Fasade Design Procedure

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE
PART II
BRITISH STANDARDS
PART III
AMERICAN STANDARDS
ANNEX
DESIGN AIDES
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
DISCLAIMER
This compendium of international building codes and standards for façade construction is compiled as private property for
the purposes of personal notes only. The compiler does not claim ownership specifically where data or content is
referenced to a source.
If this façade notes reaches the hands of another person aside from the compiler, it should not be distributed, copied or
published in any form or manner. If information contained in this notes are used as reference, the compiler does not
guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness or currency of the information nor its usefulness in achieving
any purpose. Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of these notes. The
compiler will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or
relying on information in these notes.
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
nd
PE Board Examination Topnotcher, 2 Place │1998
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering - Saint Louis University │1993 – 1998
Master of Science in Structural Engineering - University of the Philippines │1999 – 2001
______________________
Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist – Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –

Structural Engineer - LINDNER-SCHMIDLIN, Switzerland │2008 – 2014
Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN TSK, Switzerland │2006 – 2008
Façade Engineer - SCHMIDLIN LLC, Dubai │2005 – 2006
Façade Engineer - ARUP, Singapore │2004 – 2005
Structural Engineer - United Reliance Engineering Pte. Ltd., Singapore │2001 – 2004
Civil Engineering Instructor - Mapua Institute of Technology, Philippines │2001 – 2001
Design Engineer - Sumitomo Construction Co. Ltd., Philippines │1999 – 2001
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S
FAÇADE NOTES
PART I
EUROCODE
3RD EDITION │2014
LARRY M. CASTAÑEDA
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Table of Contents
I-1 LOADS 5
1.1 Dead load (D) 5
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L) 6
1.3 Snow load (S) 12
1.4 Wind load (W) 14
1.5 Load combinations 25
I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 26

2.1 Deflection limits 26
2.2 Structure tolerance 27
I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 31

3.1 Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile) 31
3.2 Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications 32
I-4 STEEL DESIGN 33

4.1 Properties of steel 33
4.2 Properties of stainless steel 35
4.3 Resistance of steel cross-sections 36
4.4 Sheets as diaphragms 39
4.5 Cold-formed members 40
I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 41

5.1 Properties of aluminium structures 41
5.2 Definitions 42
5.3 Protection at metal-to-metal contacts 43
5.4 Cross-sectional properties 44
5.5 Resistance of aluminium cross-sections 47
5.6 Cold formed members 50
I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 51

6.1 Properties of concrete 51
6.2 Concrete design 52
6.3 Anchorage design 52
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 53

7.1 Strength grade 53
7.2 Service class 54
7.3 Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL 55
I-8 GLASS DESIGN 59

8.1 Properties 59
8.2 Glass sizes 59
8.3 Glass holes 59
8.4 Structural design of glass 60
PART 1 EUROCODE 3
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
8.5 Glass stress and deflection 64
8.6 Climatic effects 67
8.7 Structural silicone glazing (SSG) 69
8.8 Safety glass TRAV Requirements 71
8.9 Glass fins 73
I-9 STONE DESIGN 75

9.1 Properties 75
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 77

10.1 Testing overview 77
10.2 Weather performance tests 78
10.3 Impact resistance tests 82
10.4 Glass safety tests 84
10.5 Fire classification 85
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 86

11.1 Bolted connections 86
11.2 Pin connections 93
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets 94
11.4 Stud welds 97
11.5 Weld 98
11.6 Plate bracket resistance 103
11.7 Anchors in Concrete 104
I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 105

12.1 Thermal Performance 105
12.2 Acoustic Performance 105
12.3 Fire Performance 105
4 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES LOADS
I-1 LOADS
1.1 Dead load (D)
Density of materials EN 1991-1-1:2010, Table A.3
Group Material Density, γ Group Material Density, γ
[kg/m³] [kg/m³]
Metal Aluminium 2 700 Concrete Normal weight 2 450
Bronze 8 450 Light weight 900 – 2 000
Copper 9 100 Heavy weight > 2 000
Iron, cast 7 400 Natural Stone Granite 2 750 – 3 000
Iron, wrought 7 750 Basalt, diorite, gabbro 2 750 – 3 150
Lead 11 600 Tachylyte 2 650
Steel 7 850 Sandstone, gray wacke 2 100 – 2 750
Stainless Steel 7 850 Dense limestone 2 000 – 2 950
Zinc 7 340 Slate 2 850
Glass Glass (annealed) 2 500 Aggregates Light weight 900 – 2 000
Plastic ETFE film - Normal weight 2 000 – 3 050
PVC-U 250 1 400 Heavy weight > 3 050
Terra Cotta 2 100 Sand 1 400 – 1 950
Insulation Rockwool (Loose) 25 Gravel & sand 1 500 – 2 000
Rockwool (Medium) 51 Wood Timber 350 – 1 100
Rockwool (Dense) 70 Plywood 500 – 700
FRC GRC 2 680 Particle board 700 – 1 200
Fibre board 800 – 1 000
PART 1 EUROCODE 5
LOADS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
1.2 Imposed/live load, (L)
1.2.1 Occupancy live load, LV
Imposed load balconies including floors and stairs EN 1991-1-1:2010
Load Description EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.2 Table NA.3
qk [kN/m²] Qk [kN] qk Qk
A A1/A2 Single family dwelling units incl. communal areas 1.5 2.0
Domestic A3 Hotels, motels, hospital wards, toilet areas 1.5 – 2.0 2.0 – 3.0 2.0 2.0
and
residential A4 Billiard, snooker rooms 2.0 2.7
activities A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A6 Balconies in hostel, guests house, residential club 2.5 – 4.0 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 2.0*
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 2.0
B B1 General use above ground level 2.5 2.7
Offices 2.0 – 3.0 1.5 – 4.5
B2 Ground level or below 3.0 2.7
C1 C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and
2.0 3.0
Areas with lounges, cafes and restaurants
tables 2.0 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.0
C12 Reading rooms with no book storage 2.5 4.0
C13 Classrooms 3.0 3.0
C2 C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating 4.0 3.6
Areas with C22 Places of worship 3.0 – 4.0 2.5 – 7.0(4.0)
fixed seats 3.0 2.7
C3 C31 Corridors, hallways, aisles in institutional type buildings not
Areas subjected to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest 3.0 4.5
without houses, residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
obstacles C32 Stairs, landings in institutional type buildings not subjected
for moving to crowds or wheeled vehicles, hostels, guest houses, 3.0 4.0
people residential clubs, and communal areas in blocks of flats
C33 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 4.0 4.5
buildings subjected to crowds
C34 Corridors, hallways, aisles in all buildings not covered by
C31 and C32, including hotels and motels and institutional 3.0 – 5.0 4.0 – 7.0 5.0 4.5
buildings subjected to wheeled vehicles, including trolleys
C35 Stairs, landings in all buildings not covered by C31 and
C32, including hotels and motels and institutional buildings 4.0 4.0
subjected to crowds
C36 Light duty walkways- access for one person, width ≤ 600
3.0 2.0
mm
C37 General duty walkways- regular two-way pedestrian traffic 5.0 3.6
C38 Heavy duty walkways- high density pedestrian traffic incl.
7.5 4.5
escape routes
C4 C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5.0 3.6
Physical C42 Drill halls and drill rooms 4.5 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
activities 5.0 7.0
C5 C51 Assembly areas without fixed seating, concert halls, bars
5.0 3.6
Susceptible and places of worship
5.0 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.5
to large
C52 Stages in public assembly areas 7.5 4.5
crowds
D D1 General retail shops 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0(4.0)
Shopping/ D2 Department stores 4.0 3.6
Retail areas 4.0 – 5.0 3.5 – 7.0
Note: * Concentrated at the outer edge
6 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.2.2 Barrier loads, LH
Claddings shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic values of the line load qk acting at the height
of the partition wall or parapets but not higher than 1.20 m
Horizontal loads on partition walls and parapets, qk [kN/m] EN 1991-1-1:2010
Category Sub-category examples EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Table 6.12 Table NA.8
A (i) All areas within or serving exclusively one dwelling including 0.36
Domestic and stairs, landings etc. but excluding external balconies and edges
residential activities of roofs [see (vii)]
(ii) Residential areas not covered by (i) 0.20 - 1.0 0.74
B and C1 (iii) Areas not susceptible to overcrowding in office and (0.5) 0.74
Offices areas institutional buildings, reading rooms and classrooms including
stairs
(iv) Restaurants and cafes 1.5
C2, C3 & C4 (v) Areas having fixed seating within 530 mm of the barrier, 1.5
Areas where people balustrade or parapet
may congregate
(vi) Stairs, landings, balustrades, corridors and ramps 0.74
(vii) External balconies and edges of roofs 0.8 – 1.0 0.74
Footways within building curtilage and adjacent to
basement/sunken areas
D (viii) All retail areas 1.5
C5 (ix) Footways or pavements less than 3 m wide adjacent to 1.5
Areas susceptible to sunken areas
large crowds
(x) Theatres, cinemas, discotheques, bars, auditoria, shopping 3.0
malls, assembly areas, studios
3.0 – 5.0
Footways or pavements greater than 3 m wide adjacent to
sunken areas
(xi) Grandstands and stadia (See requirements of appropriate -
certifying authority)
E (xii) Industrial; and storage buildings except as given by (xiii) 0.74
Storage and and (xiv)
industrial areas
(xiii) Light pedestrian traffic routes in industrial and storage 0.36
0.8 – 2.0
buildings except designated escape routes
(xiv) Light access stairs and gangways not more than 600 mm 0.22
wide
F and G (xv) Pedestrian areas in car parks including stairs, landings, 1.5
Garages and ramps, edges or internal floors, footways, edges of roofs See Annex B
vehicle traffic areas
(xvi) Horizontal loads imposed by vehicles See Annex B
PART 1 EUROCODE 7
1.2.3 Maintainance load, LM
Roof live load
Roofs shall be designed to sustain safely the characteristic uniformly distributed load qk and concentrated
load Qk acting independently.
Imposed loads on roofs EN 1991-1-1:2010
H EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Roofs not accessible except for Table 6.10 Table NA.7
normal maintenance and repair 2 2
qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN] Slope, α qk,[kN/m ] Qk,[kN]
α ≤ 30˚ 0.6
0 – 1.0 0.9 – 1.5
30˚ < α < 60˚ 0.6[(60-α)/30] 0.90
(0.4) (1.0)
α > 60˚ 0
I
Consider appropriate imposed loads according to categories A to D
Roofs accessible by occupants
• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1

2
Working personnel, staff and visitors, with hand tools or other small site equipment shall be min. 1.0 kN/m .
• Roof other than those with roof sheeting – EN 1991-1-1, 6.3.4.2 (4)
Roofs, other than those with roof sheeting, should be designed to resist 1,5 kN on an area based on a 50 mm
sided square. Roof elements with a profiled or discontinuously laid surface, should be designed so that the
concentrated load Qk acts over the effective area provided by load spreading arrangements.
8 PART 1 EUROCODE
BMU Loading
• Definition acc. to EN 1808:1999
1 – Trolley unit
2 – Monorail track
3 – Traversing trolley
4 – Single point suspended platform
5 – Carriage
6 – Fixed davit
7 – Counterweight suspension beam
8 – Suspended platform
9 – Parapet clamp
10 – Suspended chair
Wind loads EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.3.3
Wind load
Description Wind speed Wind pressure Impact energy**
for 3m long BMU*
2
Normal operation (25mph) 11.2 m/s 0.08 kN/m 0.29 kN 280 N·m or J
2
Unrestrained (H ≤ 40 m) 14 m/s 0.125 kN/m 0.46 kN 690 N·m or J
2
Restrained (H > 40 m) 20 m/s 0.25 kN/m 1.00 kN 1400 N·m or J
Notes: * The exposed area of one person standing on a work platform behind
2
an imperforate section of fencing 1 m high is 0,35 m with the centre of area
2
1,45 m above the platform floor. The full area of one person is 0,7 m with the
centre of area 1,0 m above the platform floor.
** Impact energy of the suspended platform when allowed to be drawn
or sucked from façade by negative gust wind pressures acting on the
suspended platform, and then released to impact into façade.
• Minimum restraint force
EN 1808 Cl. 6.7: The mullion guide and anchor points shall be adequately
attached to the building and capable of withstanding the operational and
wind loads imposed upon them with the platform in any position. The
members linking the platform to the mullions or anchor points shall be
capable of withstanding the operational and wind loads imposed upon them.
For the calculation, the minimum value of the effort applied to the
restraint system shall be 1 kN.
• Restraint system
EN 1808 Cl. 7.7.3: The lowest restraint point shall not be more than 40 m above
the lowest working level. The distance between restraints above 40 m shall not
exceed 20 m.
1 – Anchor point
2 – Member linking the platform to the anchor point
3 – Suspension wire ropes
Allowable stresses EN 1808:1999 Cl. 6.2.1.1
Condition Allowable Allowable
Load
yield stress, breaking stress,
case
σE/νE σR/νR
1 In service conditions, SAE with RL affected by wind. Fy/1.5 Fu /4.0
Occasional conditions (e.g. static and dynamic tests, Fu /2.2
2 Fy /1.33
tripping of overload detection device)
Extreme conditions (e.g. operation of secondary Fu /1.5
3 Fy
device, out-of-service wind)
PART 1 EUROCODE 9
Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height

Anchor Devices EN 795:1997 Cl. 5
Class Diagram Static load Dynamic test
Class A1 - Vertical, horizontal and inclined surface anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.1.1]
1 – Structural
anchors
2 – Anchor point
100 kg mass at a
Class A2 - Inclined roof anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.1.2] maximum of 300
1 – Structural mm horizontal
anchors eccentricity from
the anchor point to
2 – Anchor point
freely fall at a
height of 2500 ±
50 mm.
Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.2]

1 – Anchor point
Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line 6 kN [5.3.4.1] 100 kg mass at a

maximum of 300
1 – Structure mm horizontal
2 – Extremity eccentricity from
structural anchor the anchor point to
3 – Intermediate freely fall
structural anchor Dynamic
4 – Anchor line performance test:
5 – Mobile anchor at a height to
point provide sufficient
fall energy to
develop at least 6
kN.
Class D - Horizontal rigid anchor lines One person: 10 kN
Multiple person:
1 – Anchor rail
10 kN + 1 kN for
2 – Mobile anchor
each additional
point
person. [4.3.4]
Class E - Dead weight anchors

1 – Anchor point
10 PART 1 EUROCODE
Temporary Edge Protection

Temporary edge protection EN 13374:2004
Class Inclination Verification
Static loads: - Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under All

horizontal loads FT1 & FT2 for boards and FH1 for components
posts are capable of
A < 10° resisting 30 kg
- No material failure under vertical load FD (γF = 1.0)
- No material failure under horizontal loads FH1 & FH2 upward force
(γF = 1.5)
B 10° - 30° Pendulum test: -
≤ 200mm: 1100 J
Rolling Test:
> 200mm: 500 J
C 30° - 60° - 75 kg roller
- Impact points (worst location): midspan and post
Sample of temporary edge protections Class A

Static load
Class B & C Class C

Pendulum Test Rolling Test
PART 1 EUROCODE 11
1.3 Snow load (S)
Snow load on roof is considered as medium term load, i.e., to have a notional duration of one month acc. to
EN 1991-1-3 Cl. 5.
Snow load on monopitch roof EN 1991-1-3:2003
Action Values Notes Clause
Data Z Zone Fig. C.1
A Site altitude, [m] through
Characteristic snow load, Sk: C1.13
Region Sk Characteristic snow load on ground,
2
UK [NA.2.8] 0.1Z + 0.2 + ( A − 100 ) 525 [kN/m ] Table C.1
Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 ) 

2
 
( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 ) 

2
Central East
 
Central West 0.164 Z − 0.082 + A 966
Roof α Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2

Shape Case (i): Undrifted load (a) Flat or monopitch roof – undrifted
coefficient a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: & drifted load
µ1 = 0.8 Table 5.2
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚:
 60 − α 
µ1 = 0.8  
 30 
c) α > 60˚
µ1 = 0
Case (ii): Drifted load (b) Duopitch Roof – undrifted (case i)
a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚: and drifted load (cases ii & iii)
 α  Fig. 5.3
µ2 = 0.8 + 0.8  
 30 
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: Table 5.2
µ2 = 1.6
c) α > 60˚
µ2 = --
Canopy b1 Width of canopy projection 5.3.6

Shape b2 Width of abutting taller building
coefficient h Differential height
b1 ≤ 5m or { b1 > 5m; h ≤ 1m}:
ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m} Fig. B3
µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 5.0}
B4 (d)
B4 (c)
b1 > 5m:
ls = min { 5h; b1; 15m}
Fig. B2
a) 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 30˚:
µ3 = min { 2h/Sk; 2bmax/ls; 8.0}
b) 30˚ < α < 60˚: B3 (3)
 60 − α 
µ3 = min { 2h S k , 2bmax l s , 8.0}   Table B1
 30 
2
Snow load Case (i) Undrifted snow load Characteristic snow load, [kN/m ] 5.2 (3)P
s = Ce · µ1 · sk Exposure coefficient, Ce:
Case (ii) Drifted snow load Topography Ce Table 5.1
s = Ce · µ2 · sk Windswept 0.8
case (iii) Exceptional snow drift
Normal 1.0
s = µ3 · sk
Sheltered 1.2
12 PART 1 EUROCODE
Figure 1.3-1 Characteristic ground snow load map Fig. NA.1 UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-3:2003
PART 1 EUROCODE 13
1.4 Wind load (W)
1.4.1 Relevant dimensions
For low-rise buildings (h/d ≤ 0.25), according to EN 1991-1-4, Table 7.1 the effect of building plan dimension
is more severe on the positive pressure of the windward face when the inwind depth “d” is the longer
dimension. Albeit, the directional factor is conservatively assumed unity.
1.4.2 Directional factor, cdir
Directional factor, cdir EN 1991-1-4:2005 Clause 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [Table NA.1]
Direction - 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
cdir 1.0 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.80 0.85 0.93 1.00 0.99 0.91 0.82
1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason

These factors provide the 0.02 probability of exceedence for the period given.
Seasonal factor, cseason EN 1991-1-4:2005 clause 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [Table NA.2]
Months
- 1 month 2 months 4 months 6 months
January 0.98
0.98
February 0.83
0.86 0.98
March 0.82
0.83 0.87
April 0.75
0.75 0.83
May 0.69
0.71 0.76
June 0.66
0.67 0.73 0.84
July 0.62
0.71 0.83
August 1.0 0.71
0.82 0.86
September 0.82
0.85 0.90
October 0.82
0.89 0.96
November 0.88
0.95 1.00
December 0.94
1.00 1.00 1.00
January 0.98
0.98 1.00
February 0.83
0.86
March 0.82
1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob

The basic values of wind velocity or the velocity pressure determined using EN 1991-1-4 are characteristic
values having annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50
years (it should not be interpreted as occurring regularly every 50 years).
Probability factor EN 1991-1-4:2005 Cl. 4.2
EN 1991-1-4 UK NA [NA.2.8]
Probability of exceeding a given R-return period R L
- p = 1 − (1 − 1 R)
wind speed in L years
1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p )  1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − p ) 
Probability factor c prob = =
1 − 0.2 × ln  − ln ( 1 − 1 50 )  1.3343
Return periods for climatic actions EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1

Duration Target return period Probability of exceeding Probability factor Wind load Rec. basic value
of execution L in any one year, p cprob vb’ = cprob · vb
≤ 3 days 2 years 0.40 0.7982 0.64·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 1 month 3.5 years 0.25 0.8376 0.70·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 3 months 5 years 0.18 0.8622 0.74·qp vb’ ≥ 20 m/s
≤ 1 year 10 years 0.10 0.9025 0.81·qp -
> 1 year 50 years 0.02 1.0 qp -
14 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.5 Calculating peak velocity pressure
Wind load calculation for EU EN 1991-1-4:2005
Data vb,0 Fundamental value of basic wind velocity (10 min. 4.2 (1)P
mean), [m/s]
Factors cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P
cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-]
c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-]
ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 Air density
Basic velocity vb = cprob · cseason · cdir · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.5 (1)
pressure qb = ½ρ·vb2 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ]
Peak velocity z Height considered above terrain, [m] 7.2.2
pressure ce(z) [See Figure 1.4-1] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. 4.2
qp(z) = ce(z)·qb 2
Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] 4.5 (1)
Land category:
Land Category
0 Sea or coastal area
I Flat country without obstacles
II Farmland with boundary hedges
III Suburban or industrial areas
IV Densely built-up urban areas
Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z) EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2
PART 1 EUROCODE 15
Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]
16 PART 1 EUROCODE
Wind load calculation for UK UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005

Data vb,map [see Figure 1.4-3] Basic wind velocity (10 min. mean), [m/s] Fig. NA.1
0.2
 10 
calt = 1 + 0.001 ⋅ A ⋅   Altitude factor for z ≥ 10 m., [-] NA.2.5
 z 
vb,0 = vb,map · calt Fundamental value of basic wind velocity, [m/s]
cdir = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.2] Directional factor, [-] 4.2 (2)P
cseason = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.3] Seasonal factor, [-]
Factors c prob = 1.00 [See section 1.4.2.1.4.4] Probability factor, [-]
vb = cseason · cdir · cprob · vb,0 Basic wind velocity, [m/s] 4.2 (2)P
Basic velocity
pressure 2
Basic velocity pressure, [N/m ] ρ = 1.226 kg/m
3
4.5(1)P
qb = 0.613 · vb2
Displacement h Building height, [m] A.5 (1)
height have = 15 m (if no available data) Average height of neighbouring structures, [m]
- for Town x Site horizontal distance to other structures, [m]
terrain (IV) values of hdis: Effective height, [m]
hdis (lesser of)
x ≤ 2have 0.8have; 0.6h
2have < x < 6have 1.2have – 0.2x; 0.6h
x ≥ 6have 0
Orography is ce(z) [see Figure 1.4-4] Exposure factor, [-] Fig. NA.7
not significant
a) Country terrain (I & II)
qp = ce(z) · qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ]
2
NA.2.17
b) Town terrain (III & IV)
Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.8
ce,T [see Figure 1.4-5]
qp = ce(z) · ce,T · qb
Orography is co(z) = vm/vmf Orography factor, [-] A.3
significant z ≤ 50 m
2
 co( z ) + 0.6 
q p =  2
 ce( z ) ⋅ qb Peak velocity pressure, [N/m ] NA.2.17
 1.6 
z > 50 m
cr(z) Roughness factor, [-] Fig. NA.3
a) Country terrain (I & II)
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · vb
b) Town terrain (III & IV) Mean wind velocity, [m/s] NA.2.11
cr,T
vm = co(z) · cr(z) · cr,T · vb Roughness correction factor for Town terrain, [-] Fig. NA.4
Iv(z)flat Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-] Fig. NA.5

