Chapter 26

Drying and Related Processes

The purpose of a drying system is: (1) to remove the moisture from a
material in order to improve that material, (2) to make the process more
efficient in some way, or (3) to recover the moisture. The material, if prop-
erly dried, may become more valuable or be in better condition for further
processing. The cost of drying may also be justified by (1) the increase in
future value if preservation is thereby ensured, (2) the reduction in freight or
other handling charges, (3) the recovery of a valuable solvent, or (4) the
improvement in heating value if the dried material is fuel.
Drying is the term applied to thermal processes that remove moisture from
a solid or nearly solid material. Evaporation implies vaporization of a rela-
tively large amount of moisture, from either a liquid or a solid, resulting in a
concentrated (but not necessarily dry) residue. Dewatering is the mechanical
removal of moisture by such processes as draining, pressing, filtering, centri-
fuging, etc. Dehumidification is the direct condensation of a vapor from a
gas. Distillation involves the vaporization, separation, and recondensation of
a liquid from either a liquid or a solid.
Usually, dryers use air to carry the vaporized moisture away from the
product. The air can also be used to deliver the heat necessary for vaporiza-
tion. More inert gases, such as flue products or superheated steam, can be
substituted for the air.
The principles of drying both in air and in a vacuum will be discussed in
this chapter. The actual size of a dryer should be based on test data as regards
both the performance of the machine and the behavior of the material. Certain
fundamentals that govern the drying of all materials will also be outlined here.
Since fans are used in many dryers, detailed descriptions of many types of
dryers are included.

Design Principles
Basically, the designer must evaluate various dryer designs to determine
their technical and economic feasibility. Whenever large amounts of free
liquid are involved, consider dewatering the feed, since mechanical systems
are usually cheaper than thermal systems. The choice between batch and
continuous processes rests primarily on economics. Usually, a continuous
dryer will require less labor, fuel, and floor space and will discharge a more
.

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26-2 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 26.1 Values of Regain for Hygroscopic Materials

Moisture Content Expressed in Per Cent of Dry Weight of the Substance -

Temp 75°F
Relative Humidity - Per Cent
Material 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Natural textile fibers
Cotton, roving 2.5 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.6 7.9 9.5 11.5 14.1
Cotton, cloth 2.6 3.7 4.4 5.2 5.9 6.8 8.1 10.0 14.3
Cotton, absorbent 4.8 9.0 12.5 15.7 18.5 20.8 22.8 24.3 25.8
Wool, skein 4.7 7.0 8.9 10.8 12.8 14.9 17.2 19.9 23.4
Silk, skein 3.2 5.5 6.9 8.0 8.9 10.2 11.9 14.3 18.8
Linen, cloth 1.9 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.1 6.1 7.0 8.4 10.2
Linen, yarn 3.6 5.4 6.5 7.3 8.1 8.9 9.8 11.2 13.8
Jute, average 3.1 5.2 6.9 8.5 10.2 12.2 14.4 17.1 20.2
Hemp, rope 2.7 4.7 6.0 7.2 8.5 9.9 11.6 13.6 15.7
Rayons
Viscose nitrocellulose,
skein 4.0 5.7 6.8 7.9 9.2 10.8 12.4 14.2 16.0
Cellulose acetate, fiber 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.3
Paper
M.F. newsprint 2.1 3.2 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.1 7.2 8.7 10.6
H.M.F. writing 3.0 4.2 5.2 6.2 7.2 8.3 9.9 11.9 14.2
White bond 2.4 3.7 4.7 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.8 10.8 13.2
Corn. ledger 3.2 4.2 5.0 5.6 6.2 6.9 8.1 10.3 13.9
Kraft wrapping 3.2 4.6 5.7 6.6 7.6 8.9 10.5 12.6 14.9
Misc. organic materials
Leather, tanned 5.0 8.5 11.2 13.6 16.0 18.3 20.6 24.0 29.2
Catgut, strings 4.6 7.2 8.6 10.2 12.0 14.3 17.3 19.8 21.7
Glue, hide 3.4 4.8 5.8 6.6 7.6 9.0 10.7 11.8 12.5
Rubber, tire 0.11 0.21 0.32 0.44 0.54 0.66 0.76 0.88 0.99
Wood, average 3.0 4.4 5.9 7.6 9.3 11.3 14.0 17.5 22.0
Soap, white 1.9 3.8 5.7 7.6 10.0 12.9 16.1 19.8 23.8
Tobacco, cigarette 5.4 8.6 11.0 13.3 16.0 19.5 25.0 33.5 50.0
Foodstuffs
White bread 0.5 1.7 3.1 4.5 6.2 8.5 11.1 14.5 19.0
Crackers 2.1 2.8 3.3 3.9 5.0 6.5 8.3 10.9 14.9
Macaroni 5.1 7.4 8.8 10.2 11.7 13.7 16.2 19.0 22.1
Flour 2.6 4.1 5.3 6.5 8.0 9.9 12.4 15.4 19.1
Starch 2.2 3.8 5.2 6.4 7.4 8.3 9.2 10.6 12.7
Gelatin 0.7 1.6 2.8 3.8 4.9 6.1 7.6 9.3 11.4
Misc. inorganic materials
Asbestos fiber 0.16 0.24 0.26 0.32 0.41 0.51 0.62 0.73 0.84
Silica gel 5.7 9.8 12.7 15.2 17.2 18.8 20.2 21.5 22.6
Domestic coke 0.20 0.40 0.61 0.81 1.03 1.24 1.46 1.67 1.89
Activated charcoal 7.1 14.3 22.8 26.2 28.3 29.2 30.0 31.1 32.7
Sulphuric acid 33.0 41.0 47.5 52.5 57.0 61.5 67.0 73.5 82.5
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE: Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Guide, New
York, 1960, p. 706.

