!luu,, ,1 11< 'I ;1111, 177, II;.\ I Prnjilnpuromlhl 1 11 , 4 ~2
rlu111h,1 n11l1mk,, ,\ l'I l'rrullJ :?OH
rottn, ~. Ill.I, J,I.?. l~t, pn.,rk,)"IWJO, 10'1, ~ 1...1
po-.:\!\, sun. ,\K CJ Prnnhnrnm NlmaJ :lS2. t91
l'ol l'ric. ~11., J)trHtt)~,~~um,lfatulu , tt.11 ..~ ,,,..,__~ 21b,
pHlcmk,, p<,l.,mlc11I lll,n1111rc, .l h'I, .,l'l 240. 51~
J"•lill~s :?5, .H:?-1, 11~.?5, l'lO. -I'll\, 191 pmycr :?:?. 1115 I> I ;?fl, l:?1
poll l,IX 11,1 Mtltud, of, 5
1"1h·11;tmy. 4 1/,-7 u,-. l'I r~ll~r.u,,: ac:u, U\
1'->h ne,inn rdll\1<m, Ii !RI , 2WI,
rolvchchmlpol~·, hcl-rs iO, I k7, J-lll. JIil
~·,o fl:th•I, 1\ :?.17
call to, 1!\6
~<,On 11 <1hnn/l<: of d1rc•<:11,,n 11/, J /1)
ronlm• l'ilnte, .170, J 11 Chim~~«.\ t.4
roor, du:/ron:n,, 126 127. 12&. 129, 15:?, conj\rc~uonnl. 1()(1, 12.l
1S.?, JS 1-5, JSR, 41:?, lkll 10 d,irics J9--IO
Plll"'• -107 408. 12k-30 LO the Oe1t)'. ;II,, J/j, 1(11,
Popper, Kori. (>(, cffccu or.
hi
rorulir rchg;on, l>O. 111. 1511, 226 :?54 , Jam 1?9
Jl\6-40.) mcdlator of rcltl\lous experkncc, 121,
an and, -15:HI 130, 13:?.
or
nultude reUl\lOllS professional~ towards, Mwlm, 10<1
,)lj7 In pnmnl r~llj\lons. 41
cat.ct!! ro ne.!ds of people, Jli7, JS9 Sikh. 106
cause of sufferinl\ in, .? Iii uses or lOo 21.?
e,·oluuoo of, 391-1 prcacb11'4/orauon, 109, J.?J 124, 125
leonto art In, -16.1 precone<:puons. 21-1, 1,2
ma~eal elements m, l-14. 387. 5.16 prctkstlnauon, SCJ, :?.2-1-5
rela!lonshlp between. and official rell~lon, prejudle1!, 116, IM, 16'1
Jb6-9 1 pre-nullenn,a11sn, c,-aw;troph,c
in llrozll, 39-1, .,'19-103. 400, 401. 402 mtllennlall,m), 2S5-9, S56n 47
Oaba'I Fallll, J9 l confrontat!Onbc .ect.~ .?5H. '.!64
Buddbt,m,391,J9-l,39~.J95,J96 scpnrnUs, sec'\.<, 15<,
Cbrlsllanlty. Jb'>-1.lO prlescslprtesthood, 1 HI
bl.un, 3'Xl, .\9-1, J98-9, 39'), S6Jn.2 Ill Mltnhclc rcll~lun, s•i
u.e of u:nn. 381>, 5<>3n.2. 56Jn.3 UrabntJn, 118. 11&
pork, eating of, 162 Cllri,ltln, 22. 3b6
po,itivlsm 17, 61:i, 77, 54J power of, US
po•lllvl•l •P1>roaohcs to blUdy or rcll~on. of primal rwl#lon.s, la
78-9 rui., of, I 111
po»,,..lon. 174 wom<,n, 4-1&, 451
post-Chrl,tlan dl;coun.e, 451 s,.., ulso rro1Clt51o11'1ls. rel~lom
po>t-convcrslon Jcprc.slon. I$<, pnmal rdi,t,olll<, 5-6. 4<,--50. 55 (t<I, J/\.l-1,
po,,t-mlll"nnh1hsm (progrc<Sh c 543
mill.,nnlnll,m), 256, 55Jn.4 I , 556n 47 cone<:p1s of
p<>•t-nuxlcrnism, 1/!Z, 18J-1, 536 du~ bupt,!rnatuntl, ~6
power, 6, :?9, 71, I 17, 25$, 10-l propillaclon. •16, 47.../i
och1c,emcn1 llf 4:?$-.lll supreme deity, 46
ll""lre lor, 29, IS.) drenm, nnd vt.<lon• In. 111
of <lie 'holy', 10-l envirt>nnu:mtnl 1,..--onc...-c'°"' ln, JS
Jtrilti (•clf,powcr) 46 mi1s.ionnry prc~1i1,un-~ nn 50
m.l'IM, 6 1110\"C~ from. to ratinnnlin.-d r1;'.1itjon ,
my•tlcnl (re), 44 SQ~.3..'\.l
In f"'lliarc:hul ,;ac,iety, -135 and nnru.ro, 356-7 .157
pqhucal 320 pftin, sclf-lnrllctinn of I()"
J'IO"•r •tructurcs. 3~ I 416 prncti~ In. 49-!in
and reli,ainn, 406, 4:?0, 4211 ritu31< In, 45il
and n,U~ous pmt'c«sionrus, 426-J I •acrtficc in 225--6
Suf)l!motural 4-1, 47 <ton es of onl\los ol lhc world, :?!}~
1onlti I Other power), 46 pnnutl soc,,eue~
And "omtm. 449 ond twentieth century, ~o,,....._
 INllf.X (,i:l

·rnmar)· corrien:\ 60 1"''--UOO•rcll,l\1<l1.~• ld,..,loilJ~•. 211, 111 , 125

rnn'W\ C..1u.•c. IC)(l HI)- I, s~c•. 5(,711 ,.
Pnm, ~lo\l!r I '!ti ~t.'C uh<lfJ \l.irxuon 01111 mnlvnnHJ'm
rroo<c>., Ph1l.,..,rh1· School, no, 543 P")·.,hlc phcnomcnn 1118. 177
rro....-»K>n>. religious, J<i2 1,;i1·chonnoly~1s, 470-1, 4SI, 509
pn,(anc. th..-, S.l, SS. 114 Pl' Y"-holm,csb, C/7
Profes.,1on of the Trid~ntlnc Fnflh 369 p'<ycholni1,ic•l th,'<lric.,. 51, C,I -5, 41 I
prof....s1t1n.11.t, r~hl!iou<, I 17, 111!, 123-1, 11ltcmoth ,,. lO rdll\lon. 4111, 51)9
.'Sf> ps-ychol0fl11,ol type8, :\78-80
8.~ho'I f•ith bus no, 138 psyehololt)·, ~. 3, 18, 78, 181
('.hrtnlnn, 22 cxpcrimemal. Ri, 166
oondcmnollon ol, b) rounders of rcll4Jon&, mode• oi rcllg1ou, 1111,, 163-5, 16-1
-1.?9-..J() "°"i~I psychology of c-,nvcroion, 1 :\J-8
oorrurtlon o(, 2H. 4:?9-JO, 4.11 state• of rcll!llous <1l<periet11.-e, 87, «)().-JOO
1n1c1·poo1Uon o(, 321. S.13 St.'<' ab,,, fn:ud a11d Jun(
io., ol pr<>>tl!\C of. 4 i 8 p:1ychothcr11p)', 488, 50')
p.,rformance ol 108-9, 12S Pwlcmnlc os1ronomy, 151, 152
J'U""rand. 4:?Wl , 427 pubcny,4J, 105,284
of rrimal n,Jft)11m. 18. 59 public Opinion, 519-21
principal .xpon"nt ol mcanln¢ In .oclct)'. puj<J (worohip), 2:?
-106 punlshment/r~wanl, l-lS-6, 221
rdationsllip ,.;th officllil rcUgion, Jlli Pun, Lnnd Buddhism, 9, 11, -IS, )JC,, 5.38
mnuncrnuon of, -130-1 naith in grace of /\miwhha, 125
n.:hlstnnce. 0£. lO nt\\ worid~-it-w, 152 ru,turc, ol, -16, 170
•haman.~. 6. -18, 4S, lOQ sc• ulso Amitnbhn and Sukhavnti
518(\lS of -1211 purga,ory, 235, 235
crnlntng ol, 42() purillaatlon/purity/rituol puricy, 107
"'llc:h Jocto,., 6, -IS. 48 motnu:nanc:<: of, l:?O, 122-3
"-omen a.<, -I IS '"-oo lor, }19, 258-9
.-ce ,J&0 priests rlrcs of, 48, JOS. 118, l 19, 119, 157
Prorn,.,,J Day, 21>2 puriwnlcal unirudc, 121, 125
Promi.'IC!d Om:, 16
property, 0"11"1llhip ol, 4-44, 445 Qll'Im, 25.l
prophecy/prophecies Quakers, t<ee Soo,~ty of Frie,nds
aJ,·ent o( future s:i,'iQur, 243, 2-18-9 qualiri~. 5piritwil, at.-quisiuon of. 237
d~<eonformed. 262--1 quonrum theory, 4n, 526
power o(, 'IS, 97 qucsr mode, 16.3, 16-1, 16S
Zo'°""rrian, 2-19 Qur'an, rho, IS, J-1, 120. 309, 3ll, 547n.S
rrophcts. 60,119,210 nntrudc to women in, ~40
advent of, 36, 5460 18 calligrnphy of, 26, 26, J9, 456
In animistic religion, 59 cau5e ond effcc, in, 215
In Shi'ism, -113 chanting of, I 04
Old 7csmmcnr 95, 209, JOI cone.:pt of sufferinit m, 221
prophet-foundcr5, see founders, ol world criticism ol Jewish ond Christian leaden;,
rcliQJons. J()C)
proplllalloo dcmocraoy cnsbriocd in, 4'1 I
rn pnmal relll\ions, -16, 4 i-ll descriptions of heaven and hell, 2.15..(,
mes o(, 105 dominance of man over n•ture, J:i6
aamf'IC!ial offc~ of, 226 esorerio kno,.1cdgc of, IJ-1
proselytism. ns. 1J:?, :?6.3, 264, 36.9, 543 iinal revcl~tion from Goel. :?JO
prostitutes, rcllJlhlliwtlon of, 126 g,,p hctwccn humans ond God. JC/ti
Protestant Chrisllruucy, 14 119, i2, J69, lncrrancy of, 37S
55Jn 41 Muhnmmnd In, 199-200
ascetic outlook of. 59 nature of, :?03, 383, 561n 13, 5(>2n -1$
capualism and, 59, 61 72 ponrnys relationship bcrwcen (',od and
elimin1mon or magic throul)h, 61 humanlcy, 209-10
deknninlsm In, 1-12 quounion< from, 172, 187, 168, lb'9
,de-I ..,.,,,,cy
ol. 131-J used l.n amulctS, 388-9
•nd indwidual choice, 2-1-5 · \Vord of God' incamntc, 25..(, IO I, 456
numerical sire, 504
ul,·1ttion bv limh. 124 R.-.hhoni, M•dnme Ruhiyyih. JSb, 501
<pread of, j.?, SOS rn bbls, 123, +18, S43
,-.e,,,, of~ and e,-.1, 225 R.abl'a,;12&
Prou,,uant ethic,, 5'1 rncc. 115
(, I I TIit'. l'llt:NO\t F.N<W Of ltf I.le: IOS

