"The Study of Advertising Agency Business in India" - A Status Report"

“THE STUDY OF ADVERTISING
AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA”

- A STATUS REPORT”
A thesis Submitted to
AMRAVATI UNIVERSITY
For the award of Degree of
Doctor of philosophy
In the
FACULTY OF COMMERCE
RESEARCHER
M.A.Burghate
BE, MBA, SET
SUPERVISOR
DR. S. S. KAPTAN
MBA, Ph. D.
PROFESSOR AND HEAD,
P. G. T. D. OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT,
AMRAVATI UNIVERSITY, AMRAVATI
____________________________________________________________
January -2004
Certificate
___________________________________________________________________
“THE STUDY OF ADVERTISING AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA” - A STATUS REPORT 225
I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “THE STUDY OF
ADVERTISING AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA: - A STATUS
REPORT” submitted by Shri M.A.Burghate to Amravati University,
Amravati for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of
Commerce, is a bonafide and original research work carried out under my
guidance and supervision. It is piece of research of a sufficiently high
standard to warrant its submission to the University for the Award of the
said degree.
No part of the thesis has been submitted for any Degree or Diploma, or
published in any other form.
The assistance and the help rendered to the researchers during the course of
his investigation in the form of basic source material and information have
been duly acknowledged.
Amravati
Date: - (Dr. S.S. Kaptan)
___________________________________________________________________
Declaration
I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “THE STUDY OF
ADVERTISING AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA: - A STATUS
REPORT” is the outcome of my research work. No part of this research
has been submitted earlier to any Institution or University for the award of
any other Diploma or any other Degree, nor the data has been derived from
any thesis of any University.
The sources of material, data used in this study have been duly
acknowledged.
Amaravti
Date: - M.A.Burghate
___________________________________________________________________
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am extremely grateful to Dr. S.S.Kaptan, without whose able guidance
this thesis would never have materialised .It was his erudite talks, keen
interest, knowledgeable and practical suggestions that inspired me to bring
out the best.
I am thankful to Dr.V.M.Maindarkar for his constant persuasion,
personal attention and ever-extended helping hand without which this
would have taken much more time.
My thanks are also due to Dr. B. B. Taywade, Director of Dr. Panjabrao
Deshmukh Institute of Management Technology and Research for the
support provided in terms of Library Facility and computerisation at the
Institute.
Amaravti
Date M.A.Burghate
___________________________________________________________________
Table Of contents
PAGE
NO: -
CHAPTER NO: I ADVERTISING: 1-22
CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER NO: II ROLE OF TELEVSION IN 23-87

BUSINESS
CHAPTER NO: III ADVERTISING BUSINESS: 88-113

GROWTH IN INDIA
CHAPTER NO: IV ADVERTISING AGENCY: 114-161

STRUCTURE, NATURE AND TYPE
OF BUSINESS
CHAPTER NO: V RATIONALE OF THE STUDY 162-171
CHAPTER NO: VI A STATUS REPORT OF ADVERTISING 172-213

AGENCIES
CHAPTER NO: VII ADVERTISING AGENCY AND 214-224

CUSTOMER SERVICE
RELATIONSHIP
CHAPTER NO: VIII ADVERTISING AGENCY: 225-244

PROBLEM ISSUES IN CLIENT’S –
RELATIONSHIP
CHAPTER NO: IX FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND 245-298

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE
STUDY
CHAPTER NO: X FUTURE: - 299-323

EMERGING TRENDS IN
ADVERTISING BUSINESS IN INDIA
ANNEXURES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF TABLES
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TABLE Particulars Page no.
NO.
Table 2.1 Evolution of worldwide advertising expenditures 47
from 1990 to 1999
Table 2.2 Distribution of total world advertising 48
expenditure by medium
Table 2.3 World Top 20 50-51
Table 2.4 Summary by continents 52
Table 2.5 Ad spend Totals in 1995/1996 /1997(in US$ 53
millions) in Asia
Table 2.6 Latin America (USD million) 54
Table 2.7 People On-Line worldwide 55
Table 2.8 Online advertising revenue (in USD): 57
Table 2.9 The spread of advertising in the developed and 59
developing world
Table 2.10 Advertising as a percentage of GDP 62
Table 3.1 Vital Statistics: India 105
Table 3.2 India in Class Terms 106
Table 3.3 Indian Ad Scene 106
Table 3.4 Top ten advertiser during 2001-2002 109
LIST OF GRAPHS AND CHARTS
FIG., CHART, Particulars Page

GRAPH no no.
Fig. -I Schematic diagram of a general 09
communications system.
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Bar Chart :-2.1 Evolution of worldwide advertising 48
expenditures from 1990 to 1999
Pie Chart No:-2.1 Distribution of total world advertising 49
expenditure by medium in the year 1990
Pie Chart No:-2.2 Distribution of total world advertising 49
expenditure by medium in the year 1999
Bar chart no:-2.2 PEOPLE ON-LINE WORLDWIDE 2001 56
Bar Chart No:-2.3 Advertising on the Internet for year 2001 58

Bar Chart No-3.1 Top ten advertiser during 2001-2002 110
Flow Chart no:-4.1 Typical Structure of an Advertising Agency 116
Bar Chart No:- 6.1 Top Ten Advertising agencies in India 206
ABBREVIATIONS USED
ABBREVIATIONS FULL FORM

AAAA American Association of Advertising Agencies
AAAI Association of Advertising Agencies of India
ABCI Audit Bureau of Circulations of India
Ad Advertisement
ANA Association of National Advertisers
AOL America Online
ATM Automated teller Machine
BOB Bank of Baroda
CRM Consumer/Customer relationship Management
CRT Cathode ray tube
CSR Corporate social responsibility
CUTS Consumer Unity & Trust Society
Dpi Dots per inch
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DVD Digital Video Disc
EASA European Advertising Standards Alliance
FMCG Fast moving consumer goods
GB Gega Bites
GDP Gross Domestic Product
IAA International Advertising Association
ICC International Chamber of Commerce
INS Indian Newspaper Society
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
IT Information Technology
M&A’s Mergers and Acquisitions
MB Mega bites
MNC’s Multinational Corporations /Companies
MTNL Mahanagar Telcom Nigum Ltd
MZD Moorman, Zaltman, and Deshpande
NGO Non-government
O&M Ogilvy & Mather
ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
PC Personal Computer
RM Relationship Management
TAM Market Research Agency
TAP Total Audience Plan
TRP Television rating points
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
USD United States Dollar
USP Unique Selling Proposition
VAT Value added tax
VFM Value for money
W Watts
WAP Wireless application Protocol
ZAW (Zentralverband der Deutschen Werbewirtschaft),
the German Advertising Federation
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Chapter-1
A Sociological study of pattern of televiewing
Television was introduced in India on September 15, 1959 as a pilot project in

Delhi. Two one-hour telecasts from a make-shift studio in Akashwani Bhavan were
transmitted. The equipment has been gifted by UNESCO. But for years, no one was
really aware that television even existed in India.
In the year 1959, a hazy vision appeared on the first wooden television set in
Delhi. The blurred vision was much clearer when it reappeared in 1965. it was in
August, 1965 that a daily transmission was started in Delhi, but only in 1972 did
television spread to other parts of the country. By the early seventies, Jallandar,
Lucknow, Mumbai, Calcutta, Madras had TV station. Most of the programmes were
either film-based or transmitted live from studio. To be precise, TV started in Mumbai
only 1972. It was more than 13 years after it was launched in Delhi that television
finally appeared in Mumbai.
The first popular programme using the outdoor broadcast vans were used to
telecast cricket matehes, the R-Day parades and Independence Day speech of the P.M.
The most major milestone of TV transmission was crossed on August 15, 1982
when TV went colour on the eve of the Asian Games. Vasant Sathe was the information
and broadcasting minister. National programme was started using INSAT. Then come
the regional transmission. In 1984-85, TV spread everywhere with almost a new
transmitter being inaugurated everyday. Commercial television was introduced in 1976,
but look off only in year 1983.
Now television is become more popular in India. Advertisers searching media
that gives the coverage area and their search is end for the invention of commercial TV.
Now they have the newest media for advertisement their product and services.
The union Government has decided to lease satellite TV. Channels to private
parties. In all satellite pay channels. Will be leased. Prasar Bharati ordnance has been
promulgated in 1997. It steps up a Board, and frees the electronic media from the
government control.
With one crore sets and 10 crore viewers in the rural area, the world has come to
the very heart on Indian villages 75 percent of villagers watch TV everyday. Osian on
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DD and Santa Barbara and The Bold And Beautiful on STAR satellite TV has reached
villages in Maharastra, Gujrat, A.P., Panjab and Goa. In villages 36 percent of set
owned by farmers and equal numbers by those in service sector.
DD has started a 24 hour news channel, DD world channels and DD sport
channels.
Ad films have welcome the growth of TV as a medium. More and more budget
is being allocated to TV. Advertisers spend almost Rs.1,200 crores per annum on TV.
By the year 2000, advertising revenue on TV will grow to RS. 3000 crore. The DD
revenue from advertising was Rs.430 crores in 1996-1996 and likely to touch Rs.500
crore 1996-1997. Many companies spend almost 40 percent of their advertising budget
on TV advertising. It was observed that in the last five years 10 percent of TV ad
revenue has come as a result of diversion from the print medium.
Satellite Television
India launched satellite Instructional Television Experiment called SITE. It is
used American satellite.
The government has decided to allow Indian satellite channel to uplink from
India since, 1998.VSNL has already uplinked six Indian channel out of their gate way
at Chennai. VSNL has planned to set up five dedicated earth station for TV uplinking.
These station will be at Chennai, Dehradun, Delhi Mumbai and Hydrabad. Delhi and
Mumbai will be operational in 1998, and Hyderabad and Dehradun in 1999.TV
broadcast from India had to rely on foreign uplinking facilities offer by centres in
Singapore, Bangkok and HongKong. VSNL charges a reasonable fee of Rs.6 lacks per
month for uplinking. Uplinking will become free for all by 2004 as per WTO
agreements.
Following are the few important satellite channel in India.
MTV
On May 2, 1994 MTV- Asia, the American music channel associated with star
TV. MTV and star TV association began in 1991. MTV is the biggest music network
operating the US from 1981.The channel telecast music video in Latin America,
Europe, Japan and rest of Asia. MTV has become viable due to advertising support it
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gets. It has loyal viewers-252 million in more than 80 countries, and generate a revenue
to US $ 395 million in 1993.
Star TV has also commenced broadcasting it own music channel- the TV
channel. The music channel is put on two beams of Asiasat I satellite. The northern
beams cover China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
ZEE TV
It was launched on October 1st 1992 after eight years they at Zee TV pioneered
the idea of Hindi satellite television, there is no doubt the fact that they have a good
thing. It is integral part of the Essel group promoted by Subhaschandra Goyal. Zee
telefilm, a listed company, is the exclusive supplier of programming software in the
Hong Kong based Asia Today Ltd. Which run ZEE. Thus the channel such Zee cinema
for Hindi movies, ZEE MGM for English movies and several regional channels like
Alpha TV Marathi, Gujrathi, Panjabi, Bengoli, etc. Zee’s Marathi channel was very
popular in Maharstra at it has now viewership of 90 million people.
Zee News Channel

The channels target audience is the intelligent, evelvod, thinking segment of the
upwardly mobile population. However there were programme for other segment too. At
recently Zee channel launched a 24 hours Zee news channel.
Zee TV has limited it advertising to only exporters as per RBI directives dated
July 9, 1993 whereby only an advertisers whose export earning is more than Rs.10 lacs
in each of the preceding two years could advertise on satellite TV. Zee’s contribution is
that it has lent a touch of maturity to Indian TV. Zee Cinema has started on April 9,
1995. though Jain TV and ATN comes before Zee TV, Zee TV,Zee was first successful
satellite channel. It was really the first channel to compete to DD. They have diversity
of software like business stories, social issues, entertainment, film based program. Zee
however buys programme completely. Now Zee wants to be global. Zee English has
deals with global entertainment giant to put together 3000 hours of original
programming. Recently Zee TV has faced a keen competition to Star and Sony. The
response of Star’s Amitabh Bacchan quiz ‘Kaun Banega Crorepati’ was very popular
and it has breaks the many recods of TV viewership. Zee has strted a same quiz
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competition ‘Sawal Dus Crore Ka’ initially hosted by Anupam Kher and Manisha
Koirala to compete Star TV’s Amitabh Bachhan programme. But it has felt.
Jain Tv
Dr.J.K.Jain the BJP parliamentarian the president of Jain group of enterprises
including Jain studios, video-on-wheels:VOW and Medical Commnication
Network:MCN and the Surya Magazine is the brain behind satellite channel.
After starting a few years ago the channel went off air, but was restarted in
August,1999. As per the government policy, the channel has been allowed to set the
first private gateway earth station for uplinking and internet connectivity. As the
transponder will be used for dual purposes, the venture will be cost competitive. It is
building the GES at Noida, at a cost of Rs.194 crore. It has decided to stick 24 hours
news and current affairs programming. The Jain TV went off air in September,1995
because of a row with interspunik, the Russian satellite company.
Discovery Channel
This channels provide science and nature documentaries. It’s main focus is
cabal TV. It is supported by an increasing ad revenue and cabal operator’s fees. It has
acquired the learning channel in 1991. Their emphasis is on history, science and
computer technology programmes. Now this channels are very popular in India.
Sun Tv
This channels is based on Madras company. It’s main aim to entertain
exclusively in Tamil on the rural masses in the state and the language vievership across
the world. It’s programmes are beamed to 83 nation from Mascow through Russian
satellite. This was possible due to an agreement with Asia Television Network.
Australia is the only continent that does not get Sun transmission. It lauched Surya TV
a Malayam satellite channel
Asianet
Asianet is the first of it’s kind in India. Asianet is an NRI-Indian joint veture
with Kerala state industrial development corporation and with the technical support of
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Kerala State Electicity Board. Asianet has in –house production, uplinking, receiving
and dedicated cable TV network, with own 24 hours Transponder, studio and Nodal
Receiving Station spanning the entire state of Kerala. And with most powerful signal
strength over the Indian subcontinent. The Asianet cable super highway will offer 12
channel soon and 50 later to it’s subscribers which includes all the star and DD
channels.
Asianet is not dependent on advertising alone. It operates pay channel by giving
franchise to cable operators. Rs.2 lacs deposits and Rs.100 per subscriber. It leans
heavily on 277 cable operators whom it wants to make franchisees.
ATN
This channel was promoted Asian United Media Ltd by Siddartha Srivastava.
The reason for introduction for this channels is that for closure is a fire between
American and Russian satellite companies, Rimsat and Intersputnik respectively. It was
sold out to a new management who started transmitting it it mid 1999 but prevented the
use of ATN brand name due to legal problem it has now been started another name
ETN.
Star Tv
This channels was the new invention in the television media. The aim of STAR
is for entertain the people by offering them to various entertaining programme. The
STAR TV service India includes Star Sports, Channel V, Star News, Star Movies and
Star World. Star TV has started has started Hindi transmission from 21st October, 1996.
Star TV has also started English and Hindi news bulletin from 21st October 1996. know
star TV has separate Hindi news channel which provide news 24 hours and this news
channels was very popular today. One of the Mega programme started by Star TV
which was the new invention for small screen which programme breaks many records
of TRP and make a new history the name of the programme is ‘kaun Banega Crorepati’
hosted with Big B Amitabh Bachhan. This quiz breaks many records of TRP rate and
make a history. Many serials of this channels make a history of TRP rate like ‘Kyuki
Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi’, ‘Kahani Ghar Ghar Ki’ this serial was very popular.
Star TV has started a new channels Star Gold which shows daily Movies this
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channels was very popular in India.
N&CA Programmes
There is a great demand of news and current affair programmes. Stat News is a
major attraction on Star TV. Pranay Roy of NDTV has changed the very complexion of
N & CA programmes. There are online studio interviews, and soft human story at the
end. Hindi Star News also has a good response. Zee TV wants has developed a new
identity for EI TV by putting on it N & CA programmes, establishing Zee itself as a
purely entertainment channel. Sony is also starting BBC News, and business news.
According to cable waves survey, N & CA programme come fourth in recall after
drama, movie and comedy. Now there are more and more channels has stared their own
news channels and the responses are very spectacular manner. The Indian audience is
given first preference to news on a specific time. That why there is a war of news
channels that who is the first provider of a news to the audience. Like Aaj Tak, NDTV,
Zee News, Star News, DD News are the major news channels in India.
As per the survey the news channels receive a very good response in a specific
time news is the first priority of the audience therefore DD has also is not ahead of the
news channels competition and started the National News Channels which receive a
very good response from the Indian audience.
DTH- Direct- To-Home Broadcast

