Chapter 1 Introduction to pile foundations

1.1 Pile foundations

1.2 Historical
1.3 Function of piles
1.4 Classification of piles
1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour
1.4.2 End bearing piles
1.4.3 Friction or cohesion piles
1.4.4 Cohesion piles
1.4.5 Friction piles
1.4.6 Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles
1.4.7 .Classification of pile with respect to type of material
1.4.8 Timber piles
1.4.9 Concrete pile
1.4.10 Driven and cast in place Concrete piles
1.4.11 Steel piles
1.4.12 Composite piles
1.4.13 Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil
1.4.14 Driven piles
1.4.15 Bored piles
1.5 Aide to classification of piles
1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material
1.7 Classification of piles – Review

Chapter 2 Load on piles

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Pile arrangement
Chapter 3 Load Distribution
3.1 Pile foundations: vertical piles only
3.2 Pile foundations: vertical and raking piles
3.3 Symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles
3.3.1 Example on installation error
Chapter 4 Load on Single Pile
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The behaviour of piles under load
4.3 Geotechnical design methods
4.3.1 The undrained load capacity (total stress approach)
4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach)
4.3.3 Pile in sand
4.4 Dynamic approach
Chapter 5 Single Pile Design
5.1 End bearing piles
5.2 Friction piles
5.3 Cohesion piles
5.4 Steel piles
5.5 Concrete piles
5.5.1 Pre-cast concrete piles
5.6 Timber piles (wood piles)
5.6.1 Simplified method of predicting the bearing capacity of timber piles
Chapter 6 Design of Pile Group
6.1 Bearing capacity of pile groups
6.1.1 Pile group in cohesive soil
6.1.2 Pile groups in non-cohesive soil
6.1.3 Pile groups in sand
Chapter 7 Pile Spacing and Pile Arrangement
Chapter 8 Pile Installation Methods
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pile driving methods (displacement piles)
8.2.1 Drop hammers
8.2.2 Diesel hammers
8.2.3 Pile driving by vibrating
8.3 Boring methods (non-displacement piles)
8.3.1 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)
8.3.2 Underreaming
8.3.3 C.H.P
Chapter 9 Load Tests on Piles
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 CRP (constant rate of penetration)
9.1.2 MLT, the maintained increment load test
Chapter 10 Limit State Design
10.1 Geotechnical category GC 1
10.2 Geotechnical category GC 2
10.3 Geotechnical category GC 3
10.3.1 Conditions classified as in Eurocode 7
10.4 The partial factors γ m, γ n, γ Rd
 Deep foundation

A deep foundation installation for a bridge in Napa, California, United States.

Pile driving operations in the Port of Tampa, Florida, United States.

A deep foundation is a type of foundation distinguished from shallow foundations by the depth they are
embedded into the ground. There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep
foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a
poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints (like property lines). There are different terms used to describe
different types of deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts, caissons and piers. The naming conventions
may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out
of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned concrete. Deep foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced.

Contents

1 Driven foundations

o 1.1 Pile foundation systems

 2 Drilled piles
o 2.1 Under reamed piles
o 2.2 Auger cast pile
o 2.3 Pier and grade beam
foundation
o 2.4 Monopile foundation
 3 Speciality piles
o 3.1 Micropiles
o 3.2 Tripod piles
o 3.3 Sheet piles
o 3.4 Soldier piles
o 3.5 Suction Piles
o 3.6 Adfreeze Piles
o 3.7 Vibro Stone Columns
 4 Piled walls
 5 Deep Mixing/Mass Stabilization
Techniques
 6 Materials
o 6.1 Timber
o 6.2 Pipe piles
o 6.3 Prestressed concrete piles
 7 See also
 8 Notes
 1. Driven foundations

Pipe piles being driven into the ground.

Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles are either wood, reinforced
concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from trunks of tall trees. Concrete piles are available in square,
octagonal, and round cross-sections. They are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are
either pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile). Historically, wood piles were spliced together
when the design length was too large for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel piles, though
concrete piles can be spliced with difficulty. Driving piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous
because the soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil, causing greater friction against
the sides of the piles, thus increasing their load-bearing capacity.