I v ( z ) flat
I v(z) = Turbulence intensity factor, [-] NA.2.16
co( z )
2 3
(
q p = 1 + 3I v( z ) ) ⋅ 0.613 ⋅ v m 2 Peak velocity pressure for ρ = 1.226 kg/m ,
2
NA.2.17
[kN/m ]
PART 1 EUROCODE 17
1.4.6 Factors and coefficients
Figure 1.4-3 UK Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s] UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.1
18 PART 1 EUROCODE
Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z) UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7
50 70
30
20
5
Figure 1.4-5 Exposure correction factor for Town terrain, ce,T UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.8
5
2
PART 1 EUROCODE 19
1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements

The coefficients may be applied to non-vertical walls within ±15° of vertical acc. to UK NA.2.27.
Characteristic wind load for walls of rectangular plan buildings UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.2
Data h, b, d Building height, crosswind breadth, inwind depth, [m]
h/d Slenderness ratio, [-]
External e = min{b; 2h} Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5

pressure gap Gap to adjacent building, [m]
coefficient values of Cpe: External pressure coeff. for isolated & funnelling, [-]
Side wall Table 7.1
Isolated Funnelling NA.2.27
Zone
≤ 1m² > 1m² b/4 ≤ gap ≤ b
A -1.4 -1.2 - 1.6
Table 7.1
B -1.1 -0.8 - 0.9
C -0.5 -0.5 - 0.9
Windward wall
h/d ≤ 0.25 h/d > 0.25
D
+1.0 +0.7 +1.0 +0.8
Leeward wall
h/d 1 ≥ h/d h/d
E ≤ 0.25 > 0.25 >1
- 0.30 - 0.5 - 0.7
Internal cpi(+) = +0.2 Internal pressure coeff. for uniformly distributed 7.2.9
pressure coeff. cpi(–) = –0.3 opening, [-]
2
Net wind Zones A, B, C & E: Maximum net wind suction, [kN/m ] 5.2
Pressure w = qp [cpe – cpi(+)]
2
Zone D: Maximum net wind pressure, [kN/m ]
w = qp [cpe – cpi(–)]
1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin

Walls with more than one skin EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.2.10
Data µ = (area of opening)/(area of skin) Permeability of a skin 7.2.10
Case 1: Permeable outside skin, µo ≥ 0.001: Applicable when extremities of the layer between 7.2.10
w+ = qp (2/3·Cpe+); w– = qp (1/3†·Cpe–) skins are closed
Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001:
w = qp (Cpe – Cpi)
Case 2: Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001:
w = qp (Cpe)
Impermeable more rigid inside skin, µi > µo
w = qp (Cpe – Cpi) Case 1 Case 2
Case 3: Impermeable outside skin, µo < 0.001:
Permeable inside skin, µi ≥ 0.001:
w = qp (1/3·Cpi)
Case 4: Impermeable more rigid outside skin, µo > µi:
Impermeable inside skin, µi < 0.001: Case 3 Case 4
w=0
†
Note: 2/3 according to CWCT 2.2.5.1.
20 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.9 Wind load for walls of rectangular plan building in London
Wind Load in London
Building height Pressure Isolated [kN/m²] Funnelling [kN/m²]
LONDON
[m] [kN/m²] Suction Local Suction Local
Low-rise bldg. 10 0,89 -0,77 -1,16 -0,85 -1,39
Intermediate 25 1,15 -1,00 -1,50 -1,10 -1,81
Medium-rise 50 1,31 -1,14 -1,71 -1,25 -2,05
High-rise 100 1,43 -1,25 -1,87 -1,37 -2,24
Skyscraper 200 1,57 -1,37 -2,05 -1,51 -2,46
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
Building Height [m]
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wind Load [kN/m²]
PART 1 EUROCODE 21
1.4.10 Wind load on free-standing walls
Wind load on free-standing walls EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4
Data h, L Height and length of free-stand wall, [m] Fig. 7.19
φ Solidity ratio, [-] 7.4 (1)
Pressure values of Cp: Table 7.9
coefficients Zone φ = 1.0 φ = 0.8
Without return corners* Fig. 7.19
Cp3 Cp5 Cp10
L/h ≤ 3 L/h = 5 L/h ≥ 10
A 2.3 2.9 3.4
B 1.4 1.8 2.1
1.2
C 1.2 1.4 1.7
D 1.2
With return corners ≥ h
A 2.1
B 1.8
1.2
C 1.4 7.4.2
D 1.2 Fig. 7.20
* Intermediate values of Cp
(
L c p5 − c p 3
3 < L/h < 5 c p5 −  5 − 
)
 h 2

5 < L/h < 10 c p10 −  10 − 
(
L  c p10 − c p5 )
 h 5
φ < 0.8:
Treat as plane lattices acc. to 7.11
Fin features Corner fins: [BRE
cp,net = 2.0 Net pressure coefficient [-] NJCook
Series of fins: cl. 20.8.3]
x Dist. of sheltering upwind fin ≥ h, [m] 7.4.2
ψs Shelter factor, [-] Fig. 7.20
cp,net = max{ψs·cp; 0.4} Net pressure coefficient [-]
Net pressures w = cp,net · qp
Wind load on signboards EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3

Data h Height of signboard, [m] Fig. 7.21
b Width of signboard, [m] 7.4 (1)
zg Separation height of signboard from ground, [m]
Net pressure values of cf: Fig 7.21
coefficients zg ≥ h/4 cf = 1.8
b/h ≤ 1 cf = 1.8
zg < h/4 Treat at parapet
b/h > 1 acc. to 7.4.1
Net pressure w = cf · q p
22 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.4.11 Wind load on long elements
Design wind loads on long elements EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.6, 7.7 & 7.8
Data b, d, L Width, depth and length of element, [m] Fig. 7.23
φ Solidity ratio, [-]
Force values of cf,0: Force coefficients, [-] 7.6
coefficient Structural Fig. 7.23
cf,0 = 2.0
(sharp edge) 7.7
Circular cf,0 = 1.0
Fig. 7.28
Rectangular See Fig. 7.23
Square cf,0 = 2.1
Reduction factor for square sections

with radius:
ψr Reduced force coefficient, [-]
Fig. 7.24
End-effect Free-end polygon & sharp edged Effective slenderness ratio, [-] Table 7.16
reduction factorsections:
a) L < 15 m
λ = 2·L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 1.4·L/b or 70(lesser of)
Free-end circular sections &
Ends connected to structure:
a) L < 15 m
Fig. 7.36
λ = L/b or 70(lesser of)
b) L ≥ 50 m
λ = 0.7·L/b or 70(lesser of)
values of cf,0:
Structural, End-effect factor, [-]
λ = min
polygon &
Free-end lattice {2L/b;70}
Circular cf,0 = 1.0

Abutted Any See Fig. 7.23
ends section
ψλ
Net pressure w = cf,0 · ψλ · qp Net wind pressure
PART 1 EUROCODE 23
1.4.12 Wind load on parapet attached to curtain wall
δC δC C
max, wparapet min, wparapet a

B
min, wcw max, wcw L
Case-1:
max, wparapet = Cp,A·qs
min, wcw = [Cpe,E – Cpi(-)]·qs
Case-2:
min, wparapet = Cp,D·qs
max, wcw = [Cpe,A – Cpi(+)]·qs
24 PART 1 EUROCODE
1.5 Load combinations
1.5.1 Faming member design
The most unfavourable effect of the following load combinations should be considered for characteristic
serviceability evaluations.
Vertical facades EN 1990:2005 6.5.3
Serviceability Ultimate limit state Description Occupancy
CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all
CO101: D + W p CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p Dead + wind pressure all
CO102: D + W s + 0.7L CO202: 1.35D + 1.5W s + 0.7·1.5L Dead + wind suction + imposed all
CO103: D + L + *0.6W s CO203: 1.35D + 1.5L + *0.6·1.5W s Dead + imposed + wind suction all
Note: *0.5W s acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

Serviceability Ultimate limit state Description Occupancy
CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all
CO101: D + W p + **0.7S CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p + **0.7·1.5·S Dead + wind downforce + snow all
D + W p + 0.7SA Dead + wind downforce + snow drift
CO102: D + S + *0.6W p CO202: 1.35D + 1.5S + *0.6·1.5W p Dead + snow + wind downforce all
D + SA + 0.7W p Dead + snow drift + wind downforce
CO103: D + W s CO203: D + 1.5W s Dead + wind uplift all
CO104: D + L CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L Dead + imposed H

Note: *0.5W p for UK NA:2005 Table NA.A1.1
**0.7S for H >1000m a.s.l; 0.5S for H ≤ 1000m a.s.l.
1.5.2 Glass design
Vertical facades TRAV:2003 4.2
Serviceability Description
Single glass
CO301: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO302: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
Multiple glazing
CO311: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO312: D + L + 0.5W Dead + imposed + wind in the direction of the imposed load
CO313: D + W p + Hw Dead + wind pressure + winter climate
CO314: D + W s + Hw Dead + wind suction + winter climate
CO315: D + L + Hw Dead + imposed + winter climate
CO316: D + W p + Hs Dead + wind pressure + summer climate
CO317: D + W s + Hs Dead + wind suction + summer climate
PART 1 EUROCODE 25
DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

2.1 Deflection limits
EN 1990:2002 cl. 3.4, states that serviceability requirements are agreed for each individual project.
2.1.1 Primary Structure
Steel and Concrete design EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004

Component Deflection Description EN UK NA
Steel Vertical Carrying brittle finish - L/360
EN 1993-1-1 deflection
Other beams - L/200
Cantilevers - L/180
Horizontal Tops of columns in single-storey buildings except portal
- H/300
deflection frames
In each storey of a building with more than one storey - Hi/300
Concrete Vertical Beam, slab or cantilever under quasi-permanent loads span/250 -
EN 1992-1-1 deflection
Deflection after construction to prevent damage to adjacent
span/500 -
parts of the structure under quasi-permanent loads
Timber design EN 1995-1-1:2004

EN 1995-1-1 Table 7.2 UK NA:2008 Table NA.5
Instantaneous, winst Net final, wnet,fin Final, wfin Net final, wnet,fin
= winst + wcreep - wcamber = winst + wcreep = winst + wcreep - wcamber
No plaster* With plaster*
Simple beam L/300 to L/500 L/250 to L/350 L/150 to L/300 L/150 L/250
Cantilever L/150 to L/250 L/125 to L/175 L/75 to L/150 L/75 L/125
Note: * Roof or floor members with or without a plastered or plasterboard ceiling.
2.1.2 Facade
Curtain wall EN 13830:2003
Component Limit Clause
Frontal deflection under wind load L/200 or 15mm 4.1; EN 13116:’01, 4.3.1
Horizontal framing under vertical loads L/500 or 3mm 4.2
26 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
2.2 Structure tolerance

2.2.1 Concrete Structures
‘Permitted deviation’ is the permitted algebraic differences between the limits of size and the corresponding
reference size (unless ± is stated). See EN 13670:2009 cl. 3.13, also ISO 1803:1997 cl. 3.8.
The "box principle" will require that all points of the structure are within the specified theoretical position with
a margin in any direction corresponding to the permitted deviation. A recommended value when applying the
box principle is ± 20 mm.
Tolerances EN 13670:2009
Structure Type Description Permitted Deviation [mm] Clause
Base Plan section Position in plan of a base ∆ = ± 25 G.10.3.a
supports support relative to the
Foundations secondary lines
Vertical section Position in vertical ∆ = ± 20 G.10.3.b

direction of a base support
relative to the secondary
level
Columns and Verticality by storey Inclination of a column or h ≤ 10m : ∆ = max {h 400;15} 10.4.a
walls wall at any level
h > 100m : ∆ = max {h 600;25}
h in mm
Offset between floors Deviation between ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30 10.4.b

centrelines at floor level
Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or ∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30 10.4.c

floors wall between adjacent
storey levels h in mm
PART 1 EUROCODE 27
Inclination Location of any column,  ∑ hi  10.4.d
wall or floor edge, at any ∆ = min  ; 50 
storey level from any  200 n 
vertical plane through its
H in metres
intended design centre at
base level
Position on plan of a column Position in plane of a ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.a

column relative to the
secondary lines
Position on plan of a wall Position in plane of a wall ∆ = ± 25 G.10.4.b

relative to the secondary
line
Distance apart Free space between ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 60 G.10.4.c

adjacent columns or walls
Beams and Location of beam to column Measured relative to the ∆ = ± max {b 30;20} 10.5.a
slabs connection column
Bearing Position of bearing axis ∆ = ± max {l 20;15} 10.5.b

support
Straightness of beam Horizontal straightness of ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} G.10.5.a

beams
Distance apart Between adjacent beams, ∆ = ± max {l 600;20} ≤ 40 G.10.5.b

measured at
corresponding points
28 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS
Inclination of beam or slab Difference in level across a ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ) G.10.5.c
beam or slab at
corresponding points in
any direction
Level of adjacent beams Measured at ∆ = ± ( 10 + l 500 ) G.10.5.d

corresponding points
Level per storey Level of adjacent floors at ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.e

supports
Level Level of floors measured H ≤ 20m : ∆ = ± 20 G.10.5.f

relative to the intended H > 20m : ∆ = ± 0.5(H+20) ≤ 50
design level at the
reference level H in metres
Sections Cross-section dimension of Tolerance Class 1 l ≤ 150 : ∆ = ± 10 10.6.a

elements 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<l < 2500: ∆ = 15+
140
l ≥ 2500 : ∆ = ± 30
Tolerance Class 2 l ≤ 150 : ∆ = ±5
See cl. 10.1(2)Notes 150<l ≤ 400 : ∆ = 2+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<l < 2500: ∆ = 10+
105
l ≥ 2500 : ∆ = ± 30
Location of reinforcement Tolerance Class 1 h ≤ 150 : ∆ = +10 10.6.b
150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<h < 2500: ∆ = +15+
210
h ≥ 2500 : ∆ = +25
Tolerance Class 2 h ≤ 150 : ∆ = +5
150<h ≤ 400 : ∆ = +7+l 50
( l − 400 )
400<h < 2500: ∆ = +10+
210
h ≥ 2500 : ∆ = +20
Lap joints Length of reinforcement ∆ = − 0.06 ⋅ l 10.6.c
Squareness of element Orthogonality of a cross- ∆ = ± max {a 25;10} ≤ ±20 G.10.6.a

section
Surface Flatness Moulded or smoothed l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 9 G.10.7.a

straightness surface
llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 4
PART 1 EUROCODE 29
Not moulded surface l global = 2.0 m ; ∆global = 15
llocal = 0.2 m ; ∆local = 6
Skewness Skewness of cross-section ∆ = ± a 25 ≤ 30 G.10.7.b

∆ = ±b 25 ≤ 30
Edge straightness Floor slab or element l ≤ 1000 : ∆ = ± 8 G.10.7.c

l > 1000 : ∆ = ± min {8·l;20}
Holes and Holes and conduit inserts Deviation from secondary ∆x , ∆y = ± 25 G.10.8.a
inserts line ∆D = ± 10
Blockout and recesses Deviation from secondary ∆x , ∆y , ∆1 , ∆2 = ± 25 G.10.8.b

line
Anchor bolts and similar Placing of bolts and centre ∆1 = ± 10 G.10.8.c

inserts of a bolt group
Internal distance between ∆2 = ± 3

bolts in a group
Protrusion and inclination ∆3 = +25/ − 5

∆s = max {l3 200; 5}
Anchoring plates and similar Deviation in plane ∆x , ∆y = ± 20 G.10.8.d

inserts
Deviation in depth ∆z = ± 10
30 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING
I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING

3.1 Assessment via the characteristic value (5% Fractile)
Statistical evaluation of test result EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.2
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [kN] D7.2
n Number of measured values [-]
ηd Design value of the conversion factor [-]
γm Partial safety factor of the material [-]
Normal 1 Mean value [kN] D7.2
distribution
mx = ∑ xi
n i
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
s
Vx = x Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X k = m x ( 1 − knV x )
Characteristic value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 )
Xk = e
( m y − kn s y )
Characteristic value [kN]
5% Fractile values of kn: Values of kn for the 5% characteristic Table D1
n Vx known* Vx unknown* value based on the normal distribution of
1 2.31 - x’s.
2 2.01 -
3 1.89 3.37
4 1.83 2.63
5 1.80 2.33
6 1.77 2.18
8 1.74 2.00
10 1.72 1.92
20 1.68 1.76
30 1.67 1.73
∞ 1.64 1.64
Design value ηd Design value [kN]
Xd = Χ
γm k
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
PART 1 EUROCODE 31
DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
3.2 Direct assessment of the design value for ULS verifications
Statistical evaluation of test result EN 1990:2002 Annex D7.3
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [kN] D7.3
ηd Design value of the conversion factor
which should cover all uncertainties not
covered by the tests [-]
Normal 1 Mean value [kN] D7.3
distribution
mx = ∑ xi
n i
∑ ( xi − m x ) ( n − 1 )
2
sx = ± Standard deviation [kN]
sx
Vx = Coefficient of variation [-]
mx
X d = ηd m x ( 1 − kd ,nV x )
Design value [kN]
Log-normal 1
distribution
my = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i Logarithmic mean value [kN]
Vx is known from previous knowledge:
Logarithmic standard deviation [kN]
(
s y = ± ln V x 2 + 1 ≈ V x )
Vx is unknown from previous knowledge:
2
sy = ± ∑  ln ( xi ) − m y  ( n − 1 )
X d = ηd e
( m y − kd ,n s y )
Design value [kN]
0.1% lower value values of kd,n: Values of kd,n for a probability of Table D2
n Vx known* Vx unknown* observing a lower value of about 0.1%
1 4.36 - based on normal distribution of x’s.
2 3.77 -
3 3.56 -
4 3.44 11.4
5 3.37 7.85
6 3.33 6.36
8 3.27 5.07
10 3.23 4.51
20 3.16 3.64
30 3.13 3.44
∞ 3.04 3.04
Note: * Prior knowledge come from the evaluation of previous tests in comparable situations. What is ‘comparable’
needs to be determined by engineering judgement.
32 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STEEL DESIGN
I-4 STEEL DESIGN
4.1 Properties of steel
Material constants of structural steel EN 1993-1-1:2005, Cl. 3.2.6
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ [kg/m³] modulus, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 77.0 7 850 210 000 81 000 0.30 12·10
Characteristic values of structural steel (3mm ≤ t ≤ 40mm) EN 1993-1-1:2005, Table 3.1

Form Process Grade Yield strength, Min. tensile Fillet weld Reference
2
fy [N/mm ] strength, correlation
2
ft [N/mm ] factor, βw [-]
3 ≤ t ≤ 16 t ≤ 40
Sections, Non-alloy S235JR/J0/J2 235 225 360 0.80 [EN 10025-2]
plates,
S275JR/J0/J2 275 265 430 0.85
bars and rods
S355JR/J0/J2/K2 355 345 510 0.90
Normalized/ S275N/NL 275 265 370 [EN 10025-3]
Normalized
S355N/NL 355 345 470
rolled weldable
fine grain S420N/NL 420 400 520
S460N/NL 460 440 540
Thermo- S275M/ML 275 265 370 [EN 10025-4]
mechanical
S355M/ML 355 345 470
rolled weldable
fine grain S420M/ML 420 400 520
S460M/ML 460 440 540
Improved S235J0W/J2W 235 225 360 [EN 10025-5]
atmospheric
S355J0W/J2W 355 345 470
corrosion
S355J0WP/J2WP
resistance
Quenched and S460Q/QL/QL1 460 550 [EN 10025-6]
tempered
S500Q/QL/QL1 500 590
S550Q/QL/QL1 550 640
S620Q/QL/QL1 620 700
S690Q/QL/QL1 690 770
S890Q/QL/QL1 890 940
S960Q/QL/QL1 960 980
Hollow sections Hot finished S 235 H 235 235 360 0.80 [EN 10210-1]
S 275 H 275 275 430 0.85
S 355 H 355 355 510 0.90
S 460 NH 460 460 560 1.00
Cold formed S 235 H 235 235 360 0.80 [EN 10219-1]
S 275 H 275 275 430 0.85
S 355 H 355 355 510 0.90
S 460 NH 460 460 550 1.00
PART 1 EUROCODE 33
STEEL DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Characteristic values of steel sheets (t ≤ 3mm ) EN 1993-1-3:2006, Table 3.1

Form Process Grade Yield strength, Min. tensile Remarks
fy strength,
2 2
[N/mm ] ft [N/mm ]
Sheets for Pre-galvanized S220GD 220 300 [EN 10346:2009

Constuction superseded EN 10326]
S250GD 250 330
S280GD 280 360
S320GD 320 390
S350GD 350 420
Hot rolled S235JR 210 320 [EN 10025-2:2004]
Hot rolled S275N/NL 220 330 [EN 10025-3:2004]

weldable
Sheets for Pre-galvanized DX51D - 270 [EN 10346:2009

Cold forming Low carbon superseded EN 10327]
mild steel DX52D/53D/55D 140 270
DX54D/56D/57D 120 260
Pre-galvanized HX160YD 160 300 [EN 10346:2009

High strength superseded EN 10292]
HX180YD/BD 180 330/290
HX220YD/BD 220 340/320
HX260YD/BD/LAD 260 380/360/350
HX300YD/BD/LAD 300 390/400/380
HX340BD/LAD 340 440/410
HX380LAD 380 440
HX420LAD 420 470
Pre-galvanized HCT450X 260 450 [EN 10346:2009]

Cold rolled
HCT500X 300 500
HCT600X 340 600
Pre-galvanized HDT450F 320 450 [EN 10346:2009]

Hot rolled
HDT560F 460 560
HDT580X 330 580
Cold-rolled DC01/03/04/05 140 270 [EN 10130:1999]
DC06 120 270
Hot-rolled DD11 170 440 [EN 10111:1998]
DD12 170 420
DD13 170 400
DD14 170 380
34 PART 1 EUROCODE
4.2 Properties of stainless steel
Material constants of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Cl. 2.1.3
Microstructure Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G = E/[2(1+ν)] ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
Austenitic
195 000
1.4539, 1.4529 & 1.4547
-6
Austenitic 77.0 7 850 77 000 0.30 16·10
200 000
Others
Ferritic 220 000
Characteristic values of stainless steel EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.1