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-3

Table 26.2 Approximate Critical Moisture Contents

Material Critical Moisture,
Name Thick., In. % Water, Dry Basis
Barium nitrate crystals, on trays 1.0 7
Beaverboard 0.17 Above 120
Brick clay .62 14
Carbon pigment 1 40
Celotax 0.44 160
Chrome leather .04 125
Copper carbonate ion trays) 1-1.5 60
English china clay 1 16
Flint clay refractory brick mix 2.0 13
Gelatin, initially 400% water 0.1-0.2 (wet) 300
Iron blue pigment (on trays) 0.25-0.75 110
Kaolin 14
Lithol red 1 50
Lithopone press cake (on trays) 0.25 6.4
.50 8.0
.75 12.0
1.0 16.0
Niter cake fines, on trays - Above 16
Paper, white eggshell 0.0075 41
Fine book .005 33
Coated .004 34
Newsprint - 60-70
Plastic clay brick mix 2.0 19
Poplar wood 0.1651 20
Prussian blue - 40
Pulp lead, initially 140% water - Below 15
Rock salt (in trays) 1.0 7
Sand, 50-150 mesh 2.0 5
Sand, 200-325 mesh 2.0 10
Sand, through 325 mesh 2.0 21
Sea sand (on trays) 0.25 3
.5 4.7
.75 5.5
1.0 5.9
2.0 6.0
Silica, brick mix 2.0 8
Sole leather 0.25 Above 90
Stannic tetrachloride sludge 1 180
Subsoil, clay fraction 55.4% - 21
Subsoil, much higher clay content - 35
Sulfite pulp 0.25-0.75 60-80
Sulfite pump (pulp lap) 0.039 110
White lead - 11
Whiting 0.25-1.5 6-9
Wool fabric, worsted - 31
Wool, undyed serge - 8
Adapted from the data of E. Bagnoli, E. H. Fuller, and R. W. Norris: "Humidification and
Drying," Section 15, Chemical Engineers' Handbook, R. H. Perry, C. H. Chilton, and S. D.
Kirkpatrick (Editors), McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1963, pp. 15-40.

