Chess Classics

Soviet Chess Strategy

By

Alexey Suetin

Quality Chess
www.qualitychess.co. uk
 Foreword by the UK Publisher

One of the aims of Quality Chess is to publish books that we believe will enhance chess literature,
rather than necessarily be best-sellers. The late Alexey Suetin's Soviet Chess Strategy fits perfectly
into that category. It is a collection of Suetin's finest writing in what was a long and distinguished
career.

Suetin has much to teach the contemporary chess player. He was a strong Russian grandmaster
who influenced generations of Soviet players through his writing, broadcasting and coaching.
Suetin was regarded as one of the top Soviet coaches and, for example, guided Tigran Petrosian
to the World Championship. Many other stars were also set on the path to greatness by Suetin,
including Vassily Ivanchuk.

As with our previous Soviet classic, Questions of Modern Chess Theory by Isaac Lipnitsky, the
original editing in Russian was done by 1M lIya Odessky, before John Sugden skilfully translated
the work into English, then the editors of Quality Chess made our contribution. Naturally,
modern players and computers can quibble about some of the analysis, but that does not lessen
the instructional value of Suetin's words. We have not "corrected" all the points where we disagree,
preferring to reserve our red pencil for the points where we think a change or comment will add
to the reader' s enjoyment or erudition.

We hope the reader will benefit from becoming a pupil in the Soviet chess school.

John Shaw and Jacob Aagaard

G lasgow, May 20 1 0
 Contents
Key to symbols used & Bibliography 6

Chapter 1: General Questions of Strategy and Tactics 7

Chapter 2: The Chess Game as a Unified Process of Struggle 31

The Results of Mobilization: Their Influence on the Character of the Middlegame 31
Features of the Middlegame Struggle at the Start of the Game 38
The Task o f Harmoniously Co-ordinating the Forces - its Role i n the Opening 38
Transition from Opening t o Middlegame: Th e Principal Task Involved 43
Transition to the Endgame 48
Some Other Key Moments in the Chess Struggle 50

Chapter 3: Foundations o f Positional Play 55

Relative Values of the Pieces 55
Open File for a Rook - Penetration to the Seventh Rank 56
Th e Minor Pieces: Their Values Compared 57
Diverse Material - Compensation for the Queen 58
Compensation for a Rook 62
Compensation for a Minor Piece 65
Rare Types o f Compensation for Queen o r Rook - Two Minor Pieces against
Rook and One or Two Pawns 66

Chapter 4: The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 69

Old and New Conceptions of the Centre 69
Typical Pawn Structures in the Centre 70
The Open Centre 70
Numerical Equality of Pawns in the Centre 71
The Closed Centre 72
Fixed Central Pawn Position with Open d-file or e-file 76
Mobile Centre with Two Pawns on the Fourth Rank 83
One Mobile Pawn in the Centre 85
Th e "Hanging Pawn" Centre 85
The Piece-and-Pawn Centre 86
Pawn Weakness in the Centre (accepted in return for good piece-play) 89

Chapter 5: Th e Dynamics o f the Chess Struggle 99

Some General Concepts: a Brief History Lesson 99
Some Important Features of the Dynamic Approach 100
The Relation of Logic to Imagination in Chess 107
Co-ordination of the Forces 116
The Initiative 132
Chapter 6: Modem Positional Play 136
The Modern Understanding of Centralization 136
Structures with Tension in the Centre 136
Fluid Situation in the Centre 141
The Centre and Space - Crossing the "Demarcation" Line 143
The Centre and the Flanks 144
Pawn Counter-stroke in the Centre 146
Pawn Chains - Pawn Restraint 147
Connected Wing Pawns versus a Central Pair: The Key Role of Blockading 150
Pawn Sacrifices 152
Weak Square Complexes 155

Chapter 7: The Attack - Affinity between Strategic and Tactical Methods 159
General Concepts 159
Dynamic Moments - Launching the Assault 160
The Sudden Attacking Coup 160
Transferring the Attack to the King 163

Chapter 8: Methods of Defence - Switching from Defence to Attack 167

Persistence 168
Tenacity 169
Defence and the Elements of Strategy 170
Activity - the Main Theme of the Defence 171
Interrelation between Methods of Attack and Defence 172
Switching from Attack to Defence 173
From Defence to Counterattack 173
Strategic Aims of Tactical Operations 175
The Art of Manoeuvring in Balanced Positions 176

Conclusion 1 80

Appendix: From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 181

The Initiative 181
Transformation of Positional Factors 187
The Concrete Approach to Evaluating a Position 194
Middlegame Mastery: Ways of Working to Improve It 210