DTH transmission being digital will be of better quality than the present
transmission of the cable operator. Now the TV channels are negotiating with several
satellite companies by employing their transponders for ku-band transmission. This will
make a DTH platform available to them. Satellite in future will have ku-band
transponders. DTH is a boon to pay channels, where selective distribution of pay
channels will be possible. DTH will offer a large of channels by digital compression
technique. A single DTH platform will have a capacity of 40-60 channels and offer
good quality reception.
The future broadcasting system is going to be direct-to-home (DTH) bypassing
the cable operator. It will bring satellite channel direct to our home through a small
individual dish antenna that can be put on the roof-top. DTH transmission being digital
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will be of better quality than the present analogue transmission of the cable operator.
TV channels are negotiating presently with several satellite companies by employing
their transponders for ku-band transmission. This will make a DTH platform available
to them. DD itself is ahead in the race, and has signed on M o U with Malaysian
satellite provider Measat to launch a DTH platform. STAR TV is exploring the
possibility of launching DTH through Asiasat-3. Zee had started negotiation with
Thiacom-3 for the same purpose. Other channels will join this race too once the
platform is launched. Satellite in future will have ku-band transponders. Our Insat 2-E
will have two ku-band transponders. There are moves to organize DTH marketing and
distribution service. DTH is a boon to pay channels, where selective distribution of
pay channels is possible. DTH will offer a large range of channels by digital
compression technique, where each transponder will be able to accommodate 6-8
channels they right now accommodate one channel only in the analogue system. A
single DTH platform will have a capacity of 30-60 channels-all of extremely good
quality of reception. DTH will be virtual boon for the niche channels. DTH can become
a subscription-driven business, whereas the present system is just advertisement driven.
Job Opportunities In TV
The Indian TV media industry is boom and industry estimately offer currently
directly or indirectly two lac people employment opportunities in Mumbai alone and all
over India TV media industry provide employment to more than 3 lac people. This
figure shows that growth of Indian TV industry.
Commercial TV
TV advertising is nearly face-to-face personal selling difference is that in
television advertising is one way communication and personal selling is two way
communication. In TV commercial, the advertisers, is effect may be visible on the
screen. TV is a media for an entertainment but the commercial must have an
entertainment value. The the TV commercial is canvey the selling message to the
people which has the cost. TV sales its advertising time in terms of 10-second spot or
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its multiple or as free commercial time ( FCT) along with sponsored programme. The
DD get its revenue by sponsor programme. Alternatively the producer get advertising
time which he sell to the advertisers to recover its cost.
There are some middleman engage who buys the programme from the producer
on the minimum guarantee basis, and than sales to advertisers or advertising agencies.
During the programme or at the time of starting the programme there is always seen an
ad which is called as commercial break. The sponsor is actually financed the
production. He can use the services of an established advertising agency via medium.
The common practice is to take 50 percent of the agreed price from the ad agency or
sponsor.
DD launched the minimum guarantee scheme due to minimum guarantee
scheme DD received more then before. DD get RS. 21 lac a week from minimum
guarantee scheme, Rs.23 lac a week from Junoon, and Rs.10 lac a week from Alif Laila
which is too much than before.
TV Advertising
Year Ad spend on TV
1994 Rs.745 Crore
1995 Rs.1098 Crore
1996 Rs.1500 Crore
Television
Television was initiated in most developing countries including India mainly
due to a political will ( UNISCO 1953 and 1964, Katz & Wedell 1977) it accomplished
technical efficiency over the years ( from black and white to colour, portable television
set, television broadcasting by satellite, development of cable television), establishing
itself in the society due to private investment in television set and finally strengthening
its presence because of advertisers interest in the medium since 1976, when the first
advertisement aired on Indian television.
History of television in India date back to 15th September 1959, when
experimental telecast from radio station began due to a grant from UNESCO. A one
hour transmission service become regular exactly after six years with a daily news
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bulletin in 1965. SITE was the first step in the direction of satellite television in India.
Little happened in Indian television prior to satellite instructional television
experiments, an experimental six-state initiative in television-based communication for
social and development communication. Indian television was separated from Indian
radio in 1976.
Categories of Product Advertised on TV (1995)

Category In Rs. Crore
* Soaps 74.81
* Toothpaste 45.14
* TV 42.53
* Detergents Powder 38.07
* Corporate 34.08
* Shampoo 32.92
* Two Wheeler 27.04
* Detergent Cake 24.18
* Hair oils 23.08
* Teas 21.93
Total 363.78
Television Sets
In 1962 there were only 41 sets in country that rose to 2,75,424 in 1974 and
boomed to 4,76,026 in the next two years. The last official figure of television sets in
the country by 1984 was 36,32,328 since the policy of licensing of television set was
called off in 1985 today more then 57.72 million TV sets in our country. The proportion
increased to 53 per cent in 1985, 62 per cent by 1988 and today it cover almost 90 per
cent of the country’s population
Video & Cable Boom

Video boom, cable television and dish antennas in five-star hotels were few of
the factors facilitating the changes of face of satellite television in India in the early
eighties. In less then five years, from 1984 to 1989, the penetration of video mover
from the capital down to the districts and villages. Enterprising individuals in apartment
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blocks placed a video in their homes or their garages and started offering a cable TV
service people in their vicinity. Cable television appeared in the United State in late
1940’s and grow by 1967 for a different purpose, to diliver over-the-air television
signals to areas where reception was inadequate because of topography of distance.
Even in most western European countries it was limited to relay transmission of
broadcast signals in the eighties. In India it appears in the early eighties for altotather
different purpose, to diliver mass entertainment needs of audience who can offord cable
connection. The growth of cable television homes in urban India indicate a rise from
0.41 million in 1992 to 40 million in 2002.
Cable operators are an important link in Indian television distribution. A cable
operator using dish antennas receives programmes and redistributes them to individuals
household subscriber through a cable network. The cost are receive an average of 40
channels for a monthly subscription fee.
India opted for the British model of broadcasting, parallel to the entertainment
driven market model of television, India has also a number of ongoing educational and
social communication experiments mainly through the Development and Education
Communication Unit, Indian Space Research Association. The notable ones are
GRAMSAT ( Gramin Satellite Accelerating the pace of Rural Development) Jhabua
Development Communication Project Channel GyanVani educational radio and
television.
Responses of Indian Government

Responses of Indian Government is a very spectacular manner up to 1991 the
television broadcasting in India that the Indian State controlled the nation wide
network, Doordarshan. By 1991 satellite network took the form of transactional
television with telecast of Gulf war by CNN. McDowell notes that more channels, cable
television distribution regulation, together with some programming changes highlight
the Government of India’s response and policy choices in 1990’s. according to Indian
today dated 31st March 1992, an internal report of the ministry of information and
broadcasting has predicted as early as February 1991 that programmes specifically
targeted at Indian audience are likely to beamed from foreign satellite in the near future.
The reaction of the Government of India in the print media during that time were that
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‘there is threat’ ‘inaction is the best condition for private enterprises to flourish, and
they are now unstoppable.
The major changes of Doordarshan in the period from 1993 to 1998 Tracy note
“ the shift of emphasis on Doordarshan…within the overall context of growing
communication of media in India ( and even many other developing countries across
globe) The historic judgement of Indian of the Indian Supreme Court on airwaves in
1965 stated: “air waves or frequencies are public property. Their use had to be
controlled and regulated by a public authority in the interest of the public and to prevent
invasion of their right.”
Laws, rules and regulation, do exist in India, but on the whole they facilitate the
reception of foreign satellite programmes: the Indian state actually ‘activity mediated
the process. Prasar Bharati Act 1950 provided ‘for the establishment of a Broadcasting
Corporation For India, to be known as Prasar Bharati to define its composition,
function and powers and to provide for matter connected therewith or incidental
thereto’. In 1991, the government of the congress ( political party then in power) re-
examined the Prasar Bharati Act of 1990 to fight the fear of competition from private
television channels. After the initial licensing of dish antennas to restricts satellite
television, the government comes up with distribution regulation in form of Cable
Television Network Regulation Bill 1994 and the act was passed in 1995. The
government started taxing cable operator in bid to generate revenue. The rate rose by 35
per cent in 26 states in India. The act made it mandatory for the cable operators, who
must register their companies in the post office and pay entertainment taxes. More
significantly, the Act make transmission of at least two Doordarshan Channels
obligatory, and drew up a programming and advertising code, the adherence to which
would be the responsibility of the operator.
The Indian Government’s stand to technological developments is clear from the
New Telecom Policy 1999 of BJP Government which reads. The Indian
telecommunication system continues to be governed by the provision of the Indian
Telegraph Act, 1885 and the Indian wireless Act 1933. substantial changes have taken
place in the telecommunication sector since 1992. ITA 1885 need to be replace with a
more forward looking Act. In 2001 the communication convergence bill was introduced
by the Department of Telecommunications to promote, facilitate and developed in an
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orderly manner the carriage and content of communication including broadcasting
telecommunication and multimedia for the establishment of an autonomous
commission to regulate all forms of communication, and for the establishment of an
Appellate Tribunal to provide for the matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Milestone of Television in India
Year Event
1959 TV was introduced in Delhi as experimental service under UNESCO grant.
1965 Daily broadcasting of an hour was regulated as a service
1966 Verghese committee recommends autonomous National Broadcast Trust
1968 Increase the distribution of Television Service
1969 Agreement for SITE experiment with NASA, USA
1975 SITE was launched in 2400 villages of six states for a year
1976 Doordarshan national broadcasting of India, separated from all India radio
1980 First Television commercial was telecast
1982 INSAT-1A launched TV go Colour, National Telecast of Asiad Games
1984 First sponsored serial called ‘Hum log’ telecast, UGC CWCR began
1987/89 Morning transmission began, afternoon transmission began
1990 Prasar Bharati Bill was passed by Indian Parliament after many amendment
1991 STAR beamed its satellite channel to India
1992 Zee started Hindi channel as a part of STAR network
1993 Four additional satellite channels & regional channels in 10 languages by

DD
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1995 DD launched international channel, Supreme Court’s landmark judgement
On ‘air wave as public property’ Ram Vilas Paswan Committee on National
Media Policy, Cable Regulation Act promulgated
1997 Broadcast Bill was introduced by Loksabha under which Prasar Bharati Board
( Broadcasting Corporation of India) was constituted in September
2001 Communication Convergence Bill of Department of Telecommunication

Was introduced in Loksabha
2002 DD has 1242 TV transmitters reaches 40 million of the 75 million TV

Household have C & S connection. CATV Network ( Regulation)
Amendment Bill was introduced with view a mandating as addressable
System for pay channels through cable networks Conditional Access
system Bill awaits Rajasabha approval to become Act.
Act And Regulation for Cable & Television in India

The Indian Telegraph Act (1885): The Indian Telegraph Act 1885 comes into force
on 1st October 1885 “Telegraph” means any appliance, instrument, material or
apparatus used or capable of use for transmission or reception of sign, signals, writing,
images, and sound or intelligence of any nature by wire, visual or other electro-
magnetic emissions, Radio waves or Hertzian waves, galbanic, electric or magnetic
means. The Indian Telephone Act, 1885 was an Act to amend the law relating to
Telegraphs in India.
The Copyright Act(1914): “The importance of copyright was recognized after

invention of the printing press which enable the reproduction of books in large
quantities. The Indian copyright Act was thus passed on 1914. But, during the last four
decades, modern and advance means of communication like broadcasting, litho-
photography, television etc made inroads in the Indian economy. It necessitated the
fulfillment of international obligation in the field of copyright. A comprehensive
legislation has to be introduced to completely revise the copyright law. This was
achieved by the introduction of a copyright Bill, 1957 in the parliament”.
Prasar Bharati Act ( 1990): The Act was passed to provide for the establishment of a
broadcasting corporation for India, to be known as Prasar Bharati. It says that it shall be
primary duty of the corporation to organize and conduct public broadcasting services to
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inform, educate and entertain the public and to ensure a balanced development of
broadcasting on radio and television.
Cable ( Television Network ) Regulation Act (1995): There has been a haphazard
mushrooming of cable television networks all over the country due to the availability of
signal of foreign television network via satellite. To check the screening of undesirable
programme and advertisement which are screened on these channels and to regulate the
operation of the cable television network in the country, so as to bring uniformity in
their functioning, the cable television network (Regulation) Act was passed in both
Houses of the parliament.
The Broadcasting Bill (1997): The Bill is to provide for an independent authority to be
known as the broadcasting Authority of India, which is for the purpose of facilitating
and regulating broadcasting services in India. It made it mandatory for all the channels
to transmit programmes from Indian territory and kept cap on foreign equity.
The Cable Television Network (Regulating) Amendment Bill (2002): The new
policy permit to link up with any television channels from India. To also allows news
agencies to have their own connection facilities for purposes of newsgathering and its
further distribution. The bill includes the conditional access system provision for
households to choose satellite channels.
Television Households In India
Cable Television Homes In India
Year Jan Feb Oct Jan Dec Sept 1999 2002

