E-II LAB

ELECTRONICS LAB –II

COURSE CONTENT
Amplifiers and Oscillators

1. Plot the frequency response characteristics of a RC coupled Amplifier, Calculate the gain, f1,
f2 and band width from the response.
2. observe the output of Colpitt‘s oscillator and measure frequency by varying components in the
tank circuit
3. observe the output of Hartley oscillator and measure frequency by varying components in the
tank circuit
4. observe the output of crystal oscillator and measure frequency

Photo Electric Devices

5. plot the characteristics of a Photo diode.

6. plot the characteristics of a Photo transistor
7. plot the characteristics of a LDR.
8. plot the characteristics of a LED.

Operational Amplifier Circuits

9. Familiarize with Operational amplifier 741 and Quad opamp LM 324

10. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as inverting amplifier
11. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as non-inverting amplifier
12. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as voltage follower
13. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as summer
14. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as subtractor
15. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as scale changer
16. Implement and test 741 Op-Amp as Integrator
17. Implement and test 741 O-pAmp as Differentiator
18. implement &test Op-amp Schmitt trigger and draw charactersistics 555 IC
19. Implement Monostable multi vibrator using 555 IC and observe waveforms
20. Implement Astable multivibrator using 555 IC and observe waveform

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1.TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Aim:
To design and construct RC coupled amplifier and verify the voltage gain, observe the
frequency response and find the bandwidth.
Apparatus Required:

Name of the Component

S.No Specifications Quantity
/Equipment
1 Transistor

2 Resistors
3 Capacitors
4 CRO 20 MHz 1No
5 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V,2A 1No
6 Function generator (0-1) MHz 1No
7 Bread Board --- 1No
8 Connecting wires --- As per required

Theory:
When the gain of a single stage amplifier is not sufficient, then a cascade amplifier is
used. The output of first stage is coupled to the next stage through capacitive coupling. RC-
coupled amplifier is widely used in audio frequency applications in radio and TV receivers. R1
and R2 are employed for the voltage divider bias of the transistor. RE provides good stabilization
against the variations of β. The input signal Vin is coupled through CC1 to the base and output
voltage is coupled from collector through the capacitor CC2.
.At low frequencies, the coupling capacitor offer large reactance and suppress the
signal. Hence gain is less. In mid frequency range, the reactance of the coupling capacitor is less
and the gain is almost constant. At high frequencies, the inter electrode capacitances short
circuit the signal hence the gain decrease.

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply input by using function generator 50mV, 1KHz Sine wave to the circuit.
3. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
Measure the voltage at
(i) Output of the first stage
(ii) Output of the second stage
4.From the readings, calculate voltage gain of first stage, second stage and overall gain.
Disconnect second stage and then measure output voltage of first stage and Calculate voltage
gain.
5.Compare it with the voltage gain obtained when second stage was connected. For plotting the
frequency response, the input voltage is kept constant at 50mv (p-p) and the frequency is
varied from 100Hz to 1MHz.
6.Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
7.All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression Av
=20 Log 10 (Vo/Vi)
8.A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis on a Semilog
graph sheet.
9.The bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression
Bandwidth = f2 – f1.
Where f1 = Lower cutoff frequency of CE amplifier.
f2 = Upper cutoff frequency of CE amplifier

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Practical Calculations:
Vi1  1.5mVolts
Vo1 
V
AV 1  o1 
Vi1
Vi 2  Vo1
Vo 2 
AV 2 
AV  AV 1 * AV 2 
V
AV  o 2 
Vi1
Observations:
S.No Frequency VO in volts Gain AV = VO / Vi, Gain in dB AV = 20
log (VO / vI)
100Hz
300Hz
600Hz
1000Hz
3000Hz
6000Hz
10KHz
30KHz
60KHz
100KHz
300KHz
600KHz
800KHz
1000KHz
2000KHz
3000KHz

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Input Wave form :

Out put Wave form of Stage 1 :

Out put Wave form of Stage 2 :

Frequency Response :

Band width: f2 - f1 = Hz

RESULT:

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2. COLPITT’S OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To design and calculate frequency of oscillations of colpitt’s oscillator