Dynamics should be Dynamic 227

Game Index 24 0
 Key to symbols used
t White is slightly better
i Black is slightly better
± White is better
+ Black is better
+- W hite has a decisive advantage
-+ Black has a decisive advantage
equaliry
Cii with compensation
� with counterplay
CD unclear

a weak move
?? a blunder
a good move
!! an excellent move
!? a move worth considering
?! a move of doubtful value
# mate
Chapter 1
General Questions of
Strategy and Tactics
The game of chess has many facets. Its attraction lies above all in the inner beauty of its ideas -
its aesthetics. At the same time the laws of logic are applicable to it - which is what constitutes
its affinity with science. The development of creative thought in chess, especially since the
Renaissance era, vividly demonstrates that chess is an inseparable part of world culture.
By what process do the artistic ideas of chess arise? In what does the logic of chess find
expression? This question, of no small importance, is what we shall illuminate first and foremost.
In this connection let us ponder some widely familiar and basic chess truths.
In a game ofchess the fundamental law ofdevelopment is struggle. After the first few moves which
are needed to bring the two opponents' forces into contact, a battle is already unfolding, in which
the active means of fighting (a move, a threat, an operation, a plan, etc.) are constantly opposed
by various defensive and counter-aggressive measures.
Among the principles on which the chess struggle is founded, we must include such elementary
concepts as the scale of relative values of the pieces and pawns, and the fighting qualities and char­
acteristics of each piece type. Another important factor is the role of the king in the game.
The material factor is inseparable from the various properties of the area where the battle takes
place - the chessboard. Depending on its position on the board, and its interaction with other
pieces - those on its own side as well as those of the opponent - the power of a fighting unit ( a
piece or pawn) may noticeably change. Even an inexperienced player cannot help being struck by
the fact that the outward contour of the position frequently influences the strength of a particular
piece. Such positional elements as centralization, strong and weak squares, the character of the
pawn structure and so on, are generally familiar.
As we can easily see, it is in pursuit of the main aim of gaining positional and material assets
that the battle is fought out. In this process (and here in fact is one of the key characteristics of
the chess struggle) , all the elements I have mentioned are primarily weapons in the fight. Thus
in a chess game the distinction between an object of attack and the forces in action is decidedly
relative. In the course of play it may sometimes happen that an object of attack is instantly
transformed into an active force.
The following example is instructive.
8 Soviet Chess Strategy

Alexander Kotov - N. Novotelnov

8
Moscow 1947 7

a b c d e f g h
27... c,!,>f6 28.�ce2 �f5 29.�f4 �g7 30.h4
ge7 31.gxe7 c,!,>xe7 32.ge1 t c,!,>d7 33.ge5
f6 34.ge2 gc8 35.gd2 a6 36.�de2 c,!,>e7
a b c d e f g h
37.�c3 d4 38.gxd4
An object of attack has arisen in the white
camp, namely the isolated pawn on d4,
against which Black has directed the pressure
of his forces. The most logical move here was
probably 23 . . . lD d5, blockading the weakness.
However, Black chose a more straightforward
plan.

23...�e8 24.�c2 �d6?

The threat of25 . . . lD f5 100ks most unpleasant.
However, Black has overlooked that the
d4-pawn is not only an object of attack but
also a fighting unit in his opponent's hands.
Grasping the opportunity, White rids himself a b c d e f g h
of his weakness.
White has regained his pawn while keeping
a large positional plus, which he confidently
25.d5!
proceeded to turn into a win.
The pawn sacrifices itself, but the pieces
dramatically gain in activity.
In the chess battle the distinction between
engagedforces and reserves is also relative.
25 ... exd5 26.Lg7 c,!,>xg7 27.�d4!
Unlike Black, who forgot about the
Naturally, if there is a major disturbance in
principle of blockade, White is firmly blocking
the balance of the position, the game ought to
the dangerous passed pawn on d5. It now
end in one player's favour. But then we also
becomes clear that Black's scattered pawns are
encounter positions where j ust the slightest
coming under pressure. His position rapidly
advantage in the interplay of forces creates
deteriorates.
 General Questions o f S trategy and Tactics
realistic conditions for victory. Of course
there are also exceptions - such as standard
endgames where a material plus proves
insufficient to win, or the rare phenomenon
of so-called "positional draws" where the
stronger side is again unable to exploit its
trumps.
Isaak Boleslavsky - Vassily Smyslov
Leningrad 1948
a b c d e f g h
There are few pieces left on the board, and
the position looks drawish. On each wing
the pawns are numerically balanced. But on
careful analysis, Black's advantage stands out.
His kingside pawn position is more elastic,
and in this kind of situation the pairing of
rook and knight works much better than that
of rook and bishop.
By bringing his king into play, Black strength­
ens his position and proceeds to exploit White's
weaknesses.
1 ... gc5
The rook heads for as.
2J�b2 lLld7 3. i>d4 ga5 4.gc2 i>e6 5.gc6t
\!;>f5 6.gc7lLle5 7.gc5
White seeks salvation in exchanges. The
following powerful move dashes his hopes.
9
a b c d e f g h
7..J�a3! 8..ixe5 ga4t! 9.gc4
Simplifying Black's task. Mter 9 . me3 ficeS
1 OJ'!c2 Eia3t 1 1 . me2 White could still offer
prolonged resistance.
9...fxe5t lO. i>d5 �ha2 1l.gg4 g5
White resigned.
This example demonstrates the role of minute,
sometimes barely perceptible, advantages in
the chess struggle.
A game of chess amounts to a process of struggle,
in which each move alters something more
than the outward aspect of the position. All
the material and positional elements already
mentioned are in a state of motion. This is what
defines the role of the move, the unit of time
in chess. Time should also be counted among
the basic factors of the struggle. If chess can be
compared to a film, the frames of the film are
like the positions that succeed each other with
each move in the game.
The concept of a chess position embraces the
elements of space, time, the material correla­
tion of forces, and also the way the pieces are
arranged - their mobility, co-ordination and
so forth. This last factor undoubtedly plays a
most important role in the game. Sometimes
you can acquire an advantage in material, in
time and in space, but still not win.
10 Soviet Chess Strategy