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

26-4 FAN ENGINEERING

uniform product, whereas a batch dryer will be lower in first cost, easier to
maintain and operate, and more versatile in its possible applications.
Considering the various advantages and disadvantages will help to limit
the choice of a dryer to either a convection, conduction, or radiation type.
Convection dryers are usually lower in first cost than other types. These
dryers heat the material directly using heated air or the products of combus-
tion. Also, the temperature of the material is limited to the temperature of the
surrounding air, which is easily controlled. However, thermal efficiency may
be poor and the solvents difficult to recover. Also, dusting, contamination,
and chemical reactions with the drying atmosphere can cause serious prob-
lems. Although these disadvantages usually can be eliminated by using
special techniques or equipment, the first-cost advantages are then compro-
mised.
Conduction dryers are usually higher in first cost than convection dryers
but provide good thermal efficiency and solvent recovery with minimum
dusting and contamination. In this type of dryer, also known as a contact
dryer, the heat is transmitted indirectly from the medium through a wall or
pan, etc. Temperatures range upward from the boiling point of the liquid, so
temperature control can become complicated. Included in this classification
are vacuum dryers. These are considerably more expensive than atmospheric
dryers but may be the best choice for heat-sensitive, easily oxidized materials
or where the solvent is to be recovered.
Radiation dryers are especially suitable for drying thin sheets or films that
contain only small amounts of liquid to be evaporated. However, operating
costs are usually high unless the radiation can be directed to a particular spot,
thus obviating the need to heat the whole object.
Combinations of these three heat-transfer mechanisms are used in various
dryers. Dryers are often classified as stationary, conveyor, drum, rotary, web,
or suspended-particle dryers. Then subclassifications are often made accord-
ing to the specific mechanical or constructional features, as well as the
method of heat transmission.
The condition of the material itself or the process requirements may limit
the types of dryers that can be used. For instance, drum dryers are unsuitable
for materials that cannot be pumped. Web dryers are limited to sheets or
bulky objects. Rotary dryers are suitable only for granular materials. And
suspended-particle dryers, as implied by the name, are designed for small
particles.

Moisture Content of Materials

The moisture content of a material can be stated as a mass fraction based
on either wet or dry material. (Refer to Tables 26.1 and 26.2 for moisture-
content information on selected materials.) The dry basis is better for com-
puting moisture changes since a simple difference (subtraction) can be used.
The two bases are convertible according to

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-5

Fdry
Fwet = and (26.1)
1 + Fdry

Fwet
Fdry = , (26.2)
1 − Fwet

where the fraction Fwet is equal to the mass of moisture divided by the mass of
wet product, and the fraction Fdry is equal to the mass of moisture divided by
the mass of dry product. When percentages are used instead of fractions, 100
should be substituted for the 1 in each equation.
Materials may be hygroscopic or not. Hygroscopic materials contain
bound moisture, that is, moisture that exerts a vapor pressure less than that of
the pure liquid at the same temperature. Internal moisture is bound physically
by capillary action, etc. Combined moisture is chemically bound as water of
crystallization, etc.
Both hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic materials can contain unbound
moisture. Surface moisture is unbound and exerts a vapor pressure very close
to that of the pure liquid at the same temperature.
The equilibrium moisture content, often referred to as the percentage of
regain, is the ratio of the mass of moisture to the mass of dry material that a
hygroscopic material contains in equilibrium with any ambient atmosphere.
For many materials, the percent of regain is constant for any relative humid-
ity, regardless of the temperature (at least in the usual temperature range).
Since any such material will regain enough moisture to produce equilibrium,
it would be poor economics to dry a material to below this equilibrium
moisture content.
The free moisture content, or excess over the regain, can include bound or
unbound liquid, or both.
A critical moisture content of a drying material is reached when the
surface of the material changes from completely wet to partially wet.

Drying Rate
The rate at which any material can be dried will vary with its moisture
content. Most materials have several distinct drying-rate periods, as shown in
Figure 26.1. Usually, the initial drying is accompanied by a warming of the
material. The moisture content during this warming-up period drops from the
initial value at point A to the value at point B. This period is followed by a
constant-rate period of drying for as long as the surface of the material
remains entirely wet. The rate of drying falls off gradually below the critical
moisture content at point C until the surface becomes dry at point D. The rate
continues to fall even after point D until equilibrium with the surrounding
atmosphere is obtained at point E.

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26-6 FAN ENGINEERING

Figure 26.1 Drying Rate vs Moisture Content

Adapted from the data of E. Bagnoli, E. H. Fuller, and R. W. Norris: "Humidification and
Drying," Section 15, Chemical Engineers', Handbook, R. H. Perry, C. H. Chilton, and S. D.
Kirkpatrick (Editors), McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1963, pp. 15-35.

