Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The term “Guidance” has been defined in various ways by different scholars.
Literally guidance means ‗to direct‘, ‗to point out‘, to show the path‘.
Therefore, in a layman definition Guidance simply means showing or pointing the way to be
followed.
It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to
necessary adjustment to environment whether that be within the school or outside it.
"Guidance is the process of assisting the individual to choose, to prepare, to enter upon and
community services.
Guidance is a process of helping individuals through their own efforts to discover and develop their
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According to Patterson (1973) guidance refers to a broad area of educational activities and
services aimed at assisting individuals in making and carrying out adequate plans and achieving
satisfactory adjustment.
direction, and to adjust maximally to the environment (Biswalo, 1996). This help is designed to
assist people in deciding where they want to go, what they want to do, how to get to their
services, referral services, research and evaluation services, all of which help an individual to
grow in self-understanding and consequently in making wise decisions for best adjustment,
Sima (2006).
As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding one‘s strengths
& limitations) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on
one‘s own).
Despite the fact that the terms guidance and counselling are used interchangeably, but both terms
have different meaning. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients,
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Counselling is a professional relationship between a counsellor who is professionally
trained and a client (counsellee) who is seeking help to resolve a problem. (Okech and
Ngumba 1991)
setting.
Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach
a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the
younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined
Informing: Here the role of the counselor is to give appropriate and correct information to the
clients.
Advising: The counselor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counselor offers
Counselling: The counselor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so
So you can think of these three activities as a continuous spectrum of areas which merge into
each other.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING:
According to the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) 2002, the
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Counselling is the private relationship
There is a mutual relationship between the two individuals. mutual respect between the two
Counselling is a professional relationship i.e. one of the two must be trained to assist the
other
Principles of Guidance
development of personality. Guidance deals with the development of the whole person. It
does not only focus on the learner’s academic achievement. But should also focus on
different aspects such as social and physical aspects (Thungu et. al. (2010).
ii. Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every
uniqueness to each person. The dignity of the individual is supreme. The respect for
others should come naturally and should not be affected by titles, sex, age or appearance.
iii. Guidance is Concerned With Individual Behavioural Processes. It helps the individual
gain better control over his/her own behaviour such as likes, dislikes, tendencies and
weaknesses. In this principle the guidance worker uses tools such as: personal interviews,
iv. Guidance Relies on Cooperation, Not on Compulsion (Force). Client should not be
forced. The client should consent by either explicitly asking for help or implicitly hinting,
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suggesting or signifying that he needs help. Forced guidance may lead to stubbornness or
lack of cooperation.
Guidance is a lifelong process; begins at home goes on to school and into the society.
play in guiding the individual to acquire the right behaviour and values.
Guidance should be oriented towards a single goal. Guidance given at home should be in
harmony with what the teachers and society provide. If parents advocate obedience at
Principles of Counselling
innate desire for independence and autonomy. They have the ability to control their
ii. A Client Should Move Towards a Greater Level of Self-Acceptance and Self-
iii. A Client Should Develop a Greater Level of Honesty in Respect to Himself. Client’s
real self should resemble the ideal self (one would like to be). Self-Concept (the way
iv. Objectives Should be Based on the Clint’s Need and Not the Counsellor’s. Guidance
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Both are principled activities
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It is unethical to reveal client’s information except in certain situations where the counselor can
iii.When the client’s intention may endanger the life of the society
v.When the law requires doing so. When the client has committed crime e.g. raping, or when the
client under 16 years presenting to you a case of rape (because it is illegal action).
Guidance and counselling, in one way or another, have been used by different people such as
parents, teachers, friends and elders since the beginning of human civilization.
The concept of guidance is deeply seated in the minds of mankind since the days of Adam and
Eve whereby human beings have been keenly alive to the necessity of helping and guiding one
another.
The guidance programme of the ancient Greeks and Romans, apprenticeship in the middle ages,
discipleship among the Muslims and Hindus, all suggest that guidance is not at all recent in
origin.
The history of guidance and counselling as a discipline in the world can be traced back from the
ancient Greece and Rome with philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also
evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day guidance Counsellors
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were practised by the Catholic Priests in the middle Ages as can be seen from the derivation of
Formal guidance and counselling programme in schools using specialised textbooks is also by no
means a new phenomenon. The genesis of guidance and counselling movement as practiced
today began in the United States of America (USA at the close of the nineteenth. The services
gained momentum in the twentieth century to assist students with their educational development
Pioneers of Counselling
Three persons credited as pioneers in Counselling. Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis and Clifford
Beers. These three persons identified themselves as teachers and social reformer.
Their focus was on helping children and young adults to learn about themselves and others, and
the world of work. Their work was built on the idea of moral instruction, (on being good and
doing right) as well as dealing intrapersonal and interpersonal relations. These were turbulant
At the beginning of the guidance movement, the focus was on the provision of vocational
guidance services. A seminal work in the history of career decision making and counselling is
widely accepted to be that of Frank Parsons. He is the most highly recognized individual in
vocational counselling. He is often hailed as the “the father of Guidance„. Parsons was
characterized as a broad scholar, a persuasive writer, a tireless activist and a great intellectual.
Similarly In 1908, the Vocation Bureau of Boston was established, a major step in the
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based on vocational aptitudes and interest. He introduced the term vocational guidance. Parsons
wrote his first book on “Choosing a Vocation” between 1905 and 1908 during the guidance
movement in the USA which was published in 1909 (one year after his death). He developed a
1. The person should have a clear understanding of his or her aptitudes, abilities, interests
2. The person should be aware of available job opportunities, the requirements and demands
of the work, the compasantions given and prospects of the job (Study of Options)
3. To match or establish the relationship between these two bodies of information i.e. the
According to Parsons, an ideal career choice should base on matching personal traits such as
abilities and personality with job characteristics such as wages, requirements, prospects, etc.
His framework later became the popular “ Trait-Factor Theory“ in career guidance which is still
used today.
JESSE B. DAVIS
School counselling was first introduced into the classroom curriculum in 1889 by a high school
principal Jesse B. Davis. Davis instituted guidance programme in high school to decrease
Guidance and counselling services were introduced in America during the industrial revolution,
a period of rapid industrial growth, social protests, social reforms and utopian idealism. The
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service was introduced to address the negative social conditions associated with the industrial
revolution. During that period the large industrial centres attracted immigrant minority and rural
populations seeking employment. After the 1900s and the industrial revolution the world wars
were the next major event that had an impact on the development of guidance and counselling
services. Guidance and counselling services arose in that context, as a response to the social
crisis brought about by the wars. Students and young people, including other war veterans,
needed counselling to overcome the traumatic experiences they had undergone together with
As the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s unfolded, guidance and counselling in
schools started to respond to the national needs and concerns. Social problems including
substance abuse, mental health issues, and changing family patterns all pulled and tugged at
defining the purpose of the guidance in schools and role of school counsellors. At the same time,
economic issues dealing with changing labour force, needs and globalization industry were also
present. In this case, counsellors extended their activities beyond vocational advice to problems
of social adjustment.
The guidance movement in Africa involved educating the youth about the traditions and the
culture of the community. This was done by elders who considered it their social responsibility.
The elders depended on their age, knowledge, exposure and expertise. The objective of the
guidance in Africa at that time, was to mould the individual in such a way that he/she could fit
into the society as a responsible member in the community. This was often carried out through
the use of artistic expressions such as dances, stories, and provocative or non-provocative verbal
instructions.
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Guidance and counselling in Tanzanian schools started due to the deterioration in students’
behaviour after the introduction of western education. This alienation from their cultural norms,
values and beliefs led to behavioural problems which needed intervention services. This service
in Tanzanian schools started through the introduction of career masters/mistresses who provided
services although with no formal training for their new roles. The service was made an integral
part of the educational system and plays a vital role in preventing educational, personal, social,
mental, emotional and other similar problems among secondary school students.