I will give a pair of examples. The strategy of chess embraces questions

about the general co-ordination of the fighting
forces that are employed to achieve the key
aims at a particular stage of the struggle. The
basis of strategy is a plan - a purposeful method
of action . As the art of chess develops, strategic
plans are enriched by constanrly adopting
new forms. Of course, many new plans later
become accepted as "standard".
A plan in a game of chess is always founded
on an evaluation of the position from which
the plan begins - an appraisal of the essential
peculiarities of that position. The game plan is
a guideline to be followed during the struggle.
a b c d e f g h If the conditions of the struggle alter, so does
White to move the plan - since every change in the position,
sometimes even just a minor one, demands
new strategic decisions.
Planning always accompanies a chess game
from the first move to the last, as though
illuminating its course. Sometimes the strategy
of the game stands out in bold relief At other
times it becomes, you might say, imperceptible.
Planning recedes in to the background whenever
tactics begin to play the key role. Tactics is the
second integral component in the process of
the struggle.
If strategy gives a player principles for the
general management of his forces, tactics de­
a b c d e f g h mands a concrete approach to the particular
position, the closest possible attention to the
White to move specific details of the conflict. As Euwe point­
edly observed: "Strategy requires deliberation,
In the first position Black has an overwhelming
tactics requires penetrating vision."
material plus, but the co-ordination of his
Tactics in chess is the art of fighting. It
pieces is in disarray. After l .g7 he is forced to
takes account of the fighting qualities and
cease resistance. In the second position, after
peculiarities of the pieces, the various ways
l .g7, Black is still unable to win: 1 . . . Wfxg7t
in which they act together. The plans a player
2. W xg7, and White proceeds to pick up one of
has devised are implemented through tactical
the minor pieces.
devices and operations.
***
The basis of a tactical operation is a threat (in
the broad sense of the word) . Threats can differ
A game of chess develops according to the
sharply in character:
principles of strategy and tactics.
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics 11

.:. a threat to the enemy king
•:. a threat to gain a material advantage
.:. a threat to gain space and restrict the
mobility of the opponent's pieces
.:. a threat to exchange the opponent's
attacking pieces in order to ease the
defence
.:. and so on. This variety is one more
reflection of the inexhaustible wealth of
chess.
Let us look at some examples that illustrate
tactical devices.
One of the effective tactical ploys is a
manoeuvre. It is often fairly concise,
consisting of two or three moves. But
manoeuvres that are several moves long,
outwardly striking and memorable, are not
infrequent either. The following example is
characteristic.
d4 after a few more moves. His knight is
travelling along the route f3-g5-h3-f4-e2-d4 .
The idea of this remarkable manoeuvre is that
by means of a combinative attack against e4,
White first wants to induce a weakening of
Black's pawn position and thus gain control of
the fS-square.
20...h6
20 . . . ttJ e5 is strongly answered by 2 1 . ib3!
ifS 22. ia4t � f8 23. i c2! .
21.�h3 YlYe5 22J�c1 �g4 23.�f4!
The knight continues on its way.
23... g5 24.h3 �gf6 25.�e2 �xd5 26..ixd5
YlYxd5

Alexander Alekhine - Siegbert Tarrasch

Mannheim 1 9 1 4

6
a b c d e f g h
5
27.�d4!
4 The manoeuvre is completed. The possibility
3 of invading the kingside with the knight via fS
decides the outcome of the game.
2

1 27...'�e5 28.�c4 YlYd5 29.�f5! �f8

30.�fxd6
a b c d e f g h
White soon won.
20.�g5!
There might seem to be more point in Frequently a useful tactical ploy for improving
immediately directing the knight to d4 (where your position is exchanging your opponent's
it will be very actively placed) but Alekhine important pieces. The following example is
is in no hurry to do so. He will only occupy noteworthy.
12 Soviet Chess Strategy

Mikhail Botvinnik - N. Sorokin 28. c!>f2! �xa5 29J�ee7 gbe8 30J�xf7 gxe7
31.gxe7t c!>h8 32.i.d5!
Moscow 1 93 1 White won easily.

Of course, among the range of tactical

procedures, the most powerful and effective
is a combination, which introduces an element
of aesthetics and art into chess and lends it its
peculiar attraction. The combination usually
involves a sacrifice of material.