r•~l,m I II,. JSI, 111, 1:?t,, 1/40-1, S:?I, 11nttcrn h(, fur ,tnti.:tur 11.J.&t ST
R.v.lcllfi~-flrmu1. J\lfr,·d R , 5-1 n,bchl,m I IS
Rildl1-1, JO I ohnllcn_i:~ '" rdl!IIUII 1142 l'<.I I
ltAhncr, Knrl, .171 :? In ,tuJ)' ur rclll!)un 7.?~I, 77, jO 1111,
R.1111 Kuml, I :?') rclall,l•t rdi,l\lun 11 .1. 11<11, 1<1~ •1
f{.wlll,9, 10, IO l ,201,ll'l,:?i l 27 1 ,1/.I OOllCC'pC o( timt: Ill I.\
II:! ~.-h...,utotl In . .!.17-k
a.,o,•1~r.1f\1>hnu 11, WI 20 1 :? l 'l, !\.W ,·h:w or the "'" Ufl,: of I "I Um lh,: lkuhn. 1'H,
Ra111od,ut, I07.51-' rdlon~c. 112. I I~ '
ltan1akrl,h 1t,1, 2,, 1. ,jJ.J. 5 11 rcll~i()II
H11111.111uj11. k, IJJ nJnp1nU011~ co m111i.kn1 ¥.orlJ, llrt.S tJ
Romt1,.\YOkt, th-.:, 10 I. 27 l ~2:? 1~n1 n( rc"·•onclllMth•n .uld IM!.11«..'e, 1 It> ~l
Rn11ll.1d, 11,7 mmof.2 l)
lwhtl. i;a)')'hl Kntlm, J05 . .110 anu ft:llj!lou• \!Alt , 116, 11 7
Ra>1'1fKril111>. IOS, 1111. 5 1H U~Ul11()01"4 or th()""-: ho,rJli.: 10, .'\Jf) -10
R:1tt1nn.wunhhnvR :u)o nnd th&: jirC.J1 ,c..:c nr\/.en~ 1tli~un •nd
rull(>nnllst rh,-ol,,)\y, l 1) I Ulliludc ol, toward• •fate 117 I'I
rntiunnlity, 377 ttnltudc nf ,tat< u,warJ,, I 1(,-li
R•v~nn 20 1 tlllltu(lc, tO other rch/!11Jru., 168 )71 ~.?
mu,,li/1-khmn,rawdih-l«Jum, 277~. J,12, nuthnrlt) nnd. I0-1-S, 126
l!-ll nuthnrity of, 17~, S26
R,-,,ll,ln, Ronald, JU, S;?J belief, OOUCCfll o(, in, "4.X' h<:licf, cno,-.·rt hi
rc•lid<!!i, splriluol, ~ en,~ o( hocrcd. conOlct and dc,,uuouon
rclllity/R,-.,1i1y, 5, :?J, :?fl, 177, 566n 5 29, 419-20
Abololutc, ,,,,. 1\b.olutc Rcalit)' ccntrnl 1:xpcrhmcc of, M"<' CXP\:riCnc1;.
nrl nn ex-pres.-.I011 of. 4 71 rcll)!iouf
concealment of. 21 S C,.,ntrBI fll<.'US or J.) I
d,•corll!tmctlon or. 48.'l chnnge ,n, 16. l52..J, 265-6, SJZ-1
dissOlurlnn or, 91!-CJ ahnn,lle ni, hy Individuals. 24-5, 151-)
(acts as rcpre8cn1nl1nn• of, 56 choice In. 2-1--5, 71 , 161 162
feeling o(, 177-8 civil, 296, 42:i--6
identified with Nawrc, 6 clnsslflontlon of. Ull-40
"' lllu.•ion :is, 129, SJ6 oommcrclolis.m in 4 71!
mafo con~truotion o(, 449 oompnri<-0n ol W1$tl:m nnd Ea..•tcm
nature of, 185-212, 4S'l, 530, 536, 565n:? J l-51
n humnn construct., 4h5, -182 compctitcon from other, J!ll, 476
obs<JurinA o( conccvtlconooptmlizniion .,f, 5-6 16-l'l,
perc;,ption, o f 449 2 1..J(), RO. 475
and relativism, 1411-9 Freud's, 62-J
trunsccndem, 17, 27. 31, 103, 41-IJ culturally hound. 2.5
L~timnte, s« l'hlm•tc Rcallrr conversion to. sec conversion, reli,l\ioo•
twC nl.,n W<lrld,;cv.'5 core oi, 17
reasoning, 21J crc.ics ""'lnl ,-ohc~inn. 27
rebirth, 35, 125, 2117, 215. 2J4-S. 255 cycles or. 43
Buddhist, 2.lS, 239 decline of, IJ
see tdsn reincarnation and 'hom,a,l\:tin' en authority o(, ;\.',!, JQ4
exr,erienc;; en inOuence or. 4 '14
rchound phenomenon, 17.l, I 74 in relc\·nnoe 0(1 M·~
recital, of sen pturl!, 104, 10 -1 , 1()5 sec1.1fan1.ouon/~dansm
rL-dcmptlon 131, J74 definitions of, (,. 21, 21,-./l, J 1, -I I, 77 ,
rcductloncsm/rcductiontst J. 17, 65, 66. 77, 5.)S-7
71,--9, 81 dcmym<>l<~irntion of. 489
Reform Judaism. I.?, HS, 49S dcvelopmem of. 317-22
reform movements, IS I..J Slaj!CS o(, ~"-9, 1,0.. I
Rcformallon. the. 5Q, 101 ..102 4 II,. -117-J!I dicmtc.• standMd< of heh.,Vl<!ur, .140
reformism, «><:,al. sce socinl rclormlsm differs from o sect. -11
reformist sects, 76. 76 disoppcarnnc;, oi true, 24 7, 24 7-1,
rcfu~'C.,, J55 d"Uihuaoo o( ..-orld's J:!
r~ncratioo, thn.,uJ!h rlninVl'a~tln~ 105, 107 dtverSJt)" ol -1.?, .'71-2
rclficauon ol relhi;un, 25, JJl, +7~. -lbO, dl\'et<tlV \\lth(n • .170-1
5-U doctrimil dcvelnpmc:nt o(• •121\
rc1ncamallon. J5, .? 15, 2.H, 2.1-1-S. 2J7, cffccL, i,(
2.19, 2S5, so<,, S54n Ji SS6n.J.'! on indhiduals, - human hcinl\-s, efle<:L•
rclnuonshlpo, ll>+-5, 341 o(rc~on oo

on '-Ol.'iCl)'. see ~it.-"1y. cffcci~ <>( r~li~on
"n
anJ cthb. 27 6tl, ,US-o I
u ;·thlL.. , 4/<S
c-.·oluu,m o(. 7.l, 137-S, 1(,9, 21!)..l l
c,oteridc«>tcriu, 7J
••ll<'ncnct of,.._.., <·'<p,,ricffllc. n,hj\ln~
~'(tri.fbl(!i, l{,3-~, 164
fl!min1-sl n..'"C'rcatu;m <i. ~ (cmimsm, rt': •
cl'l!atlon of n,li!!lon
1~m1n1st Mudy u( A-,~ fomlnlM11, fominist
•tmly of rch!l,IOII
founders of, sc'r foun<krs. of ,-·orhl
reli!llon.•
fn,·Jmn of, "'-"' freedom, rcllg,~
functloiu of. In society, sec funotlonulism
h.anJnroentnllsrn in 1 S4."'t' fundamentnll!i'm
iuiure of, 48-1-5, SJ6
anJ ~nder, see ~nder und religion
g.,·e• purpose co human life, 21J
blemrehy or. 440-2
hl~tory of J.12-7. 456. 532-4
lnflucnCL: of a.rchet)-pcs on, 268, 271
,,.-oluclonnry -«:heme, 70--72
Stt a/$0 history, relWou.•
·tmplicit relij\ion' 296
tndi~nsubllity of, 55
tndl5tm&ulsluible from culture, ZS
mstltutlonnluntlon of, JI <J. 322-3, lJ I,
5.lJ
msthutions of, loss of prcsli&C of, 4 78
mu,llccnu1l chllllcmgcs 10, 481-5
lntrin<lc, 163-5, 16./
1"1)11-n,tionnl nuthoricy of, 59
lega)Jslic. sec lcgali<tlc 1'\'ligioo
k,gitlmucs auchoricy of ndc, 4 07, 40S-9
lc4ltlmau.•• reprcs.•lon of women, 445
legitimates social structure, 406-8, 408,
417
legitimates "·or, 4 09-11, 4 09, 410-11
lass of -«ciol control, 479
13 mCtlDin&, 524-6
me.mbership in. 24-S
melhods fo r exuminin&, J
modernity's impact on. M!<'
modernity/modernization
monist. llCe monism
multi-dlSQ(plina'}' approach to, 52
mysrical, """ m)'iticnl rcti!lioos
nature of, 4. 22, 25, 82, 151,475. 546n..8
normative religion. s« offic.ia.l religion
official o r orthodox, sec official n,lij\ion
one of iew culmral universals. 21, 525
operative rel.,..,n, see official religion
o rg;inized religion, 323-JJ
onAin$ of, 62. 1115, JOl
perfonnau,-e nature or. 460, 46J
and persono.lity cypes. 72
per110nalizu11on or. 4/,'9
pMnomeno~· of, ,;,,e phenomenolO!IY or
religion
politics and. i.tt politic$. reliJtion and
po,r,·er or, 117 404-5, 428
l)09>'1'r nructure, withm 40-1 426
l!l:Ot:x 6 15
l"rlmul, 3''l: pr,rnnl rcllAiOnPi
f\rohlcul.11 lh:u '""""'' In m«icrn "orldt H<."l·
rd~on ,ocl:J chnll~ng.,,< 10
protlu.c1...>tJ by ncuro~. ()2., W
Jlrt.>\'1cJ..-!li: human psycholo,ticr1l nec.:Js 54
1l• poychotl,crnpy, 1~R
r:itlonal-lcgal norm,, 1.0
ni1lonnlliodon 11(, S'>-60
rclficatlon .,f, 25, J,\I, 175-6, IIIO
ncu.t11i,t10, ~<.'t' r-itunllstic rc.h.R,ton
role of
1n human hfc, 64
ln k-gitimrulng the sooiol order. I04 ,
IOS-11 , 417
In liOClcty, fr.i, 21 525-6
role model• in, 335-6, .l-1+-S. J..IS
icrn:tle, 4---12
nnd science, 525-6
scculariiallon of, "'-"-' '!Ccularlintlon
simllnricy with art, 459-{,(), 1(,11
soclnl choOc~cs to, 476-81
el1cm4t1,·c ideologies, 111()..1
rcllgiou.~ pluralllcm, 477
i:eculttrlta1ion, see scculoriintion
•• sociru and polltical i<leology, 488
source of knowlOOl\C, 4112
source of soelnl power, 117
the $late o.nJ, 8t'e state, relationship with
religion
state rehl)ion, 412, 414 . 516
study of. 2--4, 53~
acndcmic, 80
approaches 10. S2, 66, 7i-ll2. 528-JO
rcminis1, see feminism, Feminist study o(
religion
pl or, 112-..,
methodology, 528-.10
origins oi. 69
c:heorcdcnl opproochcs to, 52--84
and ~ymhol ")'Stem of l!OClccy. 70, 72 459
rcvtv4J of, "'* revivalism
tCJCtS of, see scripturcsi texts, religious,
and sp,x,jfic tc.~i&
,heist, see thei<m
lheories of. 52...'14
n.• therop)', 6-1
coleranc..,Jintolerun<-e of. J21-Z, 321
as • tool ror domination, ss
rril,.,I, sec trihnl reli~ons
iypologics of. 52, 7.l-7, 138-9
unity of, 42, <12. :?JJ, 516
utilitarian, 163
victim or the shnuerint or myth, 296
Wcsrem, see theism/theistic (Weiltem)
religions 011d l<Pl!C"l/ic re/ii/ions
and women. s« women
word ' religion'. 475--0
,.-orld, 7-16
founders of. 1<J9..2()J
has both theistic and monisdo
expression, 4:?-3. 13'1
must bn,·e umversnl nppea.J 1 -l2, l~l9
self-understnndinl! of, :?2-1
see also speqfic n,/i,,!ions
<,I(, TIIE Ptlt,lH)MF.NON 01-' IIFU(:1<1\