1.1 Pile foundation systems

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block
into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than one pile can bear. Pile
caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation elements together;
lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.
 2. Drilled piles

A pile machine in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, Cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or Cast-in-

Situ piles. Rotary boring techniques offer larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile
construction through particularly dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site.
In particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions or through water-logged but stable
strata - i.e. 'wet boring'.

Boring is done until the hard rock or soft rock layer is reached in the case of end bearing piles. If the boring
machine is not equipped with a rock auger, then socketing of the hard rock layer is done with the help of a
heavy chisel which is dropped from a height of about 1.5 meters (depends on the weight of the chisel and
design requirements) by suspending it from a tripod stand attached to a winch crane. The socketing is carried
out until the desired depth within the rock layer has been attained. Usually, the required depth within the rock
layer is considered to be equal to the diameter of the pile in hard rock layers and is taken to be equal to 2.5
times the diameter of the pile in soft rock layers.

'Dry' boring methods employ the use of a temporary casing to seal the pile bore through water-bearing or
unstable strata overlying suitable stable material. Upon reaching the design depth, a reinforcing cage is
introduced, concrete is poured in the bore and brought up to the required level. The casing can be withdrawn or
left in situ.

'Wet' boring also employs a temporary casing through unstable ground and is used when the pile bore cannot
be sealed against water ingress. Boring is then undertaken using a digging bucket to drill through the
underlying soils to design depth. The reinforcing cage is lowered into the bore and concrete is placed by
tremmie pipe, following which, extraction of the temporary casing takes place.

The reinforcement cage may need to be lapped with another cage if the depth of the pile exceeds 12 meters as
that is the standard length of reinforcement bars of diameter 16mm and above.

In some cases there may be a need to employ drilling fluids (such as bentonite suspension) in order to maintain
a stable shaft. Rotary auger piles are available in diameters from 350 mm to 2400 mm or even larger and using
these techniques, pile lengths of beyond 50 meters can be achieved.

Such piles commonly fail due to the collapse of the walls of the shaft resulting in the formation of a reduced
section which may not be able to bear the loads for which it had been designed. Hence at least a third of piles
in projects with a large number of piles are tested for uniformity using a "Pile Integrity Tester". This test relies
on the manner in which low intensity shock waves are affected as they pass through the pile and are reflected
to judge the uniformity and integrity of the pile. A pile failing the integrity test is then subjected to a pile load test

2.1 Under reamed piles

Under reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that have been as much as 6 m in diameter.
The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils. In such conditions they allow very
high load bearing capacities.

2.2 Augercast pile

An augercast pile, often known as a CFA pile, is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed
continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing is required. A cement grout mix
is then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn,
lifting the spoil on the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement placed by
hand is normally limited to 6 meters in depth. Longer reinforcement cages can be installed by a vibrator, or
placed prior to pumping cement grout if appropriate specialized drilling equipment is used.

Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance, and are often used for noise and environmentally sensitive sites.
Auger cast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, due to expensive waste disposal costs.
In ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as damage can
occur to the auger. An alternative to augercast piles in contaminated soils areas would be CMC ground
improvement (Controlled Modulus Column- Developed by Menard ) in which a hollow stemmed displacement
auger is used to drill the elements to the required depth. This process minimizes spoils and is usually used for
warehouses, residential buildings, Bridge abutments, highway embankments and petrochemical plants. [
2.3 Pier and grade beam foundation
In most drilled pier foundations, the piers are connected with grade beams - concrete beams at grade (also
referred to as 'ground' beams) - and the structure is constructed to bear on the grade beams, sometimes with
heavy column loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential construction, the piers are extended
above the ground level and wood beams bearing on the piers are used to support the structure. This type of
foundation results in a crawl space underneath the building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during
construction or remodeling.

2.4 Monopile foundation

A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all
the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.

A large number of monopile foundations[1] have been utilized in recent years for economically
constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.[2] For example, a single wind
farm off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-meter-
diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18 meters of water. [3] An earlier (2002) wind farm in
the North Sea west of Denmark utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 meter diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the
seabed.