1992 1993 1993 1995 1996 1998
Estimated 29(NRS)
Househol
d 0.41 3.30 7.23 9.30 11.0 18.5 25(NRS) 40(NRS)
(in
million)
Source: Doordarshan 1997, IRS and NRS Figures
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The overall impact of media inflation and fragmentation is cushioned by a
rapidly increasing base of TV home from 28 million household in 1990 to over 60
million today.
Though mass viewership is a thing of the days gone by, the multiplicity of
channels and programmes have led to niche programming addressing a specific target
audience. Premium brands thus can be advertised by exploiting several option to reach
the target audience. We have to design a mix of costly mass viewvership programmes
and economical target specific programmes. This mix will be more effective. Till 1992,
thus there was no geographic selectivity on TV, but now localized channels can be
used, and wastage can be avoided. Since the overall programming time has increased,
buying option for specific target audience at a time which is not prime time can be
exercised.
TV Ad Rates
Rate on ad spot have remained stagnant since 1996. The industry benchmarks
ad rates against DD which charges Rs.45,000-50,000 per 10 second at prime time and
deliver as average TRP’s in the range of 45-50. on satellite channel, live event and good
movies command rates in excess of Rs.40,000 per 10 second, while day parts in
morning or night cost Rs.6,400 per 10 second. Satellite channels commission the
programme and thus they absorb the production cost. Therefore programme quality is
not compromised. Zee’s Network allows it to price the ads strategically. It charges
premium level rates for Zee and flank these rates with the low ad rates of other Zee
channels. However the combined TRP’s of other Zee channels are higher than other
individuals satellite channels like Sony and Home TV.
Zee TV sell it non prime programmes at rock bottom rate as low of Rs.2,000 per
10 second. If the ads are exclusive to Zee Network, it offer tremendous discounts. Star
plus and Star Movies offer a package deal, with rate in the region of Rs.30,000 per 10
seconds across the two channels. The channels and the agencies default on producer’s
payment. The earlier credit period was 2-3 weeks. It has now stretched to 3-6 month.
The payment problem of all satellite channels and DD propose to sign up for an
organization called the Indian Broadcasting Agency (IBS). Each member has to pay
earnest money of Rs.50,000 per annum. There are many agencies in TV industry with
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outstanding bill of 120 days. There are companies with 200 day outstanding. This has
created serious problem of cash for broadcasters. The IBS will set a code for TV
industry in consultation with the Advertising Association of India. Like print industry,
IBS seeks to enforce payment within 60 days of the bill being raised.
Regional TV Channel
Today regional channel has received wider attention considering their
viewership and advertising potential. Regional broadcast carter to non-Hindi speaking
southern and eastern states. Zee TV had a regional slot for south India right from its
inception. It has
Now introduced Bangala , Alpha Marathi, Tamil, Panjabi and other regional languages
and the effecet was very spectacular manner. Zee’s footprints cover the middle east
with a large south Indian population which receives regional programming with open
arms. DD has also launched several regional channels. Jain TV devotes 36 hours per
week on regional programme. Jain TV was the first channels to launch Bengali
programmes. Sun TV and even DD offer special packages whereby at a marginally
higher cost, advertisers can get a spot in the regional channels as well. Jain TV gets
60% of the total ad revenue from the regional programmes. Soon there will be branded
regional programmes.
Television Rating Points
The points were introduced in 1986 to access the viewership of DD programmes
by IMRB. The TRP survey is conducted in 9 major cities of India. The data are
collected on a weekly-basis. The panel consists of 3124 adult members. Each panel
member is records the viewership of different TV programmes in the diary specially
given to him. The data is than analysed. The panel has two groups. Primary audience of
adults from TV owing household and secondary audience of adults from non TV owing
households but who watch TV at least once in a week. Programm’s rating point is the
percentage of panel members who viewed that programmes. One TRP is equal to one
per cent of TV audience. To illustrate, if Ramayana gets 75 TRP’s it means 75 per cent
panel members watched Ramayana during this week. TRP weekly reports provides data
on weekly viewership citywise for different programmes. The data are broken down for
both the primary audience and the total audience. TRP’s monthly reports gives data of
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frequency viewing, overlapping of viewership amongst the programmes, cumulative
reach for different episodes of the same programme. They also gives viewer’s profit.
TRP report are a good for media planners. DD has started publishing weekly TRP’s of
its programmes. Feedback on viewership data is still not adequate. TRP is not
representative enough. TV matters are expected to appear.
Media Planning For TV

For the rating of the programme, TV media planning was simple exercise till
mid-80s after the 80s DD restricted the allotment of sponsored programmes to 13
espisodes at a time, and in multiple thereafter of 13. The rating started fluctuating since
the viewership become fluid.
TV media planning based on rating point Gross Rating Point specific the total
number of rating points which are to be achieved once the plan is executed. It then
specifies programme generes which will be used. The choice of specific programme
from the genere is left to the TV buyers. The TV buyers fill up the sports on month-to-
month basis.
Since we have a scenario of multi-channel, multi programme. How to relate this
to GRP based TV planning. Once approach could be to consider the GRP and the
viewership share both at the same time. Just as there is a market share of a product,
each programme has a share of viewership, e.g. Chitrahar had a rating 66 per cent in
Mumbai in 1991 and there were two channels, giving Chitrhar a viewership share of
98%. In 1992 the overall viewership of Chitrahar declined to 56 per cent therefore its
viewership share dropped to 79 per cent.
Only rating is not sufficient. The share of viewership that each programme
commands in a scene of multiple channel and multiple programmes is also important.
High viewership programme are not affected by certain loss of viewership but marginal
programme do get affected a lot. A close watch on viewership share is therefore
important to a media planner. Initially loss of viewership may not affect rating but they
will fall in future.
Satellite transmission has enabled media planners to segment the TV viewers in
terms of demographic characteristics. Formally all ads irrespective of the nature of the
product were put together for arising. More and more data in future will be available on
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demographic characteristics of viewers of specific programmes and cchannles. Right
now for each channels we can assign a social economic class. Star channels are for top
class urban audience, say A-1 in metros. DD carters to the masses, say D to E group in
urban areas and A to E in the rest of the country. Zee TV a accupies the mid-band, say
A2-C. These groupings will move amongst these channels a great deal. New channels
options will create their own band of followers. High reach level by using one or two
mass based programmes are not possible now. Audience fragmentation is thus a thing
to reckon with, and spot buying will have to be spread among the different channels.
Telecast Time
DD’s prime time was restricted to 7 to 8 p.m. The other time slots for heavy
advertising were morning slot, and the early fringe slot 4-7 p.m. In satellite channel, the
advertising on prime sports is completely event driven. Star plus advertising is spread
over a five hour period in the evening and late fringes. Too much of ads and lack of
time distribution lead to commercial clutter, which is not in favour of the advertiser and
viewers, long ad capsules are not viewed.
Commercial breaks within the programme have a higher recall value for
commercial falling in the break. The maximum amount of commercial time is restricted
to 10 minutes per hour. Hong kong broadcaster follow what is known as 10-10 rules t.e.
10 per cent of total transmission time can be utilized for commercial with the overall
ceiling of 10 minutes- extendable by 2 minutes for station promotion- per hour. In India
experts recommended a 5-5 rule.
We need a better target specific programming. Programming can create prime
time slots just as Mahabharata created 9 a.m. Sunday morning slot or Zee Horror show
has created 10 p.m. late evening slot. Ghar Ghar Ki Kahani and Kyoki Sans Bhi Kabhi
Bahu Thi have created prime time slots for star plus from 10 p.m. to 11 p.m.
TV Versus Other Media

Today television is the most popular media of advertisement the ad revenue has
increase from Rs.1504 crores in 1991 to around Rs.3,300 crore in 1995. This is due to
satellite TV, and the availability of foreign brands. The value of ads in the press have
grown up by about Rs.8,00 crore(from Rs.1,142 crore in 1991). However, the share of
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the print media in total ad revenue has fallen from about 70 to 60 per cent. Television
has a single biggest factor in opening up a huge rural market for consumer products and
creating a higher level of aspirations among the huge Indian middle class- estimated at
over 150 million people. Ads of low price consumer product formed 20 per cent of print
media advertisement. This segment is fast shifting to TV.
Message Characteristics of Television

Television is a visual medium, but so are newspaper and magazine. So what
makes the different ference in impact between television and print visuals?
Action
It is the moving image, the action that makes television so much more
mesmerizing than print. When you watch television you are watching a walking,
talking, moving world that gives the illusion of being three-dimensional. Good
television advertising uses the effect of action and motion to attract attention and
sustain interest. In the Sundays’s afternoon commercial the car is seen driving through
an unattractive urban landscape moving across the screen first to the right and then to
the left, demonstrating virtually the idea of aimless wandering.
Emotion
More then any other advertising medium, television has the ability to touch
emotion, to encourage people to feel things. This ability to touch the feelings of the
viewer makes television commercials entertaining, diverting, amusing, and absorbing.
Real life situation with all their humor, anger, fear, pride, jealousy, and love come alive
on the screen. Humor, in particular, works well on television. These emotion are pulled
from natural situation that everyone can identify with. Hallmark has produced some
tear-jerking commercials about the times of our live that we remember by the cards we
get and save. Kodak have used a similar strategy for precious moments that are
remembered in photograph.
Demonstration
Seeing is believing. If you have a strong sales message that lends itself to
demonstration, then television is the ideal medium for that message. The believability
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and credibility-the essence of persuasion-are high because we believe what we see with
our own eyes.
Blockbuster season on small screen
It was a dream release that money could not have bought. First, there was a
splash of publicity when best-selling author Barbara Taylor Bradford sued for
plagiarism, forcing the serial off the air but pushing it into the headlines.
Then its lead actress Karisma Kapoor sent fans into a frenzy by announcing her
engagement to a Delhi businessman.
If that isn't enough, Sahara Manoranjan -- the Sahara Group's entertainment

channel -- is mounting a Rs 15 crore (Rs 150 million) to Rs 20 crore (Rs 200 million)
advertising blitzkrieg to aggressively publicise its blockbuster serial.
Karisma Kapoor's face stares at the public in newspaper ads, from hoardings,
television and even the Internet. The cast is being taken for a series of launch parties to
build excitement to fever pitch.
The hype and the hoopla for Karishma, which went on air this week, isn't
without reason. The Sahara Group is almost betting the shop on the Rs 60-crore (Rs 600
million) extravaganza -- the costliest serial ever on Indian television.
It has also announced that it will be roping in Bollywood's best and brightest to
fight in the giant small screen battles looming ahead.
Welcome to the world of big- budget mega-serials. Pushed partly by conditional

access, which should be launched shortly, and growing competition for viewers and
advertisers, television channels are splurging on serials like never before.
The cash is being used to make irresistible offers to popular film stars or just on
grand sets and spectacular special effects.
___________________________________________________________________
The channels are even spending on big-name directors and to make sure that
production is slicker than ever before.
Just flick a remote control switch and savour the action on a clutch of channels.
Sahara, for instance, has earmarked a war chest of Rs 250 crore (Rs 2.5 billion) to Rs
300 crore (Rs 3 billion) annually out of which 70 per cent will be spent on star-studded
mega-serials. It has already roped in the Big B, Amitabh Bachchan, for an untitled
serial to be aired next year.
That's not all. Film star Raveena Tandon will be the leading lady
in a serial based on the novel Sahab Biwi Aur Ghulam.
Another yesteryears superstar Sridevi will soon be trying for laughs in a comedy
serial Hamari Bahu Malini Iyer that's expected to run for around 230 episodes.
Says an upbeat Sushanto Roy who heads Sahara's media and entertainment
business: "Serial budgets have gone up dramatically. Earlier we spent Rs 2 crore (Rs 20
million) to Rs 3 crore (Rs 30 million) on a 100-episode serial. Today, we are spending
Rs 60 crore (R 600 million) on 240 episodes of Karishma. That's the difference."
Sahara isn't the only channel thinking big about programming. Sony
Entertainment is about to launch Jassi Jaissi Koi Nahin on September 1 and it's hoping
the serial will help it to recapture viewers in the 9 pm to 10 pm prime-time slot.
Sony isn't making any compromises on Jassi -- it has spent Rs 1.5 crore (Rs 15
million) on the sets alone. Sony refuses to divulge numbers but it's certain that each
episode must have cost over Rs 10 lakh (Rs 1 million).
Says Kunal Das Gupta, CEO, Sony Entertainment Television: "A few years ago
you could make a serial for Rs 300,000 an episode. Today a prime-time serial will cost
more than Rs 10 lakh."
Switch to Zee, which has spent heavily to promote Jassi. That includes
innovative marketing gimmicks: a teaser campaign on TV and print without identifying
___________________________________________________________________
who will play Jassi. Viewers can also get information about the serial by SMS-ing Sony
on their mobile phones.
The channel is also hoping to rope in other silver screen superstars -- including a
few who are well past their prime.
Talks are on with Dharmendra to create a serial about his life. It is also talking
to Rekha and wants her to act in a semi-autobiographical serial.
Even Star Plus is trying out innovative themes. It was the first channel to throw
big money into a serial when it launched a 13-episode action serial, Josh. Industry
observers say the budget was around Rs 30 lakh (Rs 3 million) an episode.
Says Tarun Katial, senior vice president, Star TV India: "It really was a huge
project for us. It brought in new audiences as far as the male target group was
concerned." Katial says Star is constantly scouting for new concepts and is willing to
invest in any serial.
Like the other channels, Zee doesn't want to reveal precise figures. But it admits
to spending heavily on Awaz Dil se Dil Tak. One expensive moment in the serial was
when a small plane is shown crashing into the sea.
Says Apurva Purohit, president, Zee TV: "Our initiative is towards better
production quality and newer formats. So Awaz is a different show." Purohit says
viewers (60 per cent are women) are constantly demanding something new.
The production companies also don't mind spending. UTV is spending Rs 10