"urlJ1 i~w• (por,uh~11i.), :?, I 19 5 1 of u1ltlalltJtt "'-.;~ tnlllnth>n

11lt,n111111~, I~.?, .14~. J/1..1-1, .184 4.•~rcn1<1111l'ti/ritau.l"
~fit-,:r,un, :l I kwl•h 11'1, ;?k I
rdlith,u, ,,..,,,,1~. :?'I rn11rriu4'• . 8f.T marrl,t~. rlh.:._ of
n:l~iuu• ,,turnll""• 477, ,so In Iii fflLllJt.trun.uun, J1' l
rt.111~011\ profu~,luonl~ ~·,· prn(~111ittn.tl. ,n m,1111~m. ~'7 I 2U
n,li~lous mu.<lc In, 10 I
Rcll~lou, s..._•kty of t'rieml, (Q1~1kcr,.I, 1<,, rh..'l.•d fur, ~2t,
U,, SJI or nfnc1.,1 rdil(lt>n, w1~1
rd~~iurn.. ,·icv.p<)lru, 2-l pArrlcl1>111mn In, S, I 17 1k
Rc1m,,.••nce. 41,2 167 41,11-1>. 171>, 182, or p.t1..~,1~, .-:t l"l"~"*· ratc11 of
1(,1<, :il\6n 14. ~l,1>-711 Ill pnmnl rcl1¢1011,. 17-,~ -1'1
rl!m.-wul mtwumcnt;:; I S1-l l'mt&.""'itn.n,, t; I
n,nuncl~tlnn, I 29, 129 puberty, tw:c rulxrty, rites nl
"'l"'ntnmN.', 143, .\5'1 of purlh<111tlon I'<, to~
rcnrcf\~ntAticmaJ nr1. /.i.Ct" :1n/11rt.S. f'llrpoM, .,,, :?7'14,0
rern.,.,;enrntlonnl tt-t!nnct cre~ulon, 21'0
...,,,,.,ns1hll11}·, individual moral, JZ7, 3J I, re-enact sncn.lCI momtnts, ..l14)
3~ 1 co SCJII convers1on. 1~
resurrection, 236,254.255. 2/,0, 279, 2110 Shinto. 41>, HIS
of Cbrt~t, 277, 2/l7, 295, 3 17, 311'1, 45'1. M)Ul'CC of rcfil(ln~ nperlenet:, 121
557n 14 structurnlis1 view of, ~6--7
accounts o(. 2b<>-91, 557n 2'1 as ll srmbolio •cciVII}'. S'1
day of, 282 111 theism. 37
death Bnd, a theme of rel41ion, 532 to w3rd off evil •Pin~. 21/;, :?19
"')'th.~ o!, 21>1,, 273 ri,en, 157
return, concept (>f, Bahn·i. 237......, Roi>t,rt.sc>n, Pat, 52 I , 52 1
revelation, 59, 20J-I Roman Cath9llc Church, 12-14, 107 , 1 lk,
divine setr-dlsclosure. 204 <I 14,476
Rcwlotion, Book of, U I , 111 , 209 abhorrence o! sex, 43<>
rcvlvaUMll, 2, 93, 93, 158, 159, 178 nnd Afro-American rdJt!on, .194,
rcvolutJon. In n:~on, 15.?-J J99-403, 400,10/, 102,506
reward/puul~Junent, 145-6 ng,mt of pence nnd rc-concUlotlun, -IW-1
Re1J1 Sltll.L4 491. 498 cellhn'-'y In, 436
Hlb.!lro, Rene, 401 anJ L'OnlmL-eptlon llnJ ohortJon, 439, 4'>7
nda, 142, 543 e,"'lu,i,lst atcJ1udc of. 3-11>-\I
RJdvnn, i!orden o!, JOS. 310 f~mnle ,u-chetype In, 276, 29:!-J
Rig V,'tla, 219, 27<,, HO and I Utlcr, 340
Rl•hl, 3J(, Identity with ,tnw, -116
r!shis, :?04, S4J, 544 lnJlucncc o!. J 58, 428
rltuaU.m, I 17-20, I l S, 121, 12.1, 430 mirnel.,. m, J&•J..90, J94
development of, 41.>3 ruonosllc order In, 131
ritunU•tlc rcilil!on, 8 nuntcrlcal sl.Le., SO-I
rituol!j/rfte.i, 2, 36, 6 1, 74, I04...S, 120, 131. ht Polnnd, 497-8
268, 458, S4-l nnd ropulnr rcil!llon. 31>'>-')Q, J?4
agrtc,ultuml, In Indio, Z85 purgatory in, ZJS
in onlml<tlc rcllglon, 5?-60, 3$6 ••lnu, or, 210, J..15, J?-1
Boho'I, 43, 3'11 In Souch Amen"", J'l'l
0:tptism, 156, 280 spread of, J?, SOS
birth, ZS-I 6lotu.• of tradition In, J(,'I, J(,'}
13uJdhist. ,IS, 46 1hc \."l~in M,1ry, 1 l'1, 14-1 , 27(1, :?9;?
burial 401 Romon Empire, 12, :!S, l<•l SSO-ln Iii ,
Chine~e. 23, IJ, 4-1 S66-7n lfl
00nflrrnntion, 156 Rosh lloshanoh, 5.16
C:Orll"crslon, I S7 R06lcrucinn,, 134
d1tnth, see death, rite, of Rousseau, Jenn.JB<'(tUL~. 425
defini,ion of, 104 Ro)', Raja Rammohan, Jk:?. 31>2 • ./22
of divinn<lon , sec dMnotion rulers. 14 , 10/s-?, 420
dru~ used an, S<'C dru,¢, Ruml, Jolnl nl-Oin. JS, .)f>-'l J.S 423
Durkheim'• 1·lew of, ;;3-.,; Runcic. Rohen, 41.2, ,/ 1$
CSQtenc undcrstandinl! o! 132 Runzo, Jo&ph, 14l,-.'J
~reud's ,1cw of, 62. 557n 21 Rushdie. Salman. 424
funcdonln,t\ of, 170. 5.12 Rushdoom,·, Rou.<a.< J 374
lllndu. 22, 23 Ru.~""" Onhodox (:hurch J;?, 200, .l.)5
 INIH.X 617

Nht>ath, :Ill<>. ,1/(), 133 :c ufforing as tcoun:e of. 22c,-w

i-.>hrl. Ghnllh. -157 In theistic n,llglon, , 3-1- ~. 2J5-7
'""crnnu:nb1 c>, .)(',, .J7 I n rhl~ worl,I, :!:1(,-7
\..,u:n..'11, the, 5 21 . ~7. 6S. 137
1 word" u~-d [or. :?J8
·~•rnnoc gj IC)(l-1, 104, lll'l 10, 26/l hv works~ ~47n .S
l)ur1Jl~ln1 •nd, !>.'. 55, SMn 11 .,:.,rid-rejecting do<:trtne• of, 71
e,ocntlon <>I, 1(1-1~ ~ ._..,. ruso libcrnrlnn
lrrupc,on of, lnio rho profon.,, I I I s.,Jmllon Army. 75, 75, ,18<,
Ottc>s <tudy of, 'i8 S:U\'Otlon hiMIOry, 209
-«o1,.,, b<>ly, the ,,o,nc,d/11, IJ(,. lM-70, :\,10, 544
.,.._.red obj4'Ctf, Z. 47. -1 7 &unrincahhudrn, 260
$4cn.,J plac.:s (holv plooc;t}, 2. S. 27i, 279, S.1m bho~nlc11~·a, :?OJ. S-1 1
:?9,1 S.,msorn, J S, 195, 207, 23/,, ZJR, 544 ,
sa=d rime, 277-8, 27'l, 2RO, 285, :?94, :?96 553n :12
UQnfi~sacrificc., i'1. 14J, 145, 21:\, Mmurai~• .?J.?...J, J46, J4 7
:?2:,-30, 226, UWl MU1rtrriti-.1'1l,tya, JO?
1>f animal,, 401 , 40:? ~ natana..cJ.hanna, 20:?
l't\,ud'• ,;cw ol, 1>! Sannrona Ohannn S,1hhn, 382
In /kbn."V Bible, :?.?5 &11nc tw1ry, ploce.s ol, 277
lllndu, 22, JC)...10, ns San#h•. 11 , 54.J
human, 4 7--8 81111,00Sin, 1:?9. 4J6, 44S, 492, S44
manynlom, s« manyrdom Santeria. 507
mct.aphoricol fom\$ of, :?26 S:IO<'lhyant, 24J, 248
In primnl reli~m1s, 46, H-8, 2:?S-0. & r ob, ZOO
S.'wn.21 Sar 4.<\'llli, 441
Nldhus. 9S. 129, 5.1-.4 &arn.tl\\~Hli 1 S" umi Oayananda, JR2, JH3.
Sadiq, Mulln, 95, 5-19n .8a 422
Sadrat al-Munwi1, 102 S.1rt rc, Jenn-Pnul, 482
Safavlds, 257, 2 58, J6J Sarvodaya movement, 128, 488, 501
Saeun•-Bruhmnn, 207 , 553n~'\3 San ·od.1yo Sha rmodan1 mo,·cm<mt, 492
Sal &h.l, SO:? S(lt-<!hit-onanda (ei<lstcnce-<JOn.ciowmes&-
saintliness, expencncc of, 94 , 95, 237, bliss), 3-1, JS. 134, 235, 238, 240, 54.J
549n Sa Sat Guru. 40
<a1nts.4. 35, 119, 270. 340 Satan, see OC\•U, the
Chri.,tinn, 95, 335, 3/IQ, 394,401, 507 sari see sutree
MU$lim, 39/l-9 S.rum,11i,1, 3119, 393
salat. 106, 106, 5-14 saved/unsa,·ed, 125
,;aJ.-atiOn, 5, 74, I 17, 169, 213,240,515 11aviour, promised future, 7, 242-6i, JJO,
Abori~nal relWon, 71 3 12
Baha'i view of, 43 oppeorunce of, 248-51 , 264-5
Buddhist ,iew of, 46 , JCJS, J96 claims to be, 256
concepts of, 59, 23 1..J descriptions of, 242-54
escnpe from su((erin!! nfter de•ch. 23J, e.xpecrations of, 313
23;,-6 e xpression ol iun god an,h~type, 271
•-pe from su((ering while in rhis military Cl<ploit$ of, 251
"-orld. 233, 236--7 s,oc,iol imp,1ct or. 254, 257-S, 25'1, 21,,1
millennlnl escape at the end ol time. 233 lime of oomill!l, 254
ensured by Christ's dearb on the cross, typolOfb' of. 254-42
2Jl u nh-crsnl. 242, 2"6
by iaith and Cod's ~ce. 123, 124 . 125 , saviour-figure/intercessor. 119
5-16n !l, 5-17n 5 Sayn San mo,·ement, 257
fundamcncallst ,icw oi, 375 Schacht, Joscph, J26
goal o{, 35 sch.ism, 322-3
o( humanity as a whole, 237 Schlclennacber. Friedrich. t,9, 223• .381.
hbeml view or, 375 381
in monist reli4lons, 34-5, 235 Schmidt, \\'ilbclm, 70
nature ol, 6, 33, 72 scholarship,
parbwars ro, see patliwa>ii ,o salvation. crlrical. JI)/\
'"'e olso a.<cctlc,sm , c•·•ngeUsm. gnosuclsm. feminist, 4 ~
leg:,lism. monas1icl5111, mysticism, fomlni<t criticism of, 449
rttunlism and social refonnlsm m odem IVesrem, 325-6
pronmed imiour represems hope of. 259 Sara.wau. !!<>ddess of 44 1
qu ..1 fo r. 6J Schu<>n, FnthJof. 73
social "-X!>n.'SMOD CJ(, 118 science, 29, 151, 181, 476, 4!iJ
6lli TIIE l'IIU/CJMt:I\ON Ot IU,l,1<110'1