Efim Bogoljubow Alexander Alekhine

-

Hastings 1 922

8 ....

a b c d e f g h 7

In this case it is simplification that enables 6

White to improve his position further. 5

20.§'e3! §'xe3 21.fxe3 J.g4 22.a5 �e8 4

23J�c1 .ixf3 24.gxB �e7 25.�d5! 3
The exchanges increase White's superiority,
2
making it easier for him to break through to
the seventh rank with his rooks. 1

a b c d e f g h
25...�e6
25 . . . tt:lfxd5 could be answered either by Alekhine finds an exceptionally beautiful
26.exd5 or 26. hd5 tt:lxd5 27Jl:xd5. combination, drastically changing the course
of the struggle to his own benefit.

29...b4! 30.gxa8 bxc3! 31.gxe8 e2!!

1 �
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics 13

The point of the combination: the modest 29 J:txd1 30.f7t! c.!lhS 31.gxdl gdS
••

little pawn that recently stood on b5

unexpectedly becomes a queen.
8

32JhfSt c.!lh7 33.c!Llfl cl=Y!Yt 34.c!Llfl c!Llel! 7

35.gh2 Y!Yxc4 36.gbS .ib5 37J:txb5 Y!Yxb5
6
Black easily converted his material plus into
a win. 5

4
An attack on the enemy king, involving threats
of mate, opens up especially wide scope for 3
combinative creativity. It must be remembered 2
that the king is constantly under a covert
threat. 1

a b c d e f g h
Aron Nimzowitsch - Akiba Rubinstein
32.Y!Yg6!!
Berlin 1 928 Black resigned.

Vdrtor Korchnoi - Efim Geller

Kiev 1 954

a b c d e f g h
White's pawn storm looks ineffective, but
Black has to be alert and not lose his sense of
danger. Yet his sense of danger is precisely what a b c d f h
e g
lets him down!
White crowned his attack on the king with a
27 Y!YcS?
••.
brilliant combinative stroke:
Black had to play 27 . . :'H!. e7, preserving every
chance of equalizing. 25.hf<it!
Whichever way Black takes the bishop,
2S.£5! fxe6 29.f6! he is mated: 25 . . . W xf6 26. WIe6#, 25 . . . .!Llxf6
Black had eviden tly overlooked the possibility 26J:l:xg7t W e8 27. WIf7# and 25 . . . gxf6 26. WIe6t
of this breakthrough. The attack now sweeps W f8 27.l"�g8#.
forward like a tornado.
14 Soviet Chess Strategy

Positional combinations. harmoniously supplemented and refined. All this could form
uniting combinative and positional elements. the subject for more than one monograph.
have acquired immense significance in We will confine ourselves to a minimum of
contemporary practice. Here is a fairly simple illustrations.
example on this theme:
Ossip Bernstein - Jose Raul Capablanca
Mikhail Botvinnik - Paul Keres
Moscow 19 14
Moscow 1948

8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
Capablanca continued with:
White effectively uses combinative means to
gain positional assets: 26 J:!c5
••

Luring White into a now classic

25J�hb6! cxb6 26.tLlc6 V!ic7 27.tLlxd8 V!ixd8 combination.
28.V!ic2!
Botvinnik soon achieved a decisive plus.

Even the simplest combination consists of a set

8
of inseparably interlinked elements. always sub­
ordinated to some particular combinative idea 7
and theme. Among the very simple ideas that 6
can be singled out are deflection. the enticing
of a piece to a square. elimination of defenders. 5
blockade. square clearance. and so on. 4
At the same time we can distinguish several
combinative themes such as the dual attack. 3
the pin. discovered check and the like. 2
The theory of combination. which has found
1
some precise formulations in chess studies.
is undergoing constant development. and a b c d e f g h
many of its propositions are continually being
0-1
 General Questions of Strategy an d Tactics 15

The idea of deflection is combined with a dual 2 ....ifl 3.flYdl

attack. White cannot simultaneously protect Now comes the point of the combination.
his rook on c3 an d his queen on e2, which is
tied to the defence of the back rank. 3 ...Ae2!
Black was also mating with 3 . . . .ie5t 4. '�g l
Alexander Alekhine S. Frieman
- %Y h3 , with the same thematic i dea.

New York (simultaneous) 1924 4.flYxe2 Ad6t 5.<bgl flYh2t 6.<bfl flYhl#
Observe that without his own queen blocking
the e2-square, White's king would slip out of
the mate.

And now, an illustration of deflection in a

multiple form (the position is from Stamma) :

5
a b c d e f g h 4
White carried out the i dea of enticing a piece 3
onto a square. There followed:
2
23J�e8t �f8 24.�h6t! flYxh6 25 JlKf8t! 1
�xftI 26. flYd8#
a b c d e f g h
And here is an example of the idea of blocking:
The bad position of the black king is
exploited by the decisive combination:

1 ..id6t! gxd6 2.gb7t! hb7 3.�c2t! �xc2

4.gb5#!

