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Conveying the intellectual challenge of
ecology: an historical perspective
Sharon Kingsland
The roots of ecology are historically extremely diverse, with contributions from many fields of science. A
sampling of ways of thinking ecologically, ranging from the early 19th to the early 20th century, reveals
the richness of ecological science. By examining historical examples from biogeography, natural history,
the science of energy, and biomedical sciences, we can appreciate the many different contexts in which
ecological thinking has evolved, whether as part of larger projects to systematize and unify knowledge of
the world, or in response to particular problems that were solved by taking a fresh approach. It is impor-
tant, when educating students and the public, to convey this diversity of ecological thought and the nature
of ecology as an integrative discipline.
Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(7): 367–374
between 500 and 600 miles distant. Not only the land
birds, but also other animals and plants bore the “unmis-
takeable stamp of the American continent”. Yet the
islands were quite different in their climate and condi-
tions of life from South America. In fact, these islands
physically resembled the Cape Verde archipelago off the
coast of Africa, which the Beagle had visited earlier
(Figure 2). Despite the geological similarity of the two
Figure 1. Humboldt’s concept of a new science of terrestrial island groups, Darwin exclaimed, “what an entire and
physics stimulated the later development of ecology. absolute difference in their inhabitants!” (Darwin 1964).
Courtesy of J Gathany
his career, concerned about criticism that this type of
argument was not scientific, Hutchinson explained its
creative potential. Hutchinson (1978) pointed out that
arguments such as the principle of competitive exclusion
are logico-mathematical theories, derived from a set of Figure 4. Ronald Ross used mathematical arguments to
postulates about the external world. Such arguments can- persuade a skeptical public of the connection between malaria
not be verified in an absolute sense, but they can be falsi- and the abundance of anopheline mosquitoes, making him one of
fied. If similar species do live together, this observation, the earliest contributors to theoretical population ecology.
apparently falsifying the competitive exclusion principle,
suggests that a closer investigation should be made of how to investigate the design of nature reserves; whereas an
they manage to do so. A number of alternative hypothe- ecologist would now ask what size, shape, or configura-
ses might be proposed, such as niche separation, fre- tion of land would best protect a species from extinction
quency-dependent competition, or the effects of preda- (Williams et al. 2004), Ross asked what size and configu-
tion, and these can be investigated in particular cases. ration of land would best ensure that a disease-carrying
Hutchinson explained that the use of logical arguments is insect would remain rare or absent from a region where
to uncover possibilities about what might occur in the eradication measures were enforced.
world; the next step is to uncover whether these possibil-
ities occur in nature. The importance of context
Logico-mathematical arguments are also useful when
trying to explain a theory to an audience that is reluctant Hutchinson observed that the evolutionary play occurs in
to accept it. Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) discussed one an ecological theater, or to put it less poetically, organ-
example of this educational function in the early 20th isms behave in a way that is dependent on context. René
century. Ross had worked out the biological basis of the Jules Dubos (1901–1982), the noted microbiologist and
transmission of malaria by tracing the complicated life environmentalist, described how understanding the
cycle of the malarial plasmodium, which is transmitted to importance of context led him to an important discovery
humans by anopheline mosquitoes (Figure 4), discoveries early in his career. Dubos is known for his work on micro-
for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine in bial diseases and the development of antibiotics, but also
1902. However, Ross found that many people rejected his wrote extensively on environmental issues from a
explanation because they could not see a causal connec- humanistic standpoint, and gave us the maxim “think
tion between the incidence of malaria in humans and the globally, act locally” (Dubos 1980). Despite spending
presence of mosquitoes. People did not believe that erad- most of his career in a medical environment, Dubos was
icating mosquitoes could lower the incidence of malaria. trained as an agronomist and was influenced by the work
Ross faced three obstacles: common prejudice against of Russian soil scientist Sergei Vinogradskii in the 1920s
his thesis, lack of quantitative information about mos- (Ackert 2004). Dubos was impressed by Vinogradskii’s
quito populations and rates of infection, and poorly insistence that microbiologists were making a serious mis-
designed field experiments that were unable to validate take by studying microbes in artificial laboratory cultures
his thesis. Not having time to collect data or conduct rig- rather than in their natural environments, because they
orous experiments, and knowing the importance of acting did not behave “naturally” in artificial environments
on the malaria problem immediately, Ross developed his (Piel and Segerberg 1990). While admitting the practical
argument logically and supported it by mathematical cal- difficulty of trying to investigate the complex natural
culations to persuade people that he was correct about environment, Dubos appreciated the wisdom of this key
the relationship between mosquito populations and ecological idea. His doctoral research compared the abil-
malaria (Ross 1905, 1911, 1923). He dubbed his method ity of different organisms to decompose cellulose in soil
the “Theory of Happenings”, a label meant to suggest the under different environmental conditions (Dubos 1928).
wide applicability of his method not just to epidemiology Dubos took a postdoctoral position with Oswald T.
but to other areas of public health, demography, evolu- Avery at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,
tion, and even commerce and politics. His problem state- now Rockefeller University. Avery’s group was working
ment was the inverse of arguments later used in ecology on the chemistry and immunological properties of pneu-
Ecological thinking, in its various guises, does not hap- missed. Hutchinson feared that this was happening when 373
pen automatically or easily; it is the product of two cen- he defended the use of logico-mathematical arguments in
turies of scientific thought and investigation on many ecology. The challenge is to integrate diverse ways of
fronts. It requires considerable sophistication and breadth thinking, so that they can be seen as mutually reinforcing
of knowledge. One can scarcely imagine a better way to and not mutually exclusive. By conveying this diversity
develop students’ intellectual abilities to their highest and range of thought in a positive light, ecologists can
level than by mastering the different perspectives and open students’ minds to the challenges and rewards of
methods involved in ecology. Students may not easily ecological study and also help the public to understand
grasp the essential ingredients of ecological thinking from the nature of the science and its accomplishments.
modern textbooks, which plunge them quickly into com-
plex topics. By stepping back to gain a more general view, Acknowledgements
one can convey some of the characteristics that underlie
ecological thinking and show how they can be applied in I would like to thank Peter Taylor, who suggested some of
fields outside ecology – they are just as important for stu- the themes discussed here and provided references to the
dents aiming for careers in medicine, engineering, or the current literature.
social sciences, for instance.
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