The temperature of the material and its moisture will rise in the warming-
up period. During the constant-rate period, the surface moisture stays at
constant temperature, just like a wet-bulb thermometer, so long as the tem-
perature, humidity, and velocity of the air over the surface are constant.
During the falling-rate period, the excess heat warms the material until
equilibrium is established.
Convection drying can proceed only so long as the vapor pressure pws
exerted by the surface water exceeds the partial pressure pw of the vapor in
the surrounding air. The rate of drying mû w will be proportional to the vapor-
pressure difference pws − pw , the evaporating surface A, and the coefficient of
mass transfer kg referred to the partial pressure difference:

1 6
mû w = kg A pws − pw . (26.3)

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-7

The coefficient of mass transfer is analogous to the more familiar heat-

transfer coefficient and varies with velocity in much the same way. Both are
measures of resistance per unit of area: one of resistance to the flow of mass
and the other of resistance to the flow of heat through the thin, stagnant film at
the surface. Therefore, during the constant-rate period, the average velocity
determines the rate of evaporation, since the transfer of both heat to the
surface and mass from the surface depends on velocity. The temperature of
the surface stays constant because only enough heat is transmitted to evapo-
rate the moisture. And the area remains constant as long as the surface is
completely wet.
During the first part of the falling-rate period, the area gradually dimin-
ishes, so the rate must also decrease. During the second phase of the falling-
rate period, the effective coefficient gradually decreases, since the moisture
meets more resistance in its passage from the internal parts of the material.
The mechanisms that apparently control the migration of internal moisture
to the surface are diffusion, capillarity, and pressure gradients due to shrink-
age. The laws governing flows of these types will not be presented here,
although the general principles are embodied in the approximate formulae
listed in Table 26.3.
Drying rates and temperatures are important because of their physical
effect on the material. Combined moisture can be released only by raising the
temperature above the decomposition level. For many materials, slow drying
rates must be used to avoid shrinkage cracks and distortion. Too rapid drying
in the early stages may case harden the material, retarding the subsequent
flow of moisture and actually increasing the total drying time.

Psychrometric Aspects of Drying with Air

Several important psychrometric aspects of drying are shown in the
skeleton psychrometric charts of Figure 26.2. The arrows in Figure 26.2A
roughly indicate the psychrometric paths that the air might follow in various
dryers. All five dryers have the same entering dry-bulb temperature, entering
absolute humidity, and leaving absolute humidity. The leaving dry-bulb
temperatures and relative humidities vary greatly.
Either of the paths 0-1 or 0-2 can be achieved in a convection dryer. All
the heat needed for evaporation must be supplied directly by the air. The path
0-1 is drawn along an adiabatic saturation line that, for air-water vapor
mixtures, is a constant wet-bulb line. Such a path can only be achieved if the
total heat of the air stays constant; that is, the increase in latent heat must be
offset exactly by a decrease in sensible heat. If any heat is lost by radiation,
convection, or conduction, the process will not be adiabatic, and the leaving
dry-bulb temperature will be somewhat lower, as at 2.

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26-8 FAN ENGINEERING

Figure 26.2 Psychrometric Aspects of Drying

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-9

Any of the paths 0-3, 0-4, or 0-5 can be achieved in either a conduction or
a radiation dryer. Only part of the heat needed for evaporation (if any) may
be supplied directly by the air. The path 0-3 is drawn along a constant dry-
bulb line. Such a path can be achieved only if the heat supplied by indirect
means exactly matches the requirements for vaporization. Any deficit heat
must be then supplied by the air, in which case the leaving dry-bulb tempera-
ture will be somewhere between 1 and 3, as at 4. Any surplus heat will result
in a somewhat higher dry-bulb temperature, as at 5.
The arrows in Figure 26.2B roughly show the psychrometric paths that the
air might follow in an adiabatic dryer with three combinations of preheat and
reheat. All three paths start at the same absolute humidity and finish at the
same absolute humidity. The dry-bulb temperatures and relative humidities at
entrance and exit vary greatly.
The path abc is the same as the 0-1 path in Figure 26.2A. To achieve this
path, the air must be preheated to a relatively high dry-bulb temperature and
allowed to pass completely through the dryer without any intermediate
reheating. The relative humidity on exiting will be comparatively high.
If the dry-bulb temperature at point a is considered too high for any
reason, the same increase in absolute humidity can be obtained by preheating
the air only to point a′ passing it partially through the dryer to point b′ re-
heating it to point b, and passing it through the rest of the dryer to point c.
If the relative humidity at point c is considered too high for any reason,
the same increase in absolute humidity can be obtained by preheating the air
to point a, passing it partially through the dryer to point b, reheating it to point
b″, and passing it through the rest of the dryer to point c″.
High temperatures may be objectionable if they make the product harder
to dry or otherwise damage it. However, for efficiency, the highest inlet air
temperature that will not be objectionable should be used, as will be explained
below.
High relative humidities limit the drying rate and, therefore, should
usually be avoided. Sometimes, when the drying rate must be closely con-
trolled, some of the exhaust gases can be recirculated, raising the relative
humidity throughout the dryer, which limits the drying rate to a safe value.