8
7 v////)'/. .......

a b c d e f g h 3

1 . ..ih2t! 2.<bhl 2
2. Wxh2 ifl t wins the queen.
1 �� �I\

a b c d e f g h
16 Soviet Chess Strategy

In practice, these very simple ideas are rarely In place of 1 . . . ttJ xb3 Black could have played:
encountered in a pure form. Most often they 1 . . . ttJ bc6
are tightly interwoven with each other; the Then after
unravelling of this tangle constitutes the essence 2 . .ic2! ttJ xb3
of the combination. But then, the presence of some fascinating combinative ideas could
such components as I have mentioned does once again arise:
not by any means always permit a combination '1W
3 . h6t!
to take place. Its implementation depends on Drawing the king forward again.
numerous, sometimes scarcely perceptible, 3 ... � xh6 4J!h4t I!;g5 5 . f4t! � xh4 6.g3t � h3
features - the combinative motifs - of the 7. ttJ de4! "Wc5t
position.
8
As an example, the idea of the combination 7
carried out in the following example is of great
6
interest.
5

Veresov Kukharev
- 4

3
Minsk 1 959
2

a b c d e f g h

8 . � h l ! h6 9 . .id l !
Forcing Black to unguard the g5-square.
9 . . . ttJ xe5 1 0. fxe5 h5 1 1 . ttJ g5#

Finally, if Black plays 1 . . . "Wa7, then after

2 . .ixg6! fxg6 White again gives mate:

a b c d e f g h 6

In the diagram position Black accepted that 5

his position was hopeless and thus accepted 4

the rook sacrifice. 3

2
1... tLlxb3
This was met by a mating combination. 1
a b c d e f g h
2."Wh6t!! �xh6 3J:!h4t �g5 4.f4t!! 3 . "Wh6t! I!;xh6 4J'�h3t I!;g5 5 . f4t! � xf4
White sacrifices his last major piece to draw
6J'�f3t (exploiting the pin) 6 . . . � xe5 7. ttJ c4#!,
the black king forward.
or 6 . . . � g5 7. ttJ de4t � h6 8J'�h3t � g7
9J'hh7#.
4...�xh4 5.g3t �h3 6 .ifl#! •
 General Questions of Strategy an d Tactics
The next example excellently illustrates both
how combinative motifs arise an d how to uti­
lize them.
Anatoly Karpov - Dragoljub Velimirovic
Skopje 1976
a b c d e f g h
In this position there seems to be no warning
of a quick combinative storm. Black continued
with:
19... gad8?
A first inaccuracy. For tactical reasons, d8 is
a bad square for the rook - as will soon become
apparent.
The right move was 19 . . . :1'1ae8 . Then a
manoeuvring struggle could develop. To
increase the pressure on Black's castled
position, White should probably double
rooks with 20.:1'1g2 :1'1e7 2 1 . :1'1cg l . With
ttJe3-g4-h6t coming, his positional plus would
be indisputable, but of course there would be a
long hard fight ahead.
20.b3 c6?
Another mistake, this time a serious one, and
the refutation is not long in coming. It was not
too late for 20 . . . :1'1de8, with similar play to the
line just given.
17
21.dxc6 bxc6 22.�f5!
a b c d e f g h
The start of an effective combination, deeply
and precisely calculated, which wrecks Black's
kingside fortifications. One of its important
themes is the misplaced rook on d8.
22...gxf5
Black has no good choice. In the event of
22 . . . ixf5 23.exf5 g5 , White has the decisive
24. tLlxg5 ! fxg5 2 5 . Wfxg5 :1'1d7 26.f6 etc. On
22 . . . i e8, he simply plays 23. tLle7t and Black
cannot avoid material loss.
23Jhg7t! <bxg7 24.gg1t <bfl
Necessary, as 24. . . 'it>h8 10ses to 2 5 . tLlg5 ! fxg5
26. Wfxg5 , when Black cannot play 26 . . . :1'1f7
on account of 27. Wfxd 8t. This is where the
misplacement of the rook on d8 makes itself
felt!
25. �h5t <be6
Of course not 25 . . . <;iJe7 in view of 26.:1'1g7t
'it>e6 27. Wfxf5 #.
26.�xf5t <bfl 27.�h5t <be6 28.�f5t <bfl
Mter 28 . . . 'it>e7 29.gg7t gf7 3 0 . :1'1xf7t 'it>xf7
3 1 . tLlg5t White's attack is irresistible.
18 Soviet Chess Strategy

when he began his combination. Although

Black has a rook and two minor pieces for the
queen, his situation is very difficult if not hope­
less. The point is that his forces are not work­
ing harmoniously (his knights continue to play
a pitiful role) . White, on the other hand, has at
his disposal the "mercurial" h-pawn which will
soon cost Black one of his pieces. The events
thus lead ineluctably to an ending where the
queen will be opposed by the rook and a single
minor piece.

a b c d e f g h 36...l:!eS 37.h4 �c5 3S.h5 �e6 39.h6

�f8 40.b4 �cS 41.�d2 �e7 42.h7 �xh7
3U�g7!
43.�xh7 �cS 44.�f8 �e7 45.a3 .teS
A remarkable move, both for its strength and
46.lLle6t �d7 47.�g7 �c7 4S.�f5 �d7
its beauty. It was all the more difficult in that
White had to foresee it when commencing the
combination on move 2 2 .

As before, the game proceeds on forced lines:

31..Jks
After 3 1 . . .l:!xg7 32. ctJxglt <j{f7 33. �xh7
Black is defenceless against the discovered
check.