Grade AISI Cold rolled sheet, Hot rolled sheet, Bars, rods Secant Modulus Bend
strip & plates strip & plates & sections Coeff., n radius
t ≤ 6 mm t ≤ 12 mm (≤ 75mm) t ≤ 250 mm [Rolling direction]
fy fu fy fu fy fu
2 2 2 2 2 2 Long. Trans. [EN 1090-2]
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
1.4301 304 230 540 210 520 190 500 6 8 2t
1.4306, 1.4307 304L 220 520 200 520 (500) 175 450 6 8 2t
1.4401 316 240 530 220 530 (520) 200 500 7 9 2t
1.4404, 1.4435 316L 240 530 220 530 (520) 200 500 7 9 2t
1.4462 Duplex 480 660 460 660 (640) 450 650 5 5 2.5t
Note: Fillet weld correction factor, βw = 1.0 for Stainless steel.
Work hardened condition (process route 2H) EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table B.1; EN 10088-2:2005 Table 17
Microstructure Symbol 0.2% proof strength level, Tensile strength level,
2 2
Rp0.2 [N/mm ] Rm [N/mm ]
Austenitic steels +C700 - 700 – 850
+C850 - 850 – 1000
+C1000 - 1000 – 1150
+CP350 350 – 500 -
+CP500 500 – 700 -
+CP700 700 – 900 -
4.2.1 Secant modulus of stainless steel

(E s,1 +E s,2 ) E
E s,ser = E s,i = n
2 E  σi,Ed,ser 
1+0.002  
σ i,Ed,ser  fy 
where: Es,1 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ1 in the tension flange.
Es,2 is the secant modulus corresponding to the stress σ2 in the compression flange.
PART 1 EUROCODE 35
4.3 Resistance of steel cross-sections
4.3.1 Partial safety factors
Partial material safety factors for ultimate limit states
Part Steel Stainless steel
[EN 1993-1-1] UK NA.2.15 [EN 1993-1-4]
Resistance of cross-section whatever class γM0 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of members to instability γM1 1.0 1.0 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture γM2 1.25 1.1 1.25
4.3.2 General cross-sections

Design resistance of steel structures EN 1993-1-1:2005
Mode Values Notes Clause
Shear V Ed Design shear resistance [kN] 6.2.6
≤ 1.0
Vc ,Rd Shear area, Av:
I, H, C, T Av = hw t w
{
Vc,Rd = min V pl,Rd ; Vc,Rd } Av = A ⋅ h ( b+h )
RHS // to h
Plastic shear resistance
A RHS ⊥ to h Av = A ⋅ b ( b+h )
V pl,Rd = v f y γ M0
3 CHS Av = 2A π
Elastic shear resistance(horizontal shear) Flat bar Av = 0.8A
I·t 1
Vc,Rd = f γ Round bar Av = 0.6A
Q 3 y M0
Torsional shear
TRd =
( It c ) f γ ≥ T
3
y M0 Ed Torsional resistance [kN·m]
Approx. non-linear torsional constant [mm³]
( I t c ) ≈ b 2 t 2 ( 3b + 1.8t ) (refer to design aide formulas for exact value)
Bending Pure bending: 6.2.5(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c ,Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } 6.2.5(4)
General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M c,Rd =W f y γ M0
Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m] 6.2.5(2)
M u,Rd = Wel,net f u γ M2
Section modulus, W:
Lateral-torsional buckling: Class 1 & 2 W = W pl 6.3.2.1(1)
M Ed
≤ 1.0 Class 3 W = Wel
M b ,Rd 6.3.2.1(3)
Class 4 W = Weff
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd
Design buckling resistance moment [kN·m]
where:
π EI z GI t Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = 6.3.2.2
L
Slenderness [-]
λ LT = W y f y M cr 6.3.2.2
Initial sway inperfection [-]
φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 
2
Reduction factor for buckling [-] 6.3.2.2
1 Imperfection factor, αLT:
χ LT = ≤ 1.0
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2 a α LT = 0.21
6.3.2.1
Rolled I, h/b > 2 b α LT = 0.34
Welded I, h/b ≤ 2 c α LT = 0.49
Welded I, h/b > 2
d α LT = 0.76
Other sections
36 PART 1 EUROCODE
Design resistance of steel structures EN 1993-1-1:2005

2
Tension A Gross section area [mm ] 6.2.3
Anet 2
Net section area [mm ]
Basis:
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N t ,Rd
Where:
Design tension resistance [kN]
{
N t,Rd = min N pl ,Rd ; N u ,Rd }
N pl,Rd = A f y γ M0 Design plastic resistance of gross section [kN]
N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Compression Local squashing 6.2.4

N Ed
≤ 1.0
N c ,Rd
Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sections: Design compression resistance [kN]
N c,Rd = A f y γ M0
Class 4 cross sections:
N c,Rd = Aeff f y γ M0
Design buckling resistance of compression 6.3.1.1
member without welding [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > 0.2 :
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N b ,Rd
N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1
a) Critical flexural buckling:
π EI y π EI z Elastic critical force [kN]
N cr,y = ; N cr,z =
2
( kz L)
2
6.3.1.2
(ky L )
a) Critical torsional buckling:
1  π EI w  yo is the distance from the shear centre to the
N cr,T = 2 2
 GIt +
2 
 centroid of the gross cross section along the y-y
i y + i z + yo  Lcr 2 
axis (zero for doubly symmetric sections)
A⋅ fy
λ =
N cr Slenderness [-] 6.3.1.2
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
Initial sway inperfection [-] 6.3.1.2
1
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 −λ 2 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
Imperfection factor, α: Table 6.2

Effective length factor, k:
0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 RHS, CHS (HF) a α = 0.21
Rolled I, h/b > 1.2
b α = 0.34
L
RHS, CHS (CF)
Rolled I, h/b ≤ 2
c α = 0.49
Welded I
Solid, C, T
Welded I, h/b > 2
d α = 0.76
Other sections
PART 1 EUROCODE 37
4.3.3 Buckling resistance of steel cross-sections
Lateral-torsional buckling EN 1993-1-1:2005
Clause
T
h d y h y
t
M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1 M b,Rd = χ LT W y f y γ M1 6.3.2.1

Section modulus: Section modulus:
Section web d/t flange b/2T Wy Section h/b Wy Table 5.2
Class 1 & 2 ≤ 83ε ≤ 10ε W pl , y Class 1 & 2 ≤ 20ε W pl , y = bh 2 4
Class 3 ≤ 124ε ≤ 14ε Wel , y Class 3 ≤ 42ε Wel , y = bh 2 6

6.3.2.2
Buckling factors [kN,cm]: Buckling factors [kN,cm]:
Wy fy L Lc = 1092.8 ⋅b f y
λ LT = 0.00494 Class 1 & 2
Iz It λ LT = 0.00605 f y L / b
Tables
φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − λ LT ,0 ) + βλ LT 2  Lc = 1639.1 ⋅b f y 6.3 & 6.4
Class 3
values of γLT,0: λ LT = 0.00494 f y L / b
γLT,0 = 0.4 6.3.2.2
Rolled Lc = 6556.4 I z I t W y f y φ LT = 0.5  1 + 0.76 ( λ LT − 0.2 ) + λ LT 2 
β = 0.75
1
γLT,0 = 0.2 χ LT = ≤ 1.0
Welded Lc = 1638.9 I z I t W y f y φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2
β = 1.0 where:
1 ε = 235 f 6.3.1.3
χ LT = ≤ 1.0 y
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2
Compression buckling EN 1993-1-1:2005

z
Clause
t
h c t h
d
y
y
y
d y
t
N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1 N b,Rd = χ b h f y γ M1 N b,Rd = χ A f y γ M1 6.3.1.1

Buckling about y-y: Buckling about y-y: kyL
π EI y kyL λ = 0.009849 fy 6.3.1.2
N cr,y = λ = 0.004265 fy d
2 h
(
ky L ) φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
Buckling about z-z:
Buckling about z-z: k L 1
λ = 0.004265 z fy χ = ≤ 1.0
π EI z b φ + φ2 −λ 2
N cr,z = 2
( kz L) φ = 0.5  1 + 0.49 ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
A⋅ fy 1
λ = χ = ≤ 1.0
N cr φ + φ2 −λ 2
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − 0.2 ) + λ 2 
values of α:
Hot finished α = 0.21
Cold formed α = 0.49
1
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 −λ 2
38 PART 1 EUROCODE
4.4 Sheets as diaphragms

Shear buckling resistance of sheets EN 1993-1-5:2006 Cl. 5
Data hw Height of sheet parallel to direction of shear [mm]
a Width of sheet [mm]
tw Sheet thickness [mm]
E Modulus of elasticity [N/mm ]
2
fyw
Yield strength of sheet [-]
η = 1.2
For steel grades up to S460 5.1 (2)
Shear buckling Criteria for slender web:
hw
> 72
ε Slender web 5.1 (2)
tw η
kτ = 5.34 Shear buckling coefficient [-] A.3 (1)
2
 tw  For plates without transverse and longitudinal stiffeners 5.3 (3) &
2
τ cr = 190 000   kτ Critical shear stress, [N/mm ] A.1 (2)
 hw 
f yw
λ w = 0.76
τ cr Slenderness parameter [-] 5.3 (3)
0.83
χw = Shear buckling factor Table 5.1
λw
hw t w f yw
Vbw ,Rd = χ w Design shear buckling resistance [N] 5.2 (1)
3 1.1
c
hw V V
H
a
2a ( 1+v ) Shear stiffness [mm/kN] BS5950

c =
1000Et w hw Table 9
PART 1 EUROCODE 39
4.5 Cold-formed members
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1993-1-5:2006
Data 235
ε = Yield constant [-]
fy
b t Slenderness [-]
λp =
28.4 ⋅ ε kσ 4.4
Single b = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t )

edge fold Buckling factor for uniform compression, ψ = 1.0 [-] Table 4.1
kσ = 4.0
4.4
λ p − 0.22 Reduction factor for plate buckling [-]
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
Effective width [mm] Table 4.1
b
beff = ρ
2
Grade Approx. beff
S235 28.4t − 354.9 t 2 b
S275 26.2t − 303.2 t 2 b
S280GD 26t − 297.8 t 2 b
S320GD 24.3t − 260.6 t 2 b
c = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )
kσ = 0.5 Table 4.2
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0 Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
λp
Table 4.2
ceff = ρ ⋅ c Effective return depth [mm]
Grade Approx. ceff
S235 20.1t − 75.8 t 2 c
S275 18.6t − 64.8 t 2 c
S280GD 18.4t − 63.6 t 2 c
S320GD 17.2t − 55.7 t 2 c
Double d = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t )

edge fold Table 4.2
kσ = 0.43
Buckling factor for uniform
λ p − 0.188 compression, ψ = 1.0 [-] 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
Effective lip [mm] Table 4.2
d eff = ρ ⋅ d
40 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES ALUMINIUM DESIGN
I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN

5.1 Properties of aluminium structures
Material constants of aluminium EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 3.2.5
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Modulus of Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Coef. of linear
γ [kg/m³] elasticity, E G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν thermal exp., α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 26.6 2 700 70 000 27 700 0.30 23·10
Aluminium sheet, strip and plate EN 485-2:2007

Form Alloy Temper Thickness Rp0.2 Rm HAZ-factor Bend radius*
2 2
t [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
ρo,haz ρu,haz 180° 90°
Site 1050A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 20 65 1 1 0│0.5t│t

formed [Al 99.5]
sheets H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 75 105 t│-│- t│1.5t│2.5t
Pre- 3003 O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 35 95 1 1 0│t│- 0│t│1.5t

formed [AlMn1Cu]
Sheets H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 115 145 2t│-│- t│2t│2.5t
or
5005/5005A O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 35 100 1 1 0.5t│t│- 0│t│1.5t
Plates
[AlMg1]
H22/H32 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 80 125 0.55 0.80 1.5t│-│- t│t│2t
H14/H24 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 110 145 0.37 0.69 2.5t│-│- t│2t│2.5t
5754 O/H111 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 80 190 1 1 t│t│- t│t│2t

[AlMg3]
H24/H34 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 160 240 0.63 0.79 2.5t│-│- 2t│2.5t│3t
6082 T6/T651 ≤3│≤6│≤12.5 255 300 0.48 0.60 - 3.5t│4.5t│6t

[AlSi1MgMn]
Plates 5083 O/H111 ≤6│≤25 125 190 1 1 - 1.5t│-

[Al Mg4,5
Mn0,7] H22/H32 ≤6│≤25 215 305 0.72 0.90 - 2.5t│-
H24/H34 ≤6│≤25 250 400 0.62 0.81 - 3.5t│-

Note: * For information only.
Characteristic values of aluminium EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.2
Form Grade Chemical Temper Thickness 0.2% proof Tensile HAZ- HAZ-factor, Buckling
symbol t strength, fo strength, fu factor, ρu,haz class
2 2
[mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] ρo,haz
Extrusion 6060 [AlMgSi] T5 t ≤ 5│≤ 25 120│100 160│140 0.42│0.50 0.50│0.57 B
T6 t ≤ 15 140 170 0.43 0.59 A
T66 t ≤ 3│≤ 25 160│150 215│195 0.41│0.43 0.51│0.56 A
6061 [AlMg1SiCu] T6 t ≤ 20 240 260 0.48 0.67 A
6063 [AlMg0,7Si] T5 t ≤ 3│≤ 25 130│110 175│160 0.46│0.55 0.57│0.63 B
T6 t ≤ 25 160 195 0.41 0.56 A
6005A [AlSiMg] T6 t ≤ 5│≤ 10 225│215 270│260 0.51│0.53 0.61│0.63 A
Open section
10 < t ≤ 25 200 250 0.58 0.66 A
Hollow section t ≤ 5│≤ 10 215│200 255│250 0.53│0.58 0.65│0.66 A
6082 [AlSi1MgMn] T6 t ≤ 5│≤ 15 250│260 290│310 0.50│0.48 0.64│0.60 A
7020 [AlZn4,5Mg1] T6 t ≤ 15│≤ 40 290│275 350 0.71│0.75 0.80 A
Cast 42100 [AlSi7Mg0.3] T6 - 147 203 - - A
42200 [AlSi7Mg0.6] T6 - 168 224 - - A
PART 1 EUROCODE 41
ALUMINIUM DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 3.4

Form Grade Chemical symbol Tempering Diameter, 0.2% proof strength Tensile strength
(Designation to d fo fu
2 2
EN28839) [mm] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
Solid 5019 AlMg5 H111 ≤ 20 110 250
rivets
H14,H34 ≤ 18 210 300
5754 AlMg3 H111 ≤ 20 80 180
H14/H34 ≤ 18 180 240
6082 AlSi1MgMn T4 ≤ 20 110 205
T6 ≤ 20 240 300
Bolts 5754 AlMg3 (AL1) - ≤ 10│≤ 20 230│180 270│250
5019 AlMg5 (AL2) - ≤ 14│≤ 36 205│205 310│280
6082 AlSi1MgMn (AL3) - ≤ 6│≤ 36 250│260 320│310
5.2 Definitions
5.2.1 H Tempers
Work hardening is used extensively to produce strain-hardened tempers of the non-heat-treatable alloys.
HXY
H – Strain hardened by cold working
X = 1 for strain hardened only.
= 2 for strain hardened and partially annealed. The products are strain hardened more than is required to achieve
the desired properties and then are reduced in strength by partial annealing.
= 3 for strain hardened and stabilized. In the strain-hardened condition, these alloys tend to age soften at room
temperature. Therefore, they are usually heated at a low temperature to complete the age-softening process and to
provide stable mechanical properties and improved working characteristics.
Y = 2 for quarter-hard cold work condition.
= 4 for half-hard cold work condition.
= 6 for three-quarter cold work condition.
= 8 for full-hard cold work condition.
= 9 for extra-hard cold work condition.
5.2.2 T Tempers
The complete heat-treatment consists of a solution heat-treatment, a quenching process and subsequent
ageing, where the actual hardening occurs. It must be said that, unlike steel, aluminium alloys are definitely
not hard after quenching.
To get the highest strength values it is important to keep the material for sufficient time at the correct solution
heat temperature and to follow the correct quenching procedure. Depending on the alloy this may be carried
out using water or moving air. Quenching with water produces distortion and residual stresses. Alloys
quenchable with air have some technical and economical advantages, but the most of the high strength
alloys need to be water quenched. If the solution heat-treatment or the quenching process is not properly
executed this will result in lower values with respect to mechanical strength and elongation (ductility).
Symbol Description
T4 = Solution heat-treated and then naturally aged
T5 = Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged
T6 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged
T61, T64 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged in underageing conditions in order to improve formability (T64
between T61 and T6)
T66 = Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged –mechanical property level higher than T6 achieved through special
control of the process 6000 series alloys
T7 = Solution heat-treated and artificially over-aged
42 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.3 Protection at metal-to-metal contacts
Additional protection at metal-to-metal contacts to take precautions against crevice and galvanic effects.
Characteristic values of aluminium fasteners EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table D.2
Metal to be joined Bolt/rivet Rural Industrial urban
to aluminium material
Dry, unpolluted Mild Moderate Severe
(M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R) (M) (B/R)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
Aluminium Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0/X 0 1
a
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (1) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
Painted steel X
0/X
Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
Zinc-coated steel z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Aluminium 0 0 0 1
X
0/X
Stainless steel Stainless steel 0 0 0 0 0 a 1
a
z
Zinc-coated steel 0 (2) (2) 1 (2)
Treatments applied to the contact areas of structural members

Procedure 0
A treatment is usually unnecessary for causes of corrosion
Procedure 0/X
Treatment depends on structural conditions. Small contact areas and areas which dry quickly may be assembled
without sealing (see procedure X)
Procedure X
Both contact surfaces should be assembled so that no crevices exist where water can penetrate. Both contact
surfaces, including bolt and rivet holes should, before assembly, be cleaned, pre-treated and receive one priming
coat, see prEN 1090-3, or sealing compound, extending beyond the contact area. The surfaces should be brought
together while priming coat is still wet. Where assembling pre-painted or protected components sealing of the
contact surfaces might be unnecessary, dependant on the composition of the paint or protection system employed,
the expected life and the environment.
Treatment applied to bolts and rivets

Procedure 0
No additional treatment is usually necessary.
Procedure 1
Inert washers or jointing compound should be applied between the bolt heads, nuts, washers and connected
materials to seal the joint and to prevent moisture entering the interface between components and fixings. Care
should be employed to ensure that load transfer through the joint is not adversely affected by the washers or
jointing compounds.
Procedure 2
Where the joint is not painted or coated for other reasons, the heads of bolts, nuts and rivets should be protected
with at least one priming coat (see prEN 1090-3;), care being taken to seal all crevices.
Note: Similar coating on aluminium and zinc-coated steel parts around the stainless steel bolts is required only for
immersed structures.
Further treatments
Procedure a
If not painted for other reasons it may be necessary to protect the adjacent metallic parts of the contact area by a
suitable paint coating in cases where dirt may be entrapped or where moisture retained.
Procedure z
Additional protection of zinc-coated structural parts as a whole may be necessary
PART 1 EUROCODE 43
5.4 Cross-sectional properties
5.4.1 Section Classification
Classification of cross-sections EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4, 6.1.5
Data b, t Width and thickness of critical part [mm] Fig. 6.1
c Length of reinforcement leg (if any) [mm] Fig. 6.4
yc Dist. to n.a. of more heavily compressed edge [mm] Fig. 6.2
yo Dist. to n.a. of other edge [mm]
fo
Tensile yield strength of alloy [N/mm2] Table 3.2
ε = 250 / f o Yield point constant [-] Table 6.2
Effective slenderness ratio [-] 6.1.4.3
(β ε ) = η ε ⋅b t
Internal Unreinforced: Fig. 6.2

a) uniform compression
η = 1.0
b) stress gradient, yo/yc ≥ –1.0
η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc )
c) stress gradient, yo/yc < –1.0
η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) 
Singly-reinforced:
Fig. 6.4
1
η= ≥ 0.5
2
1 + 2.5 ( c t − 1 ) (b t )
yo /yc
Doubly-reinforced:
1
η= ≥ 0.33
2
1 + 4.5 ( c t − 1 ) (b t )
Classification of cross-section part:
Class Local buckling factor 6.1.4.4
(yo /yc)σ
1 β ≤ 11ε
ρc = 1.0 Table 6.2
2 11 < β ≤ 16ε
3 16 < β ≤ 22ε
32 220 Table 6.3
4 β > 22 ρc = –
( ) ( β ε )2
β ε (a) singly-reinforced (b) doubly-reinforced
Outstand Unreinforced: Fig. 6.2

a) yc is free-end/toe
η = 1.0
b) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc ≥ –1.0
η = 0.7 + 0.3 ( yo yc )
c) yc is fixed-end, yo/yc < –1.0
η = 0.8  1 − ( yo yc ) 
Reinforced:
Fig. 6.4
ce = 3 t c t ⋅ c
1
η = (a) Uniform thickness (b) Non-uniform thickness
2
1 + 0.1 ( ce t − 1 ) Reinforced outstand
Classification of cross-section part: 6.1.4.4
Class Local buckling factor
1 β ≤ 3ε Table 6.2
ρc = 1.0
2 3 < β ≤ 4.5ε
3 4.5 < β ≤ 6ε Table 6.3
10 24
4β > 6 ρc = –
( β ε ) ( β ε )2
t eff = ρ c ⋅ t Effective thickness [mm] 6.1.5
44 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.4.2 Local buckling

