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Chapter 1: Electric Charges and Fields
1. SI unit of electric potential difference is volts (V) (i.e., joule/ 8. Mathematical expression for polarization is P = χ eE ,
coulomb). where χ e is a constant known as electrical susceptibility
2. The small work done in displacing the charge by dr from of the dielectric medium.
point P toward the source charge against the force F is 9. When a dielectric is inserted between the plates fully
expressed as follows: occupying the region between the two plates, then the
Work done = Force × Displacement dielectric gets polarized and the electric field in the region
between the plates reduces to
or it is mathematically expressed as dW = F ⋅ dr .
σ − σp
3. The net potential of n charges is E=
n
ε0
1 n qi
VNet = ∑ Vi = ∑ , and the mathematical expression for capacitance is
i =1 4πε 0 i =1 ri
here qi is the value of the ith charge and ri is the radial
w K ε0 A
C= .
distance of the given point from the ith charge. d
4. The relation between the electric field and electric 10. Formula for potential energy of a charged capacitor is
potential is expressed as
∂V 1
Es = − , U = CV 2 .
∂s 2
where s is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. 11. The equivalent capacitance, with the same total charge
5. Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external q and applied potential difference V as the combination, is
field is given as C eq = C1 + C2 + C3 .
qq
U = q1V (r1 ) + q2V (r2 ) 1 2 . 12. The equivalent capacitance of n capacitors connected
4πε 0r12 in series is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
6. The potential energy of dipole placed in external field is individual capacitances, which is expressed as
U(θ ) = pE (cosθ0 − cosθ1).
1 1 1 1 1
7. Any conductor that has practically infinite supply of = + + + + .
C eq C1 C2 C3 Cn
electrons
to nullify any practical electric field, that is,
Enet = Eext + Ein = 0.
11. The expression for the mobility of conductor is 16. When a number of resistors are placed in series, the
v resultant current is:
µ= d .
E I = I1 +I2 + I3+….
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is always positive. 17. Expression for the effective resistance, Reff , of a parallel
12. For conductors, the resistivity is expressed mathema section of a circuit:
tically as
1 1 1 1
ρ − ρ0 = ρ0α (T − T0 ), = + + .
Reff R1 R2 R3
where T0 is a selected reference temperature and r0 is the 18. The current in a circuit is equal to the emf divided by the
resistivity at that temperature. Usually, T0 = 293 K (room total resistance of the circuit:
temperature), for which ρ0 = 1.69 × 10 −8. Ωm for copper.
ε
13. Power is the rate of doing work, which is expressed as I= .
R+r
U 19. Internal resistance of a cell:
, P=
t r1r2
r0 = .
where P is the power delivered when an amount of energy r1 + r2
U is transformed in a time interval t.
20. In a Wheatstone bridge, four resistances P, Q, R, and X are
14. SI unit of power is the watt (W); 1 W = 1 joule per connected to form a quadrilateral; Resistances P and Q are
second = 1 J/s. known resistances called ratio arms, R is a variable resistance,
15. The power delivered to the charge passing through the and X is unknown resistance. For a balanced bridge,
power supply can be expressed as
P R
= .
P = εI Q X
1. Magnetic field due to a bar magnet is 5. Magnetic susceptibility is given by
µ 2m
B= 0 3 . M
4π r χ= .
H
Potential energy of the bar magnet = −m ⋅ B , where m is mag
netic moment and B is the strength of the magnetic field. agnetic susceptibility has no units. It can be proved that
M
2. If B is intensity of Earth’s total magnetic field, then the µ = µ0 (1+ χ ) so that µr = 1+ χ is the analog of dielectric
horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field is given constant in electrostatics and is known as relative mag-
by H = BE cos I Also, the vertical component of Earth’s netic permeability. It is a dimensionless quantity.
V 6. SI unit of magnetic permeability is tesla meter/ampere
magnetic field is given by V = BE sin I . Therefore, tan I = .
H (Tm/A).
3. If M is the strength of the magnetizing field, then magnetic
induction is given by 7. If m0 is the absolute permeability of free space, then the
relative permeability of a medium is given by
B = µ0 (H + M ),
µ
where H is the magnetic intensity and is equal to the µr = .
