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History
The icosahedral fullerene C540, another member of the
family of fullerenes.
Naming
The discoverers of the
Buckminsterfullerene (C60) allotrope of
carbon named it after Richard
Buckminster Fuller, a noted architectural
modeler who popularized the geodesic
dome. Since buckminsterfullerenes have a
similar shape to those of such domes,
they thought the name appropriate.[19]
As the discovery of the fullerene family
came after buckminsterfullerene, the
shortened name 'fullerene' is used to refer
to the family of fullerenes. The suffix "-ene"
indicates that each C atom is covalently
bonded to three others (instead of the
maximum of four), a situation that
classically would correspond to the
existence of bonds involving two pairs of
electrons ("double bonds").
Types of fullerene
Since the discovery of fullerenes in 1985,
structural variations on fullerenes have
evolved well beyond the individual clusters
themselves. Examples include:[20]
Buckyballs
Buckminsterfullerene
Boron buckyball
Other buckyballs
Carbon nanobuds
Fullerite
Inorganic fullerenes
Properties
In the early 2000s, the chemical and
physical properties of fullerenes were a
hot topic in the field of research and
development. Popular Science discussed
possible uses of fullerenes (graphene) in
armor.[41] In April 2003, fullerenes were
under study for potential medicinal use:
binding specific antibiotics to the structure
to target resistant bacteria and even target
certain cancer cells such as melanoma.
The October 2005 issue of Chemistry &
Biology contained an article describing the
use of fullerenes as light-activated
antimicrobial agents.[42]
In the field of nanotechnology, heat
resistance and superconductivity are
some of the more heavily studied
properties.
Aromaticity
Chemistry
Solubility
C60 in solution
1-chloronaphthalene 51 ND
1-methylnaphthalene 33 ND
1,2-dichlorobenzene 24 36.2
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 18 ND
tetrahydronaphthalene 16 ND
1,2,3-tribromopropane 8 ND
chlorobenzene 7 ND
p-xylene 5 3.985
bromoform 5 ND
cumene 4 ND
toluene 3 1.406
chloroform 0.25 ND
tetrahydrofuran 0.006 ND
acetonitrile 0.004 ND
methanol 4.0×10−5 ND
water 1.3×10−11 ND
heptane ND 0.047
isooctane 0.026 ND
acetone ND 0.0019
isopropanol ND 0.0021
dioxane 0.0041 ND
Quantum mechanics
Superconductivity
Chirality
Construction
Two theories have been proposed to
describe the molecular mechanisms that
make fullerenes. The older, “bottom-up”
theory proposes that they are built atom-
by-atom. The alternative “top-down”
approach claims that fullerenes form
when much larger structures break into
constituent parts.[55]
In 2013 researchers discovered that
asymmetrical fullerenes formed from
larger structures settle into stable
fullerenes. The synthesized substance
was a particular metallofullerene
consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two
additional carbon atoms and two yttrium
atoms inside the cage. The process
produced approximately 100
micrograms.[55]
Production technology
Fullerene production processes comprise
the following five subprocesses: (i)
synthesis of fullerenes or fullerene-
containing soot; (ii) extraction; (iii)
separation (purification) for each fullerene
molecule, yielding pure fullerenes such as
C60; (iv) synthesis of derivatives (mostly
using the techniques of organic synthesis);
(v) other post-processing such as
dispersion into a matrix. The two synthesis
methods used in practice are the arc
method, and the combustion method. The
latter, discovered at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, is preferred for
large scale industrial production.[57][58]
Applications
Fullerenes have been extensively used for
several biomedical applications including
the design of high-performance MRI
contrast agents, X-Ray imaging contrast
agents, photodynamic therapy and drug
and gene delivery, summarized in several
comprehensive reviews.[59]
Tumor research
Popular culture
Examples of fullerenes in popular culture
are numerous. Fullerenes appeared in
fiction well before scientists took serious
interest in them. In a humorously
speculative 1966 column for New Scientist,
David Jones suggested that it may be
possible to create giant hollow carbon
molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal
net by the addition of impurity atoms.[65]
See also
Buckypaper
Truncated rhombic triacontahedron
Dodecahedrane
Carbocatalysis
Fullerene ligand
Lonsdaleite
Goldberg–Coxeter construction
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Fullerene.
Properties of C60 fullerene
Richard Smalley's autobiography at
Nobel.se
Sir Harry Kroto's webpage
Simple model of Fullerene.
Rhonditic Steel
Introduction to fullerites
Bucky Balls, a short video explaining the
structure of C60 by the Vega Science
Trust
Giant Fullerenes, a short video looking at
Giant Fullerenes
Graphene , 15 September 2010, BBC
Radio program Discovery
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