For students to be properly informed, they need the assistance of trained guidance and
counselling personnel. Hence, the Government of Tanzania, through the Ministry of Education
and Vocational Training (MoEVT), introduced a guideline for counsellors in schools and
teachers’ colleges. In that guideline, the service features the core competencies that all
practitioners need in teacher-education programme regardless of their job settings. The core
competencies focused on the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed by all guidance and
counselling practitioners. These include: ethical behaviour and professional conduct, advocacy
and leadership in advancing clients’ learning, career development and personal concerns,
awareness and appreciation of clients’ cultural differences, awareness of their own capacity and
limitations, ability to design, implement and evaluate guidance and counselling programme,
familiarity with information on educational training, employment trends, labour market and
social issues.
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According to the Education and Training Policy (ETP) of 1995 and the revised edition of 2009,
the provision of guidance and counselling services is mandatory and a vital component of any
Guidance and Counselling section has been established in the Ministry of Education and
Circular for the establishment of guidance and counselling services in schools and colleges titled
“Uanzishwaji wa Huduma za Malezi na Ushauri Nasaha Katika Shule na Vyuo vya Ualimu”
which means the inception of guidance and counselling services in schools and colleges was
issued. Also a Guide titled “Huduma ya Malezi na Nasaha Shuleni: Mwongozo wa Wanasihi wa
Shule na Vyuo which means Guidance and Counselling Services in Schools: A Guide for
The basic guidance and counselling services include information service, orientation/ mentoring
service, counselling service, appraisal service, placement service, research service, career
professional development advocacy, programme planning and development and other related
issue. All these services aim at furnishing students with the appropriate guidance and counselling
services in educational institutions specifically in secondary schools. For this reason, the said
services are the gateway to the prevention of undesirable behaviours. The absence of these
services in the present-day school system are likely to lead to the extraordinary rise in the crime
wave, violence among students, wrong career choice, and inefficient selection of subject
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NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE
Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and importance of guidance are as
follows.
Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in understanding one‘s strength,
limitations and other resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to solve
adjustment
Good citizenship
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Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the
The objectives of the guidance and counselling programme are to provide services which will
meet certain needs in the growth and development of young people, namely:
The areas of guidance and counselling are very vast Personal, Educational, Vocational (bread
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School guidance and counselling services are focused on three distinct areas, although these
areas are frequently combined to create a meaningful context within student learning activities.
Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends
and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which creates feeling of
disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a
feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem.
These issues are aligned with the changes in human dynamics and the maturing concept of self.
This area addresses issues faced by young people at each particular age and stage of
development and maturity. Assists the individual to behave appropriately in relation to other
members of the society. It is concern with sexual relationship, interpersonal conflicts, financial
problems, family and parental issues, HIV/AIDS counselling, sex education, problem related to
Social Guidance: We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for
most of the students. School/educational institution is a miniature society and pupil from
some time may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the
students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group; in
developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social
guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal
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Educational Guidance and Counselling (Learn to learn)
The educational area of guidance and counselling services identifies key knowledge and skills
that students require over time to become effective, independent learners within and beyond the
school setting.
Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges, the curriculum, the
To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and
goals.
To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered (problems
related to exams, academic advice and mentoring, timetable matters and course
selection).
To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college subjects.
To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life connected
with it.
To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can
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There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great need for
occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping
individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a career. The
purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the
Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to fit them into general
Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever
Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn
Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various
Assisting the individual to choose and prepare for an occupation that is compatible with
his interests and aptitudes. It includes interview skills, Curriculum Vitae writing (CV),
application letter writing, job selection and inviting organizations to give a public talk.
Scope/range of Services
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ii.Mentoring/Orientation Services: is the information or training given to students before they start
new activities. The focus is on students from primary school being inducted or introduced to the
secondary school life and those in secondary school being introduced to the world of work and
future studies
v.Referral Service: this could be referral to the medical personnel, peer counselors, police,
religious leaders, legal personnel, other counselors, sponsoring agencies, head of school, other
teachers, parents/guardians, social welfare department, village/street authorities etc URT (2007).
vi.Research Services
professional and personal responsibilities that define their scope of activities. School counsellors
Parents/guardians Consultation
• Self
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School counsellors are responsible for recognizing their boundaries of competence and provide
only those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by training or
experience.
The school counsellor’s first professional responsibility is to the students. The educational,
academic, career, personal, and social needs of all students within the school setting.
To meet the needs of all students, school counsellors plan and deliver programming that is
Because students may have diverse needs that require specific counselling expertise, school
counsellors are responsible for recognizing their boundaries of competence and provide only
those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by training or
experience. When their professional assistance cannot adequately meet students’ needs, or when
students’ needs require intensive or long-term counselling beyond what schools may reasonably
Collaboration with parents in the best interest of students is a key activity of school counsellors.
School counselors do not provide family counselling. The focus of school counselling is on the
working with minors in a school setting. The open sharing of guidance education activities with
the public is separate from the confidential nature of counselling relationships. Working with
responsibility. Issues of confidentiality, informed consent, referral, and right to privacy are enshrined.
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Working with Colleagues and Professional Associates
Guidance and counselling services are part of a broader delivery system designed to enhance the success
of all learners. The school counselor establishes and maintains an ongoing professional
relationship with school staff, clinicians, and other service providers who work with students in
the school. Colleagues and professional associates are consulted and provided with professional
information related to the wellbeing of students who are also in their care.
Educational planning and ancillary services are coordinated in the best interest of the student.
counsellors must work within the limits of the law, within the policies and procedures of school
divisions and schools, as well as within the ethical requirements of the associations of which they
may be members.
School counsellors play a dual role of educator (through guidance education activities) and
therapist (through counselling activities). This dual role particularly merges when the counsellor
is involved in prevention work. All of life’s situations interact with each other. For instance, by
simultaneously teaches resiliency skills and affects the student’s readiness for educational
challenges. As a result of this interrelationship, the school counsellor supports the integration and
contextualization of guidance and counselling services to address school and community needs.
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The school counsellor therefore develops a comprehensive and developmental guidance and
counselling program that meets the needs of the specific school population. This development
process includes identifying needs, implementing and monitoring programs, as well as adjusting
plans based on the developmental needs of students. Regular evaluation of the plan and its
implementation are important to ensure the school and community are being well served.
Disseminating information to the school community about the services provided through school
guidance and counselling is an important role of the school counsellor. Collaborating with
community resource people to increase opportunities for students and making appropriate
referrals to community agencies assists students with lifelong learning, transitions, appropriate
R = Relationship building
A= Action Plan
Communication Skills
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Transmission of information among individuals through non verbal behaviours can be through
1. facial expression
2. body movement
3. Proxemics (study of personal space): the study of distance individuals maintain between each
Non-Verbal Language or Kinesis is articulation of the body or body movements resulting from
muscular and skeletal shift. This includes all actions, physical or physiological, automatic
Time: This involves the promptness or slowness (time you take to respond to the individual)
message.
Body: the body and its parts are important in conveying the message. Examples of the body
messages are:
o Eye Contact:
o Eyes: eyes with full of tears, wide or sparking in response to a relationship, the position of
eyelid etc.
o Posture: The ways you arrange your body – these say how you feel, e.g. crossing your arms,
making your body small, turning a shoulder, dropping your shoulder, opening your arms and
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legs, leaning forward a little, sitting sideways, slouch (bend), facing others, facing away from
others etc.
o Hand and Arm Gesture: hand shaking, waving goodbye, sign of calling etc.
o Self Pain Inflicting Behaviour: Nail biting, cracking knuckles, tugging (pulling) at hair,
rubbing or stroking etc. such behaviour can be signs of nervousness (anxiety), shyness etc.
o Repetitive Behaviour: tapping feet, drumming or thumping of fingers, fidgeting (be restless)
while sitting, trembling, playing with buttons on dress. These are signs of nervousness or
restlessness (impatience).
o Sign of Command: snapping fingers, holding fingers on lip to demand silence, pointing,
vocal media: this communication deals with three aspects of the voice:
i.tone of voice: e.g. flat tone (absence of feelings), weak tone (hesitant and not sure of what you
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environment:
ii. Arrangement of Physical setting: e.g. homes, offices, working desks etc they convey
different messages such as untidy (disorderly), neat, casual or expensive furnished office
or house may mean, “take off your shoes, don’t touch, behave while here” etc.
iii. Clothing: the Colour shade (red colour in Tz Simba Sc. & Valentine Day Lovers day
worldwide) and style of the clothes we wear have different messages (night garment,
iv. Position in the Room: the position of the counsellor in the room may bring various
maneuvers a client into a boxed position may be interpreted as if the counsellor has other
NB: Non-verbal behaviour are just clues to the individual’s feelings and motives, but not
proof of them. Also non-verbal behaviours do vary from society to society and culture to
culture. These clues give counsellors additional information about how others feel and think.