lakh an episode for an animation film Kahin Naak Na Kut Jaye, slated to be one of the
most expensive of its kind.
Says UTV CEO Ronnie Screwvala: "The USP of the programme is that it is for
prime-time viewing, it is meant for adults, kids and teenagers and we have used 2D and
flash animation technology to produce it."
___________________________________________________________________
Why are channels rushing to make mega-serials? Says Rajesh Pavithran, CEO,
Balaji Telefilms: "Big budgets, by giving the show a different look and treatment, can
make all the difference in a crowded market."
That's perhaps the strongest reason why Sahara is courting the movie world.
Sahara Manoranjan is far behind Star Plus, Sony or Zee, so it needs to make ripples to
catch up. But, says Roy: "Our target is to become number two through these serials by
2004."
The channels believe a blockbuster serial can keep the cash registers ringing for
months if not years.
Sahara hopes it can command higher ad rates by leveraging Karishma: earlier

prime-time rates were a mere Rs 5,000 to Rs 6,000 for a ten second spot.
But for Karishma the channel is asking for Rs 70,000 a spot (industry experts
say the rack rate is only Rs 50,000). Roy says that it has already booked the entire ad
space for the first 13 episodes.
Sahara has also forayed into Bollywood territory in other ways. It wants to
leverage its movie business for the small screen.
It is producing seven to eight films with budgets ranging from Rs 2.5 crore (Rs
25 million) to Rs 7 crore (Rs 70 million), with well-known directors and actors like
Sunny Deol and Jackie Shroff.
After being launched in cinema halls for one or two months these movies will
then be serialised into a 5-episode series on Sahara TV exclusively. That's another way
to be different from the other channels.
Sony TV is also trying to cut the clutter. The company believes that Jassi will
help them regain the top slot during the 9 pm to 10 pm slot -- which they had lost four
months ago.
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Says Sunil Lulla, executive vice president, Sony Entertaiment Television: "We have a
gap in the 9.30 slot. But with Jassi we expect our gross rating points in the prime-time
slot to climb by at least one-and-a-half times".
Can the channels cash in on the mega-serials? Sony is offering ad time on Jassi
at over Rs 200,000 for a spot and has already roped in two sponsors, including Paras
Pharmaceuticals, for the serial.
Media planners are optimistic about the new trend and they say that advertisers
are being wooed in the run-up to Diwali.
Says Gopinath Menon, vice president, TBWA Anthem: "All big advertisers
went berserk during the 47 days of the World Cup. So there is less money left and
hence the wooing from the networks through big budget serials."
Are the channels spending big bucks because they are worried about conditional
access system? That does seem extremely likely. Viewers will have to pay for these
channels in a few month's time, and the theory is that a few big budget serials will make
all the difference.
Says Zarina Mehta, creative director, UTV: "The trend towards big budgets has
to do with CAS looming large as quality of programming will be the key
differentiator."
But are advertisers racing to put money in the big serials? The jury is deeply
divided. Says R L Ravichandran, vice president marketing of Bajaj Auto, one of the key
sponsors of Karishma: "Their rates are very cheap, so when we look at cost per reach
per thousand it is effective. Added to that is the star value of Karisma Kapoor."
Hyundai Motors also believes that it's worth advertising on mega-serials.

Hyundai tied up with Star Plus on Josh.
Says Sanjiv Shukla, manager, marketing, Hyundai Motors: "Josh was the first
action serial and it fitted with the image of the Terracan which we were launching."
___________________________________________________________________
Shukla also points out that the programme was directed towards the same
audience, which buys cars: the male in SEC A and B household above the age of 25.
But everyone is not convinced that big budgets and mega serials ensure success.
After all, Josh did not get the hot TRP ratings that advertisers hoped for.
Argues Zee's Purohit: "There is no link between big budgets and the success of
the show. TVC rates depend on cost of production, viewership, TRP ratings and the
demand and supply situation. The market will only pay for viewership."
Others say that stars will only pull viewers initially. Points out Screwvala: "It
will definitely have a pull factor initially, but on a sustained basis the USP will wear out
and then the cost becomes a burden without an upside".
Adds a telecom company marketing head: "Our approach is to wait and watch
as we doubt whether Sahara can give us a sustained viewership in primetime."
There's no doubt that the small screen fight is about to touch new heights. The
question is whether audiences will tune in or tune out.
Big budgets are one part of the game, but in the end analysis the viewer has a
finger on the remote control, and no amount of cash can change that fact.
Maverick moves
Sushanto Roy isn't short on ambition -- and the money to back it. He has only
taken charge recently but he's already talking about turning Sahara's fledgling media
and entertainment business into the largest in the country.
It will be a gigantic challenge for Sushanto, the youthful son of Sahara Group
founder Subroto Roy. In the next few months the Lucknow-based group will take on
the TV industry's giants by launching a clutch of six new regional channels.
That'll include one each for the National Capital Region, Mumbai, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. Sahara has already launched its channel in Uttar Pradesh.
___________________________________________________________________
Sahara is also adventurously tuning in to the satellite radio business and tying-
up with World Space, the satellite radio system. The aim is to have three radio channels
-- for news, music and for the group's internal communications.
Sahara has already made its presence felt in print and its publications have a
combined circulation of 250,000 copies daily. The group may also hit the high notes in
the audio- cassette business.
Sushanto is unabashed about his goals. "Our aim is clear. We want to become
the country's largest media and entertainmen Is that a fanciful target? It's tough to tell.
That's partly because Sahara is notoriously secretive about its own revenues.
Also, to reach the top slot it must overtake some powerful rivals. Bennett
Coleman, the country's largest media conglomerate, has a Rs 1,500 crore (Rs 15 billion)
turnover.
Nevertheless, nobody is writing off the Sahara's small screen challenge. The
group is spending between Rs 150 crore (Rs 1.5 billion) and Rs 180 crore (Rs 1.8
billion) on common infrastructure for the channels. Sahara executives say their
television business alone will be worth around Rs 200 crore (Rs 2 billion) in a few
years.
Says Roy: "We expect 70 per cent of advertising revenue to come from local
retailers and regional companies and the rest from national advertisers."
Sahara has also tied up with Western Railways and will offer piped music from
its satellite radio stations on Mumbai's local trains. It believes advertisers will pay to
reach the 3 million people who travel by train daily.
Rivals are sceptical about Sahara's giant gamble. Says an executive at a rival
channel: "To get local advertisers you need a huge sales force and that costs money.
Plus experience shows that Indian retailers aren't even putting ads on radio. It will be an
uphill task."
___________________________________________________________________
Anyone about to write off the Sahara challenge should take a look at the airline
industry. Sahara may still be number three but it has moved aggressively, cutting prices
to win customers.
Can Sushanto Roy repeat the story in the media and entertainment business? He
is certainly promising that it will be an entertaining battle.
t house by 2005."
Complete coverage: The New Cable TV Regime
Even as broadcasters are mulling legal action, multi-system operators -- large

cable operators with headends to receive and transmit the signals to last mile operators
-- and cable operators are gearing up for the CAS rollout.
They have invested Rs 500 crore (Rs 5 billion) to meet the demand by stocking
set top boxes and in undertaking massive digitisation exercise.
Two of the biggest MSOs -- Hathway Cable & Datacom and InCableNet --
alone have spent over Rs 400 crore (Rs 4 billion).
"We have invested over Rs 200 crore (Rs 2 billion) over the last three years and
are well poised for the rollout. Within 90 days, we are expecting 25 per cent of the total
CAS base to opt for STBs and pay channels," said Ashok Mansukhani, executive
director, Indusind Media, which owns InCableNet.
While Hathway is looking to rope in roughly 3 lakh subscribers in the first year
of operations, InCableNet hopes to corner 2 lakh in the first three months of operations
itself.
Television industry goes native; in for a boom
India's television industry is poised for another boom as it meets demand from
millions of viewers for programmes in their native tongues.
About a decade after satellite television ushered in a cable television boom, the
industry is entering a new phase.
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Regional languages are the flavour of the year, giving people choices beyond
elitist English and predominant Hindi.
India has 16 leading regional languages, which form the native tongues of 60
per cent of the one-billion strong population.
A fast-growing economy, cheaper televisions and lower costs spurred by digital

broadcasting technology have created new hordes of viewers and a new tribe of
regional advertisers.
Analysts see a boom coming, but also a shakeout.
"Basically, there was an anomaly which had to be corrected," Shalini Gupta,

analyst at Motilal Oswal Securities, told Reuters.
"The number of television households which speak Hindi is 32-33 percent. The
rest are regional. How can you ignore the market?" she said.
State-run Doordarshan television runs 14 vernacular channels. An estimated 20

to 30 private channels are rolling out this year.
In the south, regional firms that had a lead in entertainment are branching out
into news channels, while new entertainment channels have been launched elsewhere in
languages like Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi and Bengali.
Channels are being planned even in dialects of Hindi like Bhojpuri and
Rajasthani, which would take the number of regional channels to more than 50 in the
next few months.
Media baron Rupert Murdoch's Star TV, owned by News Corp and arch-rival
Zee Telefilms controlled by Indian billionaire Subhash Chandra are eyeing vernacular
gold -- and face entrenched regional players who are raising cash to compete.
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Rathikant Basu, who turned around the sleepy Doordarshan into a commercial
success as a bureaucrat before joining Star TV, is exulting in his new role as
entrepreneur.
His firm, Broadcast Worldwide has launched channels in Punjabi, Gujarati,

Marathi and Bengali, rivalling similar channels launched by Zee under its Alpha brand
in recent months.
The agriculturally prosperous northern zone of Punjab, the industrialised

Gujarat and Maharashtra and Bengal are considered lucrative markets.
"If you go into small towns and villages, there are advertisers who want to take
advantage (of television)," Basu told Reuters. "Obviously you can't do it in English or
Hindi."
Broadcast Worldwide plans to invest around Rs 1.3 billion ($29 million) and
also launch a share issue.
Basu said a regional language programme usually cost just a fourth of what it
took to make a similar programme in Hindi, while advertisers like jewellers, clothes
merchants and local consumer brands were keen to target niche audiences.
Besides, growth in cable homes plateaued after a heady boom between 1995 and
1998, and was linked to the fact that content did not go deep enough for customers, he
said. Viewers want more local news and entertainment in their own language, he said.
More homes hooked to cable
Consultancy firm Arthur Andersen said in a recent report on the entertainment

industry that India's television homes were expected to reach 86 million by the end of
2000 from 68 million around the beginning of the year.
Cable connections are expected to reach 46 million by the end of 2000, up from
24 million in 1999.
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Cable television would also aid Internet expansion, which in turn may fuel cable
growth.
Andersen estimates television ad revenue to grow from Rs 35 billion in 2000 to

Rs 80 billion in 2005. Doordarshan has the lion's share. Cable TV accounts for only
around Rs 3 billion now, and the potential is huge While a big market beckons, there is
also room for caution.
"You need some amount of deep pockets. There is a long gestation period (for
profits)," analyst Gupta said.
Basu's firm is now in close alliance with Star TV, which indirectly owns 5 per
cent in Broadcast Worldwide.
Basu's channels are appropriately called Television Aimed at Regional

Audiences (TARA). Tara is a Hindi word for Star.
Internet takes regions to world stage
Zee scored a coup recently when it acquired a 61 per cent stake in Asianet, a
Malayalam language broadcaster which has become Zee's springboard to expand in
southern languages. Asianet has launched a channel in Kannada language and plans
Telugu and Tamil channels soon.
But southern players are not resting easy. Madras-based Sun Television, a
Tamil-led network has already made inroads into Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada
languages and plans separate share issues for the three languages.
Broadcast Worldwide also plans an initial public offering to aid expansion.
Hyderabad-based Eenadu TV, which broadcasts in Telugu, has jumped zones to

launch a Bengali channel, and plans Marathi and Kannada channels as well.
"When the economy picks up you find the number of channels increasing. But
there will be a shakeout," Gupta said.
___________________________________________________________________
Ranjan Bakshi, spokesman for the Zee Network, told Reuters his group also
aimed to garner subscription revenue from pay channels aided by the added strength of
its regional channels.
Zee broadcasts from Hong Kong and thus faces regulatory hurdles which
prevent small Indian firms from advertising. Pay channels can alter the revenue model.
"We believe that in the next three or four years at least 40 to 50 percent of
revenue will come from subscriptions," he said. "Right now it is close to zero."
The Internet boom also aids the regional rush. Most broadcasters are eyeing
either worldwide satellite links or a future in video and audio streaming over the
Internet. An estimated 20 million Indians worldwide make up a big market.
In addition to channels, Zee also runs Siti Cable, a distribution network, and is
building up its portal, zeenext.com. Broadcast Worldwide is also eyeing the Internet.
Chapter-2
Television audiences are measured in two main ways: using diaries, and using
meters. With television (unlike radio), the survey unit has usually been the
household, not the person. That's because most households have had only one TV
set, and people have usually watched together. In western countries, that's
beginning to change, but the mainstay of TV diary or meter results is still the "rating"
- the percentage of all households that viewed a particular program.
Measuring TV audiences with diaries
A diary survey is done by choosing a random sample of households, and sending