The table below is a guide for minimum thickness for a class 3 cross-section part and prevent local buckling.
Non-welded aluminium profile Class 3 minimum thickness EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
Outstand Internal
peak comp. @ toe peak comp. @ root
ε O0 · · · O1 O2 O3 O5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I5
η = 0.7+0.3(yo/yc) = 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,4
6060 T5 (t ≤ 5) B 1,44 b/7,2 b/9 b/10,3 b/12 b/18 b/26 b/32,5 b/37,1 b/43,3 b/65
T6 (t ≤ 15) A 1,34 b/8 b/10 b/11,5 b/13,4 b/20 b/29,4 b/36,7 b/42 b/49 b/73,5
T66 (t > 3) A 1,29 b/7,7 b/9,7 b/11,1 b/12,9 b/19,4 b/28,4 b/35,5 b/40,6 b/47,3 b/71
6063 T5 (t > 3) B 1,51 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,8 b/12,6 b/18,8 b/27,1 b/33,9 b/38,8 b/45,2 b/67,8
T6 (t ≤ 25) A 1,25 b/7,5 b/9,4 b/10,7 b/12,5 b/18,8 b/27,5 b/34,4 b/39,3 b/45,8 b/68,8
Local buckling factor for class 4 cross-section part EN 1999-1-1:2007 Cl. 6.1.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 45
5.4.3 Effective section properties of thermally separated profiles
Effective properties of thermally broken profiles EN 14024:2004 Annex C
4
Data A1, I1 Area and moment of inertia of inner profile [mm,mm ]
a1,i Distance of inner profile centroid to inner edge [mm]
4
A2, I2 Area and moment of inertia of outer profile [mm,mm ]
a2,o Distance of outer profile centroid to outer edge [mm]
E Modulus of elasticity of the profiles [N/mm²]
L Length of member [mm]
∆F
c= Elasticity constant determined from test [N/mm/mm] 5.4.3
∆δ ⋅ L
Centroid z =  A1 ⋅ a1,i + A2 ( h − a 2 ,o )  ( A1 + A2 ) Location of centroid [mm] Annex
distances C
a1 = z − a1,i
a 2 = h − z − a 2 ,o
4
Moments I s = I 1 +I 2 +A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 Rigid moment of inertia [mm ] Annex
of intertia C
A1 a1 2 +A2 a 2 2 4
ν = Compound part of the rigid moment of inertia [mm ]
Is
c ⋅ a 2 L2 Effect of elastic connection [-]
λ=
E ⋅ I s ⋅ν ( 1 − ν )
λ2 Partial solution constant [-]
C =
π 2 +λ2
1 −ν
I ef = Is 4
1 −ν ⋅ C Effective moment of inertia [mm ]
Section 1
We,1 = 3
modulus C ( a1 + a1,i ) ( 1 − C ) a1,i Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
+
Is I1 + I 2
1 3
Effective section modulus for inner profile [mm ]
We,2 =
C ( a 2 + a 2 ,o ) ( 1 − C ) a 2 ,o
+
Is I1 + I 2
46 PART 1 EUROCODE
5.5 Resistance of aluminium cross-sections
5.5.1 Partial safety factors
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 6.1
Part Example EN 1999 UK NA
Resistance of member to instability Bending and overall yielding γM1 = 1.1 γM1 = 1.1
Resistance of cross-section in tension to fracture Local capacity in net tension γM2 = 1.25 γM2 = 1.25
EN 1999-1-1 clause 1,1,2(1) The following design applies to material thickness not less than 0.6mm, steel
bolts not less than 5mm, rivets and tapping screws not less than 4.2mm.
5.5.2 General cross-sections
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
2
Shear Av, Ae Shear area and effective shear area [mm ] 6.2.6
Utilization grade: E γ (A.1)
VEd U= k F
≤ 1.0 Rk γ M
VRd
General, hw/tw < 39ε: Design shear resistance for sections containing
VRd = Av 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 shear webs [kN]
values of Av:
Solid bar Av = 0.8· Ae
Round tubes Av = 0.6· Ae
Torsional shear 6.2.7

TRd = ( I t c ) 3 ⋅ f o γ M1 ≥ TEd Design torsional shear resistance [kN]
3
Bending Wel Elastic modulus of the gross section [mm ] 6.2.5
Wnet Elastic modulus of the net section allowing for
3
Pure bending: holes and reduced thickness of ρu,haz [mm ]
M Ed
≤ 1.0
M Rd
{
M Rd = min M c ,Rd ; M u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN·m]
M c,Rd = α Wel f o γ M1 General yielding along the member [kN·m]
M u,Rd = W net f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN·m]
values of α:
α = W pl Wel Shape factor [-]
Class 1 & 2
Class 3 & 4 α = 1.0
Table 6.4
Lateral-torsional buckling:
M Ed
≤ 1.0 6.3.2.1
M b ,Rd Design buckling resistance of compression
M b,Rd = χ LT M cy,Rd member without welding
6.3.2.1
where:
Elastic critical moment (conservative) [kN·m]
M cr = π EI z GI t L I.1
λ LT = α Wel , y f o M cr Slenderness [-] 6.3.2.3

φ LT = 0.5  1 + α LT ( λ LT − λ0 ,LT ) + λ LT  Initial sway inperfection [-]
2
6.3.2.1
1
χ LT = ≤ 1.0 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
φ LT + φ LT 2 − λ LT 2 6.3.2.1
values of αLT & λ0,LT:
Imperfection factor [-]
Class 1 & 2 α LT = 0.1 λ0 ,LT = 0.6 6.3.2.1
Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]
Class 3 & 4 α LT = 0.2 λ0 ,LT = 0.4
PART 1 EUROCODE 47
Design resistance of aluminium structures EN 1999-1-1:2007
2
Tension Ag Gross section area [mm ] 6.2.3
Anet 2
Net section area [mm ]
Aeff Effective area based on the reduced thickness of
Basis: 2
ρu,haz [mm ]
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N t ,Rd
Where:
{
N t,Rd = min N o ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
N o,Rd = Ag f o γ M1 General yielding along the member [kN]

N u,Rd = 0.9Anet f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
N u,Rd = Aeff f u γ M2 Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
2
Compression Anet Net section area [mm ]
Aeff Effective area based on the reduced thickness of
2
Local squashing ρu,haz [mm ] 6.2.4
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N c ,Rd
{
N c,Rd = min N c ,Rd ; N u ,Rd } Design tension resistance [kN]
N c,Rd = Aeff f o γ M1
General yielding along the member [kN]
N u,Rd = Anet f u γ M2
Local failure at a section with holes [kN]
Flexural buckling, λ > λo :
6.3.1.1
N Ed
≤ 1.0
N b ,Rd
Design buckling resistance of compression
N b,Rd = χ Aeff f o γ M1
member without welding [kN]
a) Doubly symmetrical cross-sections:
π EI y π EI z Elastic critical force [kN]
N cr,y = 2
; N cr,z = 2
(
ky L ) ( kz L) I.3
Aeff f o Slenderness [-]

λ =
N cr 6.3.1.2
Initial sway inperfection [-]
φ = 0.5  1 + α ( λ − λo ) + λ 2 
6.3.1.2
1 Reduction factor for buckling [-]
χ = ≤ 1.0
φ + φ2 − λ 2 6.3.1.2
values of k:
0.7 0.85 0.85 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Table 6.8
values of α & λ0: Imperfection factor [-] Table 6.6

Class A α = 0.2 λo = 0.1 Limit of the horizontal plateau [-]
Class B α = 0.32 λo = 0.0
See section 5.1 for buckling class
Torsional-flexural buckling, λ T > λo :
See I.3& I.4
48 PART 1 EUROCODE
Combined stresses EN 1999-1-1:2007

Bending and General: 6.2.8
high shear M Ed
≤ 1.0
f o,V ⋅ M Rd
For VEd > VRd/2:
 2
f o,V = f o  1 −  Ed 1  
2V Moment resistance reduction factor [-] (6.38)
VRd −
   
Bending and General:

tension N Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed
+ + ≤ 1.0 Interaction formula (conservative) 6.2.9.1
N Rd M y,Rd M z,Rd
Hollow sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
1.3  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
+  
y,Ed
 +
 (6.43)
  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Solid sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
2.0  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
(6.43)
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Bending and General: 6.3.3.1

compression Major axis (y-axis) bending:
buckling  N Ed 
0.8
Interaction formula (conservative) (6.59)
M y,Ed
  + ≤ 1.0
 N b,y,Rd  M y,Rd
 
Minor axis (z-axis) bending:
0.8 0.8
 N Ed   M z,Ed  (6.60)
  +   ≤ 1.0
 N b,z,Rd   M z,Rd 
Hollow sections:
0.6
 N Ed 
0.8  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7  (6.62)
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N b,Rd     z,Rd  
Solid sections:
0.6 (6.61)
 N Ed 
2.0  M 
1.7
 M z,Ed 
1.7 
+  
y,Ed
   +  ≤ 1.0
  M y,Rd  M 
 N Rd     z,Rd  
Lateral-torsional General: 6.3.3.2

buckling  N Ed 
0.8
 M y,Ed 
1.0
 M z,Ed 
0.8
  + 
M  +
M  ≤ 1.0 Interaction formula (conservative) (6.63)
 N b,z,Rd   b,Rd   z,Rd 
PART 1 EUROCODE 49
5.6 Cold formed members
5.6.1 Effective widths
Panel edge stiffeners EN 1999-1-4:2007
Data bp fo Plate slenderness [-] 5.5.2
λ p ≅ 1.052 ⋅
t Ekσ
Single edge b p = b − ( 0.586r + 1.293t )

fold Buckling factor for uniform comp., ψ = 1.0 [-] Table 5.3;
kσ = 4.0
λ p − 0.22 Reduction factor for plate buckling [-] 5.5.2
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
bp
beff = ρ Effective width [mm]
2
Alloy Approx. beff
2
O/H111 112t − 2783 t b p
1050A
H14 58t − 742 t 2 b p
O/H111 42t − 795 t 2 b p

3003
H14 23t − 242 t 2 b p
O/H111 42t − 795 t 2 b p

5005A
H14 24t − 253 t 2 b p
c p = c − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) EN 1993-1-4

kσ = 0.5 Table 4.2
λ p − 0.188 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp
ceff = ρ ⋅cp Table 4.2
Buckling factor for stress gradient, ψ ≈ 0 [-]
Alloy Approx. ceff
Effective return depth [mm]
O/H111 40t − 297 t 2 c p
1050A
H14 20t − 79 t 2 c p
O/H111 30t − 170 t 2 c p

3003
H14 17 t − 52 t 2 c p
O/H111 30t − 170 t 2 c p

5005A
H14 17 t − 54 t 2 c p
Double d p = d − ( 0.293r + 0.646t ) EN 1993-1-4

edge fold Table 4.2
kσ = 0.43
λ p − 0.188 Buckling factor for 4.4
ρ= 2
≤ 1.0
λp uniform compression, ψ
= 1.0 [-] Table 4.2
d eff = ρ ⋅ d p
Effective lip [mm]
50 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONCRETE DESIGN
I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN

6.1 Properties of concrete
Material constants EN 1992-1-1:2004 Cl. 3.1.3
Form Density, Unit weight, ρ Modulus of Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Coef. of linear
γ [kg/m³] elasticity, Ecm G = E/[2(1+)ν] ratio, ν thermal exp., α
2 2
[kN/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
0.3 -6
Normal 24.0 2 450 22 ( f cm 10 ) ≈ 21 000 0.20* 10·10
Lightweight 8.8 – 19.6 900 – 2 000
Heavy weight > 19.6 > 2 000

Note: * Uncracked. 0 for cracked.
Concrete Strength Class EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 3.1
Strength Characteristic Characteristic Mean Mean Characteristic Characteristic Mean
Class cylinder cube cylinder tensile tensile tensile modulus of
strength strength strength strength strength strength elasticity
fck fck,cube fcm fctm fctk,0.05 fctk,0.95 Ecm
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
C12/15 12 15 20 1.6 1.1 2.0 27 000
C16/20 16 20 24 1.9 1.3 2.5 29 000
C20/25 20 25 28 2.2 1.5 2.9 30 000
C25/30 25 30 33 2.6 1.8 3.3 31 000
C30/37 30 37 38 2.9 2.0 3.8 33 000
C35/45 35 45 43 3.2 2.2 4.2 34 000
C40/50 40 50 48 3.5 2.5 4.6 35 000
C45/55 45 55 53 3.8 2.7 4.9 36 000
C50/60 50 60 58 4.1 2.9 5.3 37 000
C55/67 55 67 63 4.2 3.0 5.5 38 000
C60/75 60 75 68 4.4 3.1 5.7 39 000
C70/85 70 85 78 4.6 3.2 6.0 41 000
C80/95 80 95 88 4.8 3.4 6.3 42 000
C90/105 90 105 98 5.0 3.5 6.6 44 000
PART 1 EUROCODE 51
CONCRETE DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
6.2 Concrete design
Partial safety factors for ultimate limit states EN 1992-1-1:2004 Table 2.1N
Design Situations Concrete Steel Prestressing steel
Persistent and Transient γC = 1.5 γS = 1.15 γS = 1.15
Accidental γC = 1.2 γS = 1.0 γS = 1.0
6.3 Anchorage design

Tension anchorage EN 1992-1-1:2004
Type Action Notes Clause
Bond strength f ctd = α ct ⋅ f ctk ,0.05 γ C Design tensile strength [N/mm²] 3.1.6
α ct = 1.0 Long-term and load application effects [-] 3.1.6
f bd = 2.25 ⋅ η1 ⋅ η 2 ⋅ f ctd Ultimate bond stress for ribbed bars [N/mm²] 8.4.2
Coefficients, η
Good bond condition η1 = 1.0
Others & built in slip-form η1 = 0.7
Ø ≤ 32 mm η 2 = 1.0
Ø > 32 mm η 2 = 1.32 − φ 100
Anchorage F Basic anchorage length [mm] 8.4.3

length lb,rqd =
π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd
Ø ≤ 16mm : r ≥ 4Ø
Ø > 16mm : r ≥ 7Ø
cd = min {a 2; c; c1 } Edge distance and spacing 8.4.4
Design anchorage length [mm]

Bent bars:
lb,eq = α 1 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Effect of the form of bars, α1: Table 8.2
cd < 3Ø α 1 = 1.0
cd ≥ 3Ø α 1 = 0.7
Straight bars:
lb,eq = α 2 ⋅ lb ,rqd
α 2 = 1 − 0.15 ( cd − φ ) φ
U bars:
lb,eq = 0.7 ⋅ lb ,rqd
Design Tension
resistance Fbt,Rd = π ⋅ φ ⋅ f bd ⋅ lb ,eq α Design bonding tensile resistance [N] 8.4.3
Bearing shear
Fbv,Rd = φ 2 f yk γ s ⋅ f ck γ c Design bearing shear resistance [N] 8.6
52 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES TIMBER DESIGN
I-7 TIMBER DESIGN
7.1 Strength grade
7.1.1 Solid timber
A timber population may be assigned to a strength class if its characteristic values of bending strength and
density equal or exceed the values for that strength class, and its characteristic mean modulus of elasticity in
bending equals or exceeds 95 % of the value for that strength class.
Strength grading of solid timber can be achieved in one of two ways:
Visual method: EN 14081-1.
Machine method: EN 14081-1, EN 14081-2, EN 14081-3 & EN 14081-4.
The characteristic values are defined as the population 5th-percentile values obtained from the results of
tests with a duration of approximately 5 min at the equilibrium moisture content of the test pieces relating to a
temperature of 20°C and a relative humidity of 65%.
Timber strength class – Characteristic values EN 338:2009 Table 1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
ρk ρmean E0,mean E0,05 E90,mean Gmean fmean,k* ft,0,k* ft,90,k fc,0,k fc,90,k fv,k
Softwood
1.2ρk - 0.67E0,m E0,m/30 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.4 5fm,k0.45 0.007ρk -
(Conifer)
C14 290 350 7 000 4 700 230 440 14 8 0.4 16 2.0 3.0
C16 310 370 8 000 5 400 270 500 16 10 0.4 17 2.2 3.2
C18 320 380 9 000 6 000 300 560 18 11 0.4 18 2.2 3.4
C20 330 390 9 500 6 400 320 590 20 12 0.4 19 2.3 3.6
C22 340 410 10 000 6 700 330 630 22 13 0.4 20 2.4 3.8
C24 350 420 11 000 7 400 370 690 24 14 0.4 21 2.5 4
C27 370 450 11 500 7 700 380 720 27 16 0.4 22 2.6 4
C30 380 460 12 000 8 000 400 750 30 18 0.4 23 2.7 4
C35 400 480 13 000 8 700 430 810 35 21 0.4 25 2.8 4
C40 420 500 14 000 9 400 470 880 40 24 0.4 26 2.9 4
C45 440 520 15 000 10 000 500 940 45 27 0.4 27 3.1 4
C50 460 550 16 000 10 700 530 1000 50 30 0.4 29 3.2 4
Hardwood
1.2ρk - 0.84E0,m E0,m/15 E0,m/16 - 0.6fm,k 0.6 5fm,k0.45 0.015ρk -
(Deciduous)
D18 475 570 9500 8000 630 590 18 11 0,6 18 7.5 3.4
D24 485 580 10000 8500 670 620 24 14 0,6 21 7.8 4
D30 530 640 11000 9200 730 690 30 18 0,6 23 8.0 4
D35 540 650 12000 10100 800 750 35 21 0,6 25 8.1 4
D40 550 660 13000 10900 860 810 40 24 0,6 26 8.3 4
D50 620 750 14000 11800 930 880 50 30 0,6 29 9.3 4
D60 700 840 17000 14300 1130 1060 60 36 0,6 32 10.5 4.5
D70 900 1080 20000 16800 1330 1250 70 42 0,6 34 13.5 5
Note: * For rectangular solid timber, the reference depth in bending or width (max. dim.) in tension is 150 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 150 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
PART 1 EUROCODE 53
TIMBER DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
7.1.2 Glulam
A glued laminated member can be assigned to one of the strength classes if its characteristic bending
strength and modulus of elasticity, derived from tests in accordance with EN 408 and EN 1193, equal or
exceed the values for that strength class.
It is assumed that bending specimens have a depth h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. It is assumed
that tension specimens have a width h ≥ 600 mm and thickness b ≥ 150 mm. If the cross-section dimensions
are lower than these reference values, the test results shall be multiplied by:
0 ,05 0 ,1
 b   h 
k size =    600 
 150   
Glulam strength class – Characteristic values EN 1194:1999 Tables 1, 2 & A.1
Strength Density Modulus of elasticity Shear Bending Tension Compression Shear
class Parallel, 5%, Perpendicular modulus
2 2
[kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ]
*
ρg,k E0,g,mean E0,g,0.05 E90,g,m Gg,mean fm,g,k* ft,0,g,k ft,90,g,k fc,0,g,k fc,90,g,k fv,g,k
Homogene 7.0 + 5.0 + 0.2 +

1.1ρl,k 1.05E0,l,m 0.85E0,l,m 0.035E0,l,m 0.065E0,l,m 7.2ft,0,l,k0.45 0.7ft,0,l,k0.45 0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
ous 1.15ft,0,l,k 0.8ft,0,l,k 0.015ft,0,l,k
GL 24h 380 11 600 9 400 390 720 24 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 28h 410 12 600 10 200 420 780 28 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 32h 430 13 700 11 100 460 850 32 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
GL 36h 450 14 700 11 900 490 910 36 26 0.6 31 3.6 4.3

7.0 + 5.0 + 0.2 +
Combined 1.1ρl,k 1.05E0,l,m 0.85E0,l,m 0.035E0,l,m 0.065E0,l,m
1.15ft,0,l,k 0.8ft,0,l,k 0.015ft,0,l,k
7.2ft,0,l,k0.45 0.7ft,0,l,k0.45 0.32ft,0,l,k0.8
GL 24c 350 11 600 9 400 320 590 24 14 0.35 21 2.4 2.2
GL 28c 380 12 600 10 200 390 720 28 16.5 0.4 24 2.7 2.7
GL 32c 410 13 700 11 100 420 780 32 19.5 0.45 26.5 3.0 3.2
GL 36c 430 14 700 11 900 460 850 36 22.5 0.5 29 3.3 3.8
Note: * For rectangular glued laminated timber, the reference depth in bending or width in tension is 600 mm. For
depths in bending or widths in tension less than 600 mm the characteristic values for fm,k and ft,0,k may be increased
by the factor k h , given in section 0.
B B
7.2 Service class

The service class system is mainly aimed at assigning strength values and for calculating deformations under
defined environmental conditions.
Service classes EN 1995-1-1:2008 Cl. 2.3.1.3
Service Examples Characterised by moisture content EMC = Maximum equilibrium
class acc. to UK NA Table NA.2 corresponding to a temperature of 20°C… moisture content for most
softwoods
…and the relative humidity of the
Warm roofs, intermediate
1 surrounding air only exceeding 65 % for ≤ 12 %
floors, internal walls
few weeks per year
Cold roofs, ground floors,
…and the relative humidity of the
external walls, external
2 surrounding air only exceeding 85 % for ≤ 20 %
member protected from
few weeks per year
weather
External member fully Conditions leading to higher moisture
3 > 20 %
exposed contents than service class 2
54 PART 1 EUROCODE
7.3 Design of Solid, Glulam and LVL
7.3.1 Serviceability
Deflection EN 1995-1-1:2008
Stiffness* E mean Modulus of elasticity [N/mm²] 2.3.2.2
Gmean Modulus of rigidity [N/mm²]
Deflection u fin = u fin,G + u fin,Q1 + + u fin,Qi Total final deformation [mm] 2.2.3
where:
(
u fin,G = uinst,G 1 + k def ) Final deformation due to permanent action [mm]
(
u fin,Q1 = uinst,Q1 1 + ψ 2 ,1 kdef ) Final deformation due to leading variable action [mm]
u fin,Qi = uinst,Qi (ψ 0 ,i + ψ 2 ,i kdef ) Final deformation due to accompanying variable action
Deformation factor, kdef [mm]
Service Table 3.2
Material
class
kdef Deformation modification factor
Solid, 1 0.6
Gluelam 2 0.8
and LVL 3 2.0
Note: * The moduli given in clause 2.3.2.2 are used only for structure with different materials (i.e. different creep).
7.3.2 Ultimate limit state

Stiffness E mean Gmean Mean value of modulus of elasticity & 2.4.1
Ed = ; Gd =
γM γM shear modulus
Resistance Rk Design resistance 2.4.3

Rd = k mod
γM
Material safety factor, γM:
Material γM Material factor Table 2.3
Solid timber 1.3
Glued laminated timber 1.25
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) 1.2
Connections 1.3
Modification factor, kmod: Table 3.1
kmod
Load-duration class Example Service class
1&2 3
Permanent: > 10 yrs self-weight 0.6 0.5
Long term: 0.5-10 yrs storage 0.7 0.55
Medium: 1 wk-6 mos imposed floor 0.8 0.65
Short term: < 1 wk snow, aintenance 0.9 0.7
Instantaneous wind, impact, explosion 1.1 0.9
PART 1 EUROCODE 55
TIMBER DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES

Tension N t,Rd = A· f t ,d Design tension resistance [N]
Parallel to grain
f t ,0 ,k Criteria for design tension stress parallel 6.1.2
2
f t ,0 ,d = k h ⋅ k mod to grain[N/mm ]
γM
3.2,
Depth factor, kh: Depth factor: 3.3,
Material Criteria kh 3.4
Solid h < 150 mm ( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3 h = maximum dimension
Glulam h < 600 mm ( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1

LVL L ≠ 3000 mm ( 3000 l ) s 2 ≤ 1.1
Perpendicular to grain 6.1.3
f t ,90 ,k Criteria for design tension stress parallel
2
f t ,90 ,d = k mod to grain [N/mm ]
γM
Compression N c,Rd = A· f c ,d Design compression resistance [N]