These aspects reinforce the counsellor s to be more skillful as well as sensitive to these
differences.
According to Egan (1975), non verbal behaviour or physical attending behaviour includes: eye
contact, adopting an open posture, facing the client squarely, leaning slightly forward and having
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These attending behaviours in counselling are presented by the acronym ROLES which stand
for:
R- Relaxed Manner: the counsellor should always try to be who he is (Natural without
pretence).
O- Open Posture: The ways you arrange your body and face – these say how you feel, e.g.
crossing your arms, making your body small, turning a shoulder. Or opening your arms and
legs, leaning forward a little, and having the right expression on your face
The counsellor should look directly to the client to facilitate a deeper level of
involvement.
Show that you are listening and concentrating. You should look and not steering because
it brings threats.
Be aware of culture. E.g. in Northern Europe, people are expected to look into the eyes of
the people with whom they are speaking. If they do not, they may be seen as dishonest. In
other cultures, a woman who looks directly at men's faces – this is lacking modesty
(respectfulness).
S- Sitting near the client. In this aspect we are talking about spaces between people; (not
too close, not too far). Interviewing, guidance and counselling go better if you sit fairly close
together – but not too close. Close proximity. Not so near, not so far.
Verbal communication
This is a complex part comprising of the following supportive skills:
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Feedback: Counselor often provides feedback during the counselling process. For constructive
Be descriptive
Don’t be judgemental
Speak for yourself. Talk about yourself first, not about the other person.
Self-disclosure: The counselor reveals something about his or her personal life to the client to
make then realize that he is not the only one who has been afflicted (troubled) by the problem at
Empathy: the counselor feels with the client as he endeavors to in getting out of the problem.
Paraphrasing: The counselor listens to a short session of the conversation and says the same
Immediacy or Direct mutual communication: Talking about the here and now of the
interpersonal relationship.
Minimal Encouragers: Small indicators which show the client that the counselor is listening
and encouraging him or her to continue talking, e,g. wow! Ok! Yes, oh! So, then!
play games in order to hide from self-understanding and positive change in behaviour.
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Respect: The counselor accepts the counselee as a fellow human being who is afflicted by a
problem. Appreciation of the counselee’s presenting problem however trivial it may appear to
him or her.
Trust: The counselor trusts the counselee and what he or she says without apparent reservations
(doubts).
Open & closed questions: Example of open question; would you explain more about your
Categories of Counsellees
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a. Individual Counsellees: a problem is identified in an individual person and attended to
accordingly. Individual counselling is one to one helping relationship in which the counsellor
b. Group Counsellees: Group counselling: this is one to group helping relationship in which the
counsellor works with a group of clients in seeking a solution to their common problems. Group
This is the process where actual counselling takes place. There are three parts in this process,
The Introduction:
In the counselling interview, the counsellor considers preliminaries before the main parts of
counselling interview.
Preliminaries: These are important and necessary for a successful counselling interview.
In the meeting of the counsellor and the client, it is advised that the counsellor should be trustful,
These include:
physically and emotionally. Can be anywhere provided that it is comfortable and allow
ii. Sitting arrangement: No physical barriers e.g. table, to separate counsellor and client. If
such barrier is present it makes the counsellor to take up the frightening image of an
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official bureaucrat. It therefore blocks the spirit of equity and friendship which must
prevail.
iii. Equipment: the counselling room should be equipped (if possible) with telephone (for
quick consultation) with other relevant helper, fitted with lockable cabinets/drawers for
iv. The setting should be arranged in a way that the counsellor sits closest to the door in
readiness to flee (escape) to safety should there occur violence situation during
counselling. Also is advised to leave the door ajar to avoid murmuring about dubious
NB: The counsellor should prepare the physical environment i.e. there should be no physical
barriers, e.g. a table between them, no direct light into the eyes of the client, the room should be
in the place where no other people will be able to hear the conversation. The room should be
comfortable so as to make it easy for the client to speak out his/her problems. The counsellor
This is the actual conversational process pertaining client’s problems. The counsellor should use
as many relevant counselling skills as possible to facilitate the interview and to enable effective
outcome. In this part of the counselling interview, the counsellor listens, talks, to give helpful
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information that help the client to gain self-understanding that leads to self-decision making and
Also in this part of counselling interview, exploration of the problem is made; strategies and
alternatives are sought by the client with the help of the counsellor. Here the counsellor needs to
remain his/her expertise in questioning techniques to help the client with the problem.
Closure:
It is a good idea to inform the counsellee well in advance that the interview will not go on
indefinitely and that he must be prepared to cope with the situation after the interview is over.
This advance warning enables the counsellee to easily terminate his relationship with the
counsellor.
Counselling session lasts between 45-60 minutes. This however, depends on the nature of the
problem. It should be neither too long nor too short. The counsellor prepare client for closure not
to close abruptly to leave the client out-hanging e.g. we have 10 minutes to wind our session. It
is not possible to respond to all of the counsellee’s problems. Make the client understand that it is
possible to come back to continue or with new problems. Once the counsellor finds that the
counsellee has made sufficient progress to cope with his currently defined problem the interview
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7. easy to develop action plans 8. Easy for the counsellor to support and
GROUP COUNSELLING
b. Clients must have common problem (s) e.g. hysteria (uncontrollable laughter or crying)
d. Monopolistic and bullies tendencies should be avoided where one or two individuals tend to
grab all the chances of explaining the problem to the counsellor. This enables them to respect
other members’ views before they are allowed to join the group session.
e. In group session one hour is an ideal length for the counselling interview process.
f. Psychotics and psychopaths should be removed from the group lest they disrupt the
meaningful discussion
g. Members of the group must be mature and mentally sound to be able to talk about and tackle
i.Age: Closed related age show social maturity of the group member.
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ii.Size: 6-8 members for effective participation
iv. Personality composition (type). It is recommended that personality type should be mixed
(heterogeneous).
ii.Students get an opportunity to share their experiences. It provides a social interpersonal context
iii.Lack of trust which may cause some clients to avoid sharing their feelings, attitudes and values.
iv.It may be difficult to manage the group if the counsellor lacks adequate skills for group
counselling. i.e. the role of the counsellor in a group setting is more complex.
vi.To a certain extent, it lacks confidentiality, so some students may not like it.
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vii.There is a potential (possible) for psychological destruction as well as potential psychological
growth
1. Brainstorming: A short and clear statement on some real problems is presented to the
students (clients) who get involved in an intensive discussion on the presented problem
2. Case discussion: A specific problem is discussed with the group working as a team
3. Free Group Discussion: the group controls, while the counsellor observes and guides.
4. Role Play and Simulation: students can demonstrate their problems by role-playing and
imitating
Group counselling goes through four stages, which are involvement, transition, working and
termination.
iii. When you intend to use tests that are self-concept related
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iv. If a client has unusual fear of public speaking
vi. When the client’s need for attention is too great to be merged in a group
c. Being in the Lookout for Feedback: the counsellor should provide descriptive feedback and
d. Linking: Linking points out the similarities between the experiences of various group
e. Providing Open-Ended Leads: “How” and “what” questions are more useful than “why”
g. Using progress Skills: Asking group members what is happening or has happened during the
Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role of the counsellor, the following are
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Directive Counselling
Non-Directive counselling
Eclectic Counselling
Counsellor-oriented
Analysis- collecting information/data from various sources to understand the client‘s problem.