,\j\\!or,liO Jlffon:n,-c h.t,.wn nnJ wotlJ rdl41un

nrchc1 )'fk., in, (',.f 1.\<l
01ll1u,k• 1ownnl, ·"•'- ,\6:\, -'71,-7, ,\79, \.'fflCrt--·n~c (1(. JhS, JZ~ l. ,x~,
JIil , 5(,:?n ,\0, !\b2n ,l;? n:1,-.,11,m o l, h1• MJ<Jlet) ~I 1.1s
balMlcC "1th ruliAlon l <I'/ <fri\..~"l1lnr "tnlJ ..,hu
cfiL'Ct on ..oel~1y, 525-(, M..'""ulnri1.mlon/<<.-cul11n,m, .'? • .2~ ~~ J~ 1
ori.:c1 c>n \\'c<1, rn L'<l•molnll)>, 516 H I , 177-110, 5 14
ln•det1un"ic< oi, 41lJ, 41,4-~ St·ft.T l ~strt1 J"i
pnrndi~ sh,fts ,n, M'I, ISi , 15.1, 1!11 ,icli/1'Cln1ood 2'1, i1
rclaiiviry, 171 nhan.lonmcn1 n( 'H
schmtlfio RSJ)(.I.Olh or (.'1.tlmN. SJS deninl of, 107
!leicmilic melhod, 7R. lllJ de, clopnll'fll of !'COS<: ol 11,7. 70
8<-il'OIOl<><b•, 77, IJ 4 , 510, 5lk. lil'I d1.,..,1u11on o(, H,7
scrihes ond Phnri,ees, J:!9 knnwle~e of, 1'>,"-'1
.crlpiurc, 2, 11)1. :?11. 1 12,247 los, oi. z:?q
11111h,n1lci1y of, 21l2--.\ >aerlfke r,(, .?2ft-.1, :!.JI, J4S
authQri1y or, in lejlAlism , 123 ""nrch for, ~09
R~hn'i, 16, Hl4, 198, 262 surrender or.
9/l, 100, 2Zfo-7
Bu<ldhbl, l(H , 104 204,375 '"'~ cJ,w detachment
c hanlin~ of, 10.1, 1()5 <clC-e<>ntrol, l 23. UO
Chris1ian 10 4 self-denial, .l4S
communol expcnence ol, 1(1-J, 104 self-da_sc,rhne. 41>, 1:\0
esoteric undcrstnndlng of, IJ2 ,...lf.tl:oi!elL,tion IC)i, 1(1'!, 119 1-'0 .\?CJ,
fundamentalist nuJrude 1owRrds, J(>.1-.5, J90. 549n 2
36 7, 369, 370, 529 s,,,Jf-idcntil)', 147
llindu, 23, 104, 2()4, 375 sclf-,mt\llc. 164
historian! docwncnt, 366 sell-lndull)cnce, 9
memincy of, Jl\4, .l65, J68, 369, J75 self-in1er cs<, 479
imerpre1a1ion of, 365-7, J68 seJf-preservation. Z<J
knowledge ,o he Judged by, 212 selC-sacriflce, 226-7, 231,340. J42, J45
loOJluoge o(, 101. 10 1. 10-).489 self•6tirrender, 9!i, J()Q, 22t,..7
liberal qtlimdc t11waJd.s, J~7, Ji!J 1'1:lllci;snl.'s.•, Z9
literal interpreta1Jon of, Jr,.), .)"4, 529 Scllmlyyc Mosque. 167, 299
Mahayon3 Buddhist, 9 senses, M. 167, 41J8
meaning o(, J<, 7 scnumenuihry, J2 I
mediates rellglou., e,penenoe, 101-1 S«patatlst sects, 256
moms< ,1ew of, 203--4, 2 12 Sep Iler 1'ornh, 12. J6 7
mytholO!\ical pictures in, 291, $ephiro,h Tree. lJ,l
nature of. I0,1 .•1()6 seppulw, 2J2.._)
reolial or.
10-i, 10-I service. 121. 126, 129, J.12, 501-2
reli,ihility ol'. 383 services, reli4ious, in Braztl, 5
revelation ol, 101 sew, :i01-2
sac.-ed stories, lOJ-1 Seventh Day Ad,·emists. 25!>, 2ft2. 26.),
source of relJ,l\ious experience, 121, 1.10, 364-5
132. 135 sex (~derJ, see ,l\<:nder
sour~-e of values, 4S3 sci/sexualiry/sexual dcSsre. 432
lheis, ,,iewof, Z<JJ-1, 211,212 C<)Dtr<>I or fomale, 44+6
trani,tnJssion of f reud', vie\\ of, I>.?
oral,332-3,JJ2,JJ4-S,362-,J,J8.I rell~l<>n and, 4-1-1-7, +17
"'riuen, 2. 3J2, JJJ. J.JS-7, 3112-..1• •J84 attitude, nf rell~ons 10-. artb, 4-lt>--7
truth of. .'.165-1,, J68 u,l)oos o(, 147
·WorJ o/ (Jod', .IM sexlsm.JSJ
wrtch::n. see ~ipturc. tn.tnsmlsslon or :.cxuol lntcrcoum,, JO~. 436
sec also sp<'Cific s<-riprnres Shah. 40!i, 4 I9, 4,U
sculpture, 456, 465 al-:lhohrtstanl. Muh1lmmaJ. i7
S..nl o( 1be Pmphe,s, 210 Shaktl, 4-17, S-15
Se<.-ond Vaucan Council, 1J, 3 49, 36'> Shakyaruu111 lluddhtt, 6':" lluJdhn, the
secl/s0015 ~hrunanslsh:unanlsm, 6, 41,, ,#/, <)5, 4().1,
•JJOC'•lypuc, 251, SH
cul"4Drle• of, i4-<, drnmatlc pertonn•n= of, 111'1
u( Chrl!,LLtull)•. SJ(, dr'"'1!~ and v1>1orui uf 111
dcflnlllOt\, ~ I, 74, 77, 1J9. 511-12, 544 ma_l\lcal po"crs of, I 11,
wfforence between chureh and, H role ol. m tradluoual rdifllon , l.:?4
difference i,.,,,.~-en, and cults, 77 Shan~o (Xruil(o), 402, 507
 IMlEX <, 1<>

Sh~nk:1111. ,'i••11) .10.? -t21 Shunyarovuc.ln 197

Sruiri'a (llul, L.1w), IS .?3, .?:?-t, 41.?, S-11, $h\·e.:cnmhnru, 12tJ, J-&.'}
5-1 I 5-is. ~-Hn s Shwd111, Kln!l Tnhln, 2511
J.;,dormcnt n( 3.?~. 3,ll SidJh.1nh.1 Bu<ldha. "'"' 8udJhn
ru'l'<'"' of. l.?O, ;;.,1, Sikhi,m, 7, 1,W, 139,.111 115, 1~2
ltC.>Ut~~ of ,\sJ convcrsinn 101 J(j()
•,:, u/.<0 llolv I.ow orul la" d«-lrtra.oon on t.~on..:~~n·u1fon 1 .,61
Shan"MI, ',\11,'1:?S, 31>Q, 561n H C',oldm Ton1ple m AmriL.<•r, 277,472
,l,,wkh, 5H nawrc of 1qtJmak R•ality, J&I
Sbo,·khf school, .?59, ,105. 3(1'l. 323. :123 numerical •izc, 504
Shr, (Shl'o, Sbl'ltcl blum J.I, 126, 29-1-5. pnoycrs m, 1()6
S~ I rejoois lltndu caste <;y~t cm, .14 I
dl'3rpearam:e of true religion, .Nii sociftl ethics in, .1.S.1
doctnnal de"elopment of, 32~ S()Cm1 reformism in. 127
~o,,ncism in. 134 sprend o(, SOS
GokJ\!n .\ge IO. 2~3 ~-ymhol of, 172
In Lebanon. ~15 theistic, 40
~ and rotionnlism in. 377 Simeon Stylltcs, Si. 130
manyrdom UI, 230• .?JI &Ill, 34 , 34-5, 37, 119, JJ], 21J--25
\luharn.m c,,remony. L07, JOS atonement for, 117-8
m,-sucal rhllo,;opby of• .?00 ori'1Jnal, 35, 20-I, 214, 21'1, 220, 23()
numerl<'lll s,ie. 504 Sinan, 418
p0liuc,nl theory o(, 4111 Sin,~h. G uru (',obind, 127
poruJor reli11,lou.s prucdces. 39(), 390 Sinllh, Or Karam, 502
pre-mlllenniali<m In. 256 Sinhalese Buddhist$. 503
propbeey of Mahdi, .?SO- i Si.stlne Chapel JJ. 16/l, 365, 436
re,-olts amon~. 25 7 Sita, 20l, 271. 442
rinl41s o(. 108, 1J9 slumdilas, 205, 231>. 295, 544
sa<miice In. 143, .?31 Skonovd,Norman, I ~ . 161
spnead of, JJ8 SOS slavery, 126, -100-2
TucJver. 221 . .?51>• .?61 Smart, Ninlan, 6t,, 561n 11
,i,.J1ing tontbs of Imam,,, 300 Smith, Wilfred Canc"ell, 25, 66, b0-1, !12,
and women. -1~11. -1.U H4,J2o-7,4o4.475,550n.4,6
"·orlll prior to ad,ent of ••,·lour, 2-16-7 smritls, 204. SH
see also Imams. lsfam. bma'ills. Shaykhl sOCtal ooheslon, 6. 27, 55,459, S16
school """al"!> unity
Shlng<,n S<.'Cl, 260 .oc,!al d~prl\'ollon, 60
Shinto. 45, SO, 105, SIS, S68n.19 M>cial 1111d economic tle•dopmcnt, 355
numerioal size. 5()./ soc'ial cnhanL'ement, 6
role o( Jnp.10.e se Emperor In, 4119 social elhlcs, 352-5
:Julne$ of. 45
spn:~<I of, SOS
-~•I nonru, 479
M>el al "rdc r, 61
S)'lUbol of. 45, 172 l<:Alllmoting or.see rell)lion, legitimate•
~1ur1r, J9~ .oclal .trucrur.,, 211, 75. 32.i-S
Shl,·a, 9, J9. 11&. UO, 125, :?.?J-1, 3J6, runirm,noncc 12Jor,
SJJ.5-15 new. 257, 26:?, 2<,5
In Aum ShJnrtkyo, SlS pu.tri•rcbnl society, 40!!
as S1uan1J:1. 225 pr<Jducc-d by human bcln~ 405
"'-'<WM> lin!l;tm role of reUglon In lcClt1mntl11,!\, 404,
Shoghl t,;ffcndi, H,, ~5J, J.?9. J54, 5S211 I 3 406-8, 417
Shri-Yantra. 387 undcrpinuc<I b)' rcll~lon, 125. 426
shru><:,, 50Uial pr-,,surc, 146, IS.~
of Baha'ullah, 2i2 social psy<•holo!l,v, 87. ISJ-/j
Buddhi,t, 202, 2?6 sodal rcfonnl•m. 111,, 121, l:?t.-9, 1;\1'1,
Chan<.-"<: n;l1'1J<>n. 4-1 382,531, 561n.24
of the Bah. 15 in Baho'i faith 126, l:?(~. IZ7
Hindu, 22, 477 in C hri•llnnl1y, 126, 127 I:?/,
Shimo l~ 15 4<, 1n Jo<l.1ism l2R
sllruti, 20-I 544 links with m<'lnn>tiCl'm, 12N, 1J2
Shun)'lta. 6. 33 3'1, 191, 194--<i, 197, 205, in Sikhism 127
.?Qi ;?29 SH soc:ioli<m, .l:iS. 42-1-5, 4'l II, ~,a.Q, 491
Identical wllh Dhllnnakava, 20.1 549n 9b
reality of che human bean,( ldencionl with. society/social systems, I. 5..l-5. 5~
205 ,w,cultural, 4.32-J
6ZO TIIE l11JENOMP.NON OF R~;LJIHON