µ0
degree to which a material can be magnetized by a
magnetic field. 8. Curie’s law mathematically expressed as
4. Magnetization M is a vector quantity and its SI unit is A/m, 1
it is expressed as M = m/V. χ∝
T
5. SI unit of strength of magnetizing field is ampere/meter or
(A/m) and that of magnetic induction is tesla (T) or weber/
meter2 (Wb/m2). χ T = constant.
1. The magnetic flux is denoted by F, which is 8. The self-inductance of a coil is also numerically equal to
mathematically expressed as the induced emf produced in the coil, when the rate of
change of current in the coil is unity.
F = BAcos q,
dI
here B is the magnetic field, A is the surface area, and q
w ε = −L
dt
is the angle between magnetic field and normal to the sur
face area. 9. SI unit of self-inductance is henry (H).
2. Unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). 10. The inductance per unit length near the center of a long
solenoid is
3. Faraday’s second law is mathematically expressed as L
= µ0 N 2 A.
l
dφ
ε=− . 11. The coefficient of mutual induction or simply mutual
dt inductance (M) of the two coils is numerically equal to the
4. Motional emf, is expressed as ε = −Blv. magnetic flux (F) linked with one coil, when a unit current
flows through the neighboring coil:
5. Rate of work done on a loop (also called thermal energy) as
it is pulled from the magnetic field is given by F = MI.
2 2 2
B Lv 12. The mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal
P = Fv = . to the induced emf produced in one coil, when rate of
R
change of current is unity in the other coil:
6. Equation for resistive dissipation:
dI
ε = −M .
P = I 2R. dt
13. SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H).
7. The coefficient of self-induction or simply self-inductance
14. Inductors in series: Inductors, like resistors and capacitors,
(L) of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked
can be placed in series. Increasing levels of inductance
with it when unit current flows through it:
can be obtained by placing inductors in series.
F = LI LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ⋅⋅⋅ + L N .
15. Inductors in parallel: Decreasing levels of inductance can 17. When a current is passed through a solenoid of length l
be obtained by placing inductors in parallel. and cross-sectional area A, the energy stored inside it is
given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋅⋅⋅ + .
LT L1 L2 L3 LN 1 2
W= B Al .
16. Energy stored in an inductor is 2 µ0
1
W = LI 2 .
2
1. The common alternating current varying as sine function The current that flows is I = V / X C . The current increases
of the time is given by with increase in frequency. The current leads the voltage
2π t by p/2 (or the voltage lags behind the current by p/2),
I = I0 sinωt = I0 sin 2πνt = I0 sin which is given by
T
and π
I = I0 sin ωt + .
2π t 2
V = V0 sin 2πνt = V0 sin .
T π
I = I0 sin ωt + .
ere, I0 and V0 are the maximum or peak values of current
H 2
and voltage, w the angular frequency, ν is the frequency,
and T is the period of the given ac. 6. The opposition offered by a pure inductor or capacitance or
both to the flow of ac through it is called reactance X whose
2. average or mean value of an ac means the average value of
unit is ohm (Ω) and the dimensional formula is ML2 T –3A–2.
given ac over a half cycle:
Reactance is of two types: (a) Inductive reactance X L = Lω
1/ 2
and (b) Capacitive reactance X C = 1/ Cω .
∫ Idt 2I 0 7. Reciprocal of reactance to known as susceptance:
Iave = 0
1/ 2 = = 0.637I0 ;
π 1
∫ dt S= .
0 X
Vave = 0.637V0 . 8. Total opposition offered by an ac circuit to flow through
3. The rms value of an ac is defined as circuit is called its impedance, Z. Its SI unit is ohm and the
T dimensional formula is ML2T –3A–2. For a circuit having a
∫ I dt current of 1 A,
2
(I0 )2 I
(Irms )2 = 0 T = ⇒ Irms = 0 ; Z = X 2 + R 2 = ( X L − X C )2 + R 2 .
2 2
∫ dt
0
9. Reciprocal of impedance is known as admittance:
V 1
Vrms = 0 . Y=
2 Z .
4. For a pure resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in The SI unit of admittance is siemen (S).
same phase, and the current is given by I = I0sin wt. Also, 10. Let a voltage V = V0sin wt be applied across an ac and
V V consequently a current I = I0sin (wt – f) flows through
I=
or Irms = rms . circuit. Then, the instantaneous power is VI = V0I0sin wt sin
R R
(wt – f) and its value varies with time.