3. Speciality piles

3.1 Micropiles
Micropiles, also called mini piles, are used for underpinning. Micropiles are normally made of steel with
diameters of 60 to 200 mm. Installation of micropiles can be achieved using drilling, impact driving, jacking,
vibrating or screwing machinery.[5]

Where the demands of the job require piles in low headroom or otherwise restricted areas and for specialty or
smaller scale projects, micropiles can be ideal. Micropiles are often grouted as shaft bearing piles but non-
grouted micropiles are also common as end-bearing piles.

3.2 Tripod piles

The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although unit costs are
generally higher than with most other forms of piling, [citation needed] it has several advantages which have ensured
its continued use through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and inexpensive to bring to site, making
it ideal for jobs with a small number of piles. It can work in restricted sites (particularly where height limits exist),
it is reliable, and it is usable in almost all ground conditions. [citation needed]

3.3 Sheet piles

Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the
ground. The main application of steel sheet piles is in retaining walls and cofferdams erected to enable
permanent works to proceed. Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are used to establish
sheet piles.

3.4 Soldier piles

A soldier pile wall using reclaimed railway sleepers as lagging.

Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are constructed of wide flange steel H sections spaced
about 2 to 3 m apart and are driven prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber sheeting
(lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges.

The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier piles because of their relative rigidity compared
to the lagging. Soil movement and subsidence is minimized by maintaining the lagging in firm contact with the
soil.

Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well constructed walls will not result in subsidence such as
over-consolidated clays, soils above the water table if they have some cohesion, and free draining soils which
can be effectively dewatered, like sands.

Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose sands. It is
also not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation and dewatering is often required.
3.5 Suction Piles
Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed (or
more commonly dropped a few meters into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water out the top of the
tubular, pulling the pile further down.

The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type: Sand is difficult to penetrate
but provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter; Clays and muds are
easy to penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as much as eight times the diameter.
The open nature of gravel means that water would flow through the ground during installation, causing 'piping'
flow (where water boils up through weaker paths through the soil). Therefore suction piles cannot be used in
gravel seabeds.

Once the pile is positioned using suction, the holding capacity is simply a function of the friction between the
pile skin and the soil, along with the self-weight and weight of soil held within the pile. The suction plays no part
in holding capacity because it relieves over time. The wall friction may increase slightly as pore pressure is
relieved. One notable failure occurred[where?] (pullout) because there was poor contact between steel and soil,
due to a combination of internal ring stiffeners and protective painting of the steel walls. [citation needed]

3.6 Adfreeze Piles

Adfreeze Piles supporting a building in Barrow, United States

In extreme latitudes where the ground is continuously frozen, adfreeze piles are used as the primary structural
foundation method.

Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen ground around them to the surface of the pile.
Typically the pile is installed in a pre-drilled hole 1.5 - 3.0 dm (6"-12") larger than the diameter of the pile. A
slurry mixture of sand and water is then pumped into the hole to fill the space between the pile and the frozen
ground. Once this slurry mixture freezes it is the shear strength between the frozen ground and the pile, or the
adfreeze strength, which support the applied loads.

Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in conditions which cause the permafrost to melt. If a
building is constructed improperly, it will heat the ground below resulting in a failure of the foundation system.

3.7 Vibro Stone Columns

Vibro stone column is a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse aggregates are placed in
soils with poor bearing capacity to improve it.

Piled walls

Sheet piling, by a bridge, was used to block a canal in New Orleans, United States
after Hurricane Katrina damaged it.

These methods of retaining wall construction employ bored piling techniques - normally CFA or rotary. They
provide special advantages where available working space dictates that basement excavation faces be vertical.
Both methods offer technically effective and cost efficient temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides
of bulk excavations even in water bearing strata.When used in permanent works, these walls can be designed
to accommodate vertical loads in addition to moments and horizontal forces.Construction of both methods is
the same as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls are constructed with small gaps between adjacent
piles. The size of this space is determined by the nature of the soils.