The data needed for an adequate understanding of the problem the client is facing.
Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc.
Summarizing and organizing the data so that they reveal the student’s weaknesses and strengths.
Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem. Formulating the conclusions
Counselling – the counselor taking steps with the client to bring about adjustment and
readjustment to normal
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Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns. To determine the effectiveness of the
counselling given
NB: In stages 1-4 the counselor works without involvement of the client. The client comes after
Merits
Demerits
and confident
The client is the counselee (client) is the hub of the counselling process.
Counsellor only directs and guides the client through the alternatives so that he/she may
Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the solution of the problem.
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Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem with the help of the counsellor
Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than the solution
Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the counselee can work out his
own understanding
Merits
Demerits
Time consuming
ECLECTIC COUNSELLING
counselling believe that there are strengths and weaknesses in any counseling method.
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Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome)
directive
The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client and then selects the
technique (appropriate). Begins with directive but switches over to non-directive or vice
Steps
Initial interview
Develops rapport and does structuring so that client understands what to expect
Gathers information about the client and the client needs to be helped to
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3. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Non-directive
counselling?
4. You have received a client with whom you have learned that you can only help
THEORIES OF COUNSELLING
familiar with several of these theories, and finding the one, which is more likely the
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Meaning of a Counselling Theory
Counselling theory is a frame of reference that establishes sound philosophical and
Counselling theories help to explain reality in light of the counselors’ own experience.
1. Directive or Non-Directive
If the process is controlled and directed by the counsellor (Counsellor- Centred) it is
directive. If the process is directed and controlled by the client (client-Centred) it is non-
directive.
2. Insight-oriented or Action-Oriented
behaviour under the guidance of counselor regardless of their past and present
Affective approach to counselling focuses on the feelings and emotions of the clients.
Psychoanalysis Theory
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Proponent: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Other Key figures in psychoanalytic approach include, Erik Erikson and Margaret
Mahler. In this approach there are three major psychoanalytic perspectives; Freudian,
Ego Psychology and Object Relations. These perspectives were delivered from the work
therapy.
Psychoanalysis is the major influence of all other formal systems of counseling. All other
theories are extension, modification reaction and borrowed the aspect of it.
This theory pays attention to unconscious factors related to infantile sexuality in the
development of neurosis.
The theory based on insight unconscious factors that influence our behavior with the
belief that the current behavior of any human being is influenced by the first six (6) years
of life.
Irrational forces
Unconscious motivation
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The id
The Ego
The Superego
The Id: Is the biological component. The primitive and selfish aspect of human
behaviour which demand the immediate gratification to increase pleasure by reducing the
pain
The id is the primary source of energy and the basis of instincts existing within the
unconscious mind and is driven by what Freud called “the pleasure principle.” This
illogical, amoral entity serves to reduce tension and pain while restoring pleasure.
The Ego: This is the psychological component. It is the part of human nature which
attempts reality on the environment. There is a contact with other external aspect.
The ego controls and regulates personality, remaining in touch with reality while
The Superego: This is the social/moral component i.e. norms and values of the society.
This is the part of human nature that acts as the judicial/judgmental aspect between the Id
The superego is the individual’s moral code judging whether action is good or bad. This
component also regulates traditions and ideals that are handed down from generation to
generation
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Example: The school girl aged 18 years wants to get married; but because of schooling
act, the society will limit the marriage due to the norms of the society (pupil).
Id, Ego and Superego work unconsciously but what we see is the human behaviour when
the third part of the superego fail to adjust people into norms or values is when the person
Defense Mechanisms: are normal behaviours that help an individual to cope with
Either deny or
Coping: Refers to the way the mind responds to the challenging or threatening
meaning attributed to the mind; the physiological responses associated with that meaning.
The mind monitors all external and internal environments by employing the use of
Example: When the student fails the examination may attribute his/her failure to the
teacher
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You get really mad at your husband but scream that he’s the one mad at you
Displacement/ scape goat: Channeling a feeling or thought from its actual source
Example 1: When the father is harassed by his boss can direct impulses to the children or
wife at home.
Example 2: a man who is angry at his sister, he breaks his drinking glass by throwing it
distort reality in order to justify something that has happened. Explaining away to
Example 1: a person who passed over for an award says; she didn’t really want to be in
Example 2: When you fail to join the degree programme at the university then you say
Example 3: I always study hard for tests and I know a lot of people who cheat. So it is not
a big deal I cheated this time. If I had wanted to try hard, I could have done it too.
Denial: Not accepting reality because it is too painful. People refuse to accept or
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Example 2: You are arrested for drunk driving several times but don’t believe you have a
Example 1: You are attracted to someone but say that you really don’t like the person at
all.
Example 2: A person says” I may not know how to cook, but can sure do the dishes”.
Example 1: a boss has a temper tantrum swearing, fighting, sulking, and crying
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Example 1: A mother who is unconsciously resents (hates) her child acts in an
Fantasy: Dreaming, imagining instead of living in the present world, because you
Pretending
Example 1: Wanting to look good and pretending to yourself that you are one of
Example 2: Making up stories about how successful you are, rather than working
on your success.
Repression: Keep painful thoughts and feelings away from consciousness. Burying a
painful feeling or thought from your awareness through it may resurface in symbolic
Example 1: A woman is unable to recall that that she was not raped.
Example 2: You can’t remember your father’s funeral. Early abuse. Lies you have told
Painful memories
Free association: The client explains a problem. Give him/her a chair and tell to
close his/her eyes and say many things freely without thinking the environment.
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Pick out few stories about the past and the current life.
The counselor should listen very attentively with “Third Ear” which is the
Interpretation Method: To point out and explain to the client the meaning in the
story of the client picked through narrating this story and come up with the
meaning. E.g. You said that they hate you. Why do you think they do so.
Dream analysis Method: The counselor must be trained in dream analysis and
Analysis of resistance: This may be keeping quite/no response of the client. The
o Both Counsellor and client have reached an impasse (deadlock) situation in which no
further progress is possible and people involved are unwilling to change their
o Waiting for the therapist to take the lead and decide what to say next
o Either of the two (i.e. the counsellor & the client) are bored, distracted, preoccupied,
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o Communicating without words (non-verbal behaviour)
o Interaction has been at the surface level and there is fear or hesitancy (uncertainty)
It is wise to let the client assume responsibility for breaking silence when this silence is
client initiated.
Analysis of transference
It set a framework of all other formal systems of counseling. All other theories are
It can work very well on the counselors who are well trained, example in dream
interpretation,
The theory has limited applicability to a crisis situation and base on the study of
client. Generally, this basic insight is still important, despite its reductionism,
sexism, obsession with early childhood sexuality and other serious limitations.
Existential Approach
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Viktor Frankl is a primary contributor for this model, resulting from his experiences in
A second major contributor to Existential theory is Rollo May who, like Frankl,
The motive of the theory is to react against the system of viewing counselling in a well
The theory suggests that counselling should be viewed on the basic foundation of human
Focus: The theory focuses on the freedom, responsibilities and choices to shape one’s
life. In other words the theory focuses on the self-determination, the quality of person to
person therapeutic relationship. The stress is on the subjective world of the client. The
The capacity awareness: The client reflects and makes choices because of
because the greater the awareness the more the freedom of choice.
Strive for Identity & relationship with others: Every human being struggles for
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loneliness, uprootedness and alienation, signifies failure to develop ties with other
The search for Meaning: Human beings are natured for struggling significantly
and purposeful to life. Others go to counselling because they have lost the
meaning in their life. E.g. they may try suicide act. The counselor should help the
The counselor should create positive attitude of honesty, integrity and courage i.e.
The counselor creates an environment for the client to explore their needs in order
to grow.
Understanding the subjective the subjective world of the client. The relationship
between the client and the counselor is the core factor in existential theory it
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However confrontation is also used in this therapy.
respect.
