1.

Introduction
In cities in developing countries, public transport is often the only affordable way of transportation for
the majority of people. Only a few cities in these countries operate a subway system, and public
transport most often relies on buses. Even in Bangkok, for example, a city with meanwhile two
railbound urban public transport systems (BTS and MRT), still over 90% of all public transport is
handled by buses.
These buses, often old and fuel-intensive, are a major contributor to the negative environmental impacts
in the urban areas, and due to their
age, operating costs (fuel consumption, main- tenance) are high. A reduction of costs can be reached by
various measures, among them an upgrade of the fleet to new and more fuel-effi- cient vehicles, and/or
by a change of the driving style of the vehicles’ drivers.
However, the reduction of fuel costs is not the only effect of an economical driving style. It also means
 a reduction of variable costs (fuel, repairs, maintenance, tyres),
 an increase of effectiveness (less down times due to repair work and maintenance),
 a decrease of negative environmental impacts,
 increased road safety,
 stress reduction for the driver and the passengers.

The driver of a vehicle is directly responsible for a more economical driving style. But he is
not the only one in the chain of actors involved in transport to influence fuel consumption.
Manufacturers, legislators, driving schools and vehicle holders – they all can influence the fuel
consumption of vehicles in various ways.
This module mainly covers three topics:
 What does “driving defensively and economi- cally” mean?
 What are the benefits of a more economical and defensive driving style?
 How can this driving style be achieved?

The first topic “driving defensively and eco- nomically” will cover the following subjects:
 cost savings to be achieved through driving economically (see also section 3.1),

 specific fuel consumption,

 external factors affecting fuel consumption, such as weather conditions, road conditions and traffic
conditions,
 the vehicle and its fuel economy features,
 the driver’s influence on fuel consumption,
 general hazards (driver behaviour, vehicle, load, weather),
 stress, and
 customer-oriented behaviour.
The second topic deals with the advantages of economical driving for the operator, the driver and the
environment.
The third topic (how can this be achieved?) deals with different options to convey this driv- ing style to
drivers and operators of commercial vehicles.
The basic source of information for this module is the course reference guide “Het Nieuwe Rijden (A new
approach to coach driving)” published by the “Stichting Vakopleiding Transport en Logistiek VTL”
(The Netherlands Institute for Professional Training in Transport and Logistics).
2. What is EcoDriving?

Economical and defensive driving not only depends on the habits of the driver (see section 2.3) but it is
also dependent on various external factors such as weather conditions, road condi- tions, vehicle
technology and traffic conditions. Most of these factors can normally not be influenced – but drivers
can adjust their driving style accordingly. Therefore, it is important to be aware of these factors.

2.1 External factors

2.1.1 Traffic conditions
Traffic conditions obviously have a major influ- ence on fuel consumption. In heavy traffic, e.g. during
the rush hour, the driver has to acceler- ate, brake and change gear more often. This significantly
increases fuel consumption. As a matter of fact, a single driver cannot change these circumstances but
planners and decision- makers could change this situation, e.g. by in- troducing bus lanes, bus priority
at traffic lights and other innovations. Examples are described in Module 4e: Intelligent Transport
Systems.
Fuel consumption is in part determined by the degree of acceleration resistance. This oc- curs when
the speed of a vehicle is raised. To put a vehicle into motion or to raise the speed requires energy while
at a constant road speed
the acceleration resistance is zero. The accelera- tion resistance is dependent upon the increase in speed
and the total weight of the vehicle. A
gentle acceleration and, above all, the avoidance of unnecessary acceleration and braking can save an
enormous amount of fuel.
Anticipating traffic is a major factor reducing fuel consumption. But what is an anticipatory driving
style? First of all, the driver should learn

to predict what other participants in city traffic are about to do and how to react accordingly.
Anticipatory driving is safe driving but also economical driving.
Table 1 shows the relation between driving styles and fuel consumption:
The different driving styles assumed in this example are:
A: an aggressive driving behaviour: rapid accel- eration, driving close to the vehicle in front and heavy
braking
B: a normal driving behaviour
C: a gentle driving behaviour, with gentle accel- eration, anticipation and minimal braking
The figures in Table 1 are averages of bus jour- neys along different routes:
 driving in urban traffic at an average speed of 30 km/h,
 driving on a secondary road at an average speed of 60 km/h,
 driving on a highway at an average speed of 90 km/h.

Unsurprisingly, fuel consumption is much higher when the driving style is more aggressive. In this case
fuel consumption is 45% higher than the consumption of the “normal” driver.
On the other hand, a more gentle style of driv- ing can reduce fuel costs significantly, in the study the
“gentle” driver saved 22% compared to the normal driver.