interviewers to visit those households. When a household agrees to co-operate in the
survey (with co-operating rates ranging from about 30% of contacted households in
rich western countries, up to about 95% in developing countries), the interviewer
___________________________________________________________________
usually leaves one diary for each TV set in the household. This is different from radio
surveys, which use one diary per person - because people usually watch TV in groups.
A diary normally runs for one week or two weeks. Often there are several "practice
days" at the beginning that are not used to generate statistics.
Television diaries are similar to radio diaries. The main difference is that, while
there is one radio diary for each person in a household, there is usually one TV diary
for each TV set. The idea is that the diary is placed on top of the TV set, stays there
for a week, and whoever watches a program on that set fills in the diary to show
what channels they watched, at what times.
Each double-page opening of the diary usually has a large table. The rows show all
the quarter-hours of the day, while there is one column for each TV channel in the
survey area. People indicate their viewing by ticking the box for the channel they
watched, during each quarter hour. Such a diary doesn't show which people in the
household were watching: the tick only means that somebody was watching. Another
way of doing this is to enter in the box for the channel and quarter-hour not a tick
but a number showing how many people were watching. A still more elaborate way is
to write the initial of each viewer in the box. On the front page of the diary is
recorded the fact that (say) person A is a man aged 35-44, B is a woman aged 25-34,
and so on. Though this sounds simple enough, when I organized this type of diary
survey the results were rather messy. People didn't try very hard to co-operate.
You can get much more accurate data from telephone (or personal interview)
diaries, but people can only remember their viewing for a few days. This is usually a
much more expensive way to do a diary survey, but if distances are large and almost
everybody has a telephone (as in Australia) it can be suitable for surveys of rural
audiences.
Obviously it would be very convenient if the program titles could be printed in the
diary, as well as the times. In New Zealand, when there were only 2 channels, we
experimented with diaries showing programs as well as times. By comparing data
from diaries that showed only times and data from diaries that also listed programs,
it was clear that the program-based diary was more accurate. However, we didn't
use the program-based diaries after the trial, because of problems of (a) finding out
the program times far enough in advance to print and distribute the diaries, and (b)
TV channels changing their advertised schedules.
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Measuring TV audiences with meters
Unlike a diary survey, where the respondents are different each week (or each two
weeks, for a 2-week diary) meter surveys use panels of people for months at a time -
anything from 6 months to 2 years. That's because of the expense of installing
meters. When a household agrees to co-operate (usually for some reward, such as
guaranteed maintenance for their TV set), a technician comes to the home and wires
a meter to each TV set. In countries where most homes have a connected telephone,
the meter is also connected to the phone line. The meter automatically records the
channel the TV set is tuned to, minute by minute. In the early hours of the morning,
the research company's computer automatically dials the meter, which sends that
household's viewing data for the previous night. This is done in sets of 3 numbers:
channel number - starting time - stopping time
...repeated as many times as different channels were switched on.
After ringing all the households in the sample (often 300 to 400 per city) the
computer has all the previous night's data, and software automatically calculates the
percentage of homes watching each channel at each time. Buyers of the diary data -
TV channel owners, advertising agencies, and large advertisers - are then sent a fax
or email with the previous night's viewing data.
That's the simplest version, using "set-meters". But most countries now use
"peoplemeters". As well as showing which channels each TV set was tuned to, at
which times, the people living in the household are asked to indicate their presence
while watching TV. Typically, the peoplemeter sits on top of the TV set. A common
type of peoplemeter has 8 lights on its front, numbered 1 to 8. The meter has its
own remote control, with 8 buttons, one for each person in the household, and the
others for their occasional guests. So when button 1 is pressed, that tells the meter
that (say) a man aged between 35 and 44 is watching. Guests are prompted to enter
their gender and age group.
When the TV set is switched on, all the lights start flashing. A new model flashes up
the message "Who is present?" As this is annoying for the viewers, they are likely to
press their personal buttons to stop the flashing. When the TV set is on, and nobody
has pressed a button for about 45 minutes, all the lights start flashing again. If
nobody then presses a personal button, the meter assumes they're all out of the
room, and doesn't record any viewing. But if at least one person presses a button,
the meter keeps recording that viewing.
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Unlike the setmeter, which is completely automatic, the peoplemeter depends on
the co-operation of viewers. Do people actually remember to press their buttons, or
do they just press any button to stop the lights flashing? To demonstrate to their
skeptical customers that peoplemeters give accurate data, the research companies
do manual checking - such as by ringing up members of their panel to ask what they
are watching at that moment, then comparing the answers with the peoplemeter
data. From the figures I've seen, compliance levels are quite good - correct around
90% of the time. The major problem is when people who were watching a program
leave the room (e.g. to answer a phone call) and forget to un-press their button.
This produces audience figures that are a little too high.
The most serious problem with peoplemeters is the representativeness of the panels.
Often, less than half the households asked to co-operate actually do so, which raises
the question of what is unusual about households that are in the panel. From data
I've seen, the wealthier and better-educated households are often under-
represented. As such people tend to spend less time watching TV, this also produces
a slight overestimate of audience sizes. Though TV stations don't care about that
(they like to see large audiences reported), potential advertisers are more skeptical.
An emerging problem, in western countries, is what type of viewing is actually

counted. There are now many ways to watch a TV programs...
 Broadcasts from local channels, received through an aerial.

 Broadcasts from international channels, from a satellite dish.
 Viewing a TV program on a computer.
 Programs that are recorded on videotape or DVD, and viewed later by playing
back the recording.
 The same can be done with a "personal video recorder" or Tivo. With this, you
can watch a program in "delayed time" - e.g. watching the first half while the
second half is still being broadcast.
 Another emerging problem is the very small portable TV sets now becoming
popular in countries such as Japan. These cannot be connected to fixed
phone lines, and any peoplemeters could be larger than the TV set itself.
(This is why peoplemeters are not used for radio.)
All these possibilities make it difficult to record viewing: difficult, both in a

technical sense, and in deciding exactly what should count as viewing. The
convention is that recorded viewing is counted only if it is played back within one
week.
___________________________________________________________________
Differences in audiences between diary and meter methods
In Australia in 1991, the diary system was superseded by a meter system. This was an
excellent opportunity to find out the problems with diaries. There were several clear
differences. Audiences at evening peak times didn't change much, particularly for
series programs; they were marginally lower.
But audiences in the middle of the day were much higher with meters than with
diaries. The reason seemed to be that midday programs were sort of trashy, and
perhaps people who were watching TV around midday were ashamed of watching
those programs, and didn't want other people in the household to see that viewing in
the shared diary.
The other change with the introduction of peoplemeters was that late-night
programs now had much larger audiences. It seems that when diaries were used, the
late-night viewers either forgot to fill them in, or couldn't be bothered.
Measures of TV audiences
From the raw data of the numbers of households or people viewing TV channels,
these measures are calculated:
 Ratings (of households and/or people)

 Households Using Television (HUTs)
 TARPs (Target Audience Rating Points)
 Reach and frequency
 Program rankings
 Audience share
Explaining each of these in turn...
Ratings</B<
People ratings are also a percentage, but of people, not households. Unlike radio
audience surveys,which don't include children under a certain age (around 10 to
15), TV surveys usually include everybody (except babies). People ratings can
also be based on demographic groups: age groups, sexes, occupation types, and
so on.
HUT (Households Using Television) figures are simply ratings (not people ratings,
though) for all channels combined. An HUT figure of 50 means that 50% of
___________________________________________________________________
households were watching TV in the survey area. This can be either an average
across a long time period, or a figure at a particular time.
TARPs (Target Audience Rating Points are used mainly by advertisers. They apply
moe to commercials than programs.
Reach is the number or percentage of people who see that program or

commercial, or watch that channel in a particular time zone. For example, a
program might have an average people rating of 10%, but a reach of 20% - which
means that 10% of people in the survey area were watching it on average, but
across the whole time it was being broadcast, 20% saw some part of it. Divide the
people rating by the reach to find out the proportion of the program that the
average viewer saw: in that example, it's 10 out of 20, which is half: i.e. the
average person who watched the program saw half of it.
Frequency also applies to commercials. For example, a common myth (not

supported by much empirical data) is that the average frequency for a TV
commercial should be 3: in other words, the average person should see the
commercial 3 times before rushing off to buy the advertised product. (In fact,
people just don't behave like that.)
Program rankings are popular with people who don't understand the ratings
system (e.g. many journalists). These are often reported in the press, along the
lines of "Channel 28 had 6 of the top 10 programs last week". Such figures can be
quite misleading. A channel with 6 of the top 10 programs probably had an
audience share of around 30%, not the 60% you might assume. That's because in
one week a channel might broadcast around 150 programs, and most of the
viewing was to the bottom 140, not the top 10.
Audience share can be confusing. If a channel has 30% audience share, that
doesn't mean that 30% of people watch it. A share figure is a share of person-
hours, not of people. A 30% share means that, of every 100 hours that people in
the survey area spent watching TV, 30% of those hours were with that channel.
So if you add up all the share figures for every channel, the total is always 100%.
It's also possible to calculate share figures for specific time periods, but it usually
doesn't make sense to calculate shares for an individual program unless all
channels in the area have programs starting and finishing at the same time.
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Chapter-
3
Children behavior
Previous research has indicated that a number of demographic factors,
particularly ethnicity and socioeconomic status, are significantly related to
children's use of television. Yet these factors are often not integrated into
research relating television-viewing behavior to psychological and social
variables of interest. In the present study of three samples of upper elementary
school students, ethnicity was found to be a strong determinant of the amount
of television viewed. Black children viewed nearly twice as much television as
White children, independent of parents' level of education, which itself was
inversely related to viewing frequency. No clear relationship was found between
viewing frequency and sex, birth order, or number of siblings. Among White
subjects, however, there were modest indications that children who live with
one natural parent and one stepparent may watch more television than children
from households with either two natural parents or one natural parent only. The
correlations of individuals' viewing frequency over 1- and 2-year time periods,
both among the total sampled and among selected demographic subgroups,
were highly significant. Thus not only demographic differences in viewing
frequency were found to be stable over time. For the individual child, viewing
frequency was a stable behavioral trait, regardless of the fluctuations of the
networks' offerings from year to year. Methodological implications of these
results for research on television and other aspects of human behavior are
discussed.
Children in the United States watch an average of 3 to 5 hours of

television every day. Parents and teachers are concerned about the
possible effects of excessive television viewing on children.
There is reason for such concern. Studies show that extensive

television viewing may be associated with violent or overly
aggressive behavior, poor academic performance, precocious
sexuality, obesity, and the use of drugs or alcohol.
___________________________________________________________________
How Can Excessive Television Viewing Affect Children's Learning And School
Performance?
Research on the effects of television viewing on children reveals a

number of possible problems.
TV Affects Social And Emotional Behavior
Studies on television viewing reveal that the amount of violence on

television is increasing. Viewing violent programs can make children
afraid, worried, or suspicious and may increase tendencies toward
aggressive behavior. Parents should keep in mind that television
often portrays sexual behavior and the use of alcohol, cigarettes, or
drugs in inviting terms.
TV Affects Creativity And Language Skills
Children who spend a great deal of time watching television have less
time for playing, reading, doing homework, and talking with other
children and adults. Language skills are best fostered through reading
and active two-way participation in conversations and play activities.
Excessive TV watching can interfere with growth in these areas.
TV Affects School Achievement
Research has found that the amount of time a child spends on

homework is significantly related to how well he or she does in
school. Since television viewing can interfere with the completion of
homework assignments and reduce the amount of sleep a child gets,
excessive viewing could affect your child's grades and alertness in
school.
How Can Parents Guide Their Children's Television Viewing?
Television viewing can have positive effects, if parents and teachers:
• Set Limits. Know how many hours of television your children watch. Limit your
children's viewing to 1 to 2 hours a day. Watching television is often more habit
than choice. Establish good viewing habits for your children. Suggest and
participate with your children in alternative activities such as reading, sports,
conversation, games, and hobbies. Because children model their behavior after
their parents, consider your own viewing habits and set a good example.
Eliminate some television viewing by setting a few basic rules, such as no
television during meals or before completing household tasks or homework.
• Plan. Encourage your children to plan their viewing by using a TV Guide or

newspaper listing rather than flipping channels. Help the children decide which
___________________________________________________________________
show to see and encourage them to watch a variety of programs appropriate for
their level of understanding. The television should be turned on only for specific
programs; it should be turned off when they are over.
• Participate. Know what your children watch on television. Watch with them and
talk about the programs afterward. Explain situations that are confusing. Ask
why any violent scenes occurred and how painful they were. Ask your children
for ideas about ways the conflict could have been resolved without violence.
• Monitor. Encourage children to watch programs about characters who cooperate

and care for each other. Such programs can influence children in positive ways
by modeling desirable behavior and setting good examples.
• Analyze Commercials. Children need your help to critically evaluate the