Apparatus Required:

Name of the Component

S.No Specifications Quantity
/Equipment
1 Transistor

2 Resistors

3 Capacitors
4 Regulated Power Supply (0‐30V, 2A) 1No
5 CRO 20 MHz 1No
6 Bread Board --- 1 No
7 Decade inductance box 1 No
8 Connecting wires --- As per required

Theory:
The tank circuit is made up of L1, C1 and C2.The Resistances R1 and R2 Provides the
necessary biasing. The capacitance C2 blocks the dc Component. The frequency of oscillations
is determined by the values of L1,C1 and C2 is given by,
𝟏 𝐶 𝐶
𝒇= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
(𝟐𝝅√(𝑳𝑪𝑻 ) 1 2

The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The tank circuit provides 180 0 out of
phase. Also the transistor produces another1800. In this way, energy feedback to the tank circuit
is in phase with the generated oscillations.

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO at Output terminals and observe waveform.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression, f =1/T, where
T=Time period of the waveform.
4.Repeat the above steps 2,3 for different values of L1 and note down the practical values of
oscillations of the colpitt’s oscillator.
5. Compare the values of frequency of oscillations both theoretically and practically.
Theoretical Calculation:
𝟏 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝒇= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝐶𝑇 =
(𝟐𝝅√(𝑳𝑪𝑻 ) 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Model Waveforms:

Precautions:
1. All connections should be correct.
2. Transistor terminal is must be identified properly.
3. Reading should be taken without any parallax error.

Result:

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3. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To design a Hartley Oscillator and calculate the frequency of oscillation.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the Component

S.No Specifications Quantity
/Equipment
1 Transistor BC-107BP 1 No

2 Resistors 100KΩ, 33kΩ, 6.8KΩ,1kΩ 1 No. Each

3 Capacitors 10 µF 3No
4 Regulated Power Supply (0‐30V, 2A) 1No
5 CRO 20 MHz 1No
6 Bread Board --- 1 No
7 Decade inductance box 2 No
8 Decade Capacitance box 1 No
9 Connecting wires --- As per required

Theory:
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio
receivers . It has two main advantages Viz, adaptability to wide range of frequencies and easy to
tune .The tank circuit is made up of L1,L2 and C1.The coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil
L2,the combination functions as autotransformer. The resistance R2 and R3 provides the
necessary biasing. The capacitance C2 blocks the dc component.The frequency of oscillations is
determined by the values of L1, L2 and C1 is given by,

𝟏
𝒇=
(𝟐𝝅√𝑪𝟏 (𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 ))

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO at output terminals and observe waveform.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression.
f =1/T where T =Time period of the waveform
4. Repeat the above steps 2,3 for different values of C1 and note down the practical values of
oscillations the colpitt’s oscillator.
5. Compare the values of frequency of oscillations both theoretically and practically.

Observations:

Capacitance Theoretical frequency Practical frequency

(μF) (KHz) (KHz)

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Model Waveform:

Theoretical Frequency:
𝟏
𝒇=
(𝟐𝝅√𝑪𝟏 (𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 ))

Precautions:
1. All connections should be correct.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly.
3. Reading should be taken with out any parallax error.

Result:

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10. 741 OPAMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Aim:
To design and study the open loop gain from Inverting Amplifier circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 1.369K 1
10.38K
4 Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Multimeter 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

Theory:

An inverting-amplifier circuit is built by grounding the positive input of the operational amplifier
and connecting resistors R1 and R2, called the feedback networks, between the inverting input
and the signal source and amplifier output node, respectively. With assumption that reverse-
transfer parameter is negligibly small, open-circuit voltage gain Av, input resistance Zin and
output resistance Zo can be calculated.

Inverting amplifier circuit:

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Give the input signal as specified.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Note down the outputs from the CRO
5. Draw the necessary waveforms on the graph sheet.

Inverting Amplifier
S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v)

Calculations:

1.Calculate experimentally observed voltage gain Av using observed Vo& Vin from CRO.

2.Theoretically voltage gain is given by:

Precautions:

1. Connections should be verified before clicking run button.

2. The resistance to be chosen should be in Kohm range.
3. Best performance is being obtained within 50Hz to 1Mhz.

Result:
Hence the op-amp can configure as inverting amplifier circuit as observed from the output
waveforms.

