Grammar Fundamentals

Grammar Notes

Part II Stylistic Variation: Using Coordination and Subordination

A. Using Coordination and Subordination

When clearly written, your sentences show the relations between ideas and stress the
more important ideas over the lesser ones. There are two ways to show the relationship
between ideas.

 Coordination shows that two or more ideas in a sentence are equally important in
meaning. You signal coordination with conjunctions such as and, but and or.

Example:
 Equally important 
Some commonly used signs are 'thumbs-up' (all the best) or 'V' for (victory or peace).
(Two main ideas are joined by the use of “or”.)

 Subordination shows that some ideas in a sentence are less important than other
ideas for your meaning. Usually, the main idea appears in the main clause, and
supporting or additional information appears in the subordinate clauses.

Example 1:

 -------------------------Main idea------------------------  ---additional information to show how

he clenched his hands -------------
(main clause) (subordinate clause)
His hands are clenched together in one big fist, while he rhythmically massages one thumb
against the other.

p.1
 Example 2:

 -------Additional information -------  --------------Main idea --------------------------

(subordinate clause) (main clause)
When there are a few people inside, they usually lean against the elevator's walls.

Ways to coordinate and subordinate information in sentences

1. Use coordination to relate ideas of equal importance or ideas opposite in

meaning:
 Link main clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for,
so, & yet
 Relate main clauses with a semicolon alone or a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb:
however, indeed, thus, etc.
 Within clauses, link words and phrases with a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or
nor.
 Link main clauses, words, or phrases with a correlative conjunction: both…. .and, not
only… but also, etc.

2. Use subordination to provide supporting or additional information about the

main idea or topic:

 Use a subordinate clauses beginning with a subordinating conjunction: although,

because, if, whereas, etc.

Although people are generally not aware of it, many of them send and receive non-
verbal signals all the time.

 Use a subordinate clause beginning with a relative pronoun: who, whoever, which,
that.

Body language forms part of the category of paralanguage which describes all forms
of human communication that are not verbal language.

 Use a phrase
Having studied extensively on courtship behaviour, Desmond Morris has written
several books on this topic.
p.2
 Like Desmond Morris, Michael Argyle has also written a book called Bodily
Communication.

 Use an appositive
Body language, part of the category of paralanguage, describes all forms of human
communication that are not verbal language.

 Use a modifying word

In everyday speech and popular psychology, the term is most often applied to body
language that is considered involuntary,

B. Linking words – Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are linking words between two sentences. A comma is used
before a coordinating conjunction. There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and you
can easily remember them by remembering the word FANBOYS.

Linking
words Usage Examples
F=for to give reasons She stopped eating, for she knew the
teacher was staring at her.

A=and to give additional There are four major food groups, and
information it is important to eat something from
each one every day.
N=nor to give another We can’t go out, nor can we stay home.
negative
B=but to give Junk food is usually delicious, but they
contrasting are harmful to our health.
information
O=or to give another I could cook some supper, or we could
option order a pizza.

Y=yet to give They know a lot about nutrition, yet

contrasting they eat unhealthy food.
information
S=so to give a result He was knocked down by a car, so he
was admitted to hospital.

p.3
Example:
coordinating conjunction

(subj.) (v.) (subj.) (v.)

They know a lot about nutrition, yet they eat unhealthy food.

comma
Notes:
1. No comma is used if the part after the coordinating conjunction is
not a complete sentence.

Example:
(subj.) (v.) (v.)
Annie got up late and forgot to call her mother on
Mother’s Day.

2. Generally speaking, coordinating conjunctions are not used in the

beginning of a sentence.

Examples:

a. We were going to go to the movie. But, we didn’t

know what time it started. (Nonacademic style)
b. We were going to go to the movie. However, we
didn’t know what time it started. (Academic style)

*However, in modern usage, a sentence beginning with and or but is

acceptable and can be used to draw a reader’s attention.

Notes: SO v.s SO THAT

We use so that to express a purpose. So is used to express a result.

Examples:
1. Melanie was hurrying so that she wouldn’t miss the bus.
2. Melanie woke up late, so she missed the bus.

p.4
 adapted from Writing to Communicate by Cynthia A. Boardman & Jia Ftrydenberg

Notes:
1. No comma is used if the part after the coordinating conjunction is
not a complete sentence.
Example:

(subj.) (v.) (v.)

Annie got up late and forgot to call her mother on
Mother’s Day.

2. Generally speaking, coordinating conjunctions are not used in the

beginning of a sentence.
Examples:

c. We were going to go to the movie. But, we didn’t

know what time it started. (Nonacademic style)
d. We were going to go to the movie. However, we
didn’t know what time it started. (Academic style)

p.5
 *However, in modern usage, a sentence beginning with and or but
is acceptable and can be used to draw a reader’s attention.

adapted from Writing to Communicate by Cynthia A. Boardman & Jia Ftrydenberg

C. Subordination
Subordinate (dependent) clauses cannot stand alone as sentences. They must be
connected to independent (main) clauses. If a subordinate clause is written alone, it is
called a fragment. A fragment is an incomplete sentence and should be avoided in formal
written English.

There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:

 Adverbial clauses: Adverbial clauses give manner, place, reason, time,
and other adverbial meanings.
 Relative (adjective) clauses: Relative clauses influence the meanings of
nouns.
 Noun clauses: Noun clauses take the place of nouns.

In this section, we will focus on “Adverbial Clauses”.

D. Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses are clauses beginning with subordinating conjunctions such as:
Because… / Since… / If… / Unless… / Although… / While … / When… / In case…, etc.

 When a sentence begins with an adverbial clause, a comma should be

used.
Example:
adverbial clause

Because he was irresponsible, everyone hated him.

comma

 When the adverbial clause is not put in the beginning, no comma is used.
Example:

p.6
 adverbial clause

Everybody hated him because he was irresponsible.

no comma

Adverbial clause in the front: Adverbial clause NOT in the front:

with comma WITHOUT comma
1. If I have enough time, I will pay I will pay him a visit if I have enough time.
him a visit.
2. Unless I have time, I will not pay I will not pay him a visit unless I have time.
him a visit.
3. Although he loves Hong Kong, he He has to move to New York with his family
has to move to New York with his although he loves Hong Kong.
family.
4. When you arrive at Hong Kong, I I will have left for Tokyo when you arrive at
will have left for Tokyo. Hong Kong.

5. While it is a wonderful proposal, We don’t have the budget to carry out the
we don’t have the budget to carry proposal while it is wonderful.
it out.
6. In case he gives me a call, tell Tell him to leave a message in case he gives
him to leave a message. me a call.

FOOD for THOUGHT…

What’s the difference between the
following two sentences?
When there is a fire, do not use the lift.
If there is a fire, do not use the lift.

p.7