arcll!\lou.,. 4 H, ufh.•r tk:.ith .?Ill, ~.ll\

cln~ structure of, ..,._'C clnsM:~. ,octal ""'""~Pl 1n lluJJhi,111 c...,n,IJ,n,J ~
ooh<!slv1:11~ ol, m.oe sooiul cOhtiion anJ dcln,1nn. 1. 23H
unit,· 'dork nti:h1 <>f the ...,..1 lt~I
L'<>n\'cr;Jon uf, 161-J cnrnnatlun from 1;,><1. ,lll
crhl• In, 154 l<l\c uf, fur Ow .)01
clfoo1 l>f mo<lemlly un. l!S(>..l union with C.lt><I .\.~
effw~ nf rcll!llon on, c,-.7, HI, 27, .2/h'\Q, :,Uuth Afrlc11. 121
SJ South Amt ric,1
clhlc•I hountlnrh.:• uf, J 4o-S:? 11\x:rntlon lhc'Oloey In, I:?&
CJ<p,.,rlcncc of, SJ-I l{..,mnu Cnthnllcl\m u1 , J'Y.J
funcuoo of 11r1 ,n, Hll ~vl<ct RuMl.t, 417, llb
func1lonh.g of, 53 •rncc. tSJ
gruup1ng,t ur, .we clM.•'-"', 1,QOlol C'Oll~C:pl Of, ,1.,), Ill
luuuv-!)Athcrcr, 70 cffL-ct of rdlgiow, upcrkll<'C oo, I<'>. 'l l ,
nullTiRrchru/mALrlfocAl/11101ril1ncnl. 433-5, 167
IJ./ rdoLh M 1·lcv. <>f. H
moJcrn, rdlgl,m In, -11 1 Spoln
muht-rcllgJmc<, 415, 477 ln,1ui,lllon in, 161
now n.~11,A.ious movcmenb ond1 5 14-15 Musllm, JO, 372, S60n 12
nomadic, 4JJ •recch, t S•l
ordcru·,g of, -14, 5-1 11<.'<! al,w lnngw,g.,
p.11 rlarchnl, •cc polrlnr<:hol soclcLy ,pcllslln0on1.11110,.., 31!7, 3119
perception <If women And men in, -1-12, 444 Buddhlsl. .188, 395, J96
plurolistlo noturc of, 152 Chrts11on, J8fl
power Mructurc~ of, 416 llfndu Jflb
pre- modem, 339 Sperry, Roger W , 17/l-<I 552n 26
relatlon!hlp to rc)Jgion, J68, J 70 Splouio, 13..iruch, J9
ruligioo part of every, I, 525 spirit. Lhc. 17, 167
rellglon the buls of, 4 76 splrlhsm, 399
religion II symbolic stotcmcn l nbout, SS i,plriu, 5-6, 6 1. HIS, 199
rol~ c;f religion In. 6-7. 417-19, 525-6 In 11nlml3tic rcllglun. SR-60 61
.,cc Ill«> iuuc, rcliuion•hlp with rcli,!io n in ChiPI"'"" dMnul.lon, 49
role o! women In, 4 33, 439-40 c,·11. 124,218, .?19, 393,516
~cc o lw rnurlnrchul 80Ckllt8
sceu1nrlzntlon o(, SC-it "'""'· 46 174
posscs..•lon,
scculorlzatlon/8cculorisrn spirftunl ad1·onccnatn1 Z9
5Cporu1ion of, from rcligJous world, 478 ~pirftuul dc,'t'lopmcnt , 9, J:?9
~trcss"s In. 26<,, 556n,-17 •piritunl OU11'll!r, IJ-1, 135, 136
srmbolic universe of, 459, S65n.2 s<'C allK.I guru
trodhion, '8Ce trttditionnl ~OCh:.cic.s •pirl1Uults1 ohu rchc'S, 76, SlO
underpinned by rcllglon 425, 426 Spiro, Melford E., J9J. J'IS
vnlues or, 7, 55. 479, 488 split•hrnln e.tperfmtnL,, I 7'1-9
SoclcLy of Friend., (Qunkcrs), 76, 76. SJ! Sri Lankn, 9, II , 258,393. 395,396 397,
socio-economic .<taw<, 1 l 5 448, 192, 503
sec c,J,,o clnS!lcs. 60Clnl Sn M•namnrnn Temple. 172
&OClologJ""1 a.nd anthropological thc..,rle$ of ~«ar r.uu.l t'rt.:~cnt 42
rcli,iion, 52-61 Stnr of Onvld, 42, 172
soclnlogy, 3, 78 stnrvatlon. 108
blsioric~Vinlcrprctotive, 5~1 ~tutu, the
of knnwletJile, 450-1 ntliludc townrds rcU,Jon, llf>-17 511>-17
Sol hwlctl.11<, cull oi, 1511, 5/i.ln.<> nltitudc c,f rteli!\lfm wv.11rd.< 417-19
solnr hen>, 270-5, 271, 2111, :?8-1 , J37 53-1, church supportivt< of i I
SSAn.4-'! ohcdicncc to. -1.f
solidarity relotlon•hlp wi1h religion 41H-:i, 412-1'1
culture of, 350, ,J.S I 41.?, 417, Slf>-17
Afnup, 6, 105 """ u/Jro )loH'mml-nt rclalloiahip "ith
soma, 1/!1 rdi!\ion
J!Ollll, 4 7, -IS<, stme-bound knowlcdj\c. 171h,. 1Tb, 177,
Sophi• 452 IFill
•orccry, 4.l <t:t1c-dCJ>Cndcn1 learning. 17()..J
so1criolo~, /12, :?42 54'1 srnte religlon 412,414.5111
_. also ,aJ"ation SrnlioM of the Cross, I i2
80UI (c1emal essence), 90, 5!>2n.25 sioms. ,whicvcmen1 nf 4ZS
 tNllEX c,:? l

Skph-,n. Kine (:i.11111), JJ. -10/; numcr\wl ,i.w, SO-I

'\lVO~.!)~ .1. 10~. 3J2--l otx-J1c1wc u, c~tnblbh,-d ruler, 407
-.a..n-J. 10.'l-l 1,r,ophct-y ul Mahdi. 250
,tol'\~ellint. !Sb sp n,oJ or, J Hl, SOS
,,ru~-turnli,m, 5-1, S~. 52'1, !\H ltlld \\UOICD, -4J..~. 442
,cupa.~. lf>.I wo rld prior w OU\ct,C ur "'" '"'"· 246
<ubjc-et-ob)""t JdlnJUt>n, 175, 177 "'-"' aL<o 1,1:uu
,ub.tt.•,,uvit)'. JiS-9 sup.:ntatuml, th~. 28. 4<,, 7<,
s~ututlonar\' atonl."me.nt, Zll .,.,up1,tn1nturnJ cnutle~, 6, 4 7
SuJJhoilinll, Kin)\, .}11 ~up.,rsUtlon, 14-1-5, 484
,uficnni1, b. ,\.\, 213--25 !,Upr.t•human, the. 28
alter Jc,nh. JS supnM~clt:nuOc.. the. .'?8
8.>ba·, \'ICW of. -IJ• .?1.?, 2JJ Supreme &-inl!, 2(,9-70
BuJdhiM ,iew of. 194-5 • .?15, 11(). 2/t>, SCoc al-<0 God/U,;ity
.}'l5,J% surrender, of i,elf, 98, 10<1, 226-7
Cbtne.e relWoos VIC"' or. 4-1 Suso. Henry, J!i
e.capc irom. while sUU all,-e, 233 s,n<ee (satl), 38:?, 439, <HO
e,q,lanauom for, 214-:?S, 516 Swu.itgnn, Jimmy, 521,522
tnsrrurucnt.al thco,; of, 2.??-J •\\'3!>tilw, 42, 17?, 533
,n non,theisdc rell,11100s. J-1, 37, 21.J-.>-5 Sylvesccr II, Pope, 405
phy>tcnl, ?1J symboV~yolbol,;, .28, 147, 26b, 319,458.
pfi'\·e_nuon ol, J.W, J-10 5:?S-9
punishmcntlrom God, :ll -1 , .?JS, 221 anl<.'Onic on nod, 462
purpo:.e oi. bO. 2:?J an d arohetype,,, 293
rstlonullzc'<l re!Jgwn'; ,-1... or. bO Baha'i, 1 72, 198, 529
~on coml"'D$1lldl for, I>.? Chrl.,tlsu, 4 :?. 56, I05, 27\1../IO