Heat Needed for Drying

The rate at which heat is needed for evaporation Qû L alone can be deter-
mined from the entering and leaving moisture contents (dry basis) of the
material F1 and F2 , the rate at which the dry product or material is required
mû p , and the latent heat of vaporization hlw using

1 6
Qû L = hlw mû p F1 − F2 . (26.4)

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26-10 FAN ENGINEERING

Also, heat may be needed to offset radiation losses to the surroundings

û
QSr . Similarly, heat may be required to raise the temperature of the product,
its moisture (both liquid and vapor), and the air. The sensible heat needed to
superheat the vapor Qû Sw can be determined from its specific heat c p , its
1 6
temperature rise t w 2 − tw1 , and its mass flow rate according to

1 61
Qû Sw = c pw mû p F1 − F2 t w 2 − tw1 . 6 (26.5)

The sensible heat needed to raise the temperature of the product and its
final moisture content Qû Sp + L can be calculated from the specific heats of the
2 7
dry product c pp and liquid c pL , the temperature rise t p 2 − t p1 , and the flow
rate mû p using

2 7 2
Qû Sp + L = c pp + c pL F2 mû p t p 2 − t p1 . 7 (26.6)

The sensible heat needed to raise the temperature of the air and its initial
moisture content Qû Sa + w can be calculated from the specific heats of the dry air
1
c pa and water vapor c pw , the humidity ratio W , the temperature rise ta 2 − ta 0 , 6
and the flow rate mû a using

2 7 1
Qû Sa + w = c pa + c pw W0 mû a t a 2 − ta 0 . 6 (26.7)

The subscript zero 0 is used instead of 1 to identify the entering air

temperature t0 . and humidity W0 , because the air may be preheated before
entering the dryer.
The total heat needed Qû H may be supplied entirely by an air heater, or it
may be supplied indirectly (by conduction or radiation), or both. Neverthe-
less,

Qû H = Qû L + Qû Sr + Qû Sw + Qû Sp + L + Qû Sa + w . (26.8)

Of the total heat used, only the portion for latent heat is useful for drying.
The sensible heat losses should be minimized by careful design except when,
obviously, a warm product may be wanted for further processing. Ordinarily,
the temperature of the drying air should be as high as possible when relatively
large amounts of moisture are to be removed. However, when the mass of
material is large compared to the amount of moisture, it is usually better to
use moderate temperatures so that the percentage of total heat used to heat the
material itself is minimized. Higher velocities can be used to increase the
drying rate in such cases.

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-11

Air Needed for Direct Drying

A moisture balance requires that the loss by the material equal the gain by
the air, or

1 6
mû p F1 − F2 = mû a W2 − W1 .1 6 (26.9)

The mass rate of air flow needed mû a is a function of the feed rate mû p , the
difference in moisture content of the feed and product F1 − F2 , and the 1 6
1 6
difference in humidity ratio W2 − W1 of the entering and leaving air.
The entering humidity can be fixed at the ambient level or at some higher
level if moist air is to be used. The theoretical maximum leaving humidity
depends on the nature and efficiency of the humidification process. For
adiabatic saturation, the humidification efficiency seldom exceeds 75%.
Known efficiencies should be used whenever possible. Since the drying rate
for convection drying depends on a vapor pressure difference, the leaving
relative humidity can often be limited to 75%, or even 50%, to ensure rapid
drying.
The rate of airflow for any specific drying problem can then be established
with respect to the drying rate mû w :

mû a =
1
mû p F1 − F2 6= mû w
. (26.10)
W2 − W1 W2 − W1

For the case without reheating, the air must be preheated from the ambient
temperature to the temperature t1 indicated by

Qû H
t1 = t0 +
2 7
c pa + c pw W0 mû a
, (26.11)

where Qû H is the total heat requirement according to Equation 26.8. If less

preheat is used, the rest must be furnished by one or more stages of reheat in a
direct dryer.