32Jhf7 �xf7 33.�g5t �e7 34.Wixhlt �dS

35.WihSt �c7 36.Wixf6
a b c d e f g h
49.a4
The technical phase of exploitation has
begun and White's task is to breach the final
fortress. The organic weaknesses on a7 and c6
seal Black's doom.

49....tf7 50.�c3 .ta2 51.a5 �f7 52.Wih6

�d7 53.f4 exf4 54.Wixf4 �f7 55.Wih6 �d7
56.Wih2 .te6 57.Wih6 Lf5
On 57 . . . �a2 White could play 5 8 . ctJd4,
when a defence against e4-e5 is hard to find.
a b c d e f g h
5S.exfS d5 59.�d4 �d6 6o.Wif4 �b7
This is the position White was aiming for
61.Wie5 �f7 62.WieS �c7
 General Questions o f Strategy an d Tactics
a b c d e f g h
63.i'a8!
White's queen manoeuvre, several moves
long, concludes successfully. The queen now
forces its way to c5, simultaneously taking aim
at the pawns on a7 an d c6. This immediately
settles the outcome of the struggle.
63...c;t>d6 64.i'fBt �c7 65.i'c5
66.l'xa7t �c8 67.i'a6t
Black resigned.
The instructive features of this game, in
addition to the attractive combination, are the
subsequent struggle with diverse material, and
the white queen's manoeuvre - extending over
many moves - which completed the exploitation
of the advantage.
So far, the tactical devices encountered
in practical play have proved very difficult
to classify. Experience shows that strategic
measures can be systematized more easily.
Players are familiar with several typical metho ds
that have been devised for conducting an attack
on the king by utilizing weak points in the
enemy camp, etc. Correspon dingly, methods
of defence against these active plans have been
worked out. A wealth of material in this area is
supplied by the typical pawn structures in the
centre, which we shall examine later.
***
19
The concepts of strategy and tactics can be
regarded either in a purely practical sense (which
is how the authors of chess manuals usually treat
them) or in a wider sense of the words.
By strategy, practical players often understand
no more than the conduct of the game accord­
ing to a plan - the simple subordination of the
effective factors to a particular design. In the
broad sense, strategy signifies the totality of a
player's views (or the views of a chess school) on
the way the chess struggle as a whole should be
pursued.
Strategy embraces everything relating to ab­
stract chess thought. Thus, in contradistinc­
tion to the positional school of Steinitz which
prevailed for a long period, modern strategy is
characterized by an increasing use of combina­
tive means.
At the same time the concept of tactics in
chess literature often becomes a synonym for
this or that combinative idea. For example in his
�d6
book The Strategy and Tactics of Chess the Soviet
master Lisitsin designates a discovered check, a
discovered attack, and so on, as basic elements of
tactics, whereas in essence they are elements of
combination. In practice this is partly justified,
as it is precisely in combination and its elements
that tactics acquires its most vivid expression.
Yet in the broader sense the concept of tactics
embraces literally all actions on the chessboard,
from the simplest element (a move) to the most
complex combinations many moves deep. From
this viewpoint a game represents a continuous
chain of tactical activities, unified by the mutual
strategic projects of the players. At times these
projects dominate the action; in a phase of sharp
play, they recede into the background.
***
In the relation between strategy and tactics, the
leading role belongs to strategy. Conformity to a
plan, and the purposes of the struggle, are what
gives chess its great en during vitality and raises
it to the level of science.
20 Soviet Chess Strategy

In accordance with the logicality of the chess 47.. J:�g3!!

struggle, the effective execution of a tactical
operation must contribute to fulfilling a
strategic plan. Tactical skill is by no means an
end in itselfl
The following finish is instructive.
Paul Keres - Tigran Petrosian
Bled 1 959
This forms the logical culmination of Black's
plan and unexpectedly decides the result of the
fight.
48.hxg3 hxg3 49.gfd2 V;Yh4! 50.i.e2 gh7
51.q"fl?
5 1 . iLh5 was the only way to prolong
resistance.

2
L",,,j=Y.,,,,,,,,/,=,,,z

a b c d e f g h
a b c d e f g h
51...V;Yxf4t!!
In this complicated position White's plans
White resigned.
are associated with play in the centre; Black
has to seek counterplay on the kingside.
Thus, if you implement a plan directly without
regard for your opponent's combinative
41.�d4 i.d7 42.a3 V;Ya8! 43.q"gl h5 44J�bl
possibilities, this frequently results in the plan
h4 45J:tbb2 gg4 46.gfl V;Yd8 47.b4?
collapsing. If, on the other hand, you manage
While carrying on straightforwardly, White
to divine your opponent's intentions in good
overlooks the tactical stroke that Black has
time; if you pay strict attention to the tactical
gradually been preparing:
means at his disposal and the peculiarities of
� the position; then this substantially improves
8
your chances and creates the essential
7 conditions for carrying out your own plans
and designs successfully.
6
The end subordinates the means but must
5 at the same time be compatible with them.
4 When conceiving a strategic plan, a player
has to form a clear picture of whether the in­
3 tended goal is realistic and corresponds to the
2 distinctive features of the position. According
to the logic of the struggle, if you strive after
1