For pure inductive circuit, the inductance offers some
opposition toward the flow of ac. It is known as inductive 11. Average power over a full cycle of ac:
reactance, which is expessed as X L = 2π vL = Lω . Thus, a 1
pure inductance does not oppose flow of dc (w = 0) but Pave = VrmsIrms cos φ = V0I0 cos φ ,
2
oppose flow of ac. The current that flows is I = V / X L . The
current decreases with increase in frequency. The current where VrmsIrms is the apparent or virtual power and
lags behind the voltage by p/2 (or the voltage leads the VrmsIrms cos φ is called the true power. The term cos f is
current by p/2), which is given by known as power factor of the given circuit. Thus,
π R True power
I = I0 sin ωt − . cos φ = = Power factor = .
2 2 Apparent power
5. For a pure capacitive circuit, the capacitive reactance is
given by 12. For a pure resistive circuit, V and I are in phase, that is,
1 1 φ = 0° and therefore, cos f = 1 and the average power is
XC = Ω= Ω. VrmsIrms .
Cω C 2πν
13. For a pure inductive or a pure capacitive circuit, the The phase difference between Erms and Irms is f. Irms can
current and voltage differ in phase by p/2 (where p/2 is be resolved into two components: Irms cos φ and Irms sinφ
zero) and the average power is zero.
17. For an ideal transformer,
14. For a series LCR circuit,
E0 es Vs Ns Ip
E = E 0 sin E0 sinwt and I = sin(ωt − φ ), = = = = k,
z ep Vp Np Is
where
2
where k is the transformation ratio. For a step-up trans
1 X XL − X C former, k > 1, but for a step-down transformer, k < 1. In a
Z = R2 + ωL − and tanφ = = .
ωC R R transformer, input emf and output emf differ in phase by
p radian. (Subscripts s and p refer to secondary and pri
For XL > XC, the current lags voltage; For XL < XC, the cur
mary, respectively.)
rent leads voltage; For XL = XC, the current and the voltage
are in phase. If X L = X C ⇒ ω 0 = 1/ LC , that is, the natural 18. The efficiency of a transformer is given by
frequency of the circuit is equal to the applied frequency,
then the circuit is said to be in resonance output power VsIs
η= = .
15. Q = ω L / R or 1/ ω RC is termed as quality factor of a circuit. input power VpIp
It determines the sharpness of resonance. Higher the
value of Q, sharper is the resonance. (Subscripts s and p refer to secondary and primary, respec
tivey.) For an ideal transformer, h = 100% or 1. However,
16. Average power is given by for a practical transformer, h ≈ 85−90%.
Pave = ErmsIrms cos φ
10. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the condition for bright where d is the least distance between the two objects so
fringes is given by that their diffraction images are just resolved.
d sinθ = mλ , for m = 0 , 1, 2,… 15. For a microscope,
where d is the slit width. For dark fringes, 1 2 µ sinθ
= ,
d 1.22λ
1
d sinθ = m + λ , for m = 0 , 1, 2,…
2 where q is the semi-vertical angle of the cone in which
rays of light from an object enter the objective lens of the
11. If D is the distance between the slits and the screen, the microscope m is the refractive index of the medium, and λ
fringe width is given by is the wavelength of the light used to observe the objects.
λD 16. For a telescope,
∆y = y m+1 − y m =
.
d 1 D
12. Given the phase difference f between the waves at the = .
θ 1.22λ
screen, the intensity of the interference pattern is given by
φ 17. If the transmission axis of an analyzer is oriented at an
I = 4 I0 cos2 . angle q relative to the transmission axis of the polarizer,
2
Malus’ Law is given by
where I0 is the uniform intensity on the screen when one
of the slits is covered up. I = I0 cos2θ ,
13. The condition to obtain minima in a single-slit diffraction
pattern is Where I0 is the average intensity of the light entering the
analyzer.
a sinθ = mλ , for m = 0 ,1, 2,… ,
18. Brewster’s angle qB is given by
where a is the slit width and q is the angle to the central
axis. n2
θB = tan−1 ,
14. By Rayleigh’s criterion, two objects that are barely n1
resolvable must have an angular separation qR given by
where n1 is the refractive index of the medium through
λ which the incident and reflected rays travel and n2 is the
θR = 1.22 ,
d refractive index of the medium from which the light reflects.