Qû H = Qû preheat + Qû reheat . (26.12)

The temperature of air leaving the reheater t4 can be determined from the
entering conditions t3 and W3 according to

Qû reheat
t 4 = t3 +
2 7
c pa + c pw W3 mû a
. (26.13)

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26-12 FAN ENGINEERING

Direct Drying with Steam

Paradoxical as it may seem at first, steam can be used directly to dry many
materials. The only limitation is temperature. Superheated steam exerts less
pressure than the vapor pressure of water at the same temperature. If steam is
superheated enough, the sensible heating requirements can be accomplished
with a much lower weight rate of flow mû s than if air were used:

mû s c pa ∆ta 0.24
= = = 0.53. (26.14)
mû a c ps ∆ts 0.45

The volume rate of steam flow Qû s compared with that of airflow Qû a will
depend on the absolute temperatures of the two and their molecular weights as
well as on the weight ratio:

Qû s 28.97 Ts T
= 0.53 × × = 0.86 s . (26.15)
Qû a 18.0 Ta Ta

Therefore, steam can often be used advantageously when the material can
withstand the temperatures necessary for any particular drying rate. Fans can
be used to provide internal circulation and recirculation. However, for
through circulation, the steam is usually expanded and then condensed
(together with the removed moisture).

Indirect Drying
In the previous discussions of direct drying, air or steam was used to
supply the heat necessary for evaporating the moisture and also to remove that
moisture from the immediate vicinity of the material being dried.
When the heat for evaporation is supplied indirectly, either by conduction
or by radiation, the material and its moisture will assume a temperature at
which the vapor pressure exceeds the ambient total pressure. If the surface of
the material is completely wetted, this temperature will be about the same as
the boiling point of the pure liquid at the prevailing pressure.
As in any boiling process, the ambient pressure will increase unless the
vapor generated is allowed to escape fast enough. Atmospheric dryers must
be properly vented. In vacuum dryers, the moisture can be pumped away.
Condensers or desiccants can be used in either.
Using vacuum to lower the boiling point and, therefore, the temperature
provides attractive possibilities for heat-sensitive materials. Often, the
moisture will be in a frozen state, and drying will occur by sublimation. This
process produces other desirable characteristics.
Because of the complexities involved, the performance of an indirect
dryer is usually defined as a heat rate Qû H per unit of drying surface A ac-
cording to

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 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-13

Qû H
= U∆t, (26.16)
A

where the overall heat-transfer coefficient U is an average based on experi-

ence and the temperature difference ∆t is an average over all or part of the
drying period. The use of fans in indirect drying applications is limited and
may, in fact, be prohibited to prevent dusting, contamination, etc.

Evaporators: Single- and Multiple-Effect

Evaporators are indirect dryers used to remove large amounts of moisture.
The result may be a concentrated liquid or a dry residue. The same principles
apply here as for any indirect dryer. Most evaporators are vacuum-operated,
although this is not necessarily a prerequisite for either single- or multiple-
effect evaporators.
Multiple effects are often used to decrease operating costs, but they do
increase equipment costs. In operation, for each pound of steam condensed in
the first effect, about one pound of vapor is evaporated. If this vapor is
condensed in the second effect, another pound of vapor will be evaporated,
and so on for additional effects.

Sizing Convection Dryers

Although the dryer size must be based on experimentally determined
factors, an approximation, which depends on the exposed drying surface
needed, can sometimes be made.
Based on the principles previously outlined, Table 26.3 formulates the
approximate surface areas for certain dryer types in terms of known or desired
conditions. Once this has been determined, the dryer size that can match
these requirements of exposed surface for the material in question can be
found by geometrical analysis.

Table 26.3 Equations for Exposed Drying Surface

Constant Drying Conditions - Batch Dryer:

1 6
hlw m p F1 − F2
θ h1t − t 6
AB− C = (26.17)
1− 2 a s

h m F çFä
ln æ ã .
θ h1t − t 6 å F â
=
lw p C 1
AC − E (26.18)
1− 2 a s 2

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26-14 FAN ENGINEERING

Table 26.3 Equations for Exposed Drying Surface (cont.)