Parallel to grain
f c ,0 ,k Criteria for design compression stress 6.1.4
2
f c ,0 ,d = k mod parallel to grain[N/mm ]
γM
Perpendicular to grain
f c,90,d = kc,90 ⋅ f c ,90 ,d Criteria for design compression stress
2
Load direction factor, kc,90: parallel to grain [N/mm ]
Support kc,90 ≤ 4.0
 l  h  6.1.5
End, a ≤ h/3  2.38 −   1+ Splitting and comp. deformation factor
 250   12l 
Intermit
End, a >h/3 1.0
tent
 l  h
Internal  2.38 − 250   1 + 6l 
   Fig. 6.2
Continu h ≤ 2.5b  l  lef

 2.38 − 250  l
ous &  
discrete lef
support h > 2.5b ;l<h
l
Fig. 6.3
N b,Rd = A· f b ,d Design comp. buckling resistance [N]

Compression buckling
12
λz = k ⋅ L Slenderness ratio [-] 6.3.2
b
λ z f c,0,k Relative slenderness ratio [-]
λrel,z =
π E0.05
1
kc ,z =
kz + k z2 2
− λrel,z
k z = 0.5  1 + β c λrel ,z − 0.3 + λrel

( 2  ) Reduction factor [-]
 ,z 
f b ,d = k z ⋅ f c ,d Compression buckling stress [N/mm²]

values of βc:
Material βc
Solid timber 0.2
Glulam & LVL 0.1
56 PART 1 EUROCODE

Shear A Design shear resistance [N]
VRd = · f v ,d
1.5
f v ,k
f v ,d = k mod Design shear stress [N/mm ]
2
6.1.7
γM
Torsion J Design torsion resistance [N] 6.1.8

TRd = τ tor ,d
r
τ tor ,d ≤ k shape ⋅ f v ,d Design torsional shear stress
2
[N/mm ]
values of τtor & kshape:
Section τ tor kshape
M tor
Circular 1.2
4π D 3
 h M h
Rectangular 3  1 + 0.6  tor2 1 + 0.15 ≤ 2.0
 b  h⋅b b
Bending M Rd = W · f m ,d Design moment resistance [N]

f m ,k 6.1.6
f m ,d = k h ⋅ k mod Design bending resistance [N/mm²]
γM
values of kh:
Allowance for redistribution of
Material Depth kh stresses and the effect of
Solid h < 150 mm ( 150 h )0.2 ≤ 1.3 inhomogeneities in a cross-section 3.2,
3.3,
Gluelam h < 600 mm ( 600 h )0.1 ≤ 1.1 3.4
Depth factor
LVL h < 300 mm ( 300 h ) s ≤ 1.2
Combined Bending and tension 6.1.6

stresses Ft ,Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed Stress redistribution factor, km:
+ + km ≤ 1.0 6.2.3
Ft ,Rd M y ,Rd M z ,Rd Section km
Rectangular 0.7
Ft ,Ed M y,Ed M z,Ed
+ km + ≤ 1.0 Others 1.0
Ft ,Rd M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
Bending and compression 6.2.4
2
 Fc ,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed
  + + km ≤ 1.0
 Fc ,Rd  M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
2
 Fc ,Ed  M y,Ed M z,Ed
  + k m + ≤ 1.0
 Fc ,Rd  M y ,Rd M z ,Rd
PART 1 EUROCODE 57
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES GLASS DESIGN
I-8 GLASS DESIGN

8.1 Properties
8.1.1 Glass
Mechanical properties of glass EN 572-1:2004
Form Density, Unit weight, Young’s Modulus of rigidity, Poisson’s Thermal
γ ρ modulus, E G ratio, ν coefficient, α
2 2
[kN/m³] [kg/m³] [N/mm ] [N/mm ] [-] [/˚C]
-6
All 24.5 2 500 70 000 29 166 0.20 9·10
8.1.2 Interlayer
Laminated glass interlayer
Shear Modulus [N/mm²]
Interlayer Thickness [mm] Load Duration
Temp.
3s 1m 10 m 1 hr 24 h 1 mo 10 yr
PVB xx.1 xx.2 xx.3 xx.4 30°C 0.97 0.75 0.5 0.44 0.28 0.07 0.05
Polyvinyl
[mils] 15 30 45 60
Butyral
[mm] 0.38 0.76 1.14 1.52 50°C 0.44 0.29 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
30°C 141 110 65* 59.9 49.7 11.6 5.31
SG [mils] 35 60 90 120 50°C 26.4 11.3 4.0* 4.0 2.82 2.18 2.0
Sentryglas [mm] 0.89 1.52 2.28 3.05
60°C 8.18 3.64 2.0* 1.7 1.29 1.08 0.97
80°C 1.32 0.83 0.4 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.18
Note: *According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016.
8.2 Glass sizes
Split sizes are delivered in size ranges 3210mm*×1000mm to 2550mm.
Jumbo sizes are delivered in sizes 3210mm*×4500mm, 5100mm or 6000mm
*The usual width is 3 210 mm. Exceptional production requirements can cause this to be reduced but the
nominal width is never below 3 150 mm
Tolerance on nominal thickness EN 572-2:2004 Table 1
Nominal thickness Tolerances Nominal thickness Tolerances
2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ± 0.2 mm 15 ± 0.5 mm
6, 10, 12 ± 0.3 mm 19, 25 ± 1,0 mm
8.3 Glass holes

EN 12150-1:2000 Design rules for loaded holes:
The distance, a, of the edge of a hole to the glass edge should be not less than 2d.
The distance, b, between the edges of two holes should be not less than 2d.
The distance, c, of the edge of a hole to the cor-ner of the glass should be not less than 6d.
PART 1 EUROCODE 59
GLASS DESIGN STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
8.4 Structural design of glass

8.4.1 Allowable stress design (ASD)
σ max ≤ σ allowable - Principal stress under 10 minute mean wind velocity.
Glass design acc. to TRLV TRLV:2006 Table 2

Four-side supported glass Barrier glass
†
Wind load only With climatic load combination Impact load
Form
Vertical Overhead Vertical glazing Overhead TRAV:2003
glazing glazing A ≤ 1.6m
2
A > 1.6m
2 glazing cl. 6.4.4
Annealed 18 12 22.5 20.7 13.8 80
‡
Annealed Laminated 22.5 15 (25) 28.1 25.8 17.25(28.8) 80
Float Heat strengthened 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120
Toughened with frits 30 30 37.5 34.5 34.5 120
Toughened 50 50 62.5 57.5 57.5 170
Annealed 10 8 12.5 11.5 9.2 -
Cast
Toughened 37 37 46.2 42.5 42.5 -
†
Note: Allowable stresses, for checking under combined wind and climatic loading, can be increased by 15% in
2
general and 25% for float glass for vertical glazing having a surface area of up to 1.6m .
‡
Value in bracket is for the upper ply of the laminated lower pane at the event of upper pane breakage.
8.4.2 Design according to DIN 18008: Limit state design (LRFD)
Glass design acc. to DIN 18008 Leichtbau und Glasbau S-5-01/2007
Design σ Ed ≤ σ Rd
2
σ Ed { Fd } = ∑ γ G ; j Gk ; j + γ Q ;1Qk ;1 + ∑ γ Q ;iψ 0 ;1Qk ;i Design stress, [N/mm ]
Resistance Annealed glass (AN):

2
k ⋅f Design stress resistance, [N/mm ]
σ Rd = mod k
γM
Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG): values of kmod & γM:
f Short-term load (wind) kmod = 0.7 γ
σ Rd = k
γM Medium and long-term load
kmod = 0.4 γ
(dead, snow, climatic load)
Design stress resistance under load combination

2
Design stress resistance, fRd [N/mm ]
Characteristic
With short-duration load
bending tensile No
Float glass Four-side
stress, short-duration
fk [N/mm ]
2
load General supported
vertical glass
Annealed 45 10 17.5 28.64
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit 45 30 30 40.91
Monlithic
Heat strengthened 70 46.67 46.67 63.64

Toughened with ceramic frit 75 50 50 68.18
Toughened 120 80 80 109.10
Annealed, edge under tension 36 8.8 15.4 -
Annealed 45 11 19.25 31.5
Laminated
Heat-strengthened with ceramic frit 45 33 33 45

Heat strengthened 70 51.33 51.33 70
Toughened with ceramic frit 75 55 55 75
Toughened 120 88 88 120
60 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.4.3 Design acc. to prEN 13474

Glass design to Eurocode prEN 13474-1:1999
Design f g,d [SLS] Calculated unfactored stresses
σ ef,k ≤ f g,d [ULS] or FS [N/mm²]
Resistance fg,k = 45 N/mm2 Generic strength of glass 6.3.1
k A = A0.04 Size factor 6.3.5
Annealed glass (AN):
2
k mod ⋅ f g,k ⋅ γ n Design stress resistance, [N/mm ] 6.3.6
f g,d = ; γn = 1.0 National partial safety factor Table A.1
γ mkA
Thermally toughened glass (HS/TVG, FT/ESG):
 f b,k − f g,k kmod ⋅ f g,k  Modification factor according to
f g,d =  + γ
 γv γ m k A  n the duration of the dominant action
values of kmod: Table 6
Duration of load Load kmod
Short wind 0.72
Medium snow, climate 0.36
Permanent Selfweight, altitude 0.27
values of γm: Table 5
γm γv
Heat strengthened, Chemically
Glass All
thermally toughened strengthened
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS
Float and sheet 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.5
Enamelled float 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 - -
Patterned 2.3 1.3 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
Enamelled patterned 2.3 1.3 3.0 2.0 - -
Polished wired 2.3 1.3 - - - -
Patterned wired 3.2 1.8 - - - -
Borosilicate glass 1.8 1.0 2.3 1.5 - -
Glass ceramics 1.8 1.0 - - - -
values of fb,k:
Table 4
Heat Thermally Chemically
Glass
strengthened toughened strengthened
Float and sheet 70 120 150
Enamelled float 45 75 -
Patterned 55 90 150
Enamelled patterned 45 75 -
Borosilicate glass - 120 -
2
Allowable stress for panes up to 4.0 m area (kA = 1.057). prEN 13474-2:2000 Table 2
2
Glass Allowable stress for uniformly distributed load, fg,d [N/mm ]*
Short duration loads Medium duration Permanent loads
Type Process (Wind) (Snow, climate) (Selfweight, altitude)
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS
Annealed (AN) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5
Float and Heat strengthened (HS) 27.9 47.3 19.4 32.0 17.3 28.2
sheet Thermally toughened (FT) 49.6 80.7 41.1 65.3 39.0 61.5
Chemically strengthened (CS) 62.7 100.7 54.2 85.3 52.0 81.5
Heat strengthened (HS) 17.0 30.7 8.5 15.3 6.4 11.5
Enamelled
Thermally toughened (FT) 30.1 50.7 21.6 35.3 19.4 31.5
Note: * SLS values have to be reduced by appropriate safety factors.
PART 1 EUROCODE 61
8.4.4 Design of single glass
Design of Single Glass prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Data a, b Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm]
Fd, Fk 2
Design and characteristic load, [kN/m ]
Monolithic hef,σ = hef,w = h Effective glass thickness, [mm]
Laminated Shear transfer coefficient, Γ =0:

glass Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of Table F.1
h3 ∑ i
individual pane, [mm]
i
hef ,σ j =
hj F.2
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation,
hef ,w = 3 ∑ hi 3 [mm]
i
Laminated Short duration loads, Γ =1: Effective glass thickness with full composite action,
safety glass hef,σ = hef,w = Σ(hi) [mm]
Other loads, Γ =0:
∑ hi 3 Effective glass thickness for stress calculation of
i individual pane, [mm]
hef ,σ j =
hj Table F.1
Effective glass thickness for deflection calculation,
hef ,w = 3 ∑ hi 3 [mm] F.2
i
Load combinations**
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress criteria
Vertical glazing
1.5W W
1. 5(W + 0.7L) (W + 0.7L) σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
1.5L L
Sloped glazing
1.35D D σ ef ≤ f g ,d (permanent )
1.35D + 1.5(S + *0.6Wp) D + (S + *0.6Wp) σ ef ≤ f g ,d (medium duration)
1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.5S) D + (Wp + 0.5S)

1.35D + 1.5(Wp + 0.7L) D + (Wp + 0.7L)
σ ef ≤ f g ,d (short duration )
1.35D + 1.5(L + *0.6Wp) D + (L + *0.6Wp)
D + 1.5Ws D + Ws
Note: **Load combinations are according to EN 1990. Factors in prEN 13474 are according to the obsolete draft
ENV 1991-1.
*0.5W p acc. to UK NA Table NA.A1.1
62 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.4.5 Design of IGU

Design of Insulated Glass Unit prEN 13474-2:2000 Annex E
Data h1, h2 Glass thickness, [mm]
Insulating h1 3
glass δ1 = Stiffness of outer pane 1, [-] 8.3.1

h1 + h2 3
3
h2 3 Stiffness of inner pane 2, [-]

δ2 =
h1 3 + h2 3
0.25
 
s ⋅ h1 3 h2 3 Characteristic length of the unit, [mm] 8.3.2
a* = 28.9  
k h 3 + h 3 
 5 1 ( 2 ) 
1 Insulating unit factor, [-]
φ= 4
 a 
1+  
 a* 
Vertical glazing
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress criteria Remarks
Design of outer pane 1:
1.5Wp(δ1+φδ2) Wp(δ1+φδ2) - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(δ1+φδ2) Ws(δ1+φδ2) + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0.7L] [Wp(δ1+φδ2) + 0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Live load on outer pane
1.5L L - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Design of inner pane 2:
1.5Wp(1-φ)δ2 Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 + φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5Ws(1-φ)δ2 Wp,s(1-φ)δ2 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
1.5[Ws(1-φ)δ2 + 0.7L] [Ws(1-φ)δ2 +0 .7L] - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Live load on inner pane
1.5L L - φ(pH +0.9pC)
Note: Net wind load is assumed acting on the outer pane only (i.e., including internal pressure).
Sloped glazing
Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state Allowable stress
Design of outer pane 1:
1.35D1(δ1+φδ2) +1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 D1(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (permanent )
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (medium)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Wp+0.5S)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 -φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Wp+0.7L)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (short)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](δ1+φδ2)+1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+L+*0.6Wp)(δ1+φδ2)+D2(1-φ)δ1 - φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + 1.35D2(1-φ)δ1 (D1+Ws)(δ1+φδ2) + D2(1-φ)δ1+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
Design of inner pane 2:
1.35D1(1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) D1(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (permanent )
[1.35D1+1.5(S+*0.6Wp)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+S+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2 +D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC) f g ,d (medium)
[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.5S)] (1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Wp+0.5S)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)-φ(pH +0.9pC)

[1.35D1+1.5(Wp+0.7L)] (1-φ)δ2 +1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Wp+0.7L)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
f g ,d (short)
[1.35D1+1.5(L+*0.6Wp)](1-φ)δ2+1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+L+*0.6Wp)(1-φ)δ2+D2(φδ1+δ2)- φ(pH +0.9pC)
(D1+1.5Ws) (1-φ)δ2 + 1.35D2(φδ1+δ2) (D1+Ws)(1-φ)δ2 + D2(φδ1+δ2)+ φ(pH +0.9pC)
PART 1 EUROCODE 63
8.5 Glass stress and deflection

Calculation of glass stress and deflection and cavity volume change prEN 13474-2:2000
Data a, b Shorter and longer side of the glass, [mm]
Fd 2
Design load, [kN/m ]
Stress and λ = a/b Aspect ratio, [-] B.1
deflection a 4 Fd
p* =
hef 4 E Normalised load, [-]
a2 Maximum tensile stress, [N/mm ]

2
σ max = k1 2
Fd
hef ,σ
a2 2
σ ef = k 2 2
Fd Effective glass stress, [N/mm ]
hef ,σ
a4 Fd
w max = k 4 3 Maximum glass deflection, [mm]
hef ,w E
a 5 b Fd
V = k5 3
hef ,w 3 E Insulating glass change of cavity volume, [mm ]
8.5.1 Coefficients for two-edge supported rectangular glass

k1 = 0.75
k2 = 0.699
k4 = 0.148
8.5.2 Coefficients for three-edge supported rectangular glass
64 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.5.3 Coefficients for four-edge supported rectangular glass

The coefficients in the table below are valid for a Poisson number in the range 0.20 to 0.24. For small
deflections (linear theory) the values for p* = 0 apply.
Figure 8.5-1 Calculation of maximum stress, k1 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.1
Figure 8.5-2 Calculation of effective stress, k2 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.2
PART 1 EUROCODE 65
Figure 8.5-3 Calculation of maximum deflection, k4 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.3
Figure 8.5-4 Calculation of volume change, k5 prEN 13474-2:2000 Table B.4
66 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.6 Climatic effects

8.6.1 IGU Internal actions
Insulating glass TRLV:2006
2
Data W Wind load [kN/m ]
c1 = 0.34 kPa/°K Thermal unit pressure
∆T Temperature difference from glass production to site [°K]
c2 = 0.012 kPa/m Altitude unit pressure
∆H
Altitude difference from glass production to site [m]
Glass production altitudes:
Producer Location Altitude
Sunglass (Guardian) Villafranca, Italy + 20 m
Polypane (Guardian) Temse, Belgium + 23 m
Interpane (AGC) Lauenförde, GErmany + 98 m
Schöllglas Nossen, Germany + 273 m
Isochoric p0 = c1 ⋅ ∆T − ∆ pmet + c2 ⋅ ∆ H
pressure
Recommended isochoric pressure TRLV:2006 Table 1 & Annex B1

Condition Site Production Isochore
pressure
Temp. pmet Temp. pmet ∆T ∆pmet ∆H p0
2 2
[°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] [°C]
2
[kN/m ] [m]
2
[kN/m ]
Summer Glass absorptance ≤ 30% +39 101 +19 103 +20 -2 +600 +16.0
30% < absorptance ≤ 50% +48 +29 +19.0
absorptance > 50% +57 +38 +22.0
Internal sunscreen (ventilated) +48 +29 +19.0
Internal sunscreen (non-ventilated) +57 +38 +22.0
Shadow box panel +74 +55 +28.0
Winter Heated building +2 103 +27 99 -25 +4 -300 -16.0
Unheated building -10 -37 -20.0
Recommended isochoric pressure* prEN 13474-1:1999 Table 1 & Table B.1

2
Condition Site Production Climatic Altitude action pH,0 [kN/m ]
action
Temp. Met. pressure Temp. Met. Pressure ∆T ∆pmet pC,0 Site altitude Site altitude
2 2
[°C] [kN/m ] [°C] [kN/m ] [°C]
2
[kN/m ] [kN/m
2
] ≤ 400m ≤ 700m
Summer +45 100 +18 103 +27 -3 +12.0 +3.6 +8.4
Winter +3 104 +30 98 -27 +6 -15.0 -3.6 -8.4

Note:
*These recommendations can be used when exact values of internal loads cannot be determined provided that:
1) The IGU is manufactured from clear glass or has an overall absorptance not exceeding 35%;
2) Heat build up by other structure elements or sun protection devices is prevented; and
3) If the altitude of the place of production (final sealing) is unknown.
PART 1 EUROCODE 67
8.6.2 Thermal stress/shock

Glass can break as a result of excessive thermal stress. Thermally induced stress within a pane of glass
results from a temperature differential between two areas of the pane. For instance, in hot weather, the
centre of the glass warms up faster than the edge, because the edge is within the glazing rebate and shaded
from direct solar radiation. Assuming the area of glass within the frame is insignificant compared with that
exposed to solar radiation, as the centre of the pane expands due to the increase in temperature, the edge
will be forced to expand by a similar amount inducing a tensile stress.
Thermal induced stress
Action Values Notes
Data L Glass original length [mm]
E 2
Glass modulus of elasticity [N/mm ]
α Glass coefficient of thermal expansion [-]
∆T Temperature difference between the edge and centre of the pane [°K]
Thermal ∆L = α ·L·∆T Expansion of glass [mm]

2
stress σT = (∆L/L)·E Induced stress [N/mm ]
68 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.7 Structural silicone glazing (SSG)

Properties of structural sealant ETAG 002-1:2001
Sealant Elastic Shear Allow. Short term load Long term load, γc = 10
modulus* modulus* strain
Tension, Shear, Tension, Shear,
†
E0 G0 ε σdes Γdes σ∞ Γ∞
2 2 2 2 2 2
[N/mm ] [N/mm ] [%] [kN/m ] [kN/m ] [kN/m ] [kN/m ]
Structural Two- Sika SG 500 140 105 14 10.5

glazing part
DC 993 0.47 10 140 110 14 11.0
One- Sika SG 20 1.05 0.35 12.5 170 128 17 12.8

part
DC 995 15
Sika SG 18 12.5 170 95 17 9.5
DC 895
Insulating Two- Sika IG 25 140 101 14 10.1

glass part
Sika IG 25H 150 83 15 8.3
DC 3362
One- Sika IG 16
part
DC 3793
Note: * Modulus tangential to the origin.
†
Design stress is based on the Ru,5 value with a safety factor of 6. The Ru,5 value is the probability at 75% that
95% of the population will have a breaking strength above this value.
8.7.1 Types of SSG
Type 1: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions. Devices are used
to reduce danger in the event of a bond failure.
Type II: Mechanical transfer of the self weight of the infill to
the sealant-support frame and thence to the structure. The
structural seal transfers all other actions and no devices are
used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
Type III: The structural seal transfers all actions including
the self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. Devices are used to reduce danger
in the event of a bond failure.
Type IV: The structural seal transfers all actions, including
self-weight of the infill to the sealant support frame and
thence to the structure. No devices are used to reduce danger in the event of bond failure.
EN 13022-1:2006 Retaining devices may be required by national regulations. SSGS types III & IV may be
forbidden by national regulation for laminated glass and laminated safety glass.
ETAG 002-1:2001 Types III and IV SSGS are only applicable for single glass units. For insulating glass units
or laminated glass, each pane of glass must be supported (type I or II).
PART 1 EUROCODE 69
8.7.2 Structural silicone design (ASD)

Structural glazing ETAG 002-1:2001
Data b, h Glass width and height [m]
2
γg Unit weight of glass [kN/m ]
W 2
Wind load [kN/m ]
ε Allowable strain [%]
Types I, II & III Structural bite
Supported min {b; h} ⋅ W Structural bite, minimum [mm] A2.3.1
system hc ≥ ≥ 6mm
2σ des
Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.3.2
S = b + 4h 2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
values of α & ∆T: 4.4.4.1
α Condition Tf,g – T0 [°C] Coefficient of thermal expansion of
[/°K] ETAG SIKA frame and glass
-6
Alu. 24·10 Internal 55 - 20
-6
Temperature difference
Steel 12·10
-6 Exposed 80 - 20 60
S/S 16·10
-6
Glass 9·10 Clear 55 - 20 30
Opaque 100 - 20 -
 ∆ ⋅ G ∆S  Sealant thickness, minimum [mm]
e ≥ min  S ; ; 6mm 
 Γ des
2
2ε + ε 
IGU hermetic seal* Seal height in non-stepped IGU [mm] A2.3.4
min {b; h} ⋅ W
r ≥ ⋅ β ≥ 6mm
2 σ des
values of β:
Glass thickness β
do ≤ di 0.5
do ≤ di 1.0
Type IV Structural bite