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11. 741 OpAmp as non-inverting amplifier

Aim:
To design and study the open loop gain from Non-Inverting Amplifier circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 1.369K 1
10.8K
4 Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Multimeter 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

Theory:
The operational amplifier can also be used to construct a non-inverting amplifier with the circuit
indicated below. The input signal is applied to the positive or non-inverting input terminal of the
operational amplifier, and a portion of the output signal is fed back to the negative input
terminal. Analysis of the circuit is performed by relating the voltage at V2 to both the input
voltageVin andtheoutputvoltageVo.

The output is applied back to the inverting (-) input through the feedback circuit (closed loop)
formed by the input resistor R1 and the feedback resistor R2. This creates ve feedback as
follows. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage-divider circuit, which reduces Vo and connects the
reduced voltage V2 to the inverting input.

Non-Inverting Amplifier

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Non-Inverting Amplifier

S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v)

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the input and output voltage from the input and output waveform in the CRO.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Note down the outputs from the CRO
5. Draw the necessary waveforms on the graph sheet.

Calculations:
1. Calculate experimentally observed voltage gain Av using observed Vo & Vin from CRO.

2. Theoretically voltage gain is given by:

Precautions:
1. Connections should be verified before clicking run button.
2. The resistance to be choosen should be in Kohm range.
3. Best performance is being obtained within 50Hz to 1Mhz.

Result:
Hence the op-amp can configure as non-inverting amplifier circuit as observed from the output
waveforms.

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12. 741 OP-AMP AS VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Aim:
To design and study the op-amp as a Voltage Follower.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
4 Function Generator 2MHz 1
5 CRO 30MHz 1
6 Multimeter 1
7 Connecting wires As required
8 CRO probes 2

Theory:
Buffer amplifer:
A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance
transformation from one circuit to another. Two main types of buffer exist: the voltage buffer
and the current buffer.
Voltage buffer:A voltage buffer amplifier is used to transfer a voltage from a first circuit,
having a high output impedance level, to a second circuit with a low input impedance level. The
interposed buffer amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit unacceptably
and interfering with its desired operation.
Current buffer:A current buffer amplifier is used to transfer a current from a first circuit,
having a low output impedance level, to a second circuit with a high input impedance level. The
interposed buffer amplifier prevents the second circuit from loading the first circuit unacceptably
and interfering with its desired operation
Op amp as a Voltage follower
A unity gain buffer amplifier may be constructed by applying a full series negative feedback
(Fig. 1) to an op-amp simply by connecting its output to its inverting input, and connecting the
signal source to the non-inverting input (Fig. 2). In this configuration, the entire output voltage
(β = 1 in Fig. 1) is placed contrary and in series with the input voltage. Thus the two voltages are
subtracted according to KVL and their difference is applied to the op-amp differential input. This
connection forces the op-amp to adjust its output voltage simply equal to the input voltage
(Vout follows Vin )so the circuit is named op-amp voltage follower.
Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device with a high
source impedance to a device with a low input impedance).

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The importance of the circuit is due to the input and output impedances of the op-amp. The input
impedance of the op-amp is very high, meaning that the input of the op-amp does not load down
the source or draw any current from it. Because the output impedance of the op-amp is very low,
it drives the load as if it were a perfect voltage source. Both the connections to and from the
buffer are therefore bridging connections, which reduce power consumption in the source,
distortion from overloading, crosstalk and other electromagnetic interference.
The voltage follower is often used for the construction of buffers for logic circuits

Buffer amplifer:

Buffer amplifer:

S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v)

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Give the input signal as specified.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Note down the outputs from the CRO.
5. Repeat the procedure with different voltages and different wave type.

Result:
The voltage follower circuit is designed and been studied successfully.