Variable Drying Conditions - Continuous Dryers:

Counter-Flow Type - Adiabatic - h kg′c p = 1 7 2

á mû 1F − F 6 ç h ä "#
ç c ä mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #
p C 2 lw

= mû æ ã ln
å h â 1 − mû 1F − F 6 ç h ä ##
p a a s p
AB− C a (26.19)

! mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #$
p 1 2 lw

a a s p

á "# á "#
çc ä
= mû æ ã
1 ## lnçæ F äã 1 ##
å h â F + mû 1t − t 6 ç c ä # å F â 1 − mû 1 F − F 6 ç h ä#
p C
AC − E

! F mû F æå h ãâ #$
a

! mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #$
2 a a s p 2 p C 2 lw

C p C lw a a s p

(26.20)

Parallel Flow Type - Adiabatic - h kg′c p = 1 2 7

á "#
çc ä
A = mû æ ã ln
1 ##
å h â 1 − mû 1 F − F 6 ç h ä #
p
B− C a (26.21)

! mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #$
p 1 C lw

a a s p

á "# á1 − mû 1F − F 6 ç h ä "#
ç c ä ç Fä mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #
p 1 C lw

= mû æ ã #
å h â F + mû 1t − t 6 ç c ä ## lnæå F ãâ 1 − mû 1F − F 6 ç h ä ##
p 1 2 a a s p
AC − E

! F mû F æå h ãâ #$
a

! mû 1t − t 6 æå c ãâ #$
1 a a s p C p 1 2 lw

C p C lw a a s p

(26.22)

Symbols for Table 26.3

AB − C - exposed drying area during constant-rate period ........................ft2
AC − E - exposed drying area during falling-rate period ...........................ft2
mû p - product flow rate - dry basis................................................. lbm/hr
mp - product weight – dry basis........................................................ lbm
mû a - air flow rate - dry basis......................................................... lbm/hr

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-15

Symbols for Table 26.3 (cont.)

FC - critical moisture content - dry basis .................................. lbm/lbm
F1 - initial moisture content - dry basis .................................... lbm/lbm
F2 - final moisture content - dry basis ...................................... lbm/lbm
θ 1− 2 - drying time .................................................................................. hr
ta - dry-bulb temperature of entering air ...........................................°F
ts - wet-surface temperature ..............................................................°F
hlw - latent heat of evaporation ...................................................Btu/lbm
h - local heat-transfer coefficient ..................................... Btu/hr-ft2-°F
cp - specific heat of air-water vapor mixture....................... Btu/lbm-°F
kg′ - local mass-transfer coefficient..................................lbm/hr-ft2-'W
'W - humidity difference ............................................lbm vapor/lbm air
Adapted from the data of W. C. Lapple, W. E. Clark, and E. C. Dybdal: “Drying Design &
Costs”, Chemical Engineering, November 1955, pp. 177-200.

Equipment
Stationary dryers include both direct and indirect types. The equipment
used may be nothing more than a loft or room with direct radiation and natural
convection circulation. Hay lofts and the like may even be unheated. Kilns
for drying lumber usually use circulating fans, coils, and humidifiers. Cabinet
dryers are heated enclosures that use fans to circulate air over or through the
material being dried. The home clothes dryer falls into this category. De-
pending on their construction, cabinet dryers are called tray, shelf, compart-
ment, or truck dryers. Through-circulation drying is usually achieved by
blowing warm air from the bottom to the top of a fixed bed of material.
Often, the reverse flow pattern should be investigated, especially if recon-
densed moisture can be passed back to the bottom of the bed without re-
evaporating. All the above are direct-type, batch-operated dryers.
The indirect, stationary types are also differentiated by their construction.
The contact surfaces can be jacketed shelves, pans, or kettles. All are batch
dryers and can be constructed for either atmospheric or vacuum operation.
The heating medium that flows through the jacketed spaces can be steam or
any other suitable fluid. Almost any material condition can be accommodated
by a stationary dryer, and mechanisms can be added for stirring or otherwise
agitating.
Conveyor dryers can also be of the direct or indirect type. Trucks or other
carriers can be used to pass material through a tunnel. The lowest moisture
contents of the product are achieved by using counterflow of air and material.
However, drying rates may be limited if the product to be dried is heat-
sensitive. Higher temperatures can be used with parallel flow of air and
material, since the hottest air contacts the wet feed. Center-exhaust tunnels
have been developed to utilize the advantages of both. The result is a parallel-