Unsupported b ⋅γ g Structural bite, minimum [mm] A2.4.3
system hc ,min = ≥ 6mm
2 Γ∞
Sealant thickness
1 2 Expansion length [mm] A2.4.2
S = b + h2
2
∆S = α f T f − T0 − α g Tg − T0  S Differential expansion [mm]
( ) ( )
 ∆ ⋅ G ∆S  Sealant thickness, minimum [mm] A2.4.1
e ≥ min  S ; ; 6mm 
 Γ des 2ε + ε 2

Relationship e ≤ hc ≤ 3 ⋅ e A2.3.3
Note: * For small units or non-rectangular shapes climatical effects must be taken into account.
70 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.8 Safety glass TRAV Requirements

8.8.1 Categories [TRAV:2003 cl.6.2.2 & Appendix A]
Category A (VSG or ESG) Category B (VSG only)

Pendulum height = 900mm Impact area Pendulum height = 700mm
Category C1 (VSG or ESG) Category C2 (VSG or ESG) Category C3 (VSG or ESG)

Pendulum height = 450mm Pendulum height = 450mm
8.8.2 Balustrade construction (Category B)

Handrail design features
Cl. 5.5.1 - The continuous handrail should be attached to the glass in such a manner
that, should a glass panel fracture, the handrail will remain in position and will not fail if
the design load is applied across the resulting gap, transferring the loads to adjacent
glass panes, end posts or anchorage to building.
- Handrail with structural or non-structural capping integrated with structural U-profile
- Prevent glass-to-metal contact by inserting u-profile non-flammable elastomeric strip
(distance 200 to 300 mm)
- Filler in the gap between the handrail u-profile and glass shall be sealant in
accordance with DIN 18545-2 Group E
- Glass rebate in the u-profile ≥ 15 mm
Support design features
- Clamping height ≥ 100 mm
- Clamping steel plate ≥ 12 mm
- Clamping fastener spacing ≤ 300 mm
- Setting block at the bottom of glass
- Bush sleeve around fasteners
- Glass holes (25 to 35 mm) centred to the clamping plate
- Non-compressible elastomer filler along the glass-to-metal contacts
- The clamping may also be rigidly fixed to the supporting structure.
PART 1 EUROCODE 71
8.8.3 Balustrades - Free-standing balustrades or juliet balconies

Deflection of free-standing glass balustrade is limited to L/100 or 15 mm, whichever is smaller in relation to
TRLV:2006. Glass design tensile stress resistances in accordance with DIN 18008.
Barrier loads are combined with half wind loads in accordance with TRAV:2003 cl. 4.2.
Maximum cantilever height of barrier [m] TRAV:2003
Barrier load ( ≤ 10 min. duration load)
Glass Barrier[kN/m] 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0
Wind [kN/m²] ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1.4 ≤ 2.0
Laminated glass with PVB interlayer (G = 0.5 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
12.76 mm HS 0.70 0.65 0.59 0.57 0.52 0.48
6/0.76/6 FT 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.63 0.63 0.63
17.52 mm AN 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.21 0.21 0.20
8/1.52/8 HS 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.81 0.81 0.79
FT " " " " " 0.80
21.52 mm AN 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.33 0.75 - - -
10/1.52/10 HS 1.14 1.13 1.13 1.04 1.03 1.03 0.72 0.67 0.64
FT " " " " " " 0.77 0.76 0.76
25.52 mm AN 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.24 0.24 0.23 - - -
12/1.52/12 HS 1.39 1.38 1.37 1.27 1.26 1.25 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.66 0.63 0.60
FT " " " " " " " " " 0.79 0.79 0.78
31.52 mm AN 1.08 0.92 0.82 0.86 0.76 0.69 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.25 0.25 0.24
15/1.52/15 HS 1.78 1.76 1.74 1.62 1.61 1.60 1.20 1.20 1.19 1.01 1.01 1.00
FT " " " " " " " " " “ “ “
Laminated glass with Sentryglas interlayer (G = 65.0 N/mm² @ 30°C)*
17.52 mm AN 0.55 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.23 0.22 0.22 - - -
8/1.52/8 HS 1.19 1.18 1.18 1.11 1.10 1.09 0.78 0.74 0.71 0.54 0.52 0.51
FT " " “ " " 1.10 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.77 0.77 0.76
21.52 mm AN 0.79 0.72 0.67 0.67 0.62 0.58 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.23 0.22 0.22
10/1.52/10 HS 1.46 1.45 1.44 1.36 1.35 1.35 1.08 1.07 1.01 0.80 0.77 0.75
FT " " " " " " “ 1.08 1.08 0.94 0.94 0.94
22.28 mm AN 0.84 0.76 0.70 0.71 0.65 0.61 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.24 0.23 0.23
10/2.28/10 HS 1.51 1.50 1.49 1.41 1.40 1.39 1.12 1.11 1.07 0.85 0.82 0.80
FT " " ” " " " “ “ 1.11 0.97 0.97 0.97
25.52 mm AN 1.06 0.95 0.87 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.33 0.33 0.32
12/1.52/12 HS 1.73 1.72 1.71 1.61 1.60 1.59 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.11 1.06 1.02
FT " " " " " " " " “ 1.12 1.12 1.12
26.28 mm) AN 1.11 0.99 0.90 0.95 0.87 0.80 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.34 0.34 0.33
12/2.28/12 HS 1.78 1.77 1.75 1.66 1.65 1.64 1.32 1.32 1.31 1.15 1.12 1.07
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ 1.15 1.15
31.52 mm AN 1.50 1.30 1.18 1.30 1.16 1.07 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.51 0.50 0.49
15/1.52/15 HS 2.14 2.12 2.10 1.99 1.93 1.93 1.59 1.58 1.58 1.39 1.39 1.38
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ “ “
31.52 mm AN 1.55 1.35 1.22 1.35 1.20 1.11 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.53 0.52 0.51
15/2.28/15 HS 2.18 2.16 2.14 2.03 2.02 2.00 1.62 1.61 1.61 1.41 1.41 1.41
FT " " " " " " " " “ “ “ “
Note: * According to DIBt Zulassungnummer: Z-70.3-170, valid until 7 November 2016. Temperature is limited to
30°C since high temperature does not occur at the same time with maximum barrier or wind load.
72 PART 1 EUROCODE
8.9 Glass fins

8.9.1 Glass fin design
Structural Glass Fins – Dr. -Ing. Tobias Holberndt Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006
Data H Glass fin unsupported span [mm]
d Glass fin depth [mm]
t = tef,w Glass fin effective thickness [mm]
E, G Modulii of elasticity and rigidity of glass [N/mm²]
fg,k Glass fin characteristic resistance [N/mm²]
Criteria My,d Design bending moment [kN·m] (5.2)

M y ,d (5.1)
≤ 1.0
M b ,Rd Criteria
Buckling Wel , y = t ⋅ d 2 6 Elastic section modulus of glass fin [mm³]

reduction
factor
M el , y = Wel , y ⋅ f g ,k Bending moment resistance [kN·m] (5.4)
4
I z = d ⋅ t 3 12 Moment of inertia about strong axis [mm ] (5.6)
dt  3
t t  5
4
IT =  1 − 0.63 + 0.052 5  Torsional inertia [mm ] (3.5)
3  d d 
χ = E ⋅ d 3t 3 ( 192 H 2
G ⋅ IT ) (4.2)
Reduction Wind pressure (-h/2) <<- more critical! Uniformly loaded beam:
factor k = 3.59 − 4.35 χ 0.37 Euler constant [-] (4.3)
Wind suction (+h/2)
k = 3.56 + 18.5 χ 0.58
k Critical buckling moment [kN·m] (4.1)

M cr = E ⋅ I z G ⋅ IT
H
λ LT = M el , y M cr Slenderness [-] (3.1)
for λ LT < 1.1 :

5 Moment reduction factor due to buckling [-] (5.5)
κ LT = 1 (
1 + λ LT − 0.12 ) + 0.05 λ LT
for λ LT ≥ 1.1 :
2
κ LT = 0.87 λ LT (5.5)
Buckling M el , y Buckling moment design resistance [kN·m] (5.1)

moment M b ,R d = κ LT ⋅
1.5
PART 1 EUROCODE 73
8.9.2 Glass fin design

Glass fin Fraunhofer-Informationszentrum Raum und Bau IRB:2006
LAMINATED GLASS FIN
18
16
14
12
SINGLE GLASS FIN
74 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES STONE DESIGN
I-9 STONE DESIGN

9.1 Properties
9.1.1 Testing
Tests for stone panels
Test Units Test/calculation method
2
Water absorption [g/m ; %] [EN 1925; 13755]
Uniaxial compressive strength [MPa] [EN 1926]
3
Density and porosity [kg/m ; %] [EN 1936]
Frost resistance - [EN 12371]
Flexural strength under concentrated load [MPa] [EN 12372]
Flexural strength under constant moment [MPa] [EN 13161]
Breaking load at dowel hole [N] [EN 13364]
Static elastic modulus [MPa] [EN 14580]
Linear thermal expansion coefficient [/°C] [EN 14581]
9.1.2 Flexural strength test

Statistical evaluation of test result EN 13161:2001 / EN 12372:1999 Annex A
2
Data x1, x2 .., xi .., xn Measured values [N/mm ] A.2
2
1 Logarithmic mean value [N/mm ]
xln = ∑ ln ( xi )
n i
2
sln = ±
∑  ln ( xi ) − xln  Logarithmic standard deviation [N/mm ]
2
n−1
2
Flexural strength x − k ⋅s  Lower expected value [N/mm ] Table A.1
E = e  ln s ln 
Fractile factor ks*:
Quantile or fractile factor [-]
n ks n ks
3 3.15 10 2.10
*Corresponding to 5% fractile for a
4 2.68 15 1.99 confidence level of 75%
5 2.46 20 1.93
6 2.34 30 1.87
7 2.25 40 1.83
8 2.19 50 1.81
9 2.14 ∞ 1.64
9.1.3 Tolerances
Stone tolerances EN 1469:2004
Measurement Thickness [mm] Length or width [mm] Tolerance Reference
Thickness 12 < t ≤ 30 ± 10 % Table 1
30 < t ≤ 80 ± 3 mm
t > 80 ± 5 mm
Length or width t* ≤ 50 L or b < 600 ± 1 mm Table 2
L or b ≥ 600 ± 1.5 mm
t* > 50 L or b < 600 ± 2 mm
L or b ≥ 600 ± 3 mm
Note: * Sawn edge thickness
PART 1 EUROCODE 75
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CURTAIN WALL TESTING
I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING

10.1 Testing overview
10.1.1 Curtain walling product standard [EN 13830]
Curtain wall tests BBSEN 13830:2003 Cl. 5.2.3
No Test Test/calculation method Requirement/classification
2
1 Resistance to wind load Pressure [kN/m ] [EN 12179] - [EN 13116]
2
2 Dead load Unit weight [kN/m ][EN 1991-1-1] -
3 Resistance against Internal, [EN 12600] cl.5 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 [EN 14019]
impact drop height [mm] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)
4 External, E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
drop height [mm] (N/A) (200) (300) (450) (700) (950)
5 Air permeability Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12153] A1 A2 A3 A4 AE [EN 12152]
(150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
6 Watertightness Test pressure [Pa] [EN 12155] R4 R5 R6 R7 RE [EN 12154]
(150) (300) (450) (600) (>600)
7 Airborne sound insulation Rw [dB] [EN ISO 140-3] - [EN ISO 717-1]
2
8 Thermal transmittance UCW [W/m K] [EN 13947] -
9 Fire resistance E [min] [EN 13501-2] E15 E30 E60 E90
10 Integrity and insulation EI [min] EI15 EI30 EI60 EI90
11 Equipotentiality Ω [EN 13830] A -
12 Resistance to horizontal Force at height [EN 1991-1-1] -
loads [kN @ m]
10.1.2 Windows and doors performance tests

Door and window tests EN 14351-1:2005
Test/calculation method Requirement/classification
Test
Window External pedestrian door Window External pedestrian door
Resistance to wind load EN 12211 EN 12210
Reaction to fire EN 13501-1 - EN 13501-1 -
External fire performance EN 1187 - EN 13501-5 -
Watertightness EN 1027 EN 12208
Impact resistance EN 13049 EN 13049
Resistance to static torsion EN 14609 EN 948 -
Acoustic performance EN ISO 140-3; EN ISO 717-1 -
Thermal transmittance EN ISO 10077-1; EN ISO 12567 -
Air permeability EN 1026 EN 12207
Operating forces EN 12046-1 EN 12046-2 EN 13115 EN 12217
Mechanical strength EN 947; EN 948;
EN 14608 EN 13115 EN 1192
EN 949; EN 950
Bullet resistance EN 1523 EN 1522
Explosion resistance EN 13124-1; EN 13124-2 EN 13123-1; EN 13123-2
Resistance to repeated
EN 1191 EN 12400
opening and closing
Burglar resistance EN 1628; EN 1629; EN 1630 EN 1627
PART 1 EUROCODE 77
CURTAIN WALL TESTING STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
10.2 Weather performance tests
10.2.1 Weather performance test sequence [EN 13830]
Weather resistance tests are interdependent on each other. The following groups of tests carried out in
sequence shall be considered as a single weather test. All tests shall be carried out strictly in sequence, as
follows
Weather resistance sequence of testing BBSEN 13830:2003 cl. 5.2.3
Requirement/
Test Purpose Test method
Classification
a Air permeability for classification EN 12153 EN 12152
b Watertightness under static for classification EN 12155 EN 12154
pressure
c Resistance to wind load serviceability EN 12179 EN 13116
d Air permeability repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12153 EN 12152
classification
e Watertightness repeat to confirm wind resistance EN 12155 EN 12154
classification
f Resistance to wind load increased wind resistance test - safety EN 12179 EN 13116
Note: Where specifically required, an additional supplementary watertightness test under dynamic wind conditions
can be carried out, in accordance with ENV 13050, on completion of test sequence a) to e).
No test in the sequence shall be carried out unless all previous tests have been passed to the acceptance
criteria.
78 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.2.2 Air permeability [EN 12153:2000]
Air permeability class BBSEN 12152:2002 Tables 1 & 2

Based on overall area [A] Based on fixed joint length [L]
Air permeability
class Maximum test pressure Air permeability Maximum test pressure Air permeability
3 2 3
Pmax [Pa] Q/A [m /h/m ] Pmax [Pa] Q/L [m /h/m]
A1 150 1.5 150 0.5
A2 300 1.5 300 0.5
A3 450 1.5 450 0.5
A4 600 1.5 600 0.5
AE > 600 1.5 > 600 0.5
3 2
Note: Specimens which leak air > 1.5 m /h/m at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified.
3 2
Specimens which leak air < 1.5 m /h/m at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).
PART 1 EUROCODE 79
10.2.3 Watertightness [EN 12155:2000]
Water tightness BBSEN EN 12154:2000 Tables 1 & 2

Class Maximum test pressure Pressure steps and test duration Water spray rate
2
Pmax [Pa] P/T [Pascal/minutes] [li/min/m ]
R4 150 0/15; 50/15; 100/5; 150/5 2
R5 300 (as in R4); 300/5 2
R6 450 (as in R5); 450/5 2
R7 600 (as in R6); 600/5 2
RE xxx > 600 (as in R7); +150 Pa steps for 5 minutes duration 2
Note: Specimens with water leakage at pressures < 150 Pa cannot be classified.
Specimens without water leakage at pressures > 600 Pa are classified E (exceptional).
For class RE xxx the exceptional test pressure should be taken as a minimum of 0.25 of the design wind
pressure (where design wind pressure is > 2400 Pa)
80 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.2.4 Resistance to wind load [EN 12179:2000]
Resistance to wind load BBSEN EN 13116:2001 Cl. 4

Performance Requirements
under
Design load The frontal deflection shall not exceed 1/200 of the span of the framing member, measured
- both positive and between points of structural support, or 15 mm whichever is less
negative pressure
The frontal deflection shall be temporary deformation only, and shall recover after the removal
of load by a minimum of 95% within a time period of 1 h.
Frontal displacement of fixings of framing members at their connections to the building structure
or other structural components shall be limited to less than 1 mm and this shall be allowed as
residual deformation. This limit shall be taken from an assessed neutral position.
The positive difference between the air permeability measured at maximum pressure in the first
3 2 3
and second tests, should not differ by more than 0.3 m /h/m (0.3 m /h/m length of joint).
Increased load No permanent damage shall occur to framing members, infil panels, opening units, fasteners or
- both positive and anchors.
negative pressure
Panels, glazing beads and decorative capping pieces shall remain securely held and gaskets
shall not be displaced.
If a pane of glass breaks during the increased load test, then it may be replaced and the test
continued only if, following close examination, the cause of breakage is not attributable to any
fault in the glazing technique or the supporting frame.
PART 1 EUROCODE 81
10.3 Impact resistance tests
10.3.1 Framing - Impact resistance [EN 14019:2004]
Its criteria is targeted to safety in use and integrity of curtain wall in the
event of sudden impact forces on the curtain wall surfaces.
It applies to those areas of curtain walling which face onto areas of
human activity, either internally or externally and takes account of
accidental impacts brought on by people going about their normal daily
activities and impacts brought about by equipment and similar devices
for maintenance, cleaning, repair and similar occasional activities.
The specimen shall be tested in accordance with EN 13049 with one
impact for any single position.
Impact loads normal to the plane of the curtain wall are to be applied in
the following positions:
1. Centre mullion height between fixings (external only).
2. Centre width (external, internal at sill height).
3. Crossing mullion and transoms.
4. Centre of spandrel unit.
Glass products used as or incorporated in infill components shall be assessed in accordance with EN 12600.
Impact classification BBSEN EN 14019 :2004 Tables 1 & 2
Internal impact External impact Requirements
Class Drop height Class Drop height
[mm] [mm]
I0 Not applicable E0 Not applicable The curtain wall shall safely absorb the impact loads and shall
retain its integrity in fulfilling the following criteria :
I1 200 E1 200
a) no parts shall fall down;
I2 300 E2 300 b) any holing shall not occur;
c) any breakage shall not occur;
I3 450 E3 450
d) any infilling panel shall remain in its position and come off
I4 700 E4 700 only when removed;
e) any permanent deformation of curtain wall component shall
I5 950 E5 950 be accepted.
10.3.2 Windows - Soft and heavy body impact resistance [EN 13049]
The test applies to all infill of whatever materials including glass. It is intended to assess the interactions
between all components of a window with particular regard to safety in use.
The impactor as specified in EN 12600 shall be mounted on a horizontal or vertical axis, as best befits the
requirements of access to the impact point.
Tests shall be performed separately, one impact on each test specimen. Select, e.g. by means of pre-tests or
calculations, the most dangerous impact point to strike the following:
the centre of the infill or
a corner of the infill or
the centre of the longest edge of the largest area of the infill.
Impact level/drop heights BBSEN EN 13049:2003 Table 1
Class Drop height [mm] Requirements
1 200 a) Any opening shall not allow the ellipsoid, as specified in ENV 1630, to pass;
2 300
b) The impact shall not detach or dislodge any casement or sash of the test
3 450 specimen nor disconnect any hardware or infill retaining components, nor shall any
of its composite parts become dislodged or shattered in a dangerous manner;
4 700
5 950 c) The mass of any dislodged part shall not exceed 50 g.
82 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.3.3 Glass - Pendulum impact test [EN 12600:2002]
The test shall be carried out at each drop height on four
pieces 876mm×1938mm of identical structure and the
same nominal thickness.
For asymmetric materials that are intended for
installation where the risk of impact is from both sides,
carry out the test on both sides.
Performance classification:
Classification α (β) Φ
α - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or broke in accordance with a) or b) of
clause 4 requirements
β - mode of breakage;
Φ - highest drop height class at which the product either
did not break or when broke, broke in accordance with
a) of clause 4 requirements.
When a glass product breaks at a drop height of 190 mm and the breakage is not in accordance with a) of
clause 4 requirements then the value of Φ quoted shall be zero.
Drop height class BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Table 1, Cl. 4 & 6.2
Class Drop height Clause 4 Requirements
[mm]
Each test piece shall either not break or shall break as defined in one of the following ways:
3 190 a) Numerous cracks appear, but no shear or opening is allowed within the test piece
through which a 76 mm diameter sphere can pass when a maximum force of 25 N is
applied (Annex A). Additionally, if particles are detached from the test piece up to 3 min
2
after impact, they shall, in total, weigh no more than a mass equivalent to 10 000 mm of
2 450
the original test piece. The largest single particle shall weigh less than the mass equivalent
2
to 4 400 mm of the original test piece;
b) Disintegration occurs and the 10 largest crack-free particles* collected within 3 min after
1 1200 impact and weighed, all together, within 5 min of impact shall weigh no more than the mass
equivalent to 6 500 mm² of the original test piece.
Note: *The particles shall be selected only from the portion of the original test piece exposed in the test frame. Only
the exposed area of any particle retained in the test frame shall be taken into account in determining the mass
equivalent.
Mode of breakage BBSEN EN 12600:2002 Cl. 6.3; Annex C
Type Mode of breakage Typical breakage
Numerous cracks appear forming - Annealed glass (EN 572-1)
A separate fragments with sharp edges, - Heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 1863-1)
some of which are large - Chemically strengthened soda lime silicate glass (EN 12337-1)
Numerous cracks appear, but the - Laminated safety glass (EN ISO 12543-1)
B fragments hold together and do not - Wired glass (EN 572-1), polished wired glass (EN 572-3)
separate - Film backed annealed glass
Disintegration occurs, leading to a - Thermally toughened soda lime silicate safety glass (EN 12150-1)
C large number of small particles that
are relatively harmless
• Sphere penetration test [EN 12600]