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13. OP AMP APPLICATIONS ADDER

AIM: Implement and test 741 OpAmp as summer

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 1kΩ 4
4 Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Multimeter 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

The important characteristics of a comparator are

1. Output is compatible.
2. Accuracy.
3. High speed operation.
The output of comparator must oscillate between two logic levels which will be
comfortable for a certain logic family, such as TTL. Since comparator is in the form of analog to
digital converter. If the voltage amplification is high then it requires the smaller difference
voltages, to make the output voltage of the comparator to alter between saturation levels. The
OF-AMP can be used as adder in this way. The fixed voltage is applied as one input to the
comparator or IC 741 and adjustable voltage is given to the other input of the IC 741. the output
will be taken at the 6th pin of IC. In the same way it is also used as subtractor. For this we have
to apply fixed voltage as one input and varying voltage as the other input to the IC 741. for this
the output expression is as follows

Vo = V1-V2

For adder VO = - (V1+V2).

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Adder circuit:

PROCEDURE FOR ADDER:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply input voltages at V1 and V2 using RPS.
3. Using multimeter measure the output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. For different values of V1and V2 measure the output voltage.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Adder:

Expected Results: Observed Results:

S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v) S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v)

1 1

2 2

3 3

RESULT:

Hence the experiment on different applications of Op amp has been done and their outputs have
been verified with theoretical values.

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14. OP AMP APPLICATIONS SUBTRACTOR

AIM: Implement and test 741 OpAmp as subtractor

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 1kΩ 4
4 Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Multimeter 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

The important characteristics of a comparator are

1. Output is compatible.
2. Accuracy.
3. High speed operation.
The output of comparator must oscillate between two logic levels which will be
comfortable for a certain logic family, such as TTL. Since comparator is in the form of analog to
digital converter. If the voltage amplification is high then it requires the smaller difference
voltages, to make the output voltage of the comparator to alter between saturation levels. The
OF-AMP can be used as adder in this way. The fixed voltage is applied as one input to the
comparator or IC 741 and adjustable voltage is given to the other input of the IC 741. the output
will be taken at the 6th pin of IC. In the same way it is also used as subtractor. For this we have
to apply fixed voltage as one input and varying voltage as the other input to the IC 741. for this
the output expression is as follows

Vo = V1-V2

For adder VO = - (V1+V2).

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Subtractor circuit:

PROCEDURE:

FOR SUBTRACTOR:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply input voltages at V1 and V2 using RPS.
3. Using multimeter measure the output voltage Vo at the output terminal.
4. For different values of V1and V2 measure the output voltage.
Subtractor:

Expected Results: Observed Results:

S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v) S.No: V1(v) V2(v) Vo (v)

1 1

2 2

3 3

PRECAUTIONS

1. Set power supplies to zero volts before connecting the circuit diagram.

2. Insert Op amp with correct pin numbers.

3. Avoid loose connections.

RESULT:

Hence the experiment on different applications of Op amp has been done and their outputs have
been verified with theoretical values.

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16. INTEGRATOR USING IC 741 OP-AMP

AIM: To construct and study the operation of electronic integrator using IC 741OP-AMP.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 10kΩ, 4.7KΩ Each 1
4 Capacitor 0.1µf 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Decade Resistance box 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

INTEGRATOR:

The circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input
waveform is called integrator. Such a circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier
configuration if the feedback resistor Rf is replaced by a capacitor Cf.

1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = − 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶 𝑖𝑛
Where ‘C’ is integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output voltage Vo at
t=0 seconds. When Vin=0 the integrator with only Cf in feedback works as open loop amplifier.
This is because the capacitor Cf acts as open circuit to the input offset voltage Vin and the part
of the input current charging capacitor Cf produces the error voltage at the output of the
integrator. Therefore, in the practice integrator reduces the error voltage at the output resistor
Rf is connected across the feedback capacitor Cf. thus Rf is limits the low frequency gain and
hence minimizes the variations in the output voltage.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Integrator:

PROCEDURE

Integrator:

1. Connect the op-amp integrator circuit as shown in figure.

2. Make the null adjustment by shorting the input terminals 2 and 3.

3. Fit the op-amp integrator with(Vin) 1KHz,2v square wave and measure the Output on

CRO.