2.1.2 Road conditions

Two aspects of the road conditions influence fuel consumption: the surface and the inclination.
The road surface has an effect on the rolling resistance. Relevant surface conditions include:
 metalled or unmetalled road,
 dry or wet road surface,
 smooth or rough, uneven road surface,
 clean or dirty road surface (including snow).

High rolling resistance increases fuel consump- tion. As can be seen from the list above, rolling
resistance is influenced by weather conditions, which is therefore determined by a combination of
different factors. But it is also affected by other factors such as:
 the weight of a vehicle,
 tyre profile,
 tyre pressures,
 wheel positions.

2.1.2.1 Gradient resistance

It is self-evident that a vehicle driving up a hill requires more energy than a vehicle driving on a flat
road. This results from the gradient resist- ance, which is dependent upon the percentage gradient and
the total weight of the vehicle.
Although it is not possible to influence the gradi- ent resistance, drivers can take account of it. An
economical driving style on a hill consists of:
 selection of the correct engine speed,
 correct shifting technique (change gear as little as possible when ascending), and
 use the increase in speed on a descent to mount the next rise.

2.1.3 Weather conditions

The influence of weather conditions on fuel con- sumption is mainly determined by three factors: air
resistance, temperature and precipitation.
The main meteorological influence on fuel con- sumption is air resistance (see Figure 3). Air is not
touchable or viewable but it is present – and how strong this factor is can be felt when you hold your
arm out of a moving vehicle and try to push the arm forward, or when crosswinds hit a vehicle and
push it aside. The vehicle has
to “cross” the air barrier and to do so it needs energy and consumes fuel. Air resistance is dependent on
the front shape of the vehicle,
i.e. buses with the relatively large and flat front surface have a high air resistance. Air resistance
increases raises in quadratic form, i.e. when the speed is doubled air resistance increases by the
factor 4.
Other meteorological factors are temperature (higher temperatures may lead to a slightly
lower fuel consumption unless air condition is used inside the bus) and the precipitation (wet
and snowy surfaces increase the rolling resist- ance and lead to higher fuel consumption).
In this section we have seen that fuel consump- tion is influenced by a variety of external factors.
These factors are determined by various resist- ances (air, rolling, gradient and acceleration
resistance). The value of these resistances is determined by weather, road and traffic condi- tions.
The technical specifications and the equipment of vehicles also have an effect on
these resistances. These effects will be the sub- ject of the next section.
2.2 The vehicle
2.2.1 Tyres
2.2.1.1 Tyre tread

The tread of a tyre has the following purposes:

 to transfer forces between the vehicle and the road surface,
 to carry off water and contamination, and
 to cool the tyre.

Tyre conditions are often neglected and only lit- tle attention is paid to their maintenance.
Legal requirements for minimum tread depths vary from country to country, however, a
sufficient depth should not only be seen as a legal require- ment but also as a factor that
influences driving comfort, fuel consumption and – last but not least – traffic safety.

2.2.1.1 Tyre pressure

Tyre pressure is the most significant factor in tyre wear. With low tyre pressure (Figure 4, left part), the
carcass of the tyre collapses and the tyre shoulders wear rapidly. Deformation raises the temperature to
such levels that the tread may be separated from the tyre. Low tyre pres- sure also has a negative effect
on ride stability.
Furthermore, when pressure is too low, tyres do not maintain optimal contact with the road which
negatively affects rolling resistance.
If the tyre pressure is too high (Figure 4, middle part), only the middle part of the tyre wears and
contact with the road is poor. This also leads to an overload of springs and dampers and thus affects
driving comfort and safety.
Excessively low tyre pressures cause higher fuel consumption than do high pressures. When the
pressure of all tyres of a vehicle is too low by
15-20% fuel consumption increases by 5-8%.
Besides tyre pressure and the depth of the tread, other factors influence the wear of the tyre as well:
 an aggressive driving style, e.g. heavy braking and acceleration,
 overloading, and
 inaccurate wheel alignment.

2.2.2 The engine

The engine is the heart of a motorized vehicle. The diesel engine supplies power to drive the vehicle
and all its accessories. The performance of the engine may be enhanced with the use of a turbo
compressor and intercooling without increasing fuel consumption. Modern diesel engines are far
cleaner than it was the case in the past, i.e. a modernization of the fleet with new buses will decrease
average fuel consump- tion significantly and pay off in the long run.
Regular maintenance is important for all engines – both old and new ones – in order to ensure an
economical operation. For example, correct injection timing and the changing of inlet air filters
should be done according to the recommendations of the engine manufacturer as these
recommendations result in the best compromise between performance, emissions and fuel
consumption.