Existential therapy seeks to help clients live with freedom and to remove the
The theory lacks systematic statement of the principle and practice of the
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This theory was propounded by Dr. Carl Ranson Rogers (1902-1987). Rogers developed
the theory in 1940 as the reaction against psychodynamic and other directive theories (the
prevailing assumption that the counsellor knows best). In this case, the initiative to seek
counseling must come from the client (MANTEP, 1995, p. 60). Client-centered therapy
emphasizes understanding and caring rather than diagnosis, advice and persuasion.
Effective therapist must be genuine, accepting and empathic. In this situation the client
will be less anxious and more willing to reveal themselves and their weaknesses
Rogers emphasized that the client knows better; so the counsellor is just the listener. He
interpreting.
"nondirective" in the sessions. His job is to reflect the counselee's responses back to him
In this phase the theory changed from non-directive to client-centred approach. The focus
was on the client and not on the methods. Rogers published the book in 1951 titled
“Client-Centred Therapy”. In this phase there are three conditions in counselling i.e.
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3rd Phase 1960s: Becoming a Person
Becoming oneself means truly one is. If you experience problems you are not yourself
because there is irrational thinking. Hence this helps somebody to think rationally to
become oneself. The one who is integrated i.e. torn apart is amended.
The approach focus on the person in relation to others, e.g. family, educational settings,
This theory changed its name from 1940s from Non-Directive → Client-Centred
→Personal Centred.
This means that an individual’s self-concept (the way the individual perceive himself) is
Rogers believes that peoples are basically good, trustworthy and reliable. But they
become untrustworthy, bad and unreliable because of building defenses which eventually
alienate them from basically good nature. These defenses are created by the incongruence
between the ideal self (the way an individual believes he ought to be) and the real self
(the way he realizes he is). This leads to distrust hence attempt to hide from others or
himself.
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Goals of Client-Centred Therapy
To help the client to reach a great degree of independence and integrate the torn
To help the client progresses in the growth process i.e. continue growing.
Leans to trust hi/herself (setting his/her own standards for his behaviour, look at
This therapy does not emphasize any particular techniques. Instead the counsellor
Limitation
People think that the theory is too easy, hence no need of training (no mechanism of
training).
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Cognitive-Behaviour Theory
This theory is the combination of cognition and behavour also the theory is known as
TWIN THEORY
REBT stresses on the role of action and practice in combating irrational, self-
indoctrinated ideas.
and phobias
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An insight-focused therapy that emphasizes recognizing and changing negative
Basic Assumptions
─ Individuals are born with the potential for rational thinking, but tend to fall victim
─ The ways in which individuals monitor and instruct themselves and interpret
events shed light to the dynamics of disorders such as depression and anxiety
Key Concepts
REBT holds that emotional disturbance is rooted in childhood. People keep telling
─ A= Actual Event
─ B= Belief System
─ C= Consequence
Emotional problems are the results of one’s beliefs, which need to be challenged
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For CT, psychological problems stem from commonplace processes such as faulty
The techniques are designed to identify and test the client’s misconceptions and
faulty assumptions
Therapeutic Goals
REBT:
tolerant philosophy
─ To teach clients how to identify and uproot their ‘shoulds’, ‘must’, and ‘oughts’
CT:
─ To change the way clients think by using their automatic thoughts to reach the core
─ To encourage clients to gather and weigh the evidence in support of their belief
Therapeutic Relationship
These theories use a logical intellectual approach to the solution of the client’s problem
or difficulties.
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Cognitive approach counselors engage in active and directive teaching so that the client is
Cognitive therapists focus on specific problem. They emphasize on changing beliefs and
They believe that irrational beliefs or distorted thinking patterns can cause a variety of
They try to teach people to think in more rational and constructive ways.
Key figures in this approach are Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and Eric Berne.
Rational-Emotive Therapy
The proponent of this therapy is Albert Ellis 1913. Ellis oriented towards both cognition
and behaviour. The emphasis is on thinking, judging, deciding, analysing and doing.
Assumptions:
The Cognitions, emotions, and behaviours have the reciprocal cause and effect
All human beings are born with potentials for rational thinking (straight thinking)
People who think rationally will have all good things such as happiness, love,
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People who think irrationally will experience unhappiness, self-destruction,
intolerance etc.
RET helps the clients accept themselves as dichotomous (good and bad) and live at
peace with both sides of their human nature. Emotions are the products of our
about it and if we suffer from emotional disturbances we feel bad as the result of our
illogical ideas.
“A” does not cause “C”, but “B” which is the self-verbalization of what an individual
Therefore, human being can change and control his/her future by thinking logically
and rationally.
a) To help the client to minimize the emotional disturbances and self defeating
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c) To work with client towards specific goals e.g. self-interests, social interests,
To encourage the client to discover basic irrational ideas that motivate behaviour
disturbances
s/he says.
To help the client to identify the illogical nature of thinking (why they think so)
To help the client use logical analysis to minimize the irrational beliefs.
To explain to the client on how the irrational ideas can be placed with rational
self.
techniques.
The counsellor employs any technique that proves successful depending on the
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The therapy is highly directive, persuasive and confrontative to think rationally.
The theory concentrates on the cognitive thinking only. i.e. how a person can think.
Focus:
The theory doesn’t believe that a person can’t think irrationally. Is you who think that a
person think irrationally. There is no relationship between irrational thinking and the
problem at hand. This is because people see things on their own eyes not through the eyes
of others. You should not think on behalf of others. Also they should think on evidence of
Look at how human cognition works, i.e. how a person thinks. Does not talk
The family system looks at the development and change in the family.
The belief of the theory is that individuals are best understood by assessing the
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A client’s problem can be a symptoms of what is happening in the interaction of
operate productively
i. Multigenerational Approach:
Dig down the ancestral things which can cause you to behave in a certain way
You can’t solve a problem of your wife/husband without regarding to their family
A family therapist needs to have high level of differentiation i.e. problem of the
counselor or client.
Goals of Counselling
─ To change an individual within the context of the system. Don’t push but change.
This is because the problems manifest in one family may not change until
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─ Act as the teacher coach or neutral observer
Methods/Techniques
─ Transgenerational approach don’t deal with an individual, but with generation from
past to present
Criticism
─ She focuses on the interpersonal relationship between the therapist and the family
members
─ This therapy assumes that it is the experience changes families, not education
Structural Approach
─ Focuses on the family as a system and its subsystems, boundaries and hierarchies
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─ Founded by Cloe Madanes & Jay Haley
Career is a life-long activity. It is a chosen life work or an overall work one does in a
given job in one’s lifetime. Career includes the different types of work you do as a teacher,
the different types of positions you occupy in teaching throughout your life in teaching. If
your career is teaching, you will find yourself doing other jobs like marking examination
At other times, you occupy the position of class teacher, assistant headmaster/mistress,
headmaster/mistress, official, schools inspector. All these are part of teaching career
ways:
Job listing
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Teaching of occupations
The counselor meets a class and teaches them about different occupations.
Lectures on different careers, career demonstrations, debates, and film shows, are
Career clubs
The clubs can show films relating to careers, organize career quizzes, competitions,
various careers.
The school can assist students to obtain vacation jobs during the long vacation or provide
work-study programmes.
disseminate information
The school can display vocational, educational, and social information, on bulletin
boards.
industries to participate and display exhibition of what they do; and give chance to
etc.
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Trips and excursions to industrial establishments
o Follow-through the visit and never cancel the appointment unless it is absolutely
necessary
o Visiting students should observe all rules and regulations; safety, courtesy (good
School subjects
Teachers can relate their teaching of subjects to careers for which they are useful or
applicable
1. Employment prospects
2. Nature of Work
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What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What tools, equipment, or
materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are there any shifts?
3. Work Environment
4. Qualifications
5. Aptitudes
6. Interests
What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?
8. Preparation
9. Entrance
11. Advancement
12. Earnings
What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?