4. Plot the graph of the input and output waveforms.

5. Change the time constant of the integrator by changing the input Resistor ( RC<<T,

RC=T, RC>>T) and measure the output voltage in each casse. R=1k,R=10k,R=100k

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MODELGRAPHS:

INTEGRATOR WAVEFORMS

PRECAUTIONS:

1 .Make the null adjustment before applying the input signal.

2. Maintain proper Vcc levels

RESULT:

OP-Amp integrator, circuit are constructed and studied.

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17. DIFFERETIATOR USING IC 741 OP-AMP

AIM: To construct and study the operation of electronic differentiator using IC 741OP-AMP.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 741 1
3 Resistors 10kΩ, 4.7KΩ Each 1
4 Capacitor 0.1µf 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
7 Decade Resistance box 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

DIFFERENTIATOR:

The circuit in which the output is derivative of the input waveform is

called differentiator. The differentiator may be constructed from a basic inverting amplifier if
an input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1.

𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Thus the output voltage Vo is equal to RC times the negative instantaneous rate of
change of the input voltage Vin with time. However this ideal differentiator has same practical
limitations. The gain of the circuit increases with increase in frequency at a rate of 20dB/
decade. This means the circuit unstable. Also the input impedance Xc, decreases with increase
in frequency which makes the circuit very susceptible to high impedance.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Differentiator:

PROCEDURE:

Differentiator:

1. Connect the op-amp integrator circuit as shown in figure.

2. Make the null adjustment by shorting the input terminals 2 and 3.

3. Fit the op-amp integrator with (Vin) 1KHz,2v square wave and measure the Output on

CRO.

4. Plot the graph of the input and output waveforms.

5. Change the time constant of the integrator by changing the input Resistor ( RC<<T,

RC=T,RC>>T) and measure the output voltage in each casse. R=1k,R=10k,R=100k

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MODELGRAPHS:

DIFFERENTIATOR WAVEFORMS

PRECAUTIONS:

1 .Make the null adjustment before applying the input signal.

2. Maintain proper Vcc levels

RESULT:

OP-Amp differentiator circuits are constructed and studied.

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18. SCHMITT TRIGGER USING IC555

AIM: To Construct and study the operation of Schmitt trigger using IC 555 timer

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 555 1
3 Resistors 100kΩ, 1KΩ 2,3
4 Capacitor 0.01µf 2
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

Schmitt trigger is basically a squaring circuit. The ckt converts an input signal of any
arbitrary waveform. The basic principle is that whenever the input voltage crosses certain
voltage levels termed as upper trigger point(UTP) and lower trigger point(LTP), the state of the
output changes. In the process, the output voltage takes on the shape of a square wave. If the
input signal is a sine wave, the device would be termed as sine to square wave converter

The op-amp provided with positive feedback can function as Schmitt trigger. The input
voltage V1=(+Vsat)(R1/R1+R2) &

V2=(-Vsat)(R1/R1+R2).

When V1 becomes slightly more negative than V2,V0 switches instantaneously from –
Vsat to +Vsat and it continues to remain at +Vsat, until V1 again reaches the value V1. Because
of +ve feedback, the output voltage V0is enables to switch rapidly from +Vsat to –Vsat.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Using IC 555

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram.

2. Apply a sine wave of 10Vp_p at 1 KHz frequency as input to the circuit.
3. Display input and out put wave forms on both the channels of CRO.
4. Super impose input and out put and measure the instantaneous sine wave amplitude
where the transition is takes place in the out put waveform.
5. Instantaneous value of sine wave at which transition is takes from positive saturation to
negative saturation is called upper threshold.
6. Instantaneous value of sine wave at which transition takes place from negative saturation
voltage to positive saturation voltage is called lower threshold voltage.
7. The difference between UTP and LTP is known as hysterisis width VH and compare
theoretical and practical values

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OBSERVATIONS:

Theoretical Practical

INPUT(V) Vref(V) Vut(V) Vlt(V) Vh(V) Vut(V) Vlt(V) Vh(V)

MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Using IC555 timer input voltage Vin should be greater than 2Vcc/3

RESULT: The Schmitt trigger using IC555 timer is constructed and its operation is studied.