Secant piled walls are constructed such that space is left between alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent
construction of 'male' piles. Construction of 'male' piles involves boring through the concrete in the 'female' piles
in order to key 'male' piles between them. The male pile is the one where steel reinforcement cages are
installed, though in some cases the female piles are also reinforced.
Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design
requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing
bentonite.

All types of wall can be constructed as free standing cantilevers, or may be propped if space and sub-structure
design permit. Where party wall agreements allow, ground anchors can be used as tie backs.

4. Deep Mixing/Mass Stabilization Techniques

These are essentially variations of in-Situ reinforcements in the form of Piles (as mentioned above) Blocks or
larger Volumes.
Cement, Lime/Quick Lime, Fly ash, Sludge and/or other Binders (sometimes called Stabilizer) are mixed into
the soil to increase bearing capacity. The result is not solid as concrete, but should be seen as an improvement
of the bearing capacity of the original soil.
The technique is most often applied on Clays or organic soils like peat. The mixing can be carried out by
pumping the Binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an excavator or by
excavating the masses, mixing them separately with the Binders and refilling them in the desired area.
The technique can be used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of binding contaminants, as opposed
to excavating them and transporting to landfill or processing.

5. Materials
5.1 Timber
As the name implies, timber piles are piles made of wood. Historically, timber has been a plentiful, locally-
available resource in many areas of the globe. Today, timber piles are still more affordable than concrete or
steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or concrete), and depending on the source/type of timber, timber
piles may not be suitable for heavier loads (Although for instance 350 toe diameter piles sourced from
Australian hardwoods can take upward of 3500 kN for some species). A main consideration regarding timber
piles is that they should be protected from deterioration above groundwater level. Timber will last for a long
time below the groundwater level. For timber to deteriorate, two elements are needed: water and oxygen.
Below the groundwater level, oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water. Hence, timber tends to last
for a long time below groundwater level. It has been reported that some timber piles used during 16th century
in Venice still survive since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the water table
can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of preservative treatment (ACQ, CCA, Creosote,
PEC, Copper Napthenate, etc.). Splicing timber piles is still quite common and is the easiest of all the piling
materials to splice. The normal method for splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube
(normally 600-1000mm long, with an internal diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its
length onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile is then simply slotted into the other end of the tube and
driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure that the two pieces follow each other during driving.
If uplift capacity is required, the splice can incorporate bolts, coach screws, spikes or the like to give it the
necessary capacity.

5.2 Pipe piles

Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate for battered piles.

Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven open end, soil is allowed to enter the
bottom of the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to remove the
soil inside following driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a
steel plate or cast steel shoe.

In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance.
In the United Kingdom, this is generally not done in order to reduce the cost. In these cases, corrosion
protection is provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of steel. If a
concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile will remain intact due to the
concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile.

The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete strength (if
filled). The thickness of the steel considered for determining capacity is typically reduced by 1/16 in. compared
to the actual pipe to account for corrosion.

The amount of corrosion for a steel pipe pile can be categorized; for a pile embedded in a non aggressive and
natural soil, 0.015 mm per side per year can be assumed from the British Steel Piling Handbook. Eurocode
3 now specifies various corrosion rates based on the nature or soil conditions and pipe pile exposure.

Steel pipe piles can either be new steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel
tubular casing previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration.

5.3 Prestressed concrete piles

Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength
required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance.

Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form
one long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles.
TYPES OF PILES:

(A) Classification Based on Function:

1. End Bearing Pile

2. Friction Piles
3. Compaction Piles
4. Tension Piles
5. Anchor Piles
6. Fender Piles
7. Batter Piles
8. Sheet Piles

(B) Classification Based on Materials & composition:

1. Concrete Piles
i. Pre-cast
ii. Cast-in-situ
2. Timber Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles
Sheet piles. Sheet piles are generally prefabricated or precast members driven
vertically into the ground to form a continuous vertical wall. Sheet piles protect
bearing piles against scour and the danger of undermining a pier foundation (figure 1-
2). They form retaining walls (bulkheads) for waterfront structures (figure 1-3).