a b c d e f g h
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics
a too-distant goal, o r pursue i t while d isre­
garding the true deman d s of the position, you
will meet with a refutation in which tactical
methods are likely to predominate. A strategic
design o nly comes to fruition when it is well­
founded tactically.
This proposltlon is illustrated by
our next two examples. In the first of
them, an unfounded strategic design is
tactically refuted. In the second, an attack
proves to be the correct solution to the
position.
A. Sokolsky - Alexey Suetin
Moscow 1950
a b c d e f g h
In this position White played:
1 5J�fdl
Preparing an attack in the centre with d4-
dS. This plan, however, failed to take account
of the specific circumstances and realistic
possibilities, and met with an unexpected
tactical refutation.
White probably ought to have played I 5 .dxc5 ,
simplifying the position in the centre.
1 5 ...b4!
21
This move required a long line of calculation.
In a formal sense Black is conceding the centre
but in actual fact he is conquering it, by gaining
control of the e4-square.
The main variations arise from I 6. d 5 . Then
I 6 . . . bxc3 is bad on account of I 7.dxe6 fxe6
I 8 . Axe6t � h8 I 9 . tLle 5 ! .
Th e correct answer t o I 6.d5 is I 6 . . . e5!:
a b c d e f g h
After I 7. tLlxe5 tLlxe5 I 8 . Axe5 bxc3 I 9.d6
AfB 2o. Axc3 .ie4 White does not have
compensation for the sacrificed piece.
He also does badly from I 7.d6 exf4, an d now
I 8 .dxe7 Vf!xe7 or I 8 . .ixf7t � xf7 I 9. Vf!b3t
� fB 20. tLlh4 tLle5 2 1 .exf4 tLlfg4. In all the
variations Black's advantage is obvious.
The game continued:
16.axb4 cxb4 17.�a4?
I 7. tLle2 is somewhat better.
17 ... fi'a5 1 8ic7 fi'h5 19.�e5 gac8
20.�xd7 �xd7 2 1 ib l �f6 22.fi'd2 fi'b5
23.b3 ,td5
Black won easily.
Here, on the other hand, is an example of an
attack that does correspond to the demands of
the position:
22 Soviet Chess Strategy

Johann Zukertort - Joseph Blackburne 2S. 'i'b4!! gSe5

On 28 . . . �xb4, White forces mate with:
London 1 883 29 ..txe5t c;t> xh7 30.�h3t 'if;>g6 3 1 .�g3t c;t>h6
32.�f6t c;t> h5 33.�f5t c;t> h6 34 . .tf4t c;t>h7
8 3 5 .�h5#

7 29.gfSt! <ilxh7 30.'i'xe4t <ilg7 3 1 ..be5t

6 <ilxfS

L.
a b c d e f g h
By exploiting the weakening of Black's
kingside and concentrating his forces on
that sector, White carries out a brilliant
attack. His plan requires an especially far­
reaching calculation of the ensuing tactical a b c d e f g h
complexities. 32 ..ig7t!
Black resigned.
23.£5! tLle4 24..be4 dxe4 25.fxg6 ge2
Black was evidently relying on this It must be remembered that in practice, in
counterstroke. Yet White's calculations prove answer to your opponent's tactical threats, you
to have been deeper. need to be constantly creating threats of your
own. The efforts of the players are principally
26.gxh7t <ilhS 27.d5t e5 aimed at calculating variations, in other
words at the intricate devices required for
the concrete implementation of their chosen
8
plans. We should note that in chess, strategy
7 and tactics are intimately associated - hence
6 the indissoluble bond between strategic and
tactical methods of thought.
5 When studying the strategic paths that a chess
4 game follows, we must remember that they are
often subject to the most radical adj ustment
3
by tactics. Tactics will often lead the players far
2 away from their original strategic designs!
A tactical operation (a combination above all)
1 L.
is in itself the most effective means of gaining
a b c d e f g h specific advantages, including the overriding
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics
goal - checkmating the king. In the course of
play you have to fight against your opponent's
tactical schemes, irrespective of whether they
are linked to his overall plan or possess no
more than local significance (as with traps,
for instance) . Tactical mastery is therefore an
essential prerequisite for assimilating complex
strategic ideas.
When the struggle in a chess game enters the
realm ofultra-sharp tactics, every move demands
particular accuracy and resourcefulness.
Here is a small example illustrating the
effectiveness and independent power of tactical
methods in the art of chess.
Dementey - Sokolsky
Minsk 1958
a b c d e f g h
The diagram position is taken from a
game between two Belorussian players. Black
played:
1. .\Wxd3!?
• him a decisive plus.
Another possibility was 1 . . . tLl g3t! 2.fxg3
V9xfl t 3.gxfl gxb2 with a winning position,
but the game continuation is a good deal more
interesting.
2.i'xd3 gxf2 3..i c3?
23
Better was 3 . i'b l , when Black has at least
enough compensation after 3 . . . gf3! 4.ga3
gxh3t 5 . lt>g2 gg3t with the idea 6. lt>h2
tLl e3!.
3... tLlxe5! 4.�xf5
Otherwise the threat is 4. . . tLl f3!.
4. . gxf5 5.dxe5 gO 6.gel gdd3
.
White resigned.
To work out all the consequences of a tactical
operation is often very difficult (and practically
impossible under tournament conditions with
limited thinking time) , even for the strongest
masters of combinative play.
Alexander Alekhine - Frederick Yates
Carlsbad 1923
a b c d e f g h
White has intentionally been heading for
this position. Alekhine has prepared a tactical
operation which, on the face of it, should give
33.tLlg4
Simultaneously attacking the bishop
on e5 and defending the h2-point. Now
33 . . . .if6 is met by 34. d6!, and 33 . . . .id6 by
34.e5 , to White's advantage in either case.
24 Soviet Chess Strategy