validity of the many products advertised on television. Teach children to
analyze commercials and recognize exaggerated claims. Point out that the
makers of the products pay for advertising.
• Express Your Views. Call your local television station when you are offended
or pleased by something on television. Stations, networks, and sponsors are all
concerned about the effects of television viewing on children and are responsive
to parents' concerns.
Television in the Lives of Children By Cyndy Scheibe
The following suggestions are based on our experiences with children and our research on
media literacy, and also include information from several published sources concerning the
effects of television on children. A list of these and other excellent readings is given at the end
of this handout, and if you are interested in reading more about this topic, we highly recommend
them.
In general, the effects of television on viewers can be divided into two different types: 1) direct
effects due to the content of what is seen (in the programs or commercials); and 2) indirect
effects due to the activity of watching TV, regardless of what is being watched. This second
type of effect is very important, because it usually means that the more time children spend
watching TV, the less time they are spending doing other important activities (like reading,
talking with others, getting exercise, playing games, being outdoors, etc.). A lot of the negative
effects of TV, like lower reading scores, obesity, and poor physical fitness, seem to be due to
these indirect effects. Because of that, it's probably important to set some limits on the amount
of time your child spends watching TV, regardless of what shows you allow them to watch.
Remember, four hours of Sesame Street is still four hours of television.
We've found that most parents are concerned about violence on TV and its effects on their
children. Television does include a lot of violence, not only on adult crime dramas, but also on
cartoons, on slapstick comedies, and on the nightly news. The psychological research that has
been done in this area over the last 20 years has shown three general effects of watching TV
violence: 1) children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, both on
television and in real life; 2) children may be more fearful of the world around them; and 3)
children may be more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others. The impact
of TV violence on aggression seems to be partly due to imitation of the aggressive actions that
children see (particularly if they are done by the "good guys") and partly due to the messages
that aggression works to get what you want and it's OK to use aggression if you are justified in
___________________________________________________________________
doing so (a message we get a lot in adult crime shows). Because of these findings, you may
want to set limits on the TV violence your child sees (see the specific guidelines below). While
children can learn aggressive behavior from television, parents and other adults have
tremendous power in moderating television's effect.
We would like to make it clear that our suggestions do not include specific programs or types of
programs that are good or bad for children to watch, nor suggested time limits for viewing. We
feel that those judgments should be made by parents and children together, reflecting your own
beliefs, attitudes and values, as well as your lifestyle and the realities concerning how well you
can enforce the guidelines that you want to make. The most important things, we feel, are
talking with your children about what they see on TV and why you have made the guidelines
that you did, letting your children take an active role in choosing what programs they watch, and
making TV only one part of your children's leisure activities.
With all that in mind, here are some specific suggestions:
1. Develop good viewing habits early in the child's life. Most children begin
watching television regularly before the age of 2, and it is easier to become
more flexible as the child gets older than it is to become more restrictive.
2. Set some limits on how much television your child can watch per day or per
week, with enough flexibility to change the limits under special circumstances.
Keep in mind that the average child (or adult) watches about 4 hours a day,
which is probably too much TV. Many parents set a limit of no more than 2
hours of TV a day, but you may feel more comfortable with a limit that is higher
or lower. One parent we know gives each child a certain number of "TV chips"
for the week, and the children turn in one chip for every half hour of TV they
watch.
3. Encourage planned viewing of specific programs rather than random viewing. If
children have a limited number of hours that they can watch TV, with some
choice over which programs they can watch, they will probably become more
selective consumers of television.
4. Make sure that television is not used as a substitute for participating in other
activities. It's awfully tempting to use TV as a "babysitter" because it works so
well as one, but try to do that only in emergencies and not as an ongoing
practice.
5. As much as possible, watch television with your child and discuss the things
that you see. Encourage your child to think about the characters and the
content of the programs and commercials viewed, and explain your own
feelings and interpretations. If there are programs that you don't want your child
to watch, explain your reasons to your child; you might want to watch the
program once with your child, pointing out the things you feel object to and
why. Even if you can't always watch TV with your child, talk with your child
about things he/she might have seen without you, or about television in
general. Explain your own beliefs and values concerning television, but allow
your child to express his/her own opinions which might not be the same as
yours. This is especially true for older children.
6. Encourage your child to watch programs that demonstrate helping, caring, and
cooperation. Studies show these types of programs can influence children to
behave in more socially acceptable ways. But make sure that you still talk
about those aspects of the program with your child; our studies have shown
that children may not pay attention to or understand all of the prosocial
messages they see, especially if they don't really like the program itself.
7. Balance reading and television activities. Children can "follow up" interesting
television programs by checking out the library book from which some
programs are adapted and by pursuing additional stories by the authors of
those books. They can also read about a topic before it is shown on television,
which will make the TV viewing experience a more active one.
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8. Help children to develop a balanced viewing schedule of different types of TV
programs (education, action, comedy, fine arts, fantasy, sports, and so on). Try
to watch at least one episode of a new program that your child wants to watch;
don't assume that if a program is non-violent or on PBS that it will necessarily
be consistent with your values.
9. Point out positive examples that show how various ethnic and cultural groups
all contributing to making a better society. Also point out positive examples of
females performing competently both in professions and at home, and elderly
people who are active and intelligent. These three groups (females, elderly and
people of color) are still often portrayed in negative and stereotypical ways.
10. When violent actions occur in a program, discuss them with your child. Focus
especially on what motivated the character's actions, whether your child thinks
the action was right or wrong, and whether your child thinks the same thing
would happen in the real world. Again, be sure to find out what your child
understands first, before you make your own comments; children may not get
the same things out of the television content they see as adults do. 11.Be a
good role model yourself. If you don't want your children to watch more than a
few hours of television, then it's not really fair for you to do so. If you don't like
your children to watch violence, then you might want to limit the amount of
violence you watch too. Your children will learn much more from you than they
will from TV, so be careful not to show them examples of TV viewing that you'd
rather they didn't learn. 12.You can buy locks for certain TV channels (e.g.
cable channels) rather inexpensively. Check with your local cable TV station. If
you are serious about not letting your child watch certain things on TV, then
make sure that you carry through on your restrictions as best you can.
For more information, we recommend the following:
 Bryant, J. (1990). Television and the American Family. Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Chen, M. (1994). The Smart Parents Guide to Kids' TV. Emoryville,
CA: Publishers Group West.
 Comstock, G. & Paik, L. (1991). Television and the American Child.
New York: Academic Press.
 Condry, J. (1989). The Psychology of Television. Hillsdale, NJ:
 Liebert, R. M. & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The Early Window (3rd Ed.) New
York: Pergamon Press.
 Singer, D.G. & Singer, J.L. (1987). "Practical Suggestions for
Controlling Television." Journal of Early Adolescence, 7, pp. 365-369.
 Taking Chart of Your TV, A Guide to Critical Viewing for Parents and
Children. Booklet, available free from Time-Warner Cable in Ithaca, NY
(by request).
Videotapes
 "Buy Me That" (and its two sequels). Available from HBO through your
local TV affiliate station, cable company or library.
And for children:
 Berenstain, Stan & Jan (1984). The Berenstain Bears and Too Much
TV. New York: Random House.
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 West, Dan (1988). The Day the TV Blew Up. Morton Grove, IL:
Whitman.
Questions about the effects of television violence have existed since the earliest days of
this medium. Indeed, the first expression of formal concern can be found in
Congressional hearings in the early 1950s. For example, the United States Senate
Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency held a
series of hearings during 1954-55 on the impact of television programs on juvenile
crime. These hearings set the stage for continuing congressional investigations by this
committee and others in the House and Senate from the 1950s to the present.
These early congressional inquiries were focused on what we did not

know about television and violence because social scientists were
slow to respond to concerns about this medium of popular
entertainment. Although there was a body of research on movies and
comic books, these were quite different forms of media and different
effects might be expected. Still, prominent social scientists such as
developmental psychologist Eleanor Maccoby and sociologist Paul
Lazarsfeld testified at the 1954-55 hearings that, although more
research was needed, there were important reasons for concern
about televised violence (Lazarsfeld, 1955; Maccoby, 1954; United
States Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 1955a; 1955b;
1965a; 1965b; 1966).
In addition to the congressional hearings begun in the 1950s (which

have continued through 1994), there are landmark reports that
include: National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of
Violence (Baker & Ball, 1969); Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory
Committee on Television and Social Behavior (1972); the report on
children and television drama by the Group for the Advancement of
Psychiatry (1982); National Institute of Mental Health, Television and
Behavior Report (NIMH, 1982; Pearl, Bouthilet, & Lazar, 1982);
National Research Council (1993), violence report; and reports from
the American Psychological Association's "Task Force on Television
and Society" (Huston, et al., 1992) and "Commission on Violence and
Youth" (American Psychological Association, 1992; Donnerstein,
Slaby, & Eron, 1992). All of these reports confirm the harmful effects
of media violence on the behavior of children, youth, and adults who
view such programming.
And yet, despite decades of research, there is a perception that the

research evidence on TV violence is unclear or contradictory. This
perception is incorrect and this review will address the following
issues: What do we know about the impact of television violence?
What are some of the major research findings that form the basis for
concern? Without belaboring prior reviews, the main issues revolve
around the extent of exposure to violence and the correlational,
___________________________________________________________________
experimental and field studies that demonstrate the effects of this
viewing on the attitudes and behavior of children and adults.
Extent of Viewing:
Children begin watching television at a very early age, sometimes as early as six
months, and are ardent viewers by the time that they are two or three years old. The
general pattern of viewing is one of a steady rise in the number of hours viewed from
early childhood through preadolescence and then a sharp drop in viewing during the
adolescent years. According to audience rating surveys (Nielsen, 1988), the typical
American household has the television set on for more than seven hours each day and
children age 2 to 11 spend an average of 28 hours per week viewing (Andreasen, 1990;
Condry, 1989; Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988). Naturally, the content viewed is more
important than the amount of viewing and televised violence is one of the chief
concerns.
The most extensive analyses of the incidence of violence on

television are the studies conducted by Gerbner and his colleagues
on the nature of American television programs. The results of these
yearly analyses of the level of violence on American television for the
22-year period 1967-89 (Gerbner & Signorielli, 1990) indicate a
consistently high level of violence. There were some minor
fluctuations in the early 1970s followed by a steady increase to 1976,
a sharp decline in 1977, and then a steady climb to an all-time high in
1982-83. According to Gerbner's initial analysis (Gerbner, 1972),
eight out of every ten plays broadcast during the survey period in
1969 contained some form of violence, and eight episodes of violence
occurred during each hour of broadcast time. Furthermore, programs
especially designed for children, such as cartoons, are the most
violent of all programming. Later analyses by Gerbner and Gross
(1974, 1976a, 1976b) indicated that there was some decline in
violence levels from 1969 to 1975, at least in terms of the
prominence of killing. However, the level of violence dramatically
increased in 1976 (Gerbner et al., 1977) and was followed by a
decline to one of.the lowest levels in the 1977 season (Gerbner et al.,
1978). This decline was quite dramatic. From the 'bumper-crop
violence harvest' of 1976 to the relatively placid 1977, the
percentage of programs containing violence fell from 90 to 75.5; the
rate of violent episodes per hour fell from 9.5 to 6.7; and the rate of
violence per program fell from 6.2 to 5.0 episodes. However, this
downward trend was reversed in 1978 and through the early 1980s,
and violence in weekend children's programs reached 30.3 violence
episodes per hour in the 1982-83 season (Gerbner & Signorielli,
1990). Overall, the levels of violence in prime-time programming
have averaged about five acts per hour and children's Saturday
morning programs have averaged about 20 to 25 violent acts per
hour.
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In addition to broadcast television, cable TV adds to the level of
violence through new, more violent, programs, and by recycling older
violent broadcasts. A recent survey by the Center for Media and
Public Affairs (Lichter & Amundson, 1992) identified 1,846 violent
scenes broadcast and cablecast between 6 a.m. to midnight on one
day in Washington, D.C. The most violent periods were between 6 to
9 a.m. with 497 violent scenes (165.7 per hour) and between 2 to 5
p.m. with 609 violent scenes (203 per hour). Most of this violence is
presented without context or judgement as to its acceptability. And
most of this violence in the early morning and afternoon is viewed by
children and youth.
What are the effects of this exposure to these levels of televised

violence? What do we know about the influence of TV violence from
the broad range of correlational, experimental and field studies that
have been conducted over the past 40 years?
Correlational Studies:
The weight of evidence from correlational studies is fairly consistent: viewing and/or
preference for violent television is related to aggressive attitudes, values and behaviors.
This result was true for the studies conducted when television was new, and the
measures of children's aggression were teachers' ratings. It is still true for more recent
studies when the measures of aggressiveness have become more sophisticated.
To choose several studies as examples: Robinson and Bachman

(1972) found a relationship between the number of hours of
television viewed and adolescent self-reports of involvement in
aggressive or antisocial behavior. Atkin, Greenberg, Korzenny, and
McDermott (1979) used a different measure of aggressive behavior.
They gave nine to thirteen-year-old boys and girls situations such as
the following. Suppose that you are riding your bicycle down the
street and some other child comes up and pushes you off your
bicycle. What would you do? The response options included physical
or verbal aggression along with options to reduce or avoid conflict.
These investigators found that physical or verbal aggressive
responses were selected by 45 per cent of heavy-television-violence
viewers compared to only 21 per cent of the light-violence viewers. In
a further study, Sheehan (1983) followed two groups of Australian
children, first and third-graders, for a three-year period. He found that
for the older group, now third through fifth grade, both the overall
amount of violence viewing and the intensity of viewing were
significantly related to the child's level of aggressive behavior as
rated by their classmates. Finally, in a study focused on adults,
Phillips (1983) investigated the effects of the portrayal of suicides in
television soap operas on the suicide rate in the United States using
death records compiled by the National Center for Health Statistics.
He found, over a six-year period, that whenever a major soap opera
___________________________________________________________________
personality committed suicide on television, within three days there
was a significant increase in the number of female suicides across the
nation.
Experimental Studies:
The major initial experimental studies of the cause and effect relation between
television/film violence and aggressive behavior were conducted by Bandura and his
colleagues (Bandura, Ross & Ross,1961, 1963) working with young children, and by
Berkowitz and his associates (Berkowitz, 1962; Berkowitz & Rawlings, 1963;
Berkowitz, Corwin & Heironimus, 1963) who studied adolescents. In a typical early
study conducted by Bandura (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963), a young child was
presented with a film, back-projected on a television screen, of a model who kicked and
punished an inflated plastic doll. The child was then placed in a playroom setting and
the incidence of aggressive behavior was recorded. The results of these early studies
indicated that children who had viewed the aggressive film were more aggressive in the
playroom than those children who had not observed the aggressive model. These early
studies were criticized on the grounds that the aggressive behavior was not meaningful
within the social context and that the stimulus materials were not representative of
available television programming. Subsequent studies have used more typical television
programs and more realistic measures of aggression, but basically Bandura's early
findings still stand.
Another early study (Liebert & Baron, 1972) investigated young

children's willingness to hurt another child after viewing videotaped
sections of aggressive or neutral television programs. The boys and
girls were in two age groups, five to six and eight to nine-years-old.
The aggressive program consisted of segments of The Untouchables,
while the neutral program featured a track race. Following viewing,
the children were placed in a setting in which they could either
facilitate or disrupt the game-playing performance of an ostensible
child playing in an adjoining room. The main findings were that the
children who viewed the aggressive program demonstrated a greater
willingness to hurt another child. One could ask, does the same effect
hold for cartoons? The answer seems to be yes. Several studies have
demonstrated that one exposure to a violent cartoon leads to
increased aggression (Ellis & Sekyra, 1972; Lovaas, 1961; Mussen &
Rutherford, 1961; Ross, 1972). Moreover, Hapkiewitz and Roden
(1971) found that boys who had seen violent cartoons were less likely
to share their toys than those who had not seen the aggressive
cartoon. It seems clear from experimental studies that one can
produce increased aggressive behavior as a result of either extended
or brief exposure to televised violence, but questions remain about
whether this heightened aggressiveness observed in the
experimental setting spills over into daily life.
___________________________________________________________________
Field Studies:
In the typical field-experiment, the investigator presents television programs in the
normal viewing setting and observes behavior where it naturally occurs. The
investigator controls the television diet either by arranging a special series of programs
or by choosing towns that in the natural course of events receive different television
programs.
One early field-experiment was a study conducted by Stein and