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Factors Influencing Vocational Aspirations of secondary school students
in Tanzania
There are many factors that influence vocational aspirations in Tanzanian context.
Internal factors: These are individuo-centric considerations which are internal to the
individual. Include factors such as cognitive ability, interests, attitudes, career maturity
and values.
External factors: these are factors operating outside the individual that co-determine or
In this way most Tanzanian students have been known to change from their initial course
This lecture intends to clarify external factors that influence people’s vocational
Critical factors in vocational Aspirations include but not limited to the following:
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School Background
o Curriculum
Community/Cultural Influences
prospects)
o The geography and location and location of one’s community (e.g. near the lake
region)
trends, general apathy out-right pessimism among youth, high youth unemployment
rate etc
o Opinions of friends and peers about subjects or disciplines of study that are
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o Occupational fields that are considerable familiar or known to one’ significant others
such as one’s elder brothers, sisters, cousins, and in-laws as well as the factor of peer
o Urge for immediate and concrete rewards in a given individual e.g. some good
students do opt to go into business rather than university education in search for quick
Age consideration
o Chronological Age; since certain occupations impose age limits for intending new
recruits
o Social age; e.g. age of retirement consideration can discourage an individual from
o Tight get-keeping effect in certain occupations. How easy it is to get admission into
o Length of training required for graduation and qualification in the course concerned
Information Availability
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o The individual’s prejudice about nature of life and success in various occupations
Personality Characteristics
o One’s endurance limits to wait to get admitted into one’s programme of choice
o One’s ability to delay gratification and clear image of a possible self (a self one
o The factor of emotional stability such as ability to stand by one’s vocational decision
Educational Background
educational, physical, economic and chance factors that combine to shape the career of a
given individual.
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The Trait-factor Theories:
Decision-Making Theories:
Structural Theories
The first structural theory was proposed by Ann Roe while doing research on personality
differences required in various occupations. Roe used Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs with
the belief that lower needs must be met before higher needs are satisfied.
From the counselling point of view, Roe’s insights helps the counsellor understand
important factors that play a part in an individuals decision to pursue or not to pursue a
certain vocation.
compatible with their personalities". Holland based his theory of personality types on
several assumptions:
People tend to choose work environment that is reflective of their personality, i.e.
where people like themselves (similar, same characteristics) with what they have.
People interact with a variety of cultural forces e.g. peer groups, schoolmate,
Holland classified personality types and work/occupational environments into six types
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He suggests that the closer the match of personality to job, the greater the satisfaction.
A very brief overview of the six personality types, six work-related activities, and sample
A hexagonal model was developed to illustrate the relationship between personality and
occupational environment.
Realistic People: Working with things, People who prefer practical jobs requiring
physical labour and motor coordination rather than interpersonal skills - work with hands,
Investigative People (Intellectual): Working with information i.e. abstract ideas and
theories. These are oriented towards thinking rather than acting – thought, analytical
Artistic People:– Creating things. They show strong needs for artistic self-
expression and prefer tasks that are unstructured and that emphasize physical skills
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Low traits – orderly, efficient, conventional, social, masculine
comedians etc.
Social People: these are helping people. Social people are persons who enjoy
interpersonal skills and social interaction – train, inform, educate, help, supportive,
etc.
Enterprising People: These are people who are verbally skilled and interested in
supervising and directing others– verbally skilled, persuasive, direct, leader, dominant
Defense lawyers disregarding the facts of the case try to appeal the judge for
pity/mercy or forgiveness.
For instance, a man accused of stealing from a school fund; then the defense lawyer
says: “Honorable judge, I beg you to spare harsh punishment on the defendant
because he is a father of six children; he has a invalid mother; and as a teacher he has
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a dozens of school children that need his service. His wife divorced him a few years
ago”.
subordinate their own personal needs to others. Organizing data, rules and routines,
provide order or direct structure, great self control, respect power and status,
punctual, orderly
Occupations – bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data entry, secretaries, librarians,
000-Generality
200- Religion
400- Languages
III. UDCS – Use letters only e.g. A- general works B- Philosophy and
Terms:
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Differentiation - the amount of spread between one’s first and second code letters;
Incongruence – lack of fit between one’s type and work environment. People leave
Consistency – closeness on the hexagon of one’s first and second choices. The higher
one’s consistency, the more integrated one’s characteristics (values, interests, traits)
Realisti Investigati
Convention
Artisti
Enterprisin
g
Social
NB:
According to Okech and Ngumba (1991) Holland’s theory is based on the following
basic assumptions:
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Individuals look for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,
express their attitudes and values and environment that are agreeable to their
environment
Occupations are ways of life; they help in defining one’s social status, life style and
standard of living.
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
1st idea: Career is a life-long process of development. That’s why you see every time
2nd idea: Development takes place in stages. The outstanding contributor is Super.
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They identified various factors which interact to influence the career choice.
i. Individual Values
-The model was based on three assumptions which they regarded as basic conditions in
Developmental theories identified phases that an individual goes through in the process
of career choice:
The tentative phase: from age eleven to seventeen. This phase is divided into four
Realistic phase: this is divided into two stages of exploration and crystallization
This time span embodies three stages starting in preteen or early childhood (4-5yrs) and
(i) Fantasy (6-11 yrs): In the fantasy stage, children believe that they can be anybody
they desire or believe they can do just about anything such as doctors, drivers,
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There is no connection in the child’s mind between means and end of becoming what
they want to be. They frequently say, “I will be a TEACHER” without considering
skill sets, education and training requirements, or the economy. For them,
anything is possible
(ii)Tentative: (11-17 yrs): this is adolescence stage. This period is divided into 4 sub-
stages;
a) Interest Stage: (11-12 yrs): This is the time when they realize that they need to make
decisions about their future jobs. Choices are based on interest and hobbies. They begin
to say, “I like this” (interests). Identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices.
b) Capacity Stage (13-14): here they realize that capacity is needed in order to go into a job
they are interested. Teachers and parents help them to realize their capacity. Education
becomes an important aspect to help decision for future career. They begin to say “I’m
c) Value Stage (15-16): Relating their skills and capacities to meet one’s satisfaction. They
choose the job that corresponds to the value. They begin to say, “This is important to
me,” (values).
d) Transition Stage (16-17 yrs): This is the time when realities, prospects, opportunities and
demands become vivid. The adolescent begins the career choice process, recognizes the
E.g. transition from high school to the university in above is vivid. They begin to say, “I
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(iii) Realistic Stage (17-20 yrs): This marks the final stage of development process
a) Exploration Stage: Looks at the intellectual or physical requirements with the variety of
jobs available. They choose career and make specialization e.g. sciences, commercial
subjects etc. the person begins to restrict choice based on personal likes, skills and
abilities.
c) Specification Stage: Real stay; enter in a particular job of your choice. The individual
The longer one stays into preparation for a career, the harder it becomes to change one’s
mind. Individual thinks of time and efforts invested into preparation of certain job.
Instead you think of going further into the same root e.g. Certificate in Education,
Diploma in Education, Bachelor Degree in Education, M.A. (ED.) PhD with research
based on education.
Each individual needs more information to enlighten him or her, so as to compromise the
decision is making.
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Donald Super agrees with Ginzberg in many aspects but he added. Super divided the
Vocational preferences and competences, situations in which people live and work,
People differ in their abilities, interests and personalities. They are qualified, by virtue
Development through the life stages can be guided by partly facilitating the process
Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career fantasies and little reality
orientation.
Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices
Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated; can relate own skills to
Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to develop a realistic self-
concept and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and exploration; there
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is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference. Preferences
Sub Stages
Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating needs, interests, abilities
are tried out in fantasy, coursework, part time work, volunteer, shadowing.
specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market or training after high
tried out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and person may
Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) - major tasks are to find secure niche in
Sub Stages
Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) - process of settling down, if unsatisfactory
may make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.
Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing one’s position, acquiring
actions.
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Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and
develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is
broken, one continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger
the career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is challenged
to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities
Together with these stages, Super made 10 propositions which he feels are central to any
1. Individual differences such as abilities, both (general and specific), interests and
qualify us for a number of jobs in which we can succeed and gain satisfaction.