1. Energy of a photon of light of frequency ν is given by 7. The relativistic formula for total energy of a particle is
E = hν , E 2 = p2c 2 + m02c 4 .
where h is the Planck’s constant.
2. In photoelectric emission, the kinetic energy of the most 8. The be Broglie wavelength of the matter wave associated
energetic electrons is given by with a particle of momentum p is
K max = eV0 , h
λ=
p
where V0 is the stopping potential.
3. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is 9. The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron
accelerated through a potential difference of V volts is
hν = K max + φ0
Where f0 is the work function of the metal surface. 1.225
λ= nm.
4. It can also be written as V
1 2
mvmax = hν − hν 0 . 10. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that the
2
uncertainty in the position of a particle, ∆x is related to
where ν0 is the threshold frequency. the uncertainty in its momentum ∆p by
5. Momentum of a photon is
h
E hν h ∆x ∆p ≥ , where = .
= p= = . 2π
c c λ
6. Momentum of a particle of rest mass m0 traveling at
velocity v is
m0v
p= .
1− v 2 /c 2
Chapter 12 : Atoms
1. The Rydberg’s formula is given by the relation 5. Angular momentum of an electron in a stationary orbit is
given by
1 1 1 nh
= RH 2 − 2 . L = mvr = .
λ 2 n 2π
2. Orbital radius of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 6. Frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted by an electron
e 2 is given by
r= .
4πε 0 mv 2 hν = Einitial − E final .
3. Potential energy of electron in orbit around the nucleus is 7. Radius of the nth orbit in an atomic number Z is
−e 2
U= . n2
4πε 0 r rn = (5.29 × 10 −11 m) , n = 1, 2, 3, .
Z
4. The wavelength of the spectra emitted by hydrogen is
8. Energy of an electron in the nth orbit of an atom having
given by
atomic number Z is
1 1 1
= RH 2 − 2 . Z2
λ n1 n2 En = −(13.6 eV ) , n = 1, 2, 3, .
n2
Chapter 13 : Nuclei
1. Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. The number mass energy Mc2 of a nucleus is less than the total mass
of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or energy ∑(mc 2 ) of its individual protons and neutrons. The
proton number of the nucleus) is represented by the difference between these two energies is called the binding
symbol Z; the number of neutrons (the neutron number) is energy of the nucleus:
represented by the symbol N. The total number of neutrons
and protons in a nucleus is called its mass number A; thus ∆Ebe = ∑(mc 2 ) − Mc 2 (binding energy ).
A = Z + N.
7. A better measure is the binding energy per nucleon ∆Eben,
2. Effective radius of Nuclide is given by which is the ratio of the binding energy ∆Eben of a nucleus
to the number A of nucleons in that nucleus:
r = r0 A1/3 ,
∆Ebe
in which A is the mass number and r0 ≈ 1.2 fm. ∆Eben = (binding energy per nucleon).
A
3. Atomic masses are often reported in atomic mass units, a
system in which the atomic mass of neutral 12C is defined to 8. Radioactive decay is given by
be exactly 12 u, where 1 u = 1.660 538 86 × 10–27 kg.
4. If the total mass of the participants in a nuclear reaction N = N0 e − λ t ,
changes by an amount ∆m, there is an energy release or
absorption given by the equation Q = –∆mc2. As we shall in which N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the
now see, nuclear energies are often reported in multiples of sample at t = 0 and N is the number remaining at any sub
1 MeV. Thus, a convenient conversion between mass units sequent time t.
and energy units is provided by the following equation: 9. An alternative form of the law of radioactive decay:
c2 = 931.494013 MeV/u. R = λN ,
5. Albert Einstein was able to show that when mass converts
to energy, the change in energy, ΔE, is related to the change here R and the number of radioactive nuclei N that have
w
not yet undergone decay must be evaluated at the same
in rest mass, Δm, by the following equation, now called the
instant. The total decay rate R of a sample of one or more
Einstein equation.
radionuclides is called the activity of that sample. The SI
∆E = ∆mc 2 unit for activity is the becquerel, named for Henri Bec
querel, the discoverer of radioactivity:
where c is the velocity of light, 3.00 × 108 m s–1.