w=
reh¢lon n:cuncil"-> hurrutn• co. 6-1
of ,ah·,ulon, :?:!9--JO
m t.belstlc rcllgjon>. J-1. J7, .?l-1-2S
creatlon of. 54-5, 6-1
and t.leat11.? 1i9
l'r-eudian, -17 I
\'.,J.mui llindut;,m, :?39-40 runeuont~ of, 170, 284-(,, 462. SJ2
Swum. IS. 3l>-CJ. J2:?. J'>J, S44 God a. a, 487
boqa, 2JS IUndu, 4:?
de.-.,lopmenc of, 327 4> tnu!rprcrntloo of. ;?!j(,
i.lhtkr In, ><!" dhiltr J<.-wl~h. 42
cm.:rg<.'OQc of. 1J8, J:?O as m,'<llaton., 611
/uM, .?J6 modern humanity Mnrvcd of, -170
I\DOSliCtsm Ul, 13-1, 139 Muslim, ,12
mc..tlt.auon In, I08 ne~-d for. 526
monAJ<Utrlfill in, lJ 1, 132 prinltd rcliglolh, H
m~°'Udbm in, 136, 139 rol1A1out, -l:?, 170-J, 172, 27S-'l, 462
oppo.lunn to, J63 Shimo, 15
order or. J.?~ ,trumurolb 1 view of. 51>-7, 529
pcn.e<!utlOn or, 41,371 ltHC.ltt.'I, S-1
power Mnu.~ure ln, -t .:!8 •rmbol S~.tenvsi•mboUtatlon, 70--2, 455,
reblivc vie\\ or ,he nature o( l.1dmsc~ 52-1
Retlllt)', 196 oollnP<le or. in Wc,n. 72
W~ and dffnL'I! in, -156--8 a n d culture, 524-5
,,,, also my•tlcl•m In lsl•m rollgton dctcrmlnCll, -151)
Sukbavau (\Ye,,u,m Porsdil.e), 11 l. 11:!, >)'mOOh~l unthropolog_v, 55
114 233 :?61 ,SJll, 542,544 ,ymboll;...cion 487
Sulay11UU1 the Ma¢,,llk,,oc, Sult.an, -11 11 Symond,, Jamc.s A , 166-7
Suleymsn\yc Mn11qu<, 41 6 ,ynngogu,'ll, JO-I , JO.I , 456, 472
Sulllln Ahmec Mo,;qu~. 97 S)'flcrotl,m, 23. -13, 50, 515
Summit on Religions ond ConM:rvaclon, •fnl hctlo opproachc• co ,cudy of rclll)loo,
35&-61, 3SS 7i, 7~11
Sun, Supcmol, :?7:?, 2 73
<un tad, 26'l- 70. :!70, 171, 286 tnboos, H , ~0-1. 545
Sunns 367-9. S,H chlldbinh, 17, 2!<5
Sunni lslam/Sunnb, 7 14-15.231, 5 44-S dcatl,, H , 147
Aoh'arl th<.-ol<>gy In, H2 cndoe;uny, fJ2
da.oppcunmcc of lru< rdll!Jon, 246 In c.:sc, 6.?
()olden ~ In .2SJ mi:.n.S.1ruAUon, -&i, Z!lS. J,.',i
tn L<:hanon. 125 ...,x, 1-17
\lahdm mowmcnt, :?57 Toborltes, 257
 (,22 TIIE Pllt;SOMENON OF RF. I IGION

Tulttr1h, l'l l S, Jll'I, ././.?, •N-l tcrrorl-.m. s~o

T'11I l''lr,t, .NJ t~,t,. din.nt-, 2..? I -1
T,uu1t1."A I 'IJUm~hlul, 20~ rllllll111d 7 'I, I/ I .I I :!.:?I, .:?S7 ••l'II ,
takh·vo.,. I .\I , S4 S .l'l!\-H. ,JW,. IJ(i. I I~. ~ti;?
11,ll;,n11n,, JH7, .l</6, ISi! 'Tluuuhcr M11r)l)lr.1, ~I .:?, -11 5
lllnJu,387 th.1.um.-uurA,.v. th.11um,uur,U~•I 'tl.'tlll, 7t,, J.?1,
1.1;imlc,, ;wo, .l'lN 5~5
Tu/1111ul 12, J-14, t•IO, •1'15, 542. S-15 thct-m/1hel,11c IWeMcml rd,i:,,m, l. 21 4
'T11mil S,1du, R JI I / :!I, 11,1,, 5-,10
T,mmuz ( Oanw'1), 270, 271, .?7.1 n,C\.'uc.:hm in, l~
'Tun411IOA, 40'l nuhm.lt l0¥ion.ls oiont,m , 11 , ~l2
umm, 545 an Chincw nnd JRJ\anCM.' n.::lf~P11•. 1'>
Tnntrlc (\'ajrnynnn , Tlhc1m1) Ruddhi•m 9, comrnn...,n w11h f',11.-i,m rch~ort<.,1 1- ~I .
II 137
Tnntrlc, llinJul•o1, 3.'17. 4;!2 nflcrhfo. 2.13, J.15- 7
Too, die. 44, 1()1), 21 1, ,1(1 1, 54 S crc,ation, :16, 2117,?
•~ Absolute Rcnllty, 6, JJ, 1111, / 92-.1 end of 1he world, J 12
19:1, l-vil .l-1 ,217-lk
ooj\cts all 1h1ni:s. 208 fulUrc ,..,,rid saviour. 2~.:?. :! 1"-SI .\12
,-o,1mic, law, J.W s.1cri00c,225-6,22h
oneness with, 97 ,..,h·alion, .l-1-5 37, 235-7
sec a/St) Taoism. 1eachln1!5 "' sufforin~ J I, :?14-25
Toon, Chill/I, 19:1, WR. J6 I time, 36, 37. :?fl')- I0, 244
Taoism, 23, 7 1. 545 UIU.mnte RealitJ/God, c,, Jl-4. Jl>-7, 46,
concepts or 11,(,..9)
deu,chmcnt. 22/l creation siorics, 209
yln, 60. 552n.27 de,-otlonal In nature, 137
declamlion on oonservnlion, 36'1 epistemolo.1?._v, .? ll-12
escha1oloizy. 24.} • vang<,llsm a p<Lth"•Y of, 12.1
ethics In. 339 exclusMsm of, 4 77
(c_<tlvals In , 45 fundumentallsm and, 363
lmmort111Jty ochlc,-ed In, 44 moo.11Sllcism ln. 131
lrtOucnoe on Chinese an, J6 monism lo, J!>-41, 17~<)
lnteructloo wldl folk religion, 44, ~S mystlcol demelll" m, 38, J9
nnd Lao-Tzu, 44 , 201 In primaJ rch~on.,, 46
monism In, J9, 40 rclatJ 1.ilstJc p(!~pecth e at..'<X:pts. 42
noture In. 109, 110 and ricwtl. 36, 119
symbol or.
172 so,,lal reformism In. 126
see alllb Tao in worlJ relig)on, 42. 139
!IJpasyt,, 130 1hel.,1-monls1 qunndary, l&O
tank, (other power), 4<>, SH 1hcocrucy (hlcrocnicy), 374. 41:!, U.?.4 19,
Tathmn (Suchncss, Tham<:ss), 9, JJ, 195, 545
545 theodlc}, 60,.:? 13-25, .?20. 2~1-2 5-15
tAwttkkul, HZ, 545 sec: ulso cvll and suffcrlnA
ca'.t1)'l& 1 -456 theological nort-rc1tll!im, 487
technology, J7t.--7, 490, 525-6, 567n 15 theological ru,d nommm·e W<'Oncs, (>')~ i J
sec ohm &Clcncc theology, J, S, Ii, J I 105, !>45
Td<'Ologloal Argument (Argument from b lock, sec bluck lhcology
DC>lgn) for Cxl•tcnce nf GoJ, 190 Chri_s1ion, 22, :!4
telepathy, 97 L•lamic, 23
u,lcv,u1gcll1nn/tclcvurtgcll•u,. 520, 52 1-:? llbernl, J/l I , J& I

J tekvi.,ton, 158,271, 297, 519-2:!

temperance socletlcs, 126
llberatlon, *""llburallon lh<'OI~
8epllnll e &om ec:a<kmlc siudv nl rdl~nn,
'Templu (Jerusrtlcm], 456. 495 80
T~mplcr;, 132 theoric• of religion
ll!mples phllosophl<:al ond hlnorlcal 65-0
Baha'i ·12, 47 1, 529 hlsu,ry of reli#ion. 65--(,
8uddl11s1, "7'1 , -193, 537 phenomenolOf!r, 6(,-?
Chinc<e, 4 5 . 46 psycholo!lJcnl, S 1 61-5
Hindu, 8 , 9, 22. 172 Freudinn. 62...J
'Thern\'oda Buddhist, 202 Jun1\hm. 6.'l-5
tension. concept or, 512. 514,515.539 "OCioloilical nnd anthropolcl)!1col,
lent re-.vel me,,,1int,, I 111 52-t, I
Teoyaom,qul 2 17 functlonahsm, 53-~
 INO!>X 62J

I, beurlca 1/1 n1 e rp M41 h c ><lCIOl"I\) • 58,-o I t!ffcc1 uf rcll~lou~ c.x:pcl'1t.:nut: on, A'->. <Jl~
.tructun,IJ,m, sr,....i, 167
thcolO<!lc.u ,uul uonnach·~. (,'I 73 llnc.nr/ ' hl!itorlcnl' (thet.111), JC,, .17. 20'>
C\ olulltiml<' (>t)..7:? Mu,ollm view uf, 2(~)..10
JLL'>l.llk•,uuri1p<>lc1w,'U!, c,il rdothl,,t view or, 4.l, 210...11
l'\:bU\·b( cllL-OriC,,, i ~-J 'tluK'S of the end', 75
thcr•p)', n.-llg)on • form of, t>4 re (my,ticnl 1>0;,cr}, 44
Ther•,odn Bu<ldhi.111, 7, <>. /0, 11, J4, l'IJ, tohncco m)·th", 57
~:!. JJ I, J9.1 TubrmaJ lsLuidcr•, 525
1ftldltu. 2.21). 2J8. J95, J96, 5J8 Jc To<:quC\'lllc, ,\lex!$, 150
.attitude U)\.\.uJs ~4.-.,-lp<urcs, Jt>-1 tolcm.nce, :?<). 321-2, JSO,,ISJ , J71
c:aJmncs......,~-ontcnunenL, J4S rcllglou.• 1olcratlon, S 11,
"1M1rP,:Jrnn"" 111 ,rue rcl,~un. 2-17 Tobwy, Lt.'U, 49:!
Joou,nc,, of. J•1s Tong:,, IC. I , 28-!. 409, 19J
ethic or. J9o wogucs, spcakJ11jl m , 1H, 109. 124, 125
im.t ionn 10 come 10 \\'c,t, 502 1bmlt. 12, 12,313.367
ionm of. ,\')J lotC01bm/COt~Olb, 5.2~ 5-J, h.'.?. iQ, -10-1, 5-15
Gokkn Alt<: In, 252 tO\\'US, 116
hell to. :!J4 Toynboo, Aroold, 72
med,uu.loo 10. 1(18 trnde, 71, 121
m•rll, Sb-In :!1 tn1dltlon:tl rcl1gJons, 7, I 07, 124
monk. M!C monh, Thuro,·aJn nUJJJ1crlcnl lilic, 504 , 506-1, 568n 29
nacurc ol the Bud.tho In, 201 trndlllonal societies, (1, 11 5. 161. l(,l, 480
noture ol the human he.log in, 205 !mruslon ol modernity in•o. J 76-7
n1turc of Ulctmnie Reahty In, 192 nature of hl>tory In, .?94
rwn-thclsm or. 40, -10. 18'1 religion In, 406, HS
numerical 1IU, S04 response 10 modemley, 4'JO..Z
pcmm, In. 104, IOo fuJ11lamcntallsm, 491-2
populAr and ofllctal rcllglon In, J91 • J9-I, modcrnitall<>n and wc,u:.mlzallon,
J95, J'IS--8, J96, S<>Jn.J 490--1
propbe<:> of M,dcrcya Buddha, 2.J'J lhltlonrulsm and .oclalbm, 491
ri.->'Olb 11moog. i!57 trndillonnll1m/tmdiuonllliSu, 61,369.382
spr..,~d o/. 10, SOS tradition:.
L1tlm,uc Re-.tllcy In, J-1 dcn!lopm11nt of, 268
a.nd wom~n. 4J7 £unchtmonudlst attitudes towttrds, 367-<J,
world pnor to advcnc o( .._v,our, 2./4-S J68 J09
Ther..,.a. Sc, 90, IJ7. 178. 552n 25 Tmdldons (/ludit/1), ts. 120, J:?S, J83. 187,
Thirty y._.,.,... War /J, 416 540, 5-14. 562-..1n 49
Thom:u. St. I.J, 289, 2<){) tnJnoc,36,94, 136, 166, 175
Tllor,J90 acli levcmcnt o/, 108, 136, JJ7, JiB
ihou!l)u. 59. 108, 15?. 168, 178, 181 198. ihro~h dJUK-<,. 179. 401 , 40:!, 451/
2115, 49'l, SOI, 517 dL"-'P, 4, 174
critlcsl,at14l)~le.'tl, 147, l7i. 17h d<!<l.!riptl()n of, 166-7. 176-8
conwri1cot1J1,crgcnt, 37C)...8() ccstlltla. 109, 124, 1?4. 125
,mutthc, 178. 37?--80 cxpcrlcnoo• ol, 17(>..8
notlonol/loglcal, 67. J.'11 286, J79--'!() ncu rnph1·•iologlcal ch.,ng,,,., 173-5
reli~ous. 3~1 42 ln\1tM,Cnd4.:nC\!' 1 2, 51 17, 27, J3
rc,JaU\'L<I. n, ;179, 1112---1 Trnn,.,.,nJent._J Medhtulon, 502. 510,
sc:ruc1ure of, 56, 261'1, 4.32, :-29 550n, 15"
Tihtl. 412 -1;1/1, 503 tn.ensfigun,tion, 275
Tibctan (Tan1rlc, \'njrayano) Bucldhism, 9, tn1ndormotlon, pcn,onnl, 143, H 6. 2611
10. 11 1().1 , 139 effo.c«'ll through religious expcrlcncc. 89,
Da.lal lamlUI, '1Ct' Dalai Lomas 91~. 93-1, JI)()
lnlluc~,J hy B<>n religion, .,111, dfc.ctcd throuJ!h .erlptur~. 103
fflOM'11cibm IM, J31, IJ-1 ,uff~rtnl? a me<:hunism frn~ ~11 211-1
1thrincs. :?2l, tree, '"8Crcd. 2(19
llf'rc•d n(, 10 Tree uf Life, 102, 1 J.1
in the \\'Mt. ;;oJ 'l'n!nt, C'.nunctl or, 369, J69
T'ico-t'aJ ITcndall Buddhbm, 11, 12 trihol JlL-Oplen
11-me, :?07-11 con,-er11ion ol, II,:!..;)
Chrumo.n ,icw o(, 209 nullcnn!nllit mm·cmcnc. amont, 257~
oonc,,pu r,f JJ l6, .l7 ll2 cribnl rchA!nn•, ~ . 7, 52, ~ I . !OS.
cyclical lmom,m). 31,, 37. 208--9 554n 21
dliferintpa.~ 1>(, 17S, li6, 177,180 nature o/, 69
 624 TIIE PIIENOMt-;NON OF Rl:.l.l(ilOS