3. Career ability patterns are present in all humans, but characteristics pattern of abilities,
interests and personality is more appropriate for some jobs than for others.
4. Career preferences and competencies change with time and experience thus making
6. A career pattern is determined by internal and external factors. External factors include
socio-economic background and work opportunities and internal factors include mental
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7. Progress through life stages can be guided by counselling in which self-knowledge,
various roles and the evaluation of the extend to which the results of role playing meet
9. The role that one plays as the process of compromise between one’s self-concept and
10. Work is a way of life; adequate career and personal adjustment are most likely when
both the nature of work and way of life that goes with it are in line with aptitudes,
Decision-Making Theories
Some decision-making theories hypothesize that there are critical points in our lives when
choices are made that greatly influence our career development. These decision making
points are such events as educational choices, entry-level job positions, changing jobs,
etc. Other decision-making theories concerned with ongoing choices across the life span.
The decisions that we make are influenced by our awareness of the choices that are
available to us and our knowledge of how to evaluate them. Others address our complex
environment. For example, H.B. Gelatt says, "We make our decisions based upon what is
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The major concept in the decision making theories is that each person has several
alternatives from which to choose an occupation and each alternative has an identifiable
consequences or outcomes.
Decision making theories also point out that each alternative has a specific value
arranged in hierarchically.
Bergland’s Theory
Bergland, one of the decision-making theorists has proposed a sequence of events which
They proposed a model made up of four stages and at each stage the person making the decision
needs information.
2. Possible outcomes
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The trait and factor theory is founded on the notion that individuals are different, and that their
different capabilities can be measured and related to occupations. The theory of individual
Each person has a uniquely organized pattern of personality traits (interests, abilities etc.)
These traits can be identified by using a psychological tests or inventories which are then
Occupation also can be profiled in terms of various individual traits they require
When the two profile are matched then the degree of fit between person and job can be
identified
The terms trait and factor refer to the assessment of characteristics of the person and the job.
Traits are the individual characteristics which can be measured testing and factors are
characteristics required for successful job performance. The term “trait and factor” implies a
matching individuals and jobs and career selection occurs as a result of understanding the
The trait of greatest interest to career counsellors such as interests and aptitudes are viewed as
relatively stable.
E.G. Williamson is among the theorists in the trait-factor approach. In putting forward his theory,
he assumed that:
Vocational development is a cognitive process and therefore, one uses reasoning and logic to
arrive at a decision.
Vocational choice is a single event that emphasizes choice rather than development
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There is a single “right” vocation for everyone with no recognition that an individual may fit
The major task of the counsellor is to assist the individual understand in terms of their traits,
Moreover, the counsellor’s work is to help people to learn more about job requirement so as to fit
According to trait and factor theory, choosing an occupation involves trying to match an
individual to job so that their needs will be met and their job performance will be satisfactory.
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Non-Testing Techniques
These techniques are also known as non-standardized techniques. Non-testing techniques for
Interview
Interview is one of the most important techniques used to collect data in guidance and
The interview is the heart of counselling process in which other techniques are contributory.
counselor helps the counselee in gaining insight into his problems and assists him in solving
the same.
The essential feature of the interview is a dynamic face-to-face relationship in which the
Before the interview takes place, it is essential that interviewer must be:
─ Clear in mind about the person who is to be interviewed, his background, his
─ Clear in his mind about the technique and purpose of the interview
─ Should select the proper place and atmosphere for the interview and arrange its secrecy.
─ The interviewee should have come voluntarily of his own and without any compulsion.
In order to make the interview meaningful and effective, the following steps are
followed:
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1. Preparation and establishment of rapport
5. Evaluation and
6. Follow up
Advantages of Interview
It is the most flexible and dynamic way of understanding the individual as a whole
Limitations of Interview
It is subjective
It is time consuming
Depression may take place during the interview and may spoil our results
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To conclude we can say that interview is essential in counselling process. Although it has some
Observation
Observation is one of the important techniques of collecting information about the individual. In
guidance and counselling, observation is the most commonly employed of all individual
techniques. Rousseau wrote, “Watch nature long and observe your pupil carefully before you say
a word to him.”
scientifically as observation of behaviour has been recognized as basic to other techniques. For
Natural Observation:
adults in natural setting. Subjects do not become conscious of the fact that someone is
The teacher can observe the behaviour of the students on the playground or in any other social
situation when students may not become conscious of his presence. In child clinic, one way
screen is used to observe the behaviour of deviant children, the observer can observe the
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It is that type of observation in which the observer becomes the part of the group which he
wants to observe. He establishes perfect rapport with the group of children or adolescents so that
they may not become conscious of his presence and may not hide their actual behaviour.
(i) Proper Planning: Specific activities or units of behaviour i.e. single or group to be observed
must be clearly defined. The time of each observation period, number of observations and
interval between periods should be decided. The instruments to be used for recording should be
decided. Proper tools for recording observation should be obtained and used.
(ii) Proper Execution: an expert execution demands cultivated skills and resourcefulness on the
part of the investigators. The proper physical position for observing involves focusing attention
on the units of behaviour specific activities, observing discreetly the length area, number of
periods and intervals decided upon, and proper handling of the recording instrument used for
observation.
(a) The first method is to record the observation simultaneously. It avoids time gap, but makes
(b) Facts may be recorded soon after the observation is over. It may not be accurate due to time
gap while it has the merit of not distracting the mind of the student. As it is difficult to record the
minute details so check lists, or rating scales or score cards, blank form of tallying frequencies
(iv)Interpretation: Results should be interpreted cautiously and judiciously after taking into
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Merits of Systematic Observation
Observational studies are particularly very important and yield significant results on
1. Being a record of actual behaviour of the child, it is more reliable, valid, objective and
scientific.
4. It can be applied to observe the behaviour of children of all ages. Of course, the younger the
child, the easier it is to observe him. This method has been found very useful with shy children.
6. This method can be used with little training and almost all teachers can use it for
understanding the behaviour of problem children, backward children, delinquent children, gifted
7. It is not restricted to a test situation but it is applied to the naturally occurring situations of life.
Hence, the method of observation has wide applications for studying individuals in normal non-
testing situations. No doubt, observation is a scientific technique of collecting data whose results
can be verified and relied upon to locate behavioural problems of different types but it suffers
Limitations of Observation
1. It is very difficult to get trained observers. Untrained observers may gather superfluous and
irrelevant data.
2. It is subjective. Observer may become lenient i.e., he may give concessions and allowances at
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3. Sometimes artificiality comes in the behaviour e.g. crocodile tears or behaviour of
hippocrats.
4. Sometimes we have to wait for long time for the occurrence of events. For example, for
observing the behaviour of an angry child, we have to wait when he will become angry.
5. Some personal problems and experiences cannot be observed i.e. sex experiences.
6. With the help of observation, we can observe the external behaviour of the individual. Internal
7. Record may not be written with hundred per cent accuracy as the observation is recorded after
8. Observation is subject to two kinds of errors, sampling error and observer’s error.
The observer’s error may be due to the knowledge and background of the situation to be
observed.
Sometimes the observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence he may commit error.
Case Study
The Case study means systematic, complete and intensive study of the pupil - his family
The case study or history is a synthesis and interpretation of information about a person
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The method is specifically followed in learning difficulties, emotional disturbances,
delinquency and other behaviour problems. The complete information of past history and
The developmental history is reconstructed from the memories of the case (individual),
his family and friends. The preparation of a case study is not the work of a single
individual but the combined venture of social worker, teacher, parents, medical man and
psychologist.
In preparing a case study the information is collected from the following sources:
Preliminary Information: Name, age, sex, parent’s age, education, occupation, income, number
(2) Past History: Condition of mother during pregnancy, any incident, child’s development after
birth, physical, mental, emotional, social- illness, relation between parents and other members of
the family, achievement of the child, parents death, birth order etc.
