LOSSES IN PIPE LINES OR CLOSED

5.1 Velocity Profiles: Laminar and Turbulent Sections

5.2 Hydraulic radius for Noncircular
5.3 Primary and Secondary Losses
5.4 Darcy Equation
5.5 Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow
5.6 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow
5.7 Moody Diagram
5.8 Secondary Losses

5.1 Velocity Profiles: Laminar and Turbulent

Speed indicates the term average flow velocity, which is calculated from the continuity equation:
V=Q*A
However, in some cases, determine the velocity at a point within the flow stream. This is because the
magnitude of velocity is not uniform across the duct section, and how the speed varies depending on the
type of flow.

The velocity at a point in contact with the solid (pipe wall) is zero (the boundary layer theory. Maximum
speed regardless of the type of flow occurs in the center of the duct.

This difference in profiles is due to the random motion of the molecules in the turbulent flow, resulting in
violent shocks therebetween and high momentum transfer between molecules, resulting in more uniform
velocity distribution than for laminar.
However, turbulent flow in a thin layer always exists near the surface, where the velocity is small, and in
which laminar flow can be considered (zone boundary layer). The actual thickness of the boundary layer
has a significant impact on the velocity profile and the pressure drop.

laminar Velocity Profile

Because of the regularity of the velocity profile in laminar flow can define an equation for determining the
velocity at any point of the path:
Turbulent Velocity Profile:

The turbulent flow profile is quite different from the laminar flow parabolic distribution.

Flow velocity near the wall changes from zero at the wall, to a nearly uniform velocity distribution in the
remaining cross section.

The actual shape of the profile depends on the friction factor, f, which in turn depends on the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness of the pipe.

The equation that defines the shape of the ducts is turbulent profile:

 1.43⋅ f  2.15⋅ −
 r
UV⋅ 1 f ⋅log 1

0
Recall that the logarithm of 0 is undefined, and therefore you can make "r" approaching "r0" or that "and"
is close to 0, but not to get to that exact value.

The maximum velocity in the center of the duct is expressed as:

U  V ⋅1 1.43⋅ f 

5.2 Hydraulic radius for Noncircular

Whenever it has been determined the Reynolds number, reference is made to a characteristic length. In
the case of circular pipes, the characteristic length is the inner diameter of the conduit.

However, there are many practical problems in fluid mechanics, where sections are not circular

The characteristic dimension of non-circular cross sections called "hydraulic radius" R, defined as the ratio
of the net area of the cross section and the wetted perimeter (PM) of said section.

A
R Rm en S.I.
PM
In calculating R, the net area of the cross section is calculated from the geometry of the section, and the
wetted perimeter is defined as the sum of the section boundaries that are actually in contact with the
fluid.

In this case we refer to conduits always closed and completely full, since it is the most general situation
analysis ducts.
Reynolds number:

When the fluid completely fills the conduit, the average velocity is determined using the flow through the
duct, and the passage section thereof, using the equation of continuity

V = Q/A
The Reynolds number in non-circular sections is calculated using the same formula of Re in circular ducts,
except that the characteristic length in the diameter D is replaced by 4R (four times the hydraulic radius)

his expression will be much more accurate, the more similar is the non-circular cross section to a circular
section.

In cases where, for example, the section is rectangular with a length greater than 4 times the height, or
cancel with little flow section, the expression will produce significant errors, and in many cases it will be
necessary to resort to experimental measurements.

5.3 Primary and Secondary Losses

The loss (or energy loss) in pipes are of two types, primary and secondary:

The primary losses are "surface loss" in fluid contact with the surface (boundary layer), friction fluid layers
with other (laminar regime) or the fluid particles together (turbulent). Take place in uniform flow and
therefore mainly occur in pipe sections constant section.

Secondary losses are the "loss of form" that occur in transitions (narrowing or expansions), elbows, valves
and all kinds of pipe fittings.

5.4 Losses Primary: Darcy Equation

Assuming a horizontal pipe finds diameter, D, for any fluid flowing between two points 1 and 2, is met
with losses Bernoulli equation:
In the late nineteenth century, it was demonstrated that the pressure loss was proportional to the square
of the average velocity in the pipe and the length thereof, and inversely proportional to the pipe diameter.
The above relationship is expressed as the Darcy

Friction factor f

The friction factor is a dimensionless parameter that depends on the speed, the diameter of pipe, fluid
properties (density and viscosity) and the surface roughness of the duct (which depends on the type of
material and processing of the same ).

f  F (V, D, ρ , ,k)
Being a dimensionless parameter, can be expressed in terms of dimensionless variables (Reynolds number
and relative roughness):

5.5 Frictional Losses in Laminar Flow

The effect of surface roughness is to facilitate the detachment and flow turbulence. However, if the flow is
laminar, the flow is "relatively" slow, viscosity "relatively" high and therefore the current is not disturbed
due to disturbance of the contour, and if you initiate a disturbance, would be damped by the viscosity
fluid.

