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1. In what ways were the past political traditions of Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia

reflected in those countries’ political systems from 1945 to 1989?

In this essay I will argue that the main ways that the past political traditions of Poland,

Hungary and Czechoslovakia were reflected in those countries’ political systems from 1945

to 1948, before greater Stalinist influence took over, which ended any existing continuity. I

will draw on the writings of Hodos and Schopflin among others in support of my argument. I

will first the historical conditions that gave rise to the past political traditions in these three

countries and describe of these traditions, then outline their political systems from 1945 and

1989 and finally observe how the latter reflect any historical political traditions.

Historical background of the political traditions in these countries

The countries we are concerned with form East Central Europe, which has been argued to

form a transition zone from Western Europe to Eastern Europe in its history of political and

socioeconomic development. (Schopflin 1990) In the course of examining this historical

development, I shall begin by outlining some of the characteristic features of the Western

European system, then those of the Eastern European system, then finally how they relate in

the East Central Europe context of Poland, Bohemia/Czechoslovakia and Hungary.

Features of historical Western European political development

Western Europe emerged from the aftermath of the Frankish-Carolingian Empire and was

shaped by a combination of Roman law as well as Germanic tribal customs. Its key features

included a feudal system based on mutual rights and obligations set on a contractual

structure, the development of the concept of human dignity, and the development of

autonomous cities as well as urban economies. (Hodos 1999)

Contractual structure of feudalism and liberty

The contractual and reciprocal structure of feudal system has been argued to play an

important role in the shaping of later liberties in Western Europe. The institution of

contracts allowed vassals to assert their rights to their lords and were gradually expanded to
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ordinary members of society over the centuries, and eventually came to play an important

role in early modern liberal thought in the work of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.

(Shlapentokh and Woods 2011).

Human dignity as an element of political relations

The view of human dignity in mediaeval Western Europe was shaped by both Christian

theology and the rediscovery of Aristotle, with the basic idea being that man was made in

the image and likeness of God and played a special role in creation. (Dales 1977) In actual

practice, it meant that vassals pledged their oaths of fealty on more equitable terms with

their lords compared to what was happening elsewhere in the world. The Western European

vassal would not go on his knees to kiss the hem of his lord’s dress, but instead approach

him with head erect, touch palms and exchange kisses. While mostly symbolic in its earlier

stages, it did give rise to the concept of human dignity as an element of political relations.

(Hodos 1999)

Development of urban economies in Western Europe

Finally, a confluence of conditions including an expansion of contractual rights and human

dignity, as well as technological innovations in agriculture and other crafts fostered the

development of towns and cities in Western Europe where division of labour increased

rapidly. This gave rise to the development of more integrated trade networks and more

centralised economies based around cities, in particular allowing for the rise of central

capital cities such as London and Paris. (Epstein 2000)

Features of the Eastern European system

Eastern Europe had a vastly different development of political and socioeconomic relations

from Western Europe from its very beginnings. Rather than being formed from the

amalgamation of the collapsed Western Roman Empire and Germanic tribes, it was formed

from Slavic tribes with influences from Byzantium as well as eastern nomadic steppe
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cultures. It was characterised by a hierarchical state-serfdom and a centralised autocratic

government. (Hodos 1999)

Hierarchical state-serfdom

Hierarchical state-serfdom involved princes and dukes ruling over non-hereditary who ruled

over non-hereditary boyars who in turn ruled over rural landlords who ruled over peasants

and serfs. (Hodos 1999) This can be contrasted with the contractual, more horizontal

Western feudal system.

Centralised autocratic government

While trading contact with the Hanseatic cities of Western Europe in the north of Eastern

Europe did foster development of autonomous cities with urban economies similar to

Western Europe, the Mongol conquests in the 13th century and the subsequent expansion of

the power of Muscovy after the fall of the Mongols put an end to this development. (Aulin

2012) Subsequent development in Eastern Europe was hence based on increasing

hierarchical relations and tightening of feudal bonds, with lords gaining more powers over

their peasants and serfs, such as binding serfs to their estates. (Hodos 1999)

Central Eastern Europe as a periphery of Western Europe

Central Eastern Europe came to the attention of Western Europe starting from around 1000

CE and was subsequently subject to waves of Christianisation and settlement from Western

Europe. At the same time, various Western political structures, such as recognition of the

reciprocity of rulers and ruled and division of power, were imported in an incomplete, hybrid

form. These structures were imposed top-down when it benefited local elites rather than

spontaneously developing bottom-up as it developed first in the West (Hodos 1999)

(Schopflin 1990)

Eastern European influences in East Central Europe in the Second Serdom

The weak and incomplete nature of transplanted Western European structures was coupled

with influence from Eastern Europe to give rise to subsequent East Central European
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political traditions. The break from Western European structures became decisive around

1500 with what is called the Second Serfdom. (Hodos 1999)

The Second Serfdom took place almost simultaneously across Poland, Bohemia and Hungary

and was characterised by limiting the mobility of peasants along the lines of Eastern

European developments under the Tsardom of Muscovy.