Batter piles. Piles driven at an angle are batter piles. They are used to resist heavy
lateral or inclined loads or where the foundation material immediately beneath the
structure offers little or no resistance to the lateral movement of vertical piles.
Batters are driven into a compressible soil to spread vertical loads over a larger area,
thereby reducing settlement. They may be used alone (battered in opposite
directions) or in combination with vertical piles (figure 1-6). Batter piles can be driven
at slopes of 4 degrees to 12 degrees with ordinary driving equipment.

Compaction piles. Compaction piles are driven to increase the density of loose,

cohesionless soils (figure 1-7) and to reduce settlement, since shallow foundations on
very loose deposits of sand or gravel may settle excessively. Piles with a heavy taper
are most effective and economical. These piles derive their support primarily from
friction.

Anchor piles. Anchor piles are driven to resist tension loads. In hydraulic structures,
there may be a hydrostatic uplift load that is greater than the downward load on the
structure. Anchor piles may be used to anchor bulkheads, retaining walls, and guy
wires (figure 1-3).

h. Fender piles. Fender piles are driven to protect piers, docks, and bridges from the
wear and shock of approaching ships and floating objects such as ice and debris (figure
1-3).

i. Dolphins. A dolphin is a group of piles driven in clusters to aid in maneuvering

ships in docking operations. These dolphins serve the same protective functions as
fender piles (figure 1-3).

 To transfer the structural load through material or strata of poor bearing

capacity to one of adequate bearing capacity.
 To eliminate objectionable settlement.
 To resist lateral loads.
  To serve as fenders to absorb wear and shock.
 To improve load-bearing capacity of soil and reduce potential settlement.
 To transfer loads from overwater structures below the depth of scour.
 To anchor structures subjected to hydrostatic uplift, soil expansion, or
overturning.

PILE SELECTION

1-3. Factors.

Many factors influence the choice of pile types used on a given project. Consideration
must be given to the following factors (and others, if applicable).

 Type of construction.
 Availability of pile types and sizes.
 Soil and groundwater conditions at the site.
 Anticipated pile loads.
 Driving characteristics of available piles.
 Capabilities of crew and equipment available for handling and driving piles.
 Time available for construction.
 Design life of structure.
 Exposure conditions.
 Accessibility of site and transportation facilities.
 Comparative costs.

1-4. Construction considerations.

a. Material selection. Piles are made from timber, steel, or concrete. Composite piles,
formed of one material in the lower section and another in the upper, are not
commonly used in military construction because of the difficulty in forming a suitable
joint and the greater complexity of installation.

b. Deliberate construction. Critical structures such as wharves, piers, and bridges on

main routes of communication must be well constructed. Deliberate structures warrant
high safety factors. These structures require thorough soil investigation and site
examination to obtain the information for proper planning and design. This
information is essential for safety, economy, and practicality.
c. Hasty construction. In military construction, many pile structures are built hastily
after limited reconnaissance. Hasty pile structures are designed with the lowest factors
of safety consistent with their importance. In hasty construction readily available
materials will be used to construct pile foundations capable of supporting the structure
at maximum load for immediate needs. They can be strengthened or rebuilt later.

1-5. Types and sizes.

Piles are classified by use, installation, material, and type of displacement.

Classification of piles based on installation technique is given in table 1-1.

a. Large displacement. Large displacement piles include all solid piles such as

timber and precast concrete piles. These piles may be formed at the site or preformed.
Steel piles and hollow concrete piles, driven closed-ended, also fall within this group.

b. Small displacement. Small displacement piles include steel H-piles, steel pipe

piles (if the ground enters freely during driving), screw or anchor piles, and preformed
piles driven in prebored holes.

c. Nondisplacement. Nondisplacement piles are formed by boring or other methods

of excavation. The borehole may be lined with a casing that is either left in place or
extracted as the hole is filled with concrete.

1-6. Soil and groundwater.