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19. IC 555 TIMER – MONOSTABLE OPERATION CIRCUIT

AIM: To design a Monostable circuit for a given pulse width and to compare the obtained

pulse width with the designed pulse width (TP) by using IC 555 timer.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 555 1
3 Resistors 10kΩ 1
4 Capacitor 0.1µf, 0.01µf Each 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

The IC 555 timer can be operated as a monostable multivibrator by connecting an

external resistor and a capacitor. The circuit has only one stable state when trigger is applied, it
produces a pulse at the output and returns back to its stable state. The duration of the pulse
depends on the values of R and C. as it has only one stable state, it is called one shot
multivibrator.

The flip-flop is initially set i.e., Q is high. This drives the transistor Qd in
saturation. The capacitors discharges completely and voltage across it is nearly zero. The output
at pin 3 is low. When a trigger input, low going pulse is applied, then circuit state remains
unchanged till trigger voltage is greater than 1/3Vcc. When it becomes less than 1/3Vcc, then
comparator 2 output goes high. This resets the flip-flop, so Q goes low and Qd goes high. Low
Q makes the transistor Qd off. Hence capacitor starts charging through resistance R1.

DESIGN PROCEDURE:

(i) Choose a value of C=0.1 μF and R=10 k

(ii) Calculate the theoretical pulse width by using TP = 1.1RC.

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PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit using the component values as obtained in part 4.

2. Apply trigger input with amplitude of 5 volt and at a frequency of 1 KHz and observe
the output waveform.
3. Observe and sketch the capacitor voltage waveform (pin–6) and output waveform
(pin–3).
4. Measure the pulse width of the output waveform and compare with theoretical pulse
width.
5. Draw graphs for output waveforms.

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Keep current knob of power supply in maximum position.

2) Check the op amp before connections.

3) Avoid loose contacts.

4) Avoid parallax error while observing output in CRO.

RESULT:

Hence the experiment on design of Monostable multivibrator has been done and
waveforms have been drawn.

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20. IC 555 TIMER – ASTABLE OPERATION CIRCUIT

AIM: To design a Astable circuit for a given frequency and % Duty cycle and to compare the
obtained output frequency and %Duty cycle with the given frequency and %Duty cycle
by using IC 555 timer.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Component/ Equipment Range Quantity

1 IC bread board trainer system 1
2 IC 555 1
3 Resistors 10kΩ, 4.7KΩ Each 1
4 Capacitor 0.1µf, 0.01µf Each 1
5 Function Generator 2MHz 1
6 CRO 30MHz 1
8 Connecting wires As required
9 CRO probes 2

THEORY:

The IC555 timer finds usefull application as astable multivibrator, and in this
mode of operation, it generates rectangular pulses. By sutabily modifying the circuit, square
wave can be produced. Thus the divice can be worked as square wave generator.

An astable multivibrator has two output states and both these states quasi-
stable states. The multivibrator keeps on switching between these two states by itself, and it does
not need any external trigging. Also that astable multivibrator cannot remain indefinetly in any
of these two states. These astable multivibrator is also refer to as free running multivibrator or
relaxation oscillator. R1, R2 are external resistors,

C--external capacitor. Fro the device to operate as astable multivibrator it is essential that the
threshold input terminal (6) is connected to the trigger input terminal (2). External resistors R1
and R2 and capacitor C are connected as shown.These influence the pulse width of the output
waveform and they are selected properly.

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PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit using the component values as obtained in part 4.

2. Observe and sketch the capacitor voltage waveform (pin–6) and output waveform
(pin– 3).
3. Measure the values of Thigh and Tlow of output waveform and calculate % Duty cycle
(D) and frequency.
4. Draw graphs for output waveforms.

Theoritical calculations:

In Astable mode free running frequency(f) = 1.45 / (RA+2RB)C

%Duty cycle (D) =[(RA+RB)/(RA+2RB)] * 100

Practical calculations:
% Duty Cycle (D) = [ Thigh / (Thigh + Tlow )] *100

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Keep current knob of power supply in maximum position.

2) Check the op amp before connections.

3) Avoid loose contacts.

4) Avoid parallax error while observing output in CRO.

RESULT: Hence the experiment on design of Astable multivibrator has been done and

waveforms have been drawn for the obtained frequency and % Duty cycle.

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