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

26-16 FAN ENGINEERING

flow tunnel on the wet end and counterflow on the dried end. Control can be
effected by manipulating the air temperature for each stage. Crossflow
tunnels can be controlled at intermediate points along the path if individual
fans and coils are provided. All tunnels can be equipped with recirculating
dampers and controls to produce higher heat efficiencies. Through-flow
drying can be achieved with many materials if a screen or similar conveyor is
used in the tunnel. And towers are simply vertical tunnels that drop the
material through a rising air stream.
Another direct-acting conveyor dryer is known as the turbo type. Turbo
dryers use a series of fan wheels arranged on a vertical shaft to circulate air
across a series of rotating annular shelves. The material is wiped down and
leveled one shelf at a time, producing mixing, exposure changes, and con-
veying action. Normally, the stack effect is utilized to provide the necessary
ventilation, and the fans only recirculate. Heat exchangers are usually placed
in the peripheral space between the shelves and the enclosure. External
heating can be applied with a forced draft fan or with radiation.
Forced feed can be achieved in indirect dryers by using screws, plows,
paddles, or similar devices when either the device or its enclosure (or both)
are jacketed. Gravity feed can be assisted by vibration, etc. Some of these
designs can be adapted for direct drying if air can be circulated through the
bed of material.
Rotary dryers can be of the direct or indirect type, or a combination of the
two. Mixing and exposure changes are produced by lifting, the material up
the side of the rotating cylinder and then spilling it back onto itself or show-
ering it down through the air stream. Continuous operation is achieved by
inclining the cylinder slightly from the horizontal to produce gravity flow of
the material. Direct types can be operated with either parallel or counterflow
of the air and material. A special form of the direct type, known as the louver
dryer, uses a series of overlapping shelves in the cylinder to support the
material bed for through flow of air. The indirect type of rotary may use a
jacketed cylinder, jacketed flights, or internal tubes through which the prod-
ucts of combustion are passed. A special form is known as the steam-tube
dryer. The direct/indirect type first utilizes the hot combustion products in the
jacket then later uses them directly.
Two forms of vacuum rotaries are available for batch operation, both of
the indirect-type. In one, the horizontal, jacketed cylindrical shell is station-
ary, and the material is stirred internally by a rotating agitator. In the other,
the shell itself rotates.
Drum dryers consist of one or more heated horizontal drums. The tops of
double-drum units rotate toward each other, and material is fed from the
trough between the two. Twin-drum units rotate away from each other and
may have dip or splash feed. Dried material may be stripped off a drum onto
a conveyor. And the units can be atmospheric or vacuum-operated.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

 CHAPTER 26 - DRYING AND RELATED PROCESSES 26-17

Sheeting dryers may use heated cylinders or platens over which the
material is passed for indirect drying. Convection types are known as festoon
dryers if the sheeting is draped in loops over parallel rods that convey it
through, or as tenter dryers if the sheeting is stretched between two endless
conveyors. Air can be directed against one or both sides of the sheeting using
suitable nozzles. Sometimes, the air stream may penetrate the material or
even support it against the-conveyor.
In suspended particle dryers, the material must be rather finely divided so
that it can be properly dispersed. In spray types, liquid material is atomized in
a suitable chamber so that it dries in seconds. The dried material can then be
collected in the bottom of the chamber, or it can be carried out with the
exhaust gases and separated in cyclones, etc. The flow of air and material
may be parallel, counter, or a combination of the two. In flash-type dryers,
solid particles are fed into a pneumatic conveyor for drying in transit. The
material can be picked up directly from a pulverizer or disintegrator and,
ultimately, separated in cyclones, etc. after drying. Material-to-air ratios are
usually limited to 1.0 or less. Higher loadings are used in fluidized-bed
applications, which are also more suitable for materials with high internal
moisture. Although the fines can be lifted out of the bed and recovered
separately, the main body of material may move by gravity down an incline,
or a column may be continuously fed and tapped. Rapid drying results from
the close contact, with the heated air and the thorough mixing produces
uniform temperatures throughout
Fans are used in dryer applications to supply the energy needed to produce
through-flow or recirculation of the air or gas and also to supply the energy
needed to suspend, convey, or even mix the material. The method of figuring
the amount of air needed for convection drying has been outlined beginning
on page 26.10. The pressure required of the fan depends on the losses due to
friction, etc. and on the energy needed to transport and separate the material.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.