Friedrich (1972) for the Surgeon General's project. These
investigators presented 97 preschool children with a diet of either
'antisocial' 'prosocial', or 'neutral' television programs during a four-
week viewing period. The antisocial diet consisted of twelve half-hour
episodes of Batman and Superman cartoons. The prosocial diet was
composed of twelve episodes of Mister Roger's Neighborhood (a
program that stresses such themes as sharing possessions and
cooperative play). The neutral diet consisted of children's
programming which was neither violent nor prosocial. The children
were observed through a nine-week period, which consisted of three
weeks of pre-viewing baseline, four weeks of television exposure, and
two weeks of post-viewing follow-up. All observations were conducted
in a naturalistic setting while the children were engaged in daily
school activities. The observers recorded various forms of behavior
that could be regarded as prosocial (i.e. helping, sharing, cooperative
play) or antisocial (i.e. pushing, arguing, breaking toys). The overall
results indicated that children who were judged to be initially
somewhat aggressive became significantly more so as a result of
viewing the Batman and Superman cartoons. Moreover, the children
who had viewed the prosocial diet of Mister Roger's Neighborhood
were less aggressive, more cooperative and more willing to share
with other children.
In another field-experiment, Parke and his colleagues (Parke et al.,

1977) found similar heightened aggression among both American and
Belgian teenage boys following exposure to aggressive films. In the
Belgian study-- which replicated the findings of two similar studies
conducted in the United States--teenage boys residing in a minimum-
security institution were presented with a diet of either aggressive or
neutral films. This study included a one-week baseline observation
period, followed by one week of film viewing, and a one-week post-
viewing observation period. There were four cottages involved. Two
cottages contained boys with high levels of aggressive behavior; two
contained boys with low levels of aggression. One of each pair of
cottages was assigned to the aggressive film condition, while the
other two viewed the neutral films. Only the two initially high-
aggressive cottages were affected by the movies; those boys who
saw the aggressive movies increased their level of aggression, while
___________________________________________________________________
those who were exposed to the neutral films reduced their level of
aggression.
Still, one might ask whether such results are found when the variation
in television diets occurs naturally rather than by special
arrangement. Williams and her colleagues (Joy, Kimball & Zabrack,
1986; Williams, 1986) had the opportunity to evaluate the impact of
televised violence on the behavior of children before and after the
introduction of television in a Canadian community. They compared
children living in the before/after television town with their peers in
two other towns where television was well established. The three
towns were called Notel (no television reception), Unitel (receiving
only the government-owned commercial channel-CBC), and Multitel
(receiving the CBC and three American commercial networks-ABC,
CBS and NBC). Children in all three towns were evaluated at Time 1
when Notel did not receive a television signal and again at Time 2
when Notel had had television for two years (it had received the
government channel-CBC). Results indicated that there were no
differences across the three towns at Time 1, but at Time 2 the
children from the former Notel town were significantly more
aggressive, both physically and verbally, than the children in the
Unitel or Multitel towns. Moreover, only children in the Notel town
manifested any significant increase in physical and verbal aggression
from Time 1 to Time 2.
Extent of Effects:
We get a clearer picture about the extent of TV violence effects when we know more
about the way children watch televised violence. For example, Ekman and his
associates (Ekman et al., 1972) found that those children whose facial expressions,
while viewing televised violence, depicted the positive emotions of happiness, pleasure,
interest or involvement were more likely to hurt another child than were those children
whose facial expressions indicated disinterest or displeasure.
The long-term influence of television has not been extensively

investigated but we do have indications from several major studies.
In an initial longitudinal study Lefkowitz and his colleagues (Lefkowitz
et al., 1972) were able to demonstrate long-term effects in a group of
children followed-up over a ten-year period. In this instance, Eron
(1963) had previously demonstrated a relationship between
preference for violent media and the aggressive behavior of these
children at the age of eight. One question now posed was, would this
relationship hold at later ages? To answer this question, the
investigators obtained peer-rated measures of aggressive behavior
and preferences for various kinds of television, radio and comic books
when the children were eight years old. Ten years later, when the
members of the group were eighteen years old, the investigators
again obtained measures of aggressive behavior and television
___________________________________________________________________
program preferences. The results for boys indicated that preference
for television violence at age eight was significantly related to
aggression at age eight (r = .21), but that preference for television
violence at age eighteen was not related to aggression at age
eighteen (r = .05). A second question posed was, could this
adolescent aggressiveness be predicted from our knowledge of their
viewing habits in early childhood? And, the answer seems to be yes.
The important finding here is the significant relationship, for boys,
between preference for violent media at age eight and aggressive
behavior at age eighteen (r = .31). Equally important is the lack of
relationship in the reverse direction; that is, preference for violent
television programs at age eighteen was not produced by their
aggressive behavior in early childhood (r = .01). The most plausible
interpretation of this pattern of correlations is, that early preference
for violent television programming and other media is one factor in
the production of aggressive and antisocial behavior when the young
boy becomes a young man.
In more recent, short- term, longitudinal studies conducted by

Lefkowitz and Eron and by their colleagues (Eron, 1982; Huesmann,
Langerspetz & Eron, 1984; Sheehan, 1983), they found some short-
term effects of viewing violence on aggressive behavior of children in
the United States, Australia and Finland.
Finally, the 22-year longitudinal study (Huesmann, Eron, Lefkowitz &

Walder, 1984)--a follow-up to the earlier Lefkowitz et al. (1972)
study--has found significant causal-correlations (r = .41) between
violence viewing at age eight and serious interpersonal criminal
behavior at age 30.
In a different approach, a study by Belson (1978) has substantiated

other long-term effects and has helped pin down which types of
programs have the most influence. Belson interviewed 1565 youths
who were a representative sample of thirteen to seventeen-year-old
boys living in London. These boys were interviewed on several
occasions concerning the extent of their exposure to a selection of
violent television programs broadcast during the period 1959-71. The
level and type of violence in these programs were rated by members
of the BBC viewing panel. It was thus possible to obtain, for each boy,
a measure of both the magnitude and type of exposure to televised
violence (e.g. realistic, fictional, etc.). Furthermore, each boy's level
of violent behavior was determined by his own report of how often he
had been involved in any of 53 categories of violence over the
previous six months. The degree of seriousness of the acts reported
by the boys ranged from only slightly violent aggravation such as
taunting, to more serious and very violent behavior such as: 'I tried to
force a girl to have sexual intercourse with me; I bashed a boy's head
___________________________________________________________________
against a wall; I threatened to kill my father; I burned a boy on the
chest with a cigarette while my mates held him down'. Approximately
50 per cent of the 1565 boys were not involved in any violent acts
during the six-month period. However, of those who were involved in
violence, 188 (12 per cent) were involved in ten or more acts during
the six-month period. When Belson compared the behavior of boys
who had higher exposure to televised violence to those who had
lower exposure (and had been matched on a wide variety of possible
contributing factors), he found that the high- violence viewers were
more involved in serious violent behavior. Moreover, he found that
serious interpersonal violence is increased by long-term exposure to
(in descending order of importance):
1. Plays or films in which close personal relationships are a major theme and
which feature verbal or physical violence
2. Programs in which violence seems to be thrown in for its own sake or is not
necessary to the plot
3. Programs featuring fictional violence of a realistic nature
4. Programs in which the violence is presented as being in a good cause
5. Violent westerns.
In summarizing the extent of the effects, we agree with Comstock (Comstock & Paik,
1991) that there are multiple ways in which television and film violence influence the
viewer. Comstock suggests four dimensions: Efficacy relates to whether the violence on
the screen is rewarded or punished; Normativeness refers to whether the screen
violence is justified or lacks any consequences; Pertinence describes the extent to which
the screen violence has some similarity to the viewer's social context; and Suggestibility
concerns the predisposing factors of arousal or frustration. Drawing on these four
dimensions, Comstock suggests (Comstock & Paik, 1991, pp. 254-255) situations for
which we have experimental evidence of the effects of film or television violence:
1. Rewarding or lack of punishment for those who act aggressively (e.g., Bandura,
Ross, & Ross, 1963).
2. If the aggressive behavior is seen as justified (e.g., Berkowitz & Rawlings,
1963).
3. There are cues in the portrayed violence which have similarity to those in real
life (e.g., Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981).
4. There is similarity between the aggressor and the viewer (e.g., Rosekrans,
1967).
5. Strong identification with the aggressor, such as imagining being in their place
(e.g., Turner & Berkowitz, 1972).
6. Behavior that is motivated to inflict harm or injury (e.g., Geen & Stonner,
1972).
7. Violence in which the consequences are lowered, such as no pain, sorrow, or
remorse (e.g., Berkowitz & Rawlings, 1963).
8. Violence that is portrayed more realistically or seen as a real event (e.g., Atkin,
1983).
___________________________________________________________________
9. Violence which is not subjected to critical commentary (e.g., Lefcourt, et al.,
1966).
10. Portrayals which seem to please the viewer (e.g., Ekman, et al., 1972).
11. Portrayals of violence that are unrelieved by other events (Lieberman, 1975).
12. Violence that includes physical abuse in addition to or compared to verbal
aggression (e.g., Liebermann, 1975).
13. Violence that leaves the viewer in a state or arousal (e.g., Zillmann, 1971).
14. When viewers are predisposed to act aggressively (e.g., Donnerstein &
Berkowitz, 1981).
15. Individuals who are in a state of frustration after they view violence, either from
an external source or from the viewing itself (e.g., Worchel, Hardy, & Hurley,
1976).
Conclusions:
Thus, although there is continuing discussion about the interpretation of

research evidence concerning the impact of television violence, most
researchers would agree with the conclusion contained in the report by the
National Institute of Mental Health (1982), which suggests that there is a
consensus developing among members of the research community that
"...violence on television does lead to aggressive behavior by children and
teenagers who watch the programs. This conclusion is based on laboratory
experiments and on field studies. Not all children become aggressive, of course,
but the correlations between violence and aggression are positive. In magnitude,
television violence is as strongly correlated with aggressive behavior as any
other behavioral variable that has been measured. The research question has
moved from asking whether or not there is an effect, to seeking explanations for
the effect." (p. 6).
While the effects of television violence are not simple and

straightforward, meta-analyses and reviews of a large body of
research (Hearold, 1986; Huston, et al, 1992; Wood, Wong, &
Chachere, 1991) suggest that there are clear reasons for
concern and caution in relation to the impact of televised
violence. To be sure, there are many factors that influence the
relationship between viewing violence and aggressive behavior
and there has been considerable debate about the nature of
these influences and the extent of concern about televised
violence (American Psychological Association, 1985; 1992;
Centerwall, 1992; Comstock & Paik, 1991, Condry, 1989; Cook,
Kendzierski, & Thomas, 1983; Donnerstein, Linz, & Penrod,
1987; Freedman, 1984; 1986; Friedrich- Cofer & Huston, 1986;
Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 1982; Huesmann &
Eron, 1986; Huston, et al, 1992; McGuire, 1986; Milavsky,
Kessler, Stipp, & Rubens, 1982; Murray, 1973, 1980; Murray &
Kippax, 1979; National Institute of Mental Health, 1982;
National Research Council, 1993; Paik & Comstock, 1994;
___________________________________________________________________
Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television
and Social Behavior, 1972). Nevertheless, it is clear that there
is a considerable amount of violence on television and that this
violence on the small screen may translate into changes in
attitudes, values, or behavior on the part of both younger and
older viewers.
Although there are differing views on the impact of TV violence,

one very strong summary is provided by Eron (1992) in his
recent Congressional testimony:
There can no longer be any doubt that heavy exposure to televised violence is
one of the causes of aggressive behavior, crime and violence in society. The
evidence comes from both the laboratory and real-life studies. Television
violence affects youngsters of all ages, of both genders, at all socio-economic
levels and all levels of intelligence. The effect is not limited to children who are
already disposed to being aggressive and is not restricted to this country. The
fact that we get this same finding of a relationship between television violence
and aggression in children in study after study, in one country after another,
cannot be ignored. The causal effect of television violence on aggression, even
though it is not very large, exists. It cannot be denied or explained away. We
have demonstrated this causal effect outside the laboratory in real-life among
many different children. We have come to believe that a vicious cycle exists in
which television violence makes children more aggressive and these aggressive
children turn to watching more violence to justify their own behavior." (p. 1)
So too, the recent report by the American Psychological Association Task Force
on Television and Society (Huston, et al., 1992) adds: "...the behavior patterns
established in childhood and adolescence are the foundation for lifelong patterns
manifested in adulthood" (p. 57).
The multiple discussions and communication strategies

proposed in this project are designed to resolve these differing
interpretations, both among social scientists and across the
fields of mental health and journalism. The harmonic
convergence of viewpoints and interpretation of research
findings developed through this proposal will greatly enhance
public understanding.
Furthermore, the recent summary (released in August, 1993) of

the American Psychological Association Commission on
Violence and Youth--Violence & Youth: psychology's Response--
confirms the findings noted above and reaffirms the need to
consider ways to reduce the level of violence in all media. In
particular, the APA Commission suggests the development of
rating systems for television programs and videotapes that
would move beyond the existing rating system used by the
___________________________________________________________________
Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) by focusing on
more relevant behavioral descriptors and indicators of potential
harm to children and youth. Indeed, other organizations, such
as Media Scope, have suggested reviews of the rating system in
the context of experiences in other countries where ratings are
more attuned to the special needs of children (Federman,
1993). In addition to ratings issues, the APA Commission
directed two strong recommendations for policy change to the
Federal Communications Commission:
"We call upon the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to review, as a

condition for license renewal, the programming and outreach efforts and
accomplishments of television stations in helping to solve the problem of youth
violence. This recommendation is consistent with the research evidence
indicating television's potential to broadcast stations to 'serve the educational
and informational needs of children,' both in programming and in outreach
activities designed to enhance the educational value of programming. We also
call on the FCC to institute rules that would require broadcasters, cable
operators and other telecasters to avoid programs containing an excessive
amount of dramatized violence during 'child viewing hours' between 6 am and
10 pm." (American Psychological Association, 1993, pp. 77-78)
To be sure, most of the research reviewed above is based upon a broad