The probe assembly has a 76 ± 1 mm diameter sphere with a force
measuring device. It is pushed horizontally into any opening formed in
the test piece. The weakest point of resistance shall be selected.
The requirement is to achieve a maximum force of 25 N without
penetration by the sphere.
PART 1 EUROCODE 83
10.4 Glass safety tests
Sample glass classifications EN 12600 :2002 & EN 356:2000
Laminated glass EN 12600 (Impact safety) EN 356 (Manual Attack)
(PVB) Class* Drop height [mm] Class Height [mm] Number of throws**
33.1 = 6.38mm 2(B)2 450 -
44.1 = 8.38mm
55.1 = 10.38mm 1(B)1 1200 -
33.2 = 6.76mm P1A 1500 3
44.2 = 8.76mm P2A 3000 3
55.2 = 10.76mm
66.2 = 12.76mm
88.2 = 16.76mm
44.4 = 9.52mm P4A 9000 3
66.4 = 13.52mm
44.6 = 10.28mm P5A 9000 9
66.6 = 14.28mm
Tempered glass Class Drop height [mm]
4, 6 & 8 mm 1(C)2 450
10 & 12 mm 1(C)1 1200
Note: * See section 10.3 for classification to EN 12600 ** Test with steel ball of 4.1 kg.
Safety and burglar resistance EN 12600:2002 & EN 356:2000
Resistance to impact (EN 12600) Resistance to manual attack (EN 356)
Class Glass type Drop height [mm] Class Test method Drop height [mm] No. of drops
1A1 Monolithic 1200 P1A Steel ball 1500 3
annealed 4.11 kg
2A2 450 P2A 3000 3
dropped
3A3 190 P3A to form an 6000 3
equilateral
1B1 Laminated 1200 P4A 9000 3
triangle
annealed
2B2 450 P5A 9000 3×3
3B3 190 Class Test method No. of hits
1C1 Monolithic 1200 P6B Hammer 30 to 50 hits (axe)
tempered and axe
2C2 450 P7B 51 to 70 hits (axe)
impacts
3C3 190 P8B ≥ 71 hits (axe)
Bullet and explosion resistance EN 1063:2000

Resistance to bullet attack (EN 1063) Resistance to explosion
Class Firearm type No. of impacts Class Pressure [kPa] Duration [ms]
BR1 Rifle – 0.22 LR 3 ER1 50 to 100 20
BR2 Handgun – 9mm Luger 3 ER2 100 to 150 20
BR3 Handgun – 0.357 Rem. Magnum 3 ER3 150 to 200 20
BR4 Handgun – 0.44 Rem. Magnum 3 ER4 200 to 250 20
BR5 Rifle – 5.56 ×45 3
BR6 Rifle – 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 175mm) 3
BR7 Rifle - 7.62 × 51 (Long. Torsion 254mm) 3
SG1 Shotgun – Cal. 12/70 1
SG2 Shotgun – Cal. 12/70 3
84 PART 1 EUROCODE
10.5 Fire classification
∆T, ∆m, tf – Temperature rise [K], mass loss [%] and duration of sustained flaming [s], respectively
PCS - gross calorific potential [MJ/kg or MJ/m²]
FIGRA - fire growth rate index used for classification purposes [W/s]
LFS – lateral fire spread [m]
THR - total heat release during the evaluation period [MJ]
Fs – Fire spread during the evaluation [mm]
SMOGRA – smoke growth rate [m²/s²]
TSP - total smoke production during the evaluation period [m²]
Classes of reaction to fire performance EN 13501-1:2007 Table 1
Test Classification Additional classification (EN 13823:2010)
Class
methods criteria Smoke production
f
Flaming droplets/particles
A1 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 30 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 %; & - -
& tf = 0 (i.e. no sustained flaming)
abce
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 2.0 MJ/kg ;& - -
2 d
PCS ≤ 1.4 MJ/m
a
A2 EN ISO 1182 ∆T ≤ 50 °C; ∆m ≤ 50 % & - -
or tf ≤ 20 s
ad
EN ISO 1716 PCS ≤ 3,0 MJ/kg & - -
2 bc
& PCS ≤ 4,0 MJ/m
EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ; s1 = d0 =
2 2
LFS < edge of specimen & SMOGRA ≤ 30m /s & No flaming droplets/
2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ TSP600s ≤ 50m particles within 600 s;
B EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s ;
& LFS < edge of specimen & s2 = d1 =
2 2
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ SMOGRA ≤ 180m /s & no flaming droplets/
2
i
TSP600s ≤ 200m particles persisting
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s longer than 10 s within
Exposure = 30 s s3 = not s1 or s2 600 s;
C EN 13823 FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s ;
g
& LFS < edge of specimen & d2 = not d0 or d1.
THR600s ≤ 15 MJ
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
D EN 13823 & FIGRA ≤ 750 W/s
i
EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 60 s
Exposure = 30 s
i h
E EN ISO 11925-2 : Fs ≤ 150 mm within 20 s -
Exposure = 15 s
F No performance determined
a
For homogeneous products and substantial components of non-homogeneous products.
b
For any external non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
c
Alternatively, any external non-substantial component having a PCS ≤ 2,0 MJ/m2, provided that the product
satisfies the following criteria of EN 13823: FIGRA ≤ 20 W/s, and LFS < edge of specimen, and THR600s ≤ 4,0 MJ,
and s1, and d0.
d
For any internal non-substantial component of non-homogeneous products.
e
For the product as a whole.
f
In the last phase of the development of the test procedure, modifications of the smoke measurement system have
been introduced, the effect of which needs further investigation. This may result in a modification of the limit values
and/or parameters for the evaluation of the smoke production.
g
Ignition of the paper in EN ISO 11925-2 results in a d2 classification
h
Pass = no ignition of the paper (no classification); Fail = ignition of the paper (d2 classification).
i
Under conditions of surface flame attack and, if appropriate to the end–use application of the product, edge flame
attack.
PART 1 EUROCODE 85
CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES
I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS

11.1 Bolted connections
11.1.1 Properties of bolts
Characteristic values of fasteners EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.1, EN 1993-1-4:2006 Table 2.2
Grade Yield strength, Tensile strength, Min. clear thread protrusion*
2 2
fyb [N/mm ] fub [N/mm ] [pitch]
Steel 4.6 240 400 1
4.8 320 400 1
5.6 300 500 1
5.8 400 500 1
6.8 480 600 1
8.8 640 800 3
10.9 900 1000 5
Austhenitic 50 210 500 1
A1, A2, A4
70 450 700 1
80 600 800 1
Note: *DIN 78 requires 2P.
Metric screw threads EN ISO 724:1993
Height of fundamental triangle
3
H = P sin(60°) = P ≈ 0.866254P
2
Basic minor diameter
5 5 3
d 1 = D1 = d − H = d− P ≈ d – 1.0825P
4 8
Basic pitch diameter
3 3 3
d 2 = D2 = d − H = d− P ≈ d – 0.6495P
4 8
Nominal stress area (EN ISO 898-1)
2
π  d 2 +d 3  2
As = ≈ 0.7854 ( d − 0.938194 P )
4  2 

where:
1
d3 = d1 − H ≈ d – 1.2269P
6
Size Pitch Major Minor Pitch Nominal

diameter diameter diameter stress area
2
P [mm] d, D [mm] d1, D1 [mm] d2, D2 [mm] As [mm ]
M4 0.70 4.0 3.242 3.545 8.78
M5 0.80 5.0 4.134 4.480 14.18
M6 1.00 6.0 4.917 5.350 20.12
M8 1.25 8.0 6.647 7.188 36.61
M10 1.50 10.0 8.376 9.026 57.99
M12 1.75 12.0 10.106 10.863 84.27
M16 2.00 16.0 13.835 14.701 156.67
M20 2.50 20.0 17.294 18.376 244.79
M24 3.00 24.0 20.752 22.051 352.50
M30 3.50 30.0 26.211 27.727 560.59
M36 4.00 36.0 31.670 33.402 816.72
86 PART 1 EUROCODE
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S FAÇADE NOTES CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS
11.1.2 Nominal clearances for fasteners

Nominal clearances give the diameter of the hole when added to the diameter of the bolt.
Nominal clearances [mm] EN 1090-2:2008 Table 11
Nominal bolt or pin diameter, d [mm] M12 M16 M20 M24 ≥ M27
Normal round holes 1* 2 2 2 3
Oversized round holes 3 4 4 6 8
Short slotted holes (on the length) 4 6 6 8 10
Long slotted holes (on the length) 1.5 d
Note: *M12 and M14 bolts may also be used in 2 mm clearance holes provided that the design resistance of the
bolt group based on bearing is greater or equal to the design resistance of the bolt group based on bolt shear. In
addition for class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9 bolts the design shear resistance Fv,Rd should be taken as 0,85 times
the value given in Table 3.4.
11.1.3 Minimum distances
Minimum distances EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.2
Minimum Maximum
Steel or Aluminium not
Aluminium exposed to
exposed weather
Normal Edge // to load e1 ≥ 1.2d0 4t + 40 max{12t; 150}
hole distance
⊥ to load e2 ≥ 1.2d0 4t + 40 max{12t; 150}
Spacing // to load p1 ≥ 2.2d0 min{14t; 200} min{21t; 300}
⊥ to load p2 ≥ 2.4d0 min{14t; 200} min{14t; 200}
Slotted Edge // to load e3 ≥ 1.5d0

hole distance
⊥ to load e4 ≥ 1.5d0
Spacing // to load p3 ≥ 2.0d0

⊥ to load p4 ≥ 2.0d0
11.1.4 Washers
Generally, washers are not required for use with non-preloaded round holes. The use of washers can reduce
local damage to metal coatings (washer to be placed under nut or bolt head, whichever is rotated)
Plate washers shall be used for connections with long slotted and oversized holes. They shall not be
thinner than 4 mm
Taper washers shall be used if the surface is at an angle to a plane perpendicular to the bolt axis of more
than 1/20 (d≤20mm) or 1/30 (d>20mm)
Washers acc to EN 14399-5 (plain) shall only be used under nuts
Washers acc to EN 14399-6 (chamfered) shall be used under heads of preloaded bolts and positioned
with the chamfer towards the bolt head.
For preloaded 8.8 bolts a plain washer (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under the bolt head or
the nut, whichever is to be rotated
For preloaded 10.9 bolts plain washers (or hardened taper washers) shall be used under both the bolt
head and the nut
PART 1 EUROCODE 87
11.1.5 Bolt design
Design resistance for individual fasteners subjected to shear and/or tension
Design resistance of fasteners EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4 and EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Data d Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm]
P Pitch of thread [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of the fastener [mm ]
As 2
Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ]
fub 2
Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
Shear a) rivets and shear through shank of bolts: Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f ub 1.25
b) shear through thread of bolts:
Fv,Rd = α v ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25
Reduction factor or packing:
(
β p = 9d 8d + 3t p ≤ 1.0 ) 3.6.1 (12)
values of αv:
0.6 class 4.6, 5.6 & 8.8
class 4.8, 5.8, 6.8, 10.9,
0.5
stainless steel & aluminium
Bearing Fb,Rd = α b ⋅ k1 ⋅ d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Bearing resistance of connected part [N]
t Thickness of the connected part [mm]
k For countersunk head screws, the effective
t´ = t − thickness should have a reduction of half the
2
countersinking.
Single lap joints:
Fb,Rd ≤ 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f u 1.25 Limiting bearing resistance for single lap joint with 3.6.1 (10)
only one bolt row [N] Fig. 3.3
Reduction factor slot holes βR:
1.0 Nominal size hole
Oversized holes
0.8
Short slot, axis ⊥ to load Slot holes:
0.8
Long slot, axis ⊥ to load Short: length ≤ 1.5d0
0.65 Fig. 3.1
[EN 1999-1-1] Long: 1.5d0 < length ≤ 2.5d0:
0.6 Slotted holes [EN 1993-1-8]
values of αb:
values of αb for slot holes:
e1 f end bolts:
, ub or 1.0 e3 + d 2 end bolts:
3d 0 fu e1 < 3d0
3 ( d + 1) ( e3 + d 2 ) < 3 ( d+1 )
p1 1 f inner bolts:
− , ub or 1.0 p3 + d 1 inner bolts:
3d 0 4 f u p1 < 3d0 −
3 ( d + 1) 4 ( p3 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
values of k1:
values of k1 for slot holes:
e edge bolts:
2.8 2 − 1.7 or 2.5 e +d 2 edge bolts:
d0 e2 < 1.5d0 2.8 4 − 1.7
d+1 ( e4 + d 2 ) < 1.5 ( d+1 )
p2 inner bolts:
1.4 − 1.7 or 2.5 p +d inner bolts:
d0 p2 < 3d0 1.4 4 − 1.7
d +1 ( p4 + d ) < 3 ( d+1 )
Tension Ft,Rd = k 2 ⋅ As ⋅ f ub 1.25 Tension resistance [N]
values of k2:
0.60 rivets
0.63 countersunk steel bolts
0.90 steel bolts
0.50 aluminium bolts
Punching F p,Rd = 0.6 π ⋅ d m ⋅ t p ⋅ f u 1.25 Punching shear resistance [N]
Interaction Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Combined tension & shear

+ ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd
88 PART 1 EUROCODE
11.1.6 Design slip resistance

Slip resistant bolts using 8.8 or 10.9 EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.9.1
Data d Nominal diameter of the fastener [mm]
n Number of friction surfaces [-]
As 2
Tensile stress area of the fastener [mm ]
fub Tensile strength of fastener [N/mm ]
2
Preload F p,C = 0.7 As ⋅ f ub Preloading force [kN] 3.9.1 (2)

force values of Fp,C [kN]:
Grade M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36
8.8 47 88 137 198 314 458
10.9 59 110 173 247 393 572
Slip- Fs,Rd = k s ⋅ n ⋅ µ ⋅ F p,C 1.25 Design slip-resistance [kN] 3.9.1 (1)
resistance values of k :
s Table 3.6
1.0 Normal holes
0.85 Oversized holes
0.85 Short slot, axis ⊥ to load
0.76 Short slot, axis // to load
0.70 Long slot, axis ⊥ to load
0.63 Long slot, axis // to load
values of slip factor, µ:
µ Class of friction surface Table 3.7
0.5 A – surfaces blasted with shot or grit with
loose rust removed, not pitted
B – Surfaces blasted with shot or grit:
a) spray-metallized with an alu. or zinc
0.4 based product;
b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a
thickness of 50 µm to 80 µm
0.3 C – Surfaces cleaned by wire-brushing or
flame cleaning, with loose rust removed
0.2 D – Surfaces as rolled
Combined Design slip-resistance at ultimate [kN] 3.9.2 (1)
tension
(
Fs,Rd = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ) 1.25
and shear
(
Fs,Rd,ser = k s n µ F p,C − 0.8Ft ,Ed ,ser ) 1.0 Design slip-resistance at serviceability [kN]
11.1.7 Thread pull-out

Thread stripping resistance (Simplified) Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Data t Thickness of screw thread engagement [mm]
2
fyB Yield strength of bolt [N/mm ]
2
fyM Yield strength of threaded part [N/mm ]
Strip-off α M = β B f uB ( β B f uB + β M f uM ) Material factor for threaded part [-] Dose
diameter
d τ = d 2 +(α M − 0.5 ) 3P ≤ d
Strip-off diameter [mm]
values of βB:
0.5574 4.6 Shear stress factor for screw [-]
0.5774 8.8, 10.9 & Stainless steel
values of βM:
Schwarz
0.58 Steel Shear stress factor for threaded part [-]
0.77 Stainless steel Dose
0.44 Aluminium
Resistance Fo,Rd = α M β M π d τ t ⋅ f uM 1.25 Pull-out resistance of screw [kN] Dose
PART 1 EUROCODE 89
11.1.8 Bolt design tables

Shear resistance of bolts EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5
Fv,Rd = αv·As·fub/1.25 [kN]
Thread Shank Stainless steel Steel
As [mm2] A [mm2] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9

2
fub [N/mm ] 700 800 400 800 1000
αv 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6
M4 8.78 12.57 2.46 4.22 2.81 4.83 1.69 2.41 3.37 4.83 3.51 6.03
M5 14.18 19.63 3.97 6.60 4.54 7.54 2.72 3.77 5.45 7.54 5.67 9.42
M6 20.12 28.27 5.63 9.50 6.44 10.86 3.86 5.43 7.73 10.86 8.05 13.57
M8 36.61 50.27 10.25 16.89 11.72 19.30 7.03 9.65 14.06 19.30 14.64 24.13
M10 57.99 78.54 16.24 26.39 18.56 30.16 11.13 15.08 22.27 30.16 23.20 37.70
M12 84.27 113.1 23.60 38.00 26.97 43.43 16.18 21.72 32.36 43.43 33.71 54.29
M16 156.7 201.1 43.88 67.56 50.14 77.21 30.09 38.60 60.17 77.21 62.68 96.51
M20 244.8 314.2 68.54 105.56 78.34 120.64 47.00 60.32 94.00 120.64 97.92 150.80
M24 352.5 452.4 98.70 152.00 112.80 173.72 67.68 86.86 135.36 173.72 141.00 217.15
M30 560.6 706.9 156.97 237.50 179.39 271.43 107.64 135.72 215.27 271.43 224.24 339.29
Note: Values in black are for shear through threaded part; values in gray are for shear through shank
Tension resistance of bolts EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Ft,Rd = k2·As·fub/1.25 [kN]
Stainless steel Steel
As [mm2] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9
fub [N/mm2] 700 800 400 800 1000

k2 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63 0.9 0.63
M4 8.78 4.43 3.10 5.06 3.54 2.53 1.77 5.06 3.54 6.32 4.43
M5 14.18 7.15 5.00 8.17 5.72 4.08 2.86 8.17 5.72 10.21 7.15
M6 20.12 10.14 7.10 11.59 8.11 5.79 4.06 11.59 8.11 14.49 10.14
M8 36.61 18.45 12.92 21.09 14.76 10.54 7.38 21.09 14.76 26.36 18.45
M10 57.99 29.23 20.46 33.40 23.38 16.70 11.69 33.40 23.38 41.75 29.23
M12 84.27 42.47 29.73 48.54 33.98 24.27 16.99 48.54 33.98 60.67 42.47
M16 156.7 78.96 55.27 90.24 63.17 45.12 31.58 90.24 63.17 112.80 78.96
M20 244.8 123.37 86.36 141.00 98.70 70.50 49.35 141.00 98.70 176.25 123.37
M24 352.5 177.66 124.36 203.04 142.13 101.52 71.06 203.04 142.13 253.80 177.66
M30 560.6 282.54 197.78 322.90 226.03 161.45 113.01 322.90 226.03 403.62 282.54
Note: Values in black are for hexagonal and socket head bolts; values in gray are for countersunk head bolts
90 PART 1 EUROCODE
Moment resistance of bolts

Mpl,Rd = d13/6·fyb/1.25 [N·m]
Steel fasteners
d1 [mm] W el [mm3] A2-70 A2-80 4.6 8.8 10.9
fyb [N/mm2] 450.0 600.0 240.0 640.0 900.0
M4 3.24 5.67 2.04 2.72 1.09 2.90 4.08
M5 4.12 11.7 4.20 5.59 2.24 5.97 8.39
M6 4.92 19.8 7.15 9.53 3.81 10.16 14.29
M8 6.65 49.0 17.64 23.53 9.41 25.09 35.29
M10 8.38 98.1 35.31 47.08 18.83 50.22 70.62
M12 10.11 172.2 62.00 82.67 33.07 88.18 124.00
M16 13.84 441.8 159.06 212.08 84.83 226.22 318.12
M20 17.29 861.5 310.12 413.50 165.40 441.07 620.25
M24 20.75 1489.0 536.05 714.73 285.89 762.38 1072.10
M30 26.21 3000.9 1080.32 1440.43 576.17 1536.45 2160.64
Bearing resistance of bolts on single lap joint per mm EN 1993-1-8:2005 Cl. 3.6.1(10)
Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per (t)
Aluminium Stainless steel Steel
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 T6 - - - - -
fu [N/mm 2] 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 430 510
M4 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.064 2.448
M5 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 2.580 3.060
M6 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.096 3.672
M8 0.960 1.392 1.824 2.304 1.632 2.496 2.784 5.184 5.088 3.456 4.128 4.896
M10 1.200 1.740 2.280 2.880 2.040 3.120 3.480 6.480 6.360 4.320 5.160 6.120
M12 1.440 2.088 2.736 3.456 2.448 3.744 4.176 7.776 7.632 5.184 6.192 7.344
M16 1.920 2.784 3.648 4.608 3.264 4.992 5.568 10.368 10.176 6.912 8.256 9.792
M20 2.400 3.480 4.560 5.760 4.080 6.240 6.960 12.960 12.720 8.640 10.320 12.240
M24 2.880 4.176 5.472 6.912 4.896 7.488 8.352 15.552 15.264 10.368 12.384 14.688
M30 3.600 5.220 6.840 8.640 6.120 9.360 10.440 19.440 19.080 12.960 15.480 18.360
PART 1 EUROCODE 91
Punching-shear resistance EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.4, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Table 8.5

Fp,Rd = 0.6π·dm·fu/1.25 [kN/mm] per tp
dm [mm] Aluminium Stainless steel Steel
EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
O/H111 H24/H34 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fu [kN/cm ] 10.0 14.5 19.0 24.0 17.0 26.0 29.0 54.0 53.0 36.0 43.0 51.0
M4 7 1.056 1.531 2.006 2.533 1.794 2.744 3.061 5.700 5.595 3.800 4.539 5.383
M5 8 1.206 1.749 2.292 2.895 2.051 3.137 3.498 6.514 6.394 4.343 5.187 6.152
M6 10 1.508 2.187 2.865 3.619 2.564 3.921 4.373 8.143 7.992 5.429 6.484 7.691
M8 13 1.960 2.843 3.725 4.705 3.333 5.097 5.685 10.586 10.390 7.057 8.430 9.998
M10 17 2.564 3.717 4.871 6.152 4.358 6.665 7.434 13.843 13.587 9.229 11.023 13.074
M12 19 2.865 4.154 5.444 6.876 4.871 7.449 8.309 15.472 15.185 10.314 12.320 14.612
M16 24 3.619 5.248 6.876 8.686 6.152 9.410 10.495 19.543 19.181 13.029 15.562 18.457
M20 30 4.524 6.560 8.595 10.857 7.691 11.762 13.119 24.429 23.977 16.286 19.453 23.072
Thread pull-out resistance per (t) Gerhard Dose 2006 & Wilhelm Schwarz 2005
Fo,Rd ≈ αM·βM·π·d2·fuM/1.25 [kN/mm] per t αM = βBfyB/(βBfyB+βMfyM)
d2 [mm] P A2-70 screw
fuB [N/mm2] 700
βB 0.5774
Threaded EN AW-5005 EN AW-5754 6060 6005A 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S275 S355
Temper O/H111 H14/H24 O/H111 H24/H34 T6 T6 - - - - -
2
fuM [N/mm ] 100 145 190 240 170 250 520 530 360 430 510
βM 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.77 0.77 0.58 0.58 0.58
αM 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.79 0.84 0.79 0.50 0.50 0.66 0.62 0.58
M4 3.55 0.70 0.399 0.552 0.687 0.821 0.628 0.846 1.794 1.808 1.293 1.430 1.562
M5 4.48 0.80 0.499 0.690 0.859 1.028 0.786 1.060 2.266 2.285 1.627 1.800 1.969
M6 5.35 1.00 0.598 0.828 1.031 1.233 0.943 1.270 2.707 2.728 1.947 2.153 2.354
M8 7.19 1.25 0.798 1.104 1.375 1.646 1.258 1.697 3.636 3.666 2.607 2.886 3.158
M10 9.03 1.50 0.997 1.381 1.720 2.059 1.574 2.123 4.566 4.603 3.266 3.618 3.961
M12 10.86 1.75 1.197 1.657 2.065 2.473 1.889 2.549 5.495 5.540 3.926 4.350 4.764
M16 14.70 2.00 1.596 2.210 2.758 3.307 2.521 3.410 7.436 7.499 5.278 5.857 6.426
M20 18.38 2.50 1.995 2.763 3.447 4.134 3.151 4.263 9.295 9.373 6.597 7.322 8.032
M24 22.05 3.00 2.393 3.315 4.136 4.960 3.781 5.115 11.153 11.248 7.917 8.786 9.638
M30 27.73 3.50 2.992 4.145 5.174 6.208 4.729 6.402 14.024 14.143 9.928 11.026 12.104
92 PART 1 EUROCODE
11.2 Pin connections
Pin connections with no rotation may be designed as single bolted connections.
Design resistance of pin connections EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.10, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.13
Data d Diameter of pin [mm]
A 2
Cross-sectional area of pin [mm ]
Wel 3
Elastic section modulus of pin cross-section [mm ]
fup 2
Tensile strength of pin [N/mm ]
fy
Lower of the yield strengths of the pin and the
2
connected part [N/mm ]
Shear Fv,Rd = 0.6 A ⋅ f up 1.25 Shear resistance per shear plane [N]
Bearing Permanent pin: Bearing resistance of the connection [N]