2.2.1 Aerodynamics
Air resistance has been introduced in sec- tion 2.1.3. A streamlined bus can thus be a contribution
to reduced fuel consumption.
2.3 The driver
As we have seen, external factors can have a huge influence on fuel consumption. But all
these measures can be worthless if the driver has an aggressive, fuel consuming driving style.
In the next sections we will elaborate on the different measures that a driver can carry out before and
during the journey to reduce fuel consumption and to increase both the comfort and the safety of the
passengers and himself.

2.3.1 Trip preparation

Before the commence of the trip, the driver should check his vehicle carefully. Even though most buses
should be maintained by technicians on a regular base, the driver is also in charge
of regular basic checks. A proper check will include the following:
 Fluids:
• engine oil
• coolant
• screen wash
 Tyres:
• check for rips and stones
• tyre pressures
• spare wheel
 Braking system
• check pressure and pressure drop
• bleed off condensation water
 Lighting and mirrors

• check and clean as required

2.3.2 During the trip
Though pre-trip checks can already save a certain amount of fuel, the major part of fuel savings
can be realised by a reasonable driving style.
2.3.2.1 Starting and moving off
When starting the engine for the first time of the day, the driver should allow the engine to run at a
moderate speed until the correct oil pressure has built up. The cold (and therefore thick) oil must reach
the various lubrication points in the engine before the driver can move off without causing damage.
Once the oil pressure has built up, the driver should move off gently. A cold engine wears faster than a
warm engine – particularly at high engine speeds. This is due to the fact that pistons and cylinders are
designed to fit best with a warm engine. When the engine is cold the metal has not yet expanded, the
pistons and cylinders do not fit together so well and extra wear results. A VTL study showed that
driving with a cold engine uses about 15% more fuel than with a warm engine. Table 2 presents results
from tests at an average speed of 40 km/h.
When the vehicle is stationary, the engine warms up only very slowly. A gentle driving style brings the
engine to its operating tem- perature much more rapidly. Depending on the specific circumstances, a
vehicle must be driven for about 30 km before its engine is properly warmed up. The driver should move
off in the first gear with few gas or – when driving a newer model – without gas.
If the driver has to stop and wait for a longer time (e.g. at a railway crossing), it is wise to switch off the
engine. This is not only better for the environment but it also saves fuel. A rule
of thumb is to switch off the engine when the vehicle has to stand still for more than a minute.
In more and more cities, the duration of the red phase at traffic lights is displayed on little moni- tors
next to the traffic lights.
2.3.2.2 Speed
To drive economically means to drive at a con- stant road speed as often as possible (although this is
difficult to realize in urban traffic). A constant speed is not the same as the average speed. Driving an
average speed of 40 km/h might consume much more fuel than a constant speed of 40 km/h as an
average speed of 40 km/h with an aggressive driving style and a lot of acceleration and braking is far
more fuel-con suming than a constant speed of 40 km/h. The difference in fuel consumption at an
average speed and at a constant speed may amount up to 20% (VTL 2002).
2.3.2.3 Anticipation
An anticipatory driving style involves matching the driving behaviour to the road and traffic conditions.
Points to consider include:
 traffic in front of the own vehicle,
 traffic behind the own vehicle,
 oncoming traffic,
 traffic at intersections,
 overtaking, and
 reversing.

It also means, that the driver

 looks as far ahead as possible,
 drives with concentration,
 brakes deliberately,
 looks out for the vehicle in front,
 keeps an adequate distance,
 drives smoothly at a constant speed,
 adapts in good time to changing conditions,
 uses his knowledge of the route,
 takes account of road damage and of possible errors of other drivers.

2.3.2.4 Gear changing

To change the gear correctly is a fundamental part of an economical driving style. Changing up must
be carried out in such a way that the engine can deal with the new gear. In practice, this means to allow
the engine speed to pass through the green zone on the rev meter and then change. Conversely
changing down should be done when the rpm needle reaches the bot- tom of the green zone.
Changing gears economically also means:
 it is not necessary to drive off in the lowest gear,
 changes to a higher gear should be carried out as soon as possible,
 it is sometimes possible to skip a gear.

2.3.2.5 Braking and coasting

The driver should avoid braking when it is pos- sible to ease off the accelerator in good time and he
should allow the coach to coast. Coasting