Soil and groundwater conditions determine the design and construction of pile
foundations. Foundations are successful only if the soil strata, to which the structural
loads are transmitted, can support the loads without failure or excessive settlement.
Except for end-bearing piles founded on rock, piles depend upon the surrounding soil
or that beneath the pile tips for support. Groundwater conditions often dictate the type
of piles that must be used and influence the load-carrying capacity of piles. Adequate
soil exploration, testing, and analysis are prerequisites to the successful design and
construction of all except crude, hasty pile structures. The relation of soil conditions
to pile driving and the design of pile foundations are discussed in chapters 5 and 6.

1-7. Comparative costs.

Comparative costs of piling materials are computed on the dollar cost per ton of
bearing capacity for the entire foundation. Comparing piling materials on the basis of
cost per linear foot is misleading since the costs of shipping and handling, the job
conditions affecting driving techniques, and the relative load-bearing capacities all
affect the overall cost.
Screwpiles are displacement end bearing piles.  Manufactured from AS1163 Grade 350
circular hollow section steel (CHS) the section acts as the shaft of the pile
and formed helix plates are welded at specific locations.
The helix is the end-bearing element that transfers compression or tension loads from
the piles shaft to the ground. Screwpiles have the unique ability to develop
large combined compression and or tension design loads in most types of soil.
Other components are added to a screwpiles design in accordance with the ground
conditions, the intended engineered design, the installation method and the sub-
foundations interface requirement.
Screwpiles are designed to suit specific requirements including the intended installation
method and how the structure's design loads are going to be transferred from the
building to its foundation and sub-foundation system.
Screwpiles vary in CHS shaft size, wall thickness and overall sectional length. The
number, size and position of helix's is site-specific.
Along with project specific product Screwpile Australia manufactures a range of generic
screwpiles to suit domestic housing foundations plus a range of generic cyclonic screw
in ground anchor foundations for remote housing buildings commonly known as
modular building or a donga.
Screwpiles are wound into the ground using powerful rotary hydraulic equipment fitted
to various earthmoving machinery suitable for the application, pile
size, ground conditions.
Download one of our brochures on this page.
How Do Screwpiles Connect

There are 3 primary screwpile to structure connection methods. We call this the interface
method.
1. The pilehead is CAST into a concrete pile cap or footing.
2. The pilehead is WELDED directly to the structure.
3. The pilehead is BOLTED to the structure. How you connect to a screwpile will be
governed firstly by whether the applied load is in compression or in tension and secondly,
by the application the pile is being used for.
The type of interface used will depend on:
i. whether the structure being supported has a sub-structure foundation system
ii. type of foundation system
iii. type of structure being supported
iv. type of loads (compression, tension, horizontal) to be resisted
v. whether the structure is permanent, semi-permanent or temporary
vi. whether structure relocation is likely and therefore the screwpiles need to be reusable
vii. environmental and safety issues
viii. economics and budgets
ix. practicality and simplicity
 
CAST
 
Casting the head of the screwpile into a concrete footing, as is usually the case for domestic
housing construction, or into pilecaps used for larger design or column loads, is the most
common and cost-effective method of connecting screwpiles to a structure's foundation system
(assuming the structure has one). The screwpile head may have components that are shop welded
for use as part of the casting interface. Alternatively cast-in bars may be required to transfer the
structure's design loads through to the screwpile to eliminate localised concrete crushing around
the pilehead. The interface is part of the screwpile engineering design service that is included. It
is important to have sufficient concrete cover around the screwpile interface head so that pile
breakout or punching shear of the concrete does not occur when full load capacity is utilised.
 
WELDED
 
Welded connections can be direct or via a steel plate or bracket interface. In some applications
the interface plate can be used as the pile driving connection plate. This is particularly useful in
reducing onsite work as the drive plates shop welded can be an economical solution.
 
BOLTED
 
Bolted connections are considered appropriate for lightweight structures. These include
transportable type buildings (donga's), mid-sized towers, tapered steel lightpoles, signs,
awnings and temporary structures. 
 
It is important to consider the allowable installation + and - tolerances that will occur in line with
the ground conditions, installation equipment and operator experience when choosing the
interface option.