Fb,Rd = 1.5 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0
Replaceable pin:
Fb,Rd,ser = 0.6 d ⋅ t ⋅ f y 1.0 ≥ Fb,Ed,ser
Bending  t + 4e + 2t 2  Design bending moment in pin [N·mm] Fig. 3.11

M Ed = FEd ⋅  1 
 8 
Permanent pin: Bending resistance of

M Rd = 1.5 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 pin [N·mm]
Replaceable pin:
M Rd,ser = 0.8 Wel ⋅ f yp 1.0 ≥ M Ed,ser
Interaction  Fv,Ed 
2
M 
2 Combined shear & bending
 +  Ed 

≤ 1.0
 Fv,Rd   M Rd 
Design of pin ended members EN 1993-1-8:2005 Table 3.9, EN 1999-1-1:2007 Fig. 8.12
Given FEd ⋅ γ M 1 2d 0 Table 3.9
a ≥ +
thickness 2 t ⋅ fy 3
FEd ⋅ γ M 1 d 0
c ≥ +
2 t ⋅ fy 3
Given 1.0FEd Table 3.9

geometry t ≥ 0.7
fy
d0
≥
2.5
PART 1 EUROCODE 93
11.3 Tapping screws and rivets
Spaced thread
Size Pitch Major Thread root Shank Tensile Plastic section Tightening
diameter diameter area Stress area modulus tourque
2 2 3 3
P [mm] dmin [mm] d1,min [mm] Ab [mm ] As [mm ] W pl = d1 /6 [mm ] [N·m]
ST 3.5 1.3 3.35 2.51 4.95 4.95 2.64 2.7
ST 3.9 1.3 3.73 2.77 6.03 6.03 3.54 3.4
ST 4.2 1.4 4.04 2.95 6.83 6.83 4.28 4.4
ST 4.8 1.6 4.62 3.43 9.24 9.24 6.73 6.3
ST 5.5 1.8 5.28 3.99 12.50 12.50 10.59 10.0
ST 6.3 1.8 6.03 4.70 17.35 17.35 17.30 13.6
11.3.1 Minimum distances

Minimum distances EN 1993-1-3 :2005 Table 3.3, EN 1999-1-4:2007 Fig. 8.1
Steel sheet Aluminium sheet
(EN 1993-1-3) (EN 1999-1-4)
Screw Rivets Screw & rivet
Edge e1, // to load 3d 1.5d 2d or 20mm
distance
e2, ⊥ to load 1.5d 1.5d 1.5d or 10mm
Spacing p1, // to load 3d 3d 4d or 30mm

p2, ⊥ to load 3d 3d 2d or 20mm
11.3.2 Design resistance of self-tapping screws

Design resistance of self-tapping screws
Mode EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2 EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.3 Conditions
Material - Self-tapping screws to EN ISO 1479, 1481 or ISO 7049
Self-drilling screws to EN ISO 15480 or 15481
Shear by test Fv,Rd = As 380 1.25 -
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.43d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
Fb,Rd = 3.2 t d f u ,min 1.25 - d ≥ 5.5mm
Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
Otherwise (also for timber support): Otherwise (also for timber support):
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Net section Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 -
Tension by test Ft,Rd = As 560 1.25 -
Pull-through F p,Rd = 0.5 d w t f u 1.25 Steel or stainless steel washer: - fu ≤ 260 N/mm2;
(punching) F p,Rd = 6.1 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25 - t ≤ 1.5mm;
- dw ≥ 14 mm; tw ≥ 1 mm
Aluminium washer:
F p,Rd = 4.88 α E d w 22 t f u 1.25
Pull-out tsup < P: - fu ≤ 260 N/mm2;

Fo,Rd = 0.95 d t sup 3 f u ,sup 1.25
(thread strip) Fo,Rd = 0.45 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25 - d = 6.3 mm;
tsup ≥ P: - tsup >6 mm; fu,sup > 250 N/mm2
- tsup >5 mm; fu,sup > 400 N/mm2
Fo,Rd = 0.65 d t sup f u ,sup 1.25
Combined Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Ft,Ed Fv,Ed

+ ≤ 1.0 & + ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd {
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd } {
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd }
94 PART 1 EUROCODE
Diameter of predrilled holes [mm] EN 1090-3:2008 Table E.1

Substructure Aluminium Steel
thickness
t [mm] ≤ 3.0 >3≤4 > 4.0 ≤ 0.75 > 0.75 ≤ 1.5 > 1.5 ≤ 3.0 > 3 ≤ 5.0 > 5.0 ≤ 7.0 > 7.0
ST 6.3 3.3 3.5 4.1 3.3 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.0
11.3.3 Screw design tables

Shear, tension and moment resistance of screws EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3
Screw As Wpl Fv,Rd = As·380/1.25 Ft,Rd = As·560/1.25 MRd = W pl·450/1.25
[mm 2] [mm 3] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm]
ST 2.9 3.40 1.50 1.03 1.52 0.54
ST 3.5 4.95 2.64 1.50 2.22 0.95
ST 3.9 6.03 3.54 1.83 2.70 1.27
ST 4.2 6.83 4.28 2.08 3.06 1.54
ST 4.8 9.24 6.73 2.81 4.14 2.42
ST 5.5 12.50 10.59 3.80 5.60 3.81
ST 6.3 17.35 17.30 5.27 7.77 6.23
Bearing resistance of screws per mm EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.3.2.1

Screw Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]
1050 5005 5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S355
O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 T6 T6 T6 - - - -
2
fu [N/mm ] 65 100 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 510
ST 4.2 0.328 0.504 0.504 0.731 0.958 1.210 0.857 1.310 1.462 2.722 2.671 1.814 2.570
ST 4.8 0.374 0.576 0.576 0.835 1.094 1.382 0.979 1.498 1.670 3.110 3.053 2.074 2.938
ST 5.5 0.429 0.660 0.660 0.957 1.254 1.584 1.122 1.716 1.914 3.564 3.498 2.376 3.366
ST 6.3 0.491 0.756 0.756 1.096 1.436 1.814 1.285 1.966 2.192 4.082 4.007 2.722 3.856
PART 1 EUROCODE 95
11.3.4 Resistance of rivets
Design resistance of blind rivets
Mode EN 1993-1-3 Cl. 8.2 EN 1999-1-4 Cl.8.2 Conditions
Material - EN ISO 15973, 15974, 15977, 15978, 15981 &15982
Shear Fv,Rd = Anet ⋅ f u 1.25 Fv,Rd = 38 d 2 1.25 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;
- 2.6mm ≤ d ≤ 6.4mm
Bearing tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.34d tsup/t < 2.5 & t ≤ 0.36d
Fb,Rd = 3.6 d t min 3 f u ,min 1.25 Fb,Rd = 2.5 d t 3 f u ,min 1.25
≤ e1 1.2 t f u /1.25 Otherwise:
Otherwise (also for timber support): Fb,Rd = 1.5d t f u ,min 1.25
Fb,Rd = 2.1 d t f u ,min 1.25
Net section Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25 Fn,Rd = Anet f u 1.25
Tension by test Ft,Rd = 47 d 2 1.25 -
Pull-through by test F p,Rd = 2.35 α E t f o 1.25 - fu,min ≤ 260 N/mm2;

(punching) - t ≤ 1.5mm;
- dw ≥ 9.5mm
Pull-out by test Steel sheet: - fy ≤ 350 N/mm2;
(Slip through) Fo,Rd = 0.47 d t sup f y 1.25 - tsup ≤ 6mm
Aluminium sheet:
Fo,Rd = 0.20 d t sup f o 1.25
Combined Ft,Ed Fv,Ed Ft,Ed Fv,Ed

+ ≤ 1.0 ; + ≤ 1.0
1.4Ft,Rd Fv,Rd {
min F p,Rd ,Fo,Rd } {
min Fb,Rd ,Fn,Rd }
Breaking load of blind rivets (Goebel) ISO 14589

Type Material Tension, Ft [kN] Shear, Fv [kN]
Ø3.0 Ø4.0 Ø5.0 Ø6.0 Ø3.0 Ø4.0 Ø5.0 Ø6.0
Sleeve/Mandrel
Ø3.2 Ø4.8 Ø6.4 Ø3.2 Ø4.8 Ø6.4
Open ISO 15981 AlMg2.5 / Alu 0.67 1.025 1.42 - 0.535 0.845 1.15 -
- AlMg5 / A2 0.87 1.6 2.5 3.9 0.68 1.2 2.0 3.0
ISO 15983 A2 / A2 (A4 / A4) 2.0 3.8 6.5 8.85 1.6 3.1 5.0 6.5
ISO 15979 Steel / Steel 1.125 1.99 3.255 5.0 0.915 1.55 2.575 4.0
- AlMg5 / A2 0.98 1.6 2.25 - 0.76 1.2 1.7 -
ISO 15984 A2 / A2 2.0 3.8 6.5 - 1.6 3.1 5.0 -
ISO 15980 Steel/Steel 1.125 1.99 3.255 - 0.95 1.55 2.575 -
Closed ISO 15975 Al99.5 / Alu 0.49 0.82 1.12 - 0.45 0.58 0.9 -
- AlMg5 / A2 1.245 2.24 3.1 - 1.07 1.7 2.2 -
ISO 16586 A2 / C1(S/S) 2.5 4.0 5.5 8.7 2.0 3.0 4.5 6.8
ISO 15976 Steel / Steel 2.2 2.5 3.8 - 1.6 2.3 2.9 -
- Al99.5 / Alu 0.49 0.82 1.12 - 0.45 0.58 0.9 -
- AlMg5 / A2 1.245 2.24 3.1 - 1.07 1.7 2.2 -
96 PART 1 EUROCODE
P 15 PS 45 PS 25
Blind nut bearing resistance per mm EN 1999-1-4:2007 Cl. 8.2.2.1

Rivet Fb,Rd = 1.5·d·fu/1.25 per (t) [kN/mm]
1050 5005 5754 6060 6005A 6082 1.4301 1.4401 S235 S355
Ø O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 O/H111 H14 T6 T6 T6 - - - -
fu [N/mm 2] 65 100 100 145 190 240 170 260 290 540 530 360 510
4.0 0.312 0.480 0.480 0.696 0.912 1.152 0.816 1.248 1.392 2.592 2.544 1.728 2.448
4.8 0.374 0.576 0.576 0.835 1.094 1.382 0.979 1.498 1.670 3.110 3.053 2.074 2.938
5.0 0.390 0.600 0.600 0.870 1.140 1.440 1.020 1.560 1.740 3.240 3.180 2.160 3.060
6.0 0.468 0.720 0.720 1.044 1.368 1.728 1.224 1.872 2.088 3.888 3.816 2.592 3.672
6.4 0.499 0.768 0.768 1.114 1.459 1.843 1.306 1.997 2.227 4.147 4.070 2.765 3.917
11.4 Stud welds

Suitability of base and stud materials ISO/TR 15608:2000
Stud Group 1 – 6, 11.1 Group 8 Group 31 - 37 Group 21, 22
Pure copper Aluminium*
Steel Galvanised Austenitic
Material Grade and lead-free (1xxx, 3xxx &
(≤ 0.35% C) steel (≤ 25µm) stainless steel
copper alloys 5xxx)
S235 a b a b -
Steel
4.8 a b b b -
1.4301 a b a b -
Stainless steel
A2-50 b b a b -
Copper CuZn37(CW508L) b b b a -
EN AW-1050A - - - - b
Aluminium
EN AW-5754 - - - - a
Note: * Pure aluminium and non-heat treatable alloys.
a: very suitable
b: weldable to a certain extent
-: not suitable for welding
PART 1 EUROCODE 97
11.5 Weld
11.5.1 Weld Symbols to EN 22553:1994 (ISO 2553:1992)
1 – weld size (a) throat (z) nominal

(Arrow side)
2 – weld symbol (fillet)
3 – supplementary symbol (concave face)
4 – number of welds × length of each weld
5 – symbol for staggered intermittent weld
6 – weld spacing
7 – welding process reference
(Other side) 8 – weld class
98 PART 1 EUROCODE
Weld examples – hollow sections
PART 1 EUROCODE 99
Weld examples – full penetration butt welds EN 1011-11998
100 PART 1 EUROCODE

11.5.2 Design resistance of welds for steel design
Intermittent fillet welds should have longitudinal clear spacing not exceeding the lesser of :
• 12×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in compression or shear.
• 16×thickness of thinner parent material or 200mm if it is in tension.
Design resistance of steel welds EN 1993-1-1:2005 4.5
Directional fu Nominal ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined 4.5.3.2
method σ⊥, τ⊥, τ∥ Factored normal stress in-plane , perpendicular and
parallel to the throat,
2
respectively [N/mm ] Fig. 4.5
(
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2 )
Interaction fu
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25 β w
Simplified s Size of fillet weld [mm]

method l Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm] 4.5.1
a = 0.707·z Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm] Fig. 4.3
a fu
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅
3 1.25 β w Design weld resistance [N] 4.5.3.3
values of βw:
class βw Correlation factor [-] Table 4.1
S235 0.8
S275 0.85
S355 0.9
S420 & S460 1.0
11.5.3 Design resistance of welds for aluminium design

Clause 1.1.2 (1): Welded components shall not have thickness less than 1.5mm.
Design resistance of aluminium fillet welds EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.3
2
Directional fw Characteristic strength of weld metal, [N/mm ] Table 8.8
2
method σ⊥ Factored normal stress in the plane of the throat, [N/mm ] 8.6.3.3
2
τ⊥ Factored shear stress perpendicular to the throat, [N/mm ]
τ∥ Factored normal
stress parallel to the Fig. 8.18
Interaction (
σ ⊥ 2 +3 τ ⊥ 2 +τ / / 2 ) throat [N/mm ]
2
fw
2 ⋅ σ 2 +3 ⋅ τ / / 2 ≤
1.25
values of γMw:
EN 1999-1-1 γMw = 1.35
UK NA γMw = 1.35
Simplified s Size of fillet weld [mm]

method l Effective length of fillet weld, lmin = 6·a or 30mm, [mm]
a = 0.707·z Throat thickness of fillet weld, amin = 3mm, [mm]
a) Longitudinal load Design weld resistance [N]
a f Fig. 8.19 &
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅ w
0.7 γ Mw 8.20
b)Transverse load
a f
Fw,Rd = l ⋅ ⋅ w
0.85 γ Mw
a) Longitudinal load b) Transverse load
PART 1 EUROCODE 101

Design resistance of fillet and butt welds in HAZ EN 1999-1-1:2007 8.6.3.4

2
Directional fu Characteristic strength of welded parts [N/mm ] Table 8.8
method ρu,haz Reduction factor for HAZ [-] 8.6.3.3
2
Design normal stress perpendicular to weld axis [N/mm ]
σhaz 2
Design shear stress parallel to weld axis [N/mm ]
τhaz
f u ⋅ ρ u ,haz
σ haz 2 +3τ haz 2 ≤
γ Mw
Fillet weld check F & T F = HAZ in the fusion boundary Fig. 8.21
T = HAZ in toe of the weld, full
cross-section
Butt weld check T Fig. 8.21
102 PART 1 EUROCODE

11.6 Plate bracket resistance
Plate bracket resistance EN 1993-1:2005; EN 1999-1:2007
Plate Properties EN AW-6005A T6 EN AW-6082 T6 S235 S355
t b A I NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd NRd VRd MRd
2 4
[mm] [mm] [mm ] [mm ] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm] [kN] [kN] [kN·mm]
10 200 2000 1667 363.6 168.0 909.1 472.7 218.3 1181.8 470.0 217.1 1175.0 670.0 309.5 1675.0
10 225 2250 1875 409.1 189.0 1022.7 531.8 245.6 1329.5 528.8 244.2 1321.9 753.8 348.1 1884.4
12 200 2400 2400 436.4 201.5 1309.1 567.3 262.0 1701.8 564.0 260.5 1692.0 804.0 371.4 2412.0
12 225 2700 2700 490.9 226.7 1472.7 638.2 294.8 1914.5 634.5 293.1 1903.5 904.5 417.8 2713.5
12 250 3000 3000 545.5 251.9 1636.4 709.1 327.5 2127.3 705.0 325.6 2115.0 1005.0 464.2 3015.0
12 275 3300 3300 600.0 277.1 1800.0 780.0 360.3 2340.0 775.5 358.2 2326.5 1105.5 510.6 3316.5
15 225 3375 4219 613.6 283.4 2301.1 797.7 368.5 2991.5 793.1 366.3 2974.2 1130.6 522.2 4239.8
15 250 3750 4688 681.8 314.9 2556.8 886.4 409.4 3323.9 881.3 407.0 3304.7 1256.3 580.2 4710.9
15 275 4125 5156 750.0 346.4 2812.5 975.0 450.3 3656.3 969.4 447.7 3635.2 1381.9 638.3 5182.0
15 300 4500 5625 818.2 377.9 3068.2 1063.6 491.3 3988.6 1057.5 488.4 3965.6 1507.5 696.3 5653.1
15 325 4875 6094 886.4 409.4 3323.9 1152.3 532.2 4321.0 1145.6 529.1 4296.1 1633.1 754.3 6124.2
15 350 5250 6563 954.5 440.9 3579.5 1240.9 573.2 4653.4 1233.8 569.8 4626.6 1758.8 812.3 6595.3
PART 1 EUROCODE 103

Fasade Design Procedure

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER’S

Structural Engineer/Façade Specialist – Structures & Facades, Switzerland │2014 –

I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS 26

I-3 DESIGN ASSISTED BY TESTING 31

I-4 STEEL DESIGN 33

I-5 ALUMINIUM DESIGN 41

I-6 CONCRETE DESIGN 51

I-7 TIMBER DESIGN 53

I-8 GLASS DESIGN 59

I-9 STONE DESIGN 75

I-10 CURTAIN WALL TESTING 77

I-11 CONNECTIONS & BRACKETS 86

I-12 BUILDING PHYSICS 105

• Actions during execution – EN 1991-1-6, Table 4.1

Fall Arrest – Protection against fall from a height

Class B - Transportable temporary anchor devices 10 kN [4.3.2]

Class C - Horizontal flexible anchor line 6 kN [5.3.4.1] 100 kg mass at a

Class E - Dead weight anchors

Temporary Edge Protection

Static loads: - Maximum lateral deflection of 55mm under All

Sample of temporary edge protections Class A

Class B & C Class C

Alpine Region ( 0.642 Z + 0.009 )  1 + ( A 728 ) 

( 0.264 Z + 0.002 )  1 + ( A 256 ) 

Roof α Angle of pitch of roof, [˚] Fig. 5.2

Canopy b1 Width of canopy projection 5.3.6

1.4.3 Seasonal factor, cseason

1.4.4 Probability factor, cprob

Return periods for climatic actions EN 1991-1-6:2005, 4.7 Table 3.1

ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 Air density

Figure 1.4-1 Exposure factor, ce(z) EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. 4.2

Figure 1.4-2 EU Fundamental basic wind velocity vb,map [m/s]

Wind load calculation for UK UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005

Iv(z)flat Turbulence intensity for flat terrain, [-] Fig. NA.5

Figure 1.4-4 Exposure factor, ce(z) UK NA to BS EN 1991-1-4:2005, Fig. NA.7

1.4.7 Wind load on cladding elements

External e = min{b; 2h} Scaling length, [m] Fig. 7.5

1.4.8 Pressure on walls with more than one skin

Wind load on signboards EN 1991-1-4:2005, 7.4.3

Reduction factor for square sections

Circular cf,0 = 1.0

max, wparapet min, wparapet a

min, wcw max, wcw L

CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all

CO101: D + W p CO201: 1.35D + 1.5W p Dead + wind pressure all

Sloped façade ( ≥ 10°) or overhead glazing EN 1990:2005 6.5.3

CO100: D CO200: 1.35D Dead incl. member self-weight all

CO103: D + W s CO203: D + 1.5W s Dead + wind uplift all

CO104: D + L CO204: 1.35D + 1.5L Dead + imposed H

CO301: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO311: D + W + 0.5L Dead + wind in the direction of the imposed load

CO313: D + W p + Hw Dead + wind pressure + winter climate

CO314: D + W s + Hw Dead + wind suction + winter climate

CO315: D + L + Hw Dead + imposed + winter climate

CO316: D + W p + Hs Dead + wind pressure + summer climate

CO317: D + W s + Hs Dead + wind suction + summer climate

I-2 DEFLECTION & STRUCTURAL MOVEMENTS

Steel and Concrete design EN 1993:2005 & EN 1992:2004

Timber design EN 1995-1-1:2004

2.2 Structure tolerance

Vertical section Position in vertical ∆ = ± 20 G.10.3.b

Offset between floors Deviation between ∆ = max {( t1 + t2 ) 30;15} ≤ 30 10.4.b

Curvature between adjacent Curvature of a column or ∆ = max {h 300;15} ≤ 30 10.4.c