conception of media influence rooted in social learning theory. So too, there are
alternative conceptions of media influence and viewer response, such as uses
and gratifications theory (Kratz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Kippax &
Murray, 1980), that place greater emphasis on the active role of the viewer in
determining the effects of media through selective use. Also, there are a number
of scholars who have offered alternative interpretations of some of the research
on television violence. For example, Cook and his colleagues (Cook,
Kendzierski, & Thomas, 1983) point out some cautionary notes in interpreting
the range of studies reviewed by the NIMH in 1982 report on Television and
Behavior and McGuire (1986) expressed strong concern about the overemphasis
on the powerful effects of television. These are important tempering views and
they need to be understood in the context of the large body of research findings
noted above. And yet, one must not dismiss the extensive, cumulative evidence
of potential harmful effect associated with viewing violence in film, video, and
television.
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___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
subsequent aggressiveness. Journal of Experimental Social
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434.
The Effects of Television In The Home
Through the effects of the media people can be cheered up or depressed, calmed or
made aggressive, uplifted or degraded. If they let evil thoughts and acts pour into their
minds, they can even be influenced to sympathize with sin and to accept it.
___________________________________________________________________
Article:
What’s on TV Tonight?
By Larry A. Tucker Ensign, Feb. 1988
Article was found here: www.lds.org,

please go here for copyright info.
With the flip of a switch we can bring the world into our homes. With television, we can
tune in to wholesome entertainment, helpful news, and educational, uplifting, and
informative programs.
But TV can also bring an influence—sometimes subtle, sometimes not so subtle—that

can destroy whatever spirit of unity and righteousness we may be trying to encourage in
our lives.
The days are long past when we could consider TV to be an innocent, innocuous part of
daily life or a casual baby-sitter. It is a powerful, persuasive teacher and a primary
companion for children, many of whom spend more time in front of the TV than in
school. Considering that some members of the average family watch more than seven
hours of TV per day, it is not surprising that contemporary research indicates that human
development and behavior are affected by television to a degree far exceeding earlier
judgments.
Unfortunately, this medium, which has been used for much good, has increasingly been
misused. The number of programs and commercials that conflict with gospel standards
is steadily rising, and few viewers demonstrate enough self-discipline to resist. Some of
us don’t even realize what hidden messages we’re receiving—and little by little we
subconsciously come to accept them as normal or appropriate.
The following discussion is based on some of the most recent information available.
Most of this research comes from the 1970s and early 80s, and it deals only with U.S.
network television, excluding cable stations. Still, it can give us an idea of some of the
messages TV is sending.
Violence
According to the Neilson Index, the average American child watches 18,000 television
murders before he or she graduates from high school. Other acts of aggression, such as
hitting and shooting, are commonplace in children’s shows, where violence tends to be
greater than in adult programs.
Content analyses conducted over more than a decade show that the level of violence on
television has remained stable and high. Findings indicate that more than 80 percent of
all television programs contain violent behavior and that the average television program
includes more than five acts of violence.
Alcohol
Research indicates that consumption of alcohol is shown or mentioned in 80 percent of

prime-time programs. Alcoholic beverages not only outnumber other beverages
consumed on TV, but the pattern of drinking is virtually the inverse of the pattern found
in the real world. On television, acts of drinking alcohol are twice as frequent as acts of
drinking the second-ranking beverages—coffee and tea—fourteen times more frequent
than consuming soft drinks, and at least fifteen times more frequent than drinking water.
Moreover, 52 percent of all identifiable alcoholic beverages on television are hard liquor,
22 percent are wine, and 16 percent are beer.
___________________________________________________________________
Immorality
Perhaps the most harmful messages TV brings into our homes relate to intimate
physical relations. In the past several years, there has been a marked increase in the
frequency of flirtatious behavior and sexual innuendos on TV. Storylines and settings
that include revealing or enticing apparel and explicit camera angles are on the increase.
Moreover, references to intimate physical relations on TV, whether verbally insinuated or
contextually implied, occur most often between unmarried partners—five times more
frequently than between married couples. References to such relations with prostitutes
come in second. Together, references to sexual conduct between unmarried partners
and with prostitutes account for about 70 percent of all references to intimate physical
conduct on television.
Male/female associations on TV tend to overemphasize the physical aspects of

relationships. Couples tend to spend a disproportionate amount of time expressing love
physically rather than through acts of kindness, sacrifice, and service. In 1975, the
following acts occurred every evening from 8:00 to 11:00 P.M. on the three major U.S.
television networks: kissing, 3.7 times per hour; embracing, 2.7 times per hour;
aggressive touching, 5.5 times per hour. In the thirteen years since that study was
made, much more intimate contact has become commonplace—in commercials as well
as regular programming.
Also disturbing is the research that shows nearly 33 percent of all close relationships on
TV involve conflict or violence. Relationships that are romantically linked tend to have
the most conflict and violence—48 percent.
One expert has concluded: “Television is a sex educator of our children and a potentially
powerful one. Contemporary television entertainment is saturated with … lessons which
are likely to have an impact on young viewers’ sexual development and behavior.”
The amount of contaminated content on television is significant. The preceding findings

are just a few of thousands of possible examples. Few programs can be watched in their
entirety without viewers being exposed to undesirable material. Sometimes we reason
that because most of a show is wholesome—there are just a few unacceptable parts—
that it is worth watching. We may feel that we can ignore the foul parts of a program if
the rest of it is uplifting.
What we forget is that once images and thoughts are put into the mind, they are not
easily removed. For this reason, exposure to erotic television scenes may be more
harmful in some ways than alcohol. Although both damage the body, alcohol is
eventually metabolized and eliminated from the system. Once pictures are viewed,
however, they enter the mind and are available for recall and flashback for decades to
come. Moreover, when questionable material is entertained regularly, it influences
values, attitudes, and in time, behavior.
Sometimes we feel justified in our viewing behavior because we are strict with our
children and do not allow them to partake of unwholesome entertainment. But is a
program unfit for youngsters appropriate for adults? Are we not also to be pure and
undefiled?
Some Effects of Television
___________________________________________________________________
The primary conclusion of a two-volume report of the National Institute of Mental Health
is that television teaches. During the past decade, numerous studies have been
conducted to determine precisely the consequences of the many microlessons of
television. Without question, TV has tremendous influence on its viewers—far more than
most of us realize.
The idea that viewing violence on TV tends to increase aggressive behavior has been
thoroughly researched and established. The reverse is also true: pro-social behavior can
induce an attitude of cooperation and helpfulness in viewers. However, this behavior
accounts for only a small portion of television portrayals.
Research also suggests that vicarious experience through the media, such as television
entertainment, tends to engender feelings of pessimism and even fearfulness. Studies
show that a diet high in TV leads to feelings of tension and mistrust. These negative
feelings are quite understandable, considering that most plots are constructed around
problems and conflicts, pathology and crime.
Aggressive and sexual behavior on TV have become increasingly explicit and graphic in
order to attract audiences. Nowadays, little is withheld from viewers’ senses. Viewers
have become blunted over time because their arousal reactions have become
habituated. Evidently television, especially violent fare, desensitizes and creates
callousness. It is now clear that exposure to violence increases tolerance for violence.
One might expect TV watching to be associated with imagination and creativity.

However, several studies, including my own research, indicate that watching television
actually depresses these important qualities. Evidence suggests that television tends to
replace self-generated activities, such as reading, building, drawing, and play, which are
known to stimulate the mind and enhance creativity.
In my own research, I have found that as the levels of TV viewing increase, adolescents
tend to be more troubled and frustrated, less moralistic and church-oriented, less
sensitive and self-controlled, and less stable and outgoing. Other research shows that
as the levels of TV-watching rise, attitudes of acceptance toward drug use increase, and
school grades, reading ability, and verbal fluency tend to decline. Another study of mine
suggests that, among teenagers, alcohol use and television viewing are significantly
related.
Some students of television’s effects suggest that the primary problem of television is
not the behavior it produces, but the behavior it prevents. It is clear that television is a
passive pastime—mentally, socially, and physically. When the tube is on, the mind is off,
interpersonal interactions cease, and the body is sedentary. Once tuned in, adults and
youth do not read books, study scriptures, play games together, ride bikes, or visit
friends. The admonition of modern-day prophets to be busily involved in sharing the
gospel, tracing our ancestors, attending the temple, writing in our journals, serving
others, and sharing memorable times with family members cannot be heeded while
watching television. Indeed, TV tends to replace many important activities.
Recently, I completed two studies that examined additional risks associated with the
passivity of television viewing. One investigation employed a sample of approximately
400 high-school boys. As time spent watching television increased among the boys,
physical fitness levels decreased significantly. Infrequent television viewers performed
substantially better than frequent viewers on six of seven measures of physical fitness,
including global fitness, pull-ups, push-ups, sit-ups, a side-step activity, and a jog/walk
test of aerobic fitness. Infrequent watchers also performed significantly better than
___________________________________________________________________
moderate viewers on most of the physical fitness tests.
Another recent study of mine included 6,138 adults. Results indicated that as television
viewing time increased, prevalence of obesity and super-obesity increased. Frequent
television watchers were 2.3 times more likely to be obese, and 3.2 times more likely to
be super-obese, than infrequent watchers. Similarly, other researchers have found that
the more television youngsters watch, the greater their risk of obesity.
We as Church members frequently feel that we have insufficient time to accomplish the
things we have been admonished to do. What many of us don’t realize is that we can
gain the equivalent of almost one extra workday each week simply by cutting down
television viewing by one hour each day. In a year, we could free up an extra six weeks’
worth of eight-hour days! This “extra” time could be used to develop new, desirable
habits.
Few influences are more pervasive and have greater power to shape our attitudes and
practices—both subtly and directly, for both good and ill—than television. It is true that
many programs have value, but we must choose carefully and teach our families how to
choose. As we shorten our exposure to TV—and especially to the misleading messages
it sends us—we can lengthen our strides in the gospel and better utilize the precious
time available to engage in good works and enrich our families with that which is good
and uplifting in literature, art, and life itself.
___________________________________________________________________
Breaking the TV Habit
Excessive TV viewing is a behavior pattern acquired by frequent repetition that

sometimes becomes involuntary, or nearly so. For many families, watching television is
more than a habit; it is a dependency, marked by withdrawal and dysfunction when the
TV set is not available. It is a pattern that requires diligent effort to break.
To counter the problems associated with TV viewing, families need to establish rules
and guidelines. An excellent time to do so would be during a well-planned family council
meeting or family home evening. Inform yourself and your family of the facts regarding
excessive TV viewing before making your decisions. And involve all family members in
formulating the boundaries so everyone will support the policy—and so they will view it
as a remedy rather than a restriction.
One of the first decisions you need to make is how much time family members will be
allowed to spend watching TV each day or week. Research suggests that there are few,
if any, problems associated with one to two hours of daily viewing. As viewing time rises
beyond this level, however, hazards seem to increase commensurately. Even if your
family is not ready to establish a time limit, a firm commitment to reduce daily viewing
would be a step in the right direction.
More critical than establishing a TV time limit is the need to establish guidelines to
ensure that you and your family watch only wholesome, worthwhile programs.
Indiscriminate television viewing, even for short periods of time, can have unhealthy
effects on the mind and the spirit. Here are some questions that can be helpful as you
evaluate and select programs to watch:
1. What else could we be doing that would be more constructive and unifying for our
family?
2. What are the underlying messages of this program?
3. Are principles contrary to the gospel taught in this program—perhaps subtly?
4. Do the characters dress immodestly or behave immorally?
5. Would we feel comfortable during the entire program if the Savior was watching with
us?
Plan your television viewing in advance. Just as preplanned meals help dieters to stay
within prescribed caloric boundaries and to use their calories wisely, pre-selection of
television programs helps viewers to stay within predetermined time limits and to avoid
haphazard channel searches and inappropriate programs. A good practice is to turn the
set off when the preplanned program is over; otherwise, you may find yourself lured into
another hour of television entertainment.
___________________________________________________________________

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“THE STUDY OF ADVERTISING

AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA”

ADVERTISING AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA: - A STATUS

REPORT” submitted by Shri M.A.Burghate to Amravati University,

Amravati for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of

Commerce, is a bonafide and original research work carried out under my

guidance and supervision. It is piece of research of a sufficiently high

published in any other form.

been duly acknowledged.

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “THE STUDY OF

ADVERTISING AGENCY BUSINESS IN INDIA: - A STATUS

REPORT” is the outcome of my research work. No part of this research

any thesis of any University.

I am extremely grateful to Dr. S.S.Kaptan, without whose able guidance

interest, knowledgeable and practical suggestions that inspired me to bring

out the best.

I am thankful to Dr.V.M.Maindarkar for his constant persuasion,

personal attention and ever-extended helping hand without which this

would have taken much more time.

My thanks are also due to Dr. B. B. Taywade, Director of Dr. Panjabrao

Deshmukh Institute of Management Technology and Research for the

support provided in terms of Library Facility and computerisation at the

CHAPTER NO: II ROLE OF TELEVSION IN 23-87

CHAPTER NO: III ADVERTISING BUSINESS: 88-113

CHAPTER NO: IV ADVERTISING AGENCY: 114-161

CHAPTER NO: V RATIONALE OF THE STUDY 162-171

CHAPTER NO: VI A STATUS REPORT OF ADVERTISING 172-213

CHAPTER NO: VII ADVERTISING AGENCY AND 214-224

CHAPTER NO: VIII ADVERTISING AGENCY: 225-244

CHAPTER NO: IX FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND 245-298

CHAPTER NO: X FUTURE: - 299-323

LIST OF GRAPHS AND CHARTS

FIG., CHART, Particulars Page

Bar Chart No:-2.3 Advertising on the Internet for year 2001 58

ABBREVIATIONS FULL FORM

Television was introduced in India on September 15, 1959 as a pilot project in

Zee News Channel

DTH- Direct- To-Home Broadcast

Categories of Product Advertised on TV (1995)

Video & Cable Boom

Responses of Indian Government

Milestone of Television in India

1959 TV was introduced in Delhi as experimental service under UNESCO grant.

1965 Daily broadcasting of an hour was regulated as a service

1966 Verghese committee recommends autonomous National Broadcast Trust

1968 Increase the distribution of Television Service

1969 Agreement for SITE experiment with NASA, USA

1980 First Television commercial was telecast

1982 INSAT-1A launched TV go Colour, National Telecast of Asiad Games

1987/89 Morning transmission began, afternoon transmission began

1991 STAR beamed its satellite channel to India

1992 Zee started Hindi channel as a part of STAR network

1993 Four additional satellite channels & regional channels in 10 languages by

2001 Communication Convergence Bill of Department of Telecommunication

2002 DD has 1242 TV transmitters reaches 40 million of the 75 million TV

Act And Regulation for Cable & Television in India

The Copyright Act(1914): “The importance of copyright was recognized after

Television Households In India

Cable Television Homes In India

Year Jan Feb Oct Jan Dec Sept 1999 2002

Source: Doordarshan 1997, IRS and NRS Figures

Media Planning For TV