numerl\!al ,Jzc, 5{/.1, 5111>-7 L'UllL'Clh <. (>.\..S, 64 Zt,1,

Trlhlc, l'h)'III-, 450 Unlficat11111 Chur~b (\lc,,.111iol ISS, ~II,
1'rllwya, 20:?. 545 SO'l, St I SU 512, SJJ, 51'1, ~1.,n ~,4
Trlnltv, doctnnc of ,he, /J, I'¥/, 200 Unl«J li.mj\Jum 12!,
lrlpll,ut, 271>-7 Unli.J :-;nth,n,. S 17
trtumph.tlbm, 12~. 2.!4 UnhcJ Swt...,; ur \ni.rk•, 111,. 1.?S, 4,?r,
TrodlMlh, l:.msl, 72, 7J-I, 77 41H , 1h11. l'IJ , 507~. SIU, Slt.-17
l l\JSl, 142, 145 UnltJ\<: Llfc. 2..¼
iruth/fruth, I, 38, l'l7, 202. :? 11, ,J(,i, tu>JI). IUS, S(>IJ,1 11
or ull rdi~c,n• tDurkhcim), 5-1 of (k,J, 1117, /,~7
nn t.."Onvcyi.., 4b9 ur roh,¢1oru,, 42, 12, .:?JJ
derin,d rrom rcusonlnl!, 2 ll source ur n,hA)ous upo;nc11.,.,, l.!'), lJ!
fomis of, 41 , &CJ >e< "'"" wlltlnnt)° u,ul .oclal L'Uhc,.on
cxotcrk/1:Mlt\!ri<l, 73 Unl~~rMu IX'Cl1tr,ulon «,( lluru•n ~,i..,
hbtorlcal, 150, 3..17 517 511;
lloornl ,<\cw of, 36$-o, J61i, 371 Unh·cruil llou,e of.lu,Uet. 15 J.?9, I.:? 1-S
morilill vlcw. 21l uw,·1,;._rsal law, J.)'J
tt!.lm.lve 1111turc of, 42, SS2n.1J Unh~r,;,tl Rukr, Z7:!
•"'"ch for. 12 I, 13,1-,5 un1,cn..1ltu1lon, 391..J. S!>Jn 11
dtclsile view, '.! l I unl,·c™', the, .)I, 1911
within ,-onocptual unlvel'lie, 150 ct:mrc of, :?77, 26<,
1n1thfulnc.s, 350, JS1 <.'On<.N.:p1ual, 150-1, 405, 4 11 126. 4 6H,
Thung Plug. l()<J 530, 566n.5
Tupa Kupa, 463 tl~>1ructlon of tradlt1onal vte,. of. S.:?6
Turner, \1ctor, 55, 281, 283 c.nd or,
207
l'w,hlw hcaven,254.260 ln<crpcnctratlc>n of"' erytlung tn, l:?
Tutu, Archbl,hop Dc~mond, 355. 493 oriJllns of w1~q
lwelvcr Shl'l>m, "'-"' Shl'lsm pcrfoc1lon oi, .?:?O
Tylor, Edward Burnett, 69,185,357, 538 purpooc of, J90
typologies, rclig,tous, IC>-17, 73-7, 138-9 •ymbollo, 2&, 565n:?
T%C\'I, Shabbetal, 257, 257 c,•olutJon of, 459
role of ai'l Iii crcu!h,g, ~SS, 4S<J.J,2, 4t.'i
'Ubaydu11ah the Mnhdi, 258 untlcrlylng ord<,r of 44
(.'da,UJ, 193-1 unity, 110
ulc1n11, 123,327,386, 407 , 428, 440 545 Bnha'I ,·tew or,
12--3
nnd populnr rcllJllon, 390, 393, 39<) behind multlpliulty of gods 6
Ulhnnn, Cbnnu, S5111 :?l Qf humonil)', l&
L1timatc Rcnllt)\ 2, S, 18, JSO llJ)(Ul(A)'<llUJ t,cr<!lllllRiC$ 2114, ~ IS
nltltudcs tow4tds, com•cy,,d lhrou!)h Upa.nl,hnd, I,, 3S, J9, 110, ,W,I, 201'1, 422
ritulll, 105 uprlghtncs,, 4 I
conceptions of, 5-6, 31, J7 U•enct, 522 s:u
conlnl" with concept of God, J:1-4 usun•, tl2
experience of, 530 u1opinn sccl3+ 7b
knuwll!d~c oi, unohuunohlc by human.,
211, 212 Valrocana Buddh;,, 24 I. :?60
moni,m'~ ,•icw, 186, 191-3 Val•hna.,1t1: flindui,m, JO I . JOl
mystics' eharacwriintlon (If, 211 Vajlninunta :i02
nn1urc or.
Jl-1, 41 , 18&-99 vnluc judgcmoni.., lid
oneness with, .19, 97 voluoAalu,:>, :?7, :142. :138
reln<ionship with, 2. S, 27, JI, 321, JJl, vuhurnl 5S
:\3:\ Ii h<: ra.l , l 77
rclntlvi5t ,·lew, 186 ~12 nl!«I for, :-i:?6
In thel<m, 186 rel"'1iou11 found.tl<>n of, ~!l2, JR.)
In Thcnwoda Buddhism. J4 '4!<rulnr \'ol'llUS n:111\IOU.S, ;?<I H9
~<i' ulsr, Absolute R<.'lllity, C'.od/Dcity and of H MJ<acty, 7
renlity matrifooal. 4JS
'\'mar, :\05, 317, 42,l, 443 ro<nnrchnl. 435, 446
t'ma)')'nd.•, 126. 42J '-IQ.fTill. "iC\' t..98MC '.\)""lt.:m
t'mbondii culis, Ill,), ,07 Vnmns, (Bcnun.•,;J, 157 27R ,114
ummtt (rommunl,y), 15, J4'1, 498, 545 \'a.<ubnnJhu, 194
'l'mmh, 281J \'atlcnn, J.1, 4 07
uncenaintv. 526 Vednnta. Hindui•m. I, 71, .?07, ;!..N-111
~cc aJ_SI) OCn:uncy· \'eds.,, II, IOI 204, .?2S. 244, J(/.?, .11,11, :lh.),
un(l()n~ious. the, <,._"\ 422