6. The mass M of a nucleus is less than the total mass Σ m of 1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.
its individual protons and neutrons. That means that the
10. An older unit, the curie, is still in common use: 12. the probability of decay of a given nucleus is
ln 2
T1/2 = = τ ln 2.
λ
1. Mathematically, electrical conductivity is defined as the collector–emitter voltage (VCE) is known as input
reciprocal of the resistivity of the material. That is, σ = 1/σ. resistance. The mathematical expression for the input
2. The number of free electrons (in the conduction band) and resistance is
∆V
holes (in the valence band) are equal in case of intrinsic ri = BE
semiconductors. Mathematically, this is expressed as ∆IB V CE
ne = nh = ni , where ne, nh are the number densities 10. The ratio of the change in collector–emitter voltage
of electrons and holes and ni is the intrinsic carrier (ΔVCE) to the resulting change in the collector current
concentration (i.e. electrons or holes). (ΔIC) at constant base current (IB) is known as output
3. The movement of holes constitutes the hole current (Ih) resistance. The mathematical expression for the output
and the movement of electrons constitutes the electron resistance is ΔCIΔ
current (Ie). The total current I which flows through the ∆V
semiconductor when an electric field is applied, is I = Ie + Ih ro = CE
∆IC IB
4. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers
and electrons are the minority carriers. For p-type 11. The mathematical expression for the current amplification
semiconductors, we have nh >> ne. factor is
5. In some semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide or ∆I
βac = C
indium phosphide, the energy can be emitted as a photon ∆IB V CE
of energy at wavelength hν
12. Mathematically, the dc current gain is expressed by
c c hc
λ= = = . IC
v E g /h E g βdc =
IB
7. The emitter current (IE) is equal to the sum of the 13. Mathematically, the small signal voltage gain is written as
base current (IB) and the collector current (IC), and is
mathematically written as IE = IB + IC ∆Vo
Av =
∆Vi
8. To obtain the input characteristics when the transistor is in
active state, the collector– emitter voltage VCE is kept large 14. The power gain (Ap) of an amplifier is defined as the
enough so that the base–collector junction is reverse- product of the voltage and current gains. Mathematically,
biased. The relation between the input and output voltage it is expressed as
is VCE = VCB + VBE .
9. The ratio of change in the base–emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to Ap = Av × βac
the resulting change in the base current (ΔIB) at constant
1. If the signals are digital, they are rectangular in shape. 3. Let the transmitting antenna be at a height hT and the
They can be expressed as a superposition of sinusoidal distance to the horizon, d – also known as the radio horizon
waves of frequencies nν 0 , where n = 1, 2, 3,… and ν 0 is the of the transmitting antenna – then becomes
frequency of the rectangular waves.
2. If N is the electron density (per cubic meter) of an d = 2RhT
ionospheric layer, its critical frequency is given by where R is the radius of the Earth.
νc = 9 N .
4. The maximum line-of-sight distance dM between the where c(t) is the strength of the signal, which can be a
transmitting and receiving antennas is given by voltage or a current, Ac is its amplitude, wc is the angular
frequency, and f is the initial phase.
dM = 2RhT + 2RhR , 7. In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the carrier
wave, Ac, is modulated by the information signal. Let this
Where hR is the height of the receiving antenna.
modulating signal be represented by
5. The power radiated from a linear antenna of length l obeys
the relation m(t ) = Am sinω mt
2
l with Am being the signal’s amplitude and wm its angular
P ∝ .
λ frequency.
Therefore, for a given antenna length, the power radiated 8. The sideband frequency is represented as
increases with decrease in λ, which corresponds to increase
ω SB = ω c ± ω m .
in frequency.
6. The high-frequency carrier wave used to transmit 9. The modulation index is represented as
information can be represented as
Amax − Amin
µ= .
c (t ) = Ac sin(ω ct + φ ), Amax + Amin