Therefore, in laminar, the friction factor is a function of the roughness.

Since laminar flow occurs at high viscosities and / or low speeds, higher head losses due to friction
between the "layers of fluid". You can find a relationship between the pressure drop and fluid
characteristics to that equation is the equation called Hagen-Poiseville:

h  32⋅ ⋅L ⋅V
L
ρ ⋅g ⋅D2
Shows that the pressure loss does not depend on the conditions of the surface, only to losses due to
viscous friction of the fluid inside.

Darcy equation can also be used to calculate the pressure drops under laminar. If both expressions are
equal:

f ⋅ L ⋅ V 32⋅ ⋅L ⋅ 64⋅  64
2 V ⇒ f
D 2⋅g ρ ⋅g ⋅D2 ρ ⋅D ⋅V Re
5.6 Frictional Losses in Turbulent Flow

For the calculation of losses in turbulent flows is convenient to use the Darcy equation.

To determine the friction factor (f) there are several options:

Using the Moody Diagram Using correlations For turbulent flows (not highly turbulent), the friction
factor is dependent on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe. The table
below shows roughness type depending on the material used in the duct:
Tipo de Tubería Rugosidad absoluta Tipo de Tubería Rugosidad absoluta
k (mm) k (mm)
Vidrio, cobre o latón estirado < 0.001 (o lisa) Hierro galvanizado 0.15 a 0.20
Latón industrial 0.025 Fundición corriente nueva 0.25
Acero laminado nuevo 0.05 Fundición corriente oxidada 1 a 1.5
Acero laminado oxidad 0.15 a 0.25 Fundición asfaltada 0.1
Acero laminado con incrustaciones 1.5 a 3 Cemento alisado 0.3 a 0.8
Acero asfaltado 0.015 Cemento bruto Hasta 3
Acero roblonado 0.03 a 0.1 Acero roblonado 0.9 a 9
Acero soldado, oxidado 0.4 Duelas de madera 0.183 a 0.91
5.7 Moody Diagram

Typically, using equations Poiseville and Colebrook-White, can perform the calculation of the
friction coefficient (f).

However, this type of equations require a calculation tool which can be programmed, or complex
methods of resolution, so that one of the most widespread methods for rapid calculation of the
coefficient of friction is the use of the Moody diagram.

This diagram is a representation (in logarithmic scale) of the above two equations and to
determine the value of f as a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness.

The use of this diagram allows:

Determining the value of the friction factor (f) to be used in the Darcy.

Solve all the problems of primary pressure losses in ducts of any diameter, any material, and any
flow.

Can be used in non-circular section ducts, replacing the diameter (D) for the hydraulic radius (Rh)
5.8 Secondary Losses

The fundamental equation of secondary losses, analogous to the Darcy equation for primary
losses, is as follows:

V2
Hrs  ζ ⋅
2⋅g
where:

H rs = secondary load loss

ζ = dimensionless coefficient of secondary drop

Average speed V in the case of pipe elbows, valves etc. If it is a section change as contractions or
widening, speed is usually taken in the junior section.

Ζ coefficient depends on the type of accessory, the Reynolds number and the roughness to

the current configuration before attachment.

In general, it is necessary to have a straight pipe 4 to 5D before and after attachment in which the
pressure drop occurs in order to accurately apply the correlations to be presented below.
5.8.1 abrupt smooth out a deposit

abrupt departure

The value of ζ can be taken from the following image. Depends upon the diameter (d) and the
length of the piece of pipe which is inserted into the container (l), and the pipe thickness (δ).

smooth out

In this case the loss is much less than for abrupt departures. The value of ζ can be obtained from
the table from the relationship figure.

r 0 0,02 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,16 >0,2

D
ζ 0,5 0,37 0,26 0,15 0,09 0,06 <0,03
5.8.2 Abrupt and smooth enlargements

The transition from a circular section duct diameter D gives another diameter can be made
abruptly or smoothly through a conical diffuser angle α.

5.8.3 Contractions rough and smooth

5.8.4 Elbows

On a side rise to two types of losses:

Those produced by the centrifugal force creates a secondary flow which overlaps the main flow
and enhances the friction (Figure b)
Produced by the separations that can occur in the zones r and s (Figure a)The secondary flow can
be prevented almost completely by installing guide vanes, but is an expensive solution and used as

Ζ coefficients for different geometries of bends are obtained as follows: Elbow circular section and
radius r (Figure a)
 b/a
r/a 1 2 3 4
0 1,0 0,9 0,8 0,73
0,25 0,4 0,4 0,39 0,32
0,5 0,2 0,2 0,19 0,16
1 0,13 0,13 0,13 0,10

5.8.5 Valves

Gate Valve
Butterfly valve
Male valve

α (º) 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 60 65 70 90
ζ 0,05 0,29 0,75 1,56 3,10 5,47 17,3 31,2 52,6 206 486 --- ∞