\
 INOt:x 6 2~

""mt'.ll forbiJ.lcu l<.I ol\lJ), 4 10, 4-IH a1"1 rloc o ( ,,,pltAlu111, S9, Ill , ;;?
\',.Jk lhnJUlhln.• ,i..!.
-lb-I \\'cl 1-h·n•,ty, .?SIi
\ cnil.tbiltty, 66. I, l \\crl>lowskr, ll J l1<I , HO
tiu IK'l,'d/K<I. ~ II \\'~IY~·. Cbn.rlc~. JJ-1
\'tcturta. Queen, .HZ Wc.1..,, , Juh11, J.?J, J:?,) , J.?4
\'1ctnam. z.,;, 7 \\'.,.t, the, .), -1 .
,k,.polnc,.. 1.\9, 150, 1'-11>-'I. JJI, JJJ. cluUcn~cs to rc.lJAlon In, 17~5
J71,475. 47o.4~2. 4k..'-l.S:?6, SJ4 <"Olonlz.tllon by, 41>
lbU . .NJ. J.H
u( the l>clic,·cr, I,!,, ucw r~U!taono mo,cment,o In , SI0-1S
chllll# ui, 151 •)'tnbol i.y,km ln , 72
m"1c, H'I \\'t:3tcni cullu.rul lmpl'rtulhm. ~4
rdauw. -11-J. Ml-1. 14'>. l<IS-9 Wc~tcrn ra.rnJ..h,.e, sL"t! Sukha\·.au
rdlg,ous . J.IZ. 4l'b. 4~1. 4'<J \\.e1ttcrn rcUg.on~ . .t1f.:c.' theism
>eicnt10c, HI>. 4'>.3 We,tem ( \\'tt!li~) \\'all, 2 7&
~uhJ~'1.."lhc, .5h \\'c>temcrs, 5
d:I \'inct. IA'Ooardo. 4-0(1 ,.o,s,cmuauon. J 77. 414
\irat Htntlu l:iamaJ , So! 'whau,~\ b7
•-uttn birth, 2<11-J, S51!n.,n. SSSn 42 \\11e.,I of Ltk 215 . .?16
\lJ"21Jl.U~·. ~2-J \\1u1.:, llnydcn , 150, .l.)7
llrtUd. 4-1, .\44-5 \\111«:head. J\lfred. :?20
\'1,Juiu, 9. J9, ZOl, 249, 271, 539 \\'lcea. 451
l'W111u Purono.. :!S:!. J<>S will, free. ..:e lr,-c ..111
\'\sh"~ Ultldu "'1rlsruld, 49.1, 5-0:? 11111, dlvtnc, ..._. \\"Ill o( God
,iMon quest. 107. lOb. llJ. 114 11ill, !human, JS
,isaoos, -1, 13 7, ZS'J, ?59 \\ill of God, J4, 203. :?21
tuebclyp.!> In. b-1 Wllson, llryan, H - 7. 77
of Cbn>t. IJ7, 259 "iruo.S6. 105, llb.279-!I0, 285
of Imam ll~yn, JOS, 310 \\1nnlngwn, Bl,hop o( London, ./10-I 1
<,>( Kah, 114 \>L..OOm, -14 , 95, JJ4, 212, .)04
o( l&IJ of"""'""· J05. ~ - J/Q acqul,Juc,n of, .)5, J 7, J<J
m,"1ull.t! rell~ou., e~po,rlcnce, 110-11 In lludJhbni, 195, 197, 204,207, 211 ,
o.. rc,1dstlon. ~0-1 216, 1()1
role in s-onverston. 159 1enunine image o(, 441 . 4-12, 452
ohh" \'!rgu, M41'Y 114, IJ 7 In I Undullim. :?07, 211- 2, .? I7, 227. 23'1
o( We,;1cm mv,tlcs, JJ7 rcpr..,.S<.-J. 62
wllil10:,,,
\lsnallon. the, 29:? witch doctor$, b, 48. "8, l lli, 12-1
\'l•·d..mauJa. Sv.amJ, 261 , 510, 511 \\1tcht:S. J90, J96, HO, SH , S l 6
\'ucuuunal lruutulc for the EJucaUoo o( \\11cg,.,n>1em. Ludwl~, 1-18-'I, 1-19 , 29J
Run.I Women, 126 \\'odcu, J90
\'odun (Voodoo), 507 v.Otn,:n, 155, J'l5, IJZ- SJ
,-ou,, offering,; , :?Zo a1llwdcs towards, JS!, 368, 3734. 4.36.
4J7- 9, 4J8, 440, -141 , -I-IJ, 44.S-6.448
Wa:¢ne.r, ZachArla,,, 401 L'Ontrol o( wxuAllly In, -IH---0
«'<lhd.u ul~uh (onene,;, u( bcln~). J8 cre.allon of, 436, 436
\\"llhhi,bt mO\CWCDl, J99, 42J cdul>l!linn o(, 126, 448
u,ajd, Ub, 545 cxpcrkncc of rcli!lloo, 450
u-almu 2.16-7 :?JI, female archetype, ::?76, 292.J, 337
«ml,~95 5-15 fcrtllity of, 208, 276
Walli, Ror. 77 martyrs, 231
•-a.rlan.'. rna'lrta.rahal M)Qk.ty. ~c matrin.rubnJ
In Buddhi5t -,tcUcs, 50J M>CiL'lV
rclftlon u.,,,J
to IL,g)lltru1te, 409-11 , 109 partnership "'ith men, JSO, JSl
rcllgfou, J46, 40?, SOJ p•tri•rch11I society, - patril1ruhal IIOCiet)'
rd1!lious Ju:milcatlorui /or, ./ l 0-1 1 p:tt rtorcbal vh.:w of the nature of, -136,
" ' C uoo )lhnJ and CN>lltlca H~
••'11:r 1571 1M) pcn,cpllon of, in SO<licty, H 1, 4-1 I
Watt, \!nnt&lOfflcr)·. JJ(i role of U4 , J'l4 433-4, 440-2, 565n 22
....,. nr hie 1 l <IC< ulso mntrlarchAI M>C1c1y
.....1111. 4.l0-- 1 rule modt-b for, Jn rc.:li~nn,, •I-I?
attitude• to,.·lJrlh J68 J72-J. JH soc-lAI i.solm..ion of, JS:?
\\'thtr. \111.11, 11>-17 119. S'l-61 59. 61 , subjug,,Uon o(. -1011, 4:l:?, 4JS--12
llQ, )J3 doctrinal •upprc,,_.1,m IJI>
charivna. ""-'10, J17 5;1.J,S.19 cJtdU!,ion o( \\Omen from rchl\loUJI
difference ber\\·..:1.:11 church and lit."Ct . i4 blcrnn:hy, 4-10- 2
626 TIIE PIIENOMENON Ot' Ri:,l,l<llON

morul suppression, 4,,1,, l,19 hi ,~mpte(i;, q, 22

,,ocl•I. 4,l'l-40 In rhet,rn .17, .ll,. 117-1'1
u,:,tlmnny or, ,n law, 4:W, 5S7n 2'1 wrirt:~ on rt-lHU"n, ..\-t
,·lt•len~'C wwnrd,. 440 \Vu, tmr,rc,"I 258
'\Vord uf <>od', 20.l Wvdihe. John Ill I
111 C:hrtsu:mhy, :!S-6, 20.1
fund•rnenrnllM Attitude, .11>4. ,\(15
In t,l,11n, .:!5--1,
\Vonhworth, \\'Wl=. 110 Y~b-..:b, 270
works of the lndMJunl, ,IS. J7, I 19 yokkbas ()•abhM),J'IJ, ,l<n
\\Urld, (1, 37, 125, l(J(,-.Jl Ymwt, ?4'.J
Cl1rhllun \'IC" ul, .?06 Y1111t~. Jo;7
t.11.:rncrhmc..tll from, St:~ Ucutuh.Ju~nt \'ummja, IO.?
Eastern rdij\lon,. 207 Yan/Yung, (>(1, 2(1'1, 55.'.!n .'.!7
e11<l uf the, 125,207, 2()'), 254, Jl2 \'In•YnnA Fh ~ Ekmcnt -.,houl, U
nu"stnnh, fll\ure olgn11L,, 125. 242, 25-1 \1nJcr J MIiion, 7 ~
kill)\\ le,ts~ ..,, ~2(, \',,g,,, 1,1<,, 11,970,171,422, !\10 ~I!\
Mnh.1y411n ,1cw or, I ?-1 -5 \',tj\auuro Buddhism, II . J:l6, ~59
modern, 50, 475-526 yogi,, H,'l-70
nuturnl, 60, 20-1 \'om Klppur (Duy of Atone111cm), 1117, 1111,
narurc or, JJ, 2H, 221, 475-6 53<1
ncgnthc attitude tm\'~n.ls, 20(-.-7 Yoruba, 102
orf!)lns of, 207-8 Yudhlsh,hlr .•H6
prior to nd\'tmt of s.uviour, 243-7, 24..1-6 Yule. JIN, J'l3
pu,,,.,,c <1(, 223
rejection of. 59, tJI, J96 r;nl,fr. 13-1, SJ<), 545
religion o way 10 explain, 185 Zaynoh, 291-5, 442
religious a.nd ..,culnr, .I~ I Z•icn mcdlwtion, 169. /7,/, 545
religinus nnd social, indislinJ!uishnblc, (\, Zea lots. 126
475 Zc,n Buddhl~m. 'I, 11 , 45, 10J, SH
transcendent worlds, I 9'>--204 mcd!rmion in, 108. 169-70
ll'tirld Cl,risdan E,,cyclapedfo, 511, S<'C also Zazcn
or
World C'.ouncil Churches, .358, 359-61), In rhc Wc,,t, 50.3
4Z4, 492-.1 women as Zen masters, 44!l
world order, emel')!cnce of, 349-50 Zcus,433
world reli,'llons, see religion, world Zhen Chan, 493
World War I, (,9, 409, 491 ,498 Zionism, 49.J
World War II , 420. 491 . 494,510 Zohar. 38. J8
World Wide Web, S22, 523 Zoroo.stcr (Zn.nnhustrn). ll9, 217 27?,
World \Wdllfe Fund, 358 J02, .305, SS&'n 42
world,·lcws, 149--SJ, 38-1--5, 459, 565n.2 Zoroasu-lunism, 7, 118, JN, SJS
rufected by a.rt, 460-2 ~=ol~·. 217-111, 217
altemarlve, 152,343, 383-4. 384. 376, dlsappearunc,; of true rcll!llon, 24/J
HS, 482. 485-7, 5S6n.47 eschotolo-._v, 2./J
androcentrlo,432,43~ futur" world ,-avloun,, 24.), 24f>-'J
patriarchal, 536 C'c0lden ,V,e m. 2S2
pr.,Jeflned by language, 4 71 Golden Rule In, ,344
Western, 4!ft haoma, !b l
see aJ.o rcallcy/Rcallly numerleru size. 504
wor,,blp People of lhe Book, 51,0n t.)
pathway to salvation, 117-20 prophcdc,,, .24 9
practices, 71 •prcad of. SOS
UudJhl:.t, 46 symbol or. 112
of OoJ, ,1-,e Cod, wor~blp of unl\'c:ri.ll order ln. 19')
Ulndu, 9, 22. 39 world prior to ad,·cnt of w, lour, 2 1S
In n1orusm, J7
 mntl\JtlH', th,·111,11i, pr,·,,t,ta111111 ul the
H n,• i, ,111

rnk ol rdigu,n III hurnun ,1111,·h, lrurn 1ra.l111on;al

luhua·, tu till' 111ucl,111 \\orl<I.
Arr,mgni into ti 11n• 111.1111 fidcls c,I , rup111) n lag1ou,
t·xpui,·mt• .111tl it~ ,·,111,·"1,,11, l<lllt,·ptuJI ,1,p<, t, of
rt:hgion, ancl rd1g11m m ,nd,·ty thi\ ,1ud) dr.1\\s nr;I 0111) lrn111 .,II the
rna1or rdigiou, lrJcl1t1ml\ ut th, world, hu1 alw Imm ,li,npl1111·~ bl1,h a.
p~,, hulug,, plulo,opl11 .ind "'c wlog~. Inc ludcd ,u, , h,1p1t·r, on:

• fa ith , bc l icf a ncl <;O n, Crl!io n

• suffering, :-at.r ilicc a nd !>ah ·atio n
• funda me nt a lism and lib era li, m
• religi o n a nd gcn dc r
• religion in the mo d e rn world.

frun1 .irl, h1,1on ,uul tht·olug,v to the \.\'orld \Vid,· \\'d,, anti fi•.:1111rmg nearly
400 illu, tr.iti on,, tlu, curnpr,·h,·n,i\c JL«11111t i, an '-'"<!nti.il gu1tlc lt,r anvune
"h" -.eeks an urult-r,wmli11g uf th, ,,,~r"lwlming ,liwr,il) ul \lurid faiths
,1ml a danfic-~tinn of th,· n,1111n .md ,ig111l11,111n• ·~f rdigiou., ,·xpcri~na-.

Or M oojan i\1omen is a "iddy puhli,hccl author in tht· fldd of worW

rdig1u11,. I It- ha, ,unlrihutnl to a ,.::u-i,·t} of acadt•mk journals and hll
/nu,,Jucrwn ,., .~h, ·, l,J.,m (Y.ilc/ lt..i, l,,•tom,· ..i 1,·admg rl'fen.-n,-e worlt.

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