(3) Present Condition: The information may be collected under the following heads:
(iii) Social: House environment, friends and their types, social environment in school, home and
neighborhood.
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1. Location of the case
2. Formulation of hypotheses
3. Collection of data from pupils, parents, friends, teachers, headmaster and community at large.
4. Analysis of data i.e. identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial treatment
applied.
Types of Cases
(iii) Backward Children or slow learner (vii) Children with educational difficulty
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Bases for diagnosis and treatment: case study clarifies diagnostic relationships,
removes points of discussion, thinking without reasoning and faulty information and
assessing the personality of an individual. It supplies data about an individual and his
For Social Workers: Case studies are specially prepared and used for training social
workers.
his own problems, plans, ideas, attitudes, values and the like into the report
It is difficult to prepare case history. Parents and teachers etc. may not cooperate
We need experts and trained persons preparing case history. Experts are
In spite of these limitations case study is an important and useful technique for collection
Socio-metric Techniques
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Sociometry is a technique/or describing the social relationships among individuals in a
group.
asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations
Children in a school classroom may be asked to name in order of preference (usually two
or three) the child, children that they would invite to a party, eat lunch with, sit next to,
work on
a class project with, or have as a close friend. Although some researchers object to the
method, it is also common to ask the children to name the children, again in order of
preference, that they would least like to invite to a party, eat lunch with, sit next to , and
so forth.
A Sociogram is a graphic drawing using certain symbols and marks to indicate the
Sociometry is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status,
members of a group. Sociometric devices, such as the sociogram, attempt to discover the
patterns of choice and rejection among the individuals is making up the group.
In sociometric method, each client in the group is asked to write his first, second and
sometimes his third choices about various significant types of social setting.
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2. Whom would you like to sit next to you in the class, in the bus or while going for a
picnic?
All these questions are positive questions and hence show social acceptance.
Negative questions may also be given to show social rejection. Negative questions may
(i) Build a relationship with the class, which will enhance the usefulness of the test.
(ii) Decide what information you want and how you will use it,
(iv) Distribute a list of names of all students in the class. Such a list will remind the
(v) Distribute cards on which choices are to be indicated. The following might serve for
that purpose:-
Your Name:
Your First Choice:
Your Second Choice:
Your Third Choice:
During the administration explain the purpose of the test to minimize jealousies and
fears; tell the group that the findings will not be revealed to the other children. Finally, be
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sure to give the children sufficient time to make their choices, but not so much time that
(ii) A detailed study of the choices made and received should be made.
(iii) The “stars’ and the ‘isolates’ may be looked for. A ‘star’ is a member of the group
who receives most of the choices. An ‘isolate’ is one who is not choosen by anybody.
(iv) After identifying the ‘stars’ and isolates’, efforts should be made to discover the
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(d) He may belong to a lower or upper socio-economic level
Question: Whom would you like to be the President of your Dramatic Club?
Discover individuals who select each other. This reciprocal choice may be due to the
following factors;
(c) Neighbours
Discover Triangles
A triangle shows three persons selecting one another. It shows evidence of sharp
SOCIOGRAM
The above sociogram shows the pattern of choices of 10 students- Every student was
asked to choose the two students with whom he would like to study and whether he
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Advantages of Sociometry
(i) Sociometry helps in discovering the patterns of choice and rejection among the
(ii) It facilitates the appraisal of the school adjustment of the individuals within the group,
the classroom management of these individuals, and screening of them for individual
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(iii) It helps in identifying:
(a) Leaders
(b) Isolates
(d) Cliques
(e) Rejections
(v) It helps us to form appropriate groups of students for carrying out various activities
and projects
by the group. It also assists us in knowing the qualities of leadership as being appreciated
by a particular group.
Anecdotal records
frequent, brief, concrete observations of the student made and recorded by the teacher,
account of the personality of the student can be built up.It gives a dynamic picture of the
student in diverse situations and thus is a good device for the assessment of personality.
Rating Scales
Rating is a sample of the ‘reputation’ of the subject in the eyes of the raters -
counsellors, teachers, parents or others. A rater can record judgements of another person
or of himself upon the traits defined by the scale by a device. It is less descriptive and
more subjective, usually being based on a scale of 0-5 or very poor to excellent.
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It covers a much wider range of more natural behaviour than any practicable battery of
personality tests. It has a great advantage of being applicable without taking up the time
Autobiography
It is a personal and comprehensive document of an individual, which can prove useful in
obtaining information about his personality dynamics. This device can be used more for
gaining understanding of a student’s ‘inner world’ than for ascertaining the facts
regarding the ‘outer world. A proper interpretation of autobiography, thus, will give an
Test Techniques
What is a test?
presented under standardized conditions.This means that testing is the act of asking an
individual a particular set of questions in order to obtain a score. The score thus obtained
is the end-product of testing, and yields information needed when making a decision.
A commonly used definition of a test is that it is a systematic procedure for observing and
describing one or more characteristics of a person, with the aid of either a numerical scale
or a category system.
from a test, a counsellor can form an image or model of the client with whom he/she
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deals. The image thus formed is a set of hypotheses about a particular person, and his/her
potential.
procedures in administering and scoring of the test. Uniformity of procedures exists with
regard to time limits, instructions, and detailed directions for administering each test.
Standardization also implies that norms (an established normal or average performance
The psychological characteristics that an individual possesses may be divided into five
broad categories, each one of which is measurable by a test or a set of tests. We have thus
1. Prediction
that provide a solid basis on which predictions can be made as to what individuals will do
at a later time. Prediction, based on quantitative data, is more likely to be reliable and
accurate, and provide a balance against wishful thinking, than prediction based on clinical
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2. Selection
Tests are used by institutions and organizations for hiring some individuals and
rejecting others. The decision to hire an applicant is a selective decision. When tests are
used for selection, it is imperative to show that the scores on these tests bear a
relationship to success in the programme or job (the predictive function), for which the
institution or organization has selected persons. If investigation does not show that the
tests can distinguish between those likely to succeed and those unlikely to do so, then
In the selection process, some people who are selected may not be successful in the
programme, and some who were rejected would have been successful if selected. There is
some degree of error, but this error must be minimized by using tests that are reliable and
valid.
3. Classification
Tests are frequently used to assist students in exploring and choosing careers, and
directing them to prepare for the careers they select. A single test is not used for making
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discussed with the student during a series of counselling sessions. This facilitates a
is likely to be an on-going and changing series of decisions occurring, perhaps, over long
5. Evaluation
Tests are used to assess and evaluate programmes, methods, treatments, etc. For example,
Formative evaluation is made when a programme has just been introduced or when it is
weaknesses, so that corrective measures can be taken to improve, adjust or review the
Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is made at the conclusion of the programme.
The purpose of summative evaluation is to find out whether the programme is going to
work or not, whether the objectives have been achieved or not, and whether it should
6. Placement
Tests can be used to place individuals in different groups for instructional purposes or for
mathematics classes, on the basis of their scores in mathematical aptitude tests, and
industry tests can be used to place individuals in jobs requiring different skills. Unlike
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selection decisions, where acceptance and rejection are possible, in a placement decision
the institution or organization. Persons are assigned to different levels of the same
general type of instruction, or work, and no one is rejected. All remain within the
Components of Self-Concept
A. Identity:
A sense of personal identity is what sets one person apart as a unique individual.
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Identity includes a person’s name, gender, ethnic identity, family status, occupation, and
roles.
One’s personal identity begins to develop during childhood and is constantly reinforced
and modified throughout life.
B. Body image is an attitude about one’s physical attributes and characteristics,
appearance, and performance.
Body image is dynamic because any change in body structure or function, including the
normal changes of growth and development, can affect it.
C. Self-esteem is the judgment of personal performance compared with the self-ideal.
Self-esteem is derived from a sense of giving and receiving love, and being respected
by others.
D. Role refers to a set of expected behaviors determined by familial, cultural, and social
norms. The level of self-esteem is dependent upon the self-perception of adequate
role performance in these various social roles.
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