Resulting development of distinctly East Central European political traditions

These conditions led to the development of a distinct East Central European political

tradition shared by Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. These traditions include etatism, façade

politics and a large peasant class hostile to entrepreneurialism and complexity.

Etatism

Etatism in Eastern Central Europe was characterized by the state existing as a far more

dominant and hegemonic compared to Western Europe and arose from the historical

imposition of top-down foreign political structures for imperial, non-local interests.

(Schopflin 1990) (Schopflin, Culture and Identity in Post-Communist Europe 1993)

Façade politics

This etatism in turn fostered the development of façade politics. Western Europe was seen

as the criterion of modernity against which East European elites measured themselves.

However, these elites saw reform simplistically and implemented only pro forma changes.

For example, criticism of the state by the press was allowed and courts were allowed to

deliver politically uninfluenced judgements but the state, controlled by the power elites,

could still control elections in their favour. (Schopflin, The Political Traditions of Eastern

Europe 1990)

Peasant class hostile to entrepreneurship

The course of East Central European society inhibited the development of autonomous cities

with a burgher class of traders and artisans. Entrepreneurial work was disdained by most of

the indigenous population of Poland and Hungary by both the peasants and nobles with
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foreigners like Englishmen, Jews and Germans handling most of the work. In Bohemia the

nobility did not share this disdain for entrepreneurship. (Hodos 1999)

I have described the historical background behind the development of East Central European

political traditions as well as described these traditions themselves. I will now move on to an

outline of the political systems of Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia from 1945-1989 and

examine how the traditions were reflected in these systems.

Political systems of Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia from 1945-1947

The post-war period from 1945 to 1947 in these three countries saw the development of

“People’s Democracies” which involved the rule of Communist parties allied to the USSR

with a coalition of smaller parties. Economically they featured a mix of state and private

sectors described as “nonsocialist” and socially they aimed for the abolition of feudal and

fascist structures.

After 1947, with the advent of the Cold War, these “People’s Democracies” were destroyed

to serve the purposes of more direct control under Moscow. (Hodos 1999)

I argue that all the traditions described above were continued throughout the period of

“People’s Democracies” and were only destroyed after that period with greater Stalinist

control. I will examine each of the three countries in turn.

Czechoslovakia’s People Democracy

Czechoslovakia of the three countries was the only one to be free of Soviet occupation after

the war and had a democratic tradition from the inter-war period. The various parties, even

the Catholic nonsocialist party, framed themselves in opposition to the capitalist mode of

production and the government was characterized by land reform, coalition and

nationalization. (Hodos 1999)

Land reform and nationalization fit into the interests of the anti-entrepreneurial peasant

class hostile to the complexity of capitalism as well as increased the power of the state and

provided a façade of increased democratization while being mainly pro forma in terms of
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party politics.These three pillars of People’s Democracy are therefore clearly aligned with

the historical political traditions I described above of etatism and the interests of the

peasant class.

People’s Democracy in Poland and Hungary

The People’s Democracies in Poland and Hungary likewise were characterized by similar

reforms as in Czechoslovakia, such as nationalization of factories and large banks and

redistribution of agricultural land. The main difference here was from the presence of Soviet

occupation, which led to a manipulated election being held in Hungary and no elections

being allowed in Poland at all, as opposed to Czechoslovakia where a free election was held

in 1946. (Hodos 1999) Nevertheless, the historical political traditions in these countries were

still continued.

Stalinism and destruction of People’s Democracies

After the American announcement of the Marshall Plan to provide economic help to rebuild

Europe, Stalin began to consolidate the Communist parties in East Central Europe under the

control of Moscow. The various independent parties in these countries were dismantled or

made into puppets. After this period, forced industrialization was imposed by Moscow,

destroying much of the influence of the former peasants, the powers of the states were

eroded by Moscow, and attempts at even giving a façade of democratization were ended.

Conclusion

In this essay I have argued that the historical political traditions in Poland, Hungary and

Czechoslovkia from 1945-1989 mainly were reflected in the early post-war period and the

Stalinist period ended any continuation.

1885 words

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