The continuation Black selects had also been Mikhail Tal- Svetozar Gligoric
taken into account by Alekhine.
Belgrade 1968
33..J�xg4 34.fxg4 gxf1t 3S.c.t?g2 �xh2t
36.c.t?xf1 8
In his foregoing calculations, Alekhine
7
had seen this position - where he remains
the exchange up - and evaluated it in his 6
own favour. But to the surprise of both
5
players, it turned out that the operation was
not finished at this point but was only just 4
beginning. 3

Black has at his disposal a forced variation, 2

15 moves long, which could not have been 1 1;:;,
foreseen even by such a combinative genius as
a b c d e f g h
Alekhine.
We have before us an extremely sharp
36...�hIt 37.c.t?fl i.d4t 3S.c.t?g3 �gIt combinative situation. White's next move may
39.c.t?h3 �flt 4O.gg2 �hIt 41.c.t?g3 �eIt look crushing:
42.c.t?h3
31.�hS?
However, there followed:
8
31...�xc1t 32.c.t?h2 .id6t! 33.gxd6 �f4t
7
34.gg3 �xd6 3S.�f5 geel!
6

5 8
4 7
3 6
2 5
1 4

a b c d e f g h 3
42...gS! 43.gc2 �flt 44.c.t?h2 �gl t 4S.c.t?h3 2
�hlt 46.c.t?g3 �dl! 47.gc3 �gl t 4S.c.t?h3
1 1;:;,
�fl t 49.c.t?g3 .iflt so.c.t?a i.gl t
White resigned. a b c d e f g h
A tactical stroke of devastating force. It
only now becomes clear that with his queen
sortie on move 3 1 , even such a master of
combination as Tal was already making an
irreparable mistake.
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics 25

We should note that the correct course was On the other hand, games where tactics
31. tiJb3!!, which would have led to a winning acquire major independent importance are
attack after 3l. . . l!Nxb3 32. l!Nh5 !%xc1 t 33.'.t> h2 generally combinative in character. Here,
id6t 34. !%xd6I!Nb8 mind-bending complications - the irrational,
dynamic components of strategy - hold sway.
8 In between these two basic poles there lies an
7 inexhaustible wealth of varied chess modes.

6
Thus the specific nature of chess is such that
5
all forms of play, whether strategic or tactical,
4 are inseparable from chess art. They find
3 embodiment in the games of the top masters.
2
Here is an example of a purely positional
conduct of the fight.
a b c d e f g h

35.'�h6! and 36. �gxg6t!. Paul Keres - Alexander Kotov

36.'ixf7t Moscow 1947

The only move.

36...c,t.,xf7 37.�xd6t g;,e6 38.ggGt g;,d5

39.tDS gb7! 40.�e3t?!
40. l:!g5 would have prolonged the fight.

40... �xe3! 41.fxe3 ge7!

It isn't hard to see that Black has a won
position.

42. c,t.,g3 e4 43.g;,f4 c3 44.e4t g;,e4 45.ga6 e2

46.�al g;,d3
White resigned.
a b c d e f g h
***
By playing:

From the viewpoint ofthe interrelation between 18...e5?

strategy and tactics, every game constitutes Kotov incautiously weakened his light
a blend of purely positional factors with squares.
combinative ones. The range of contrasts here is
very great. The game acquires an emphatically 19..tg4t! g;,b8
positional character when a strategic contest is 1 9 . . 'it> c7 2o. lLld7, with threats of lLlxe5 and
.

in progress for the consistent accumulation of .ib6t, is even worse for Black.
small advantages. The nature of the struggle is
then strictly rational, almost mathematical. 20.�d7t .ixd7 21.gxd7 ge8 22..tb6! �e6
26 Soviet Chess Strategy

23.ic7t i>a8 24.i>c2 f6 25.i£5 h6 26.ie4
g5 27.b4!
And now for an example of sharp combinative
play, again by Grandmaster Keres - an
outstanding player who excelled in a whole
range of strategic and tactical methods of
combat.

Paul Keres - Alexander Tolush

Moscow 1957

a b c d e f g h
Having improved the placing of his pieces
to the maximum, and totally fettered the
opposing forces, Keres begins the decisive
queenside offensive.

27...h5 28.a4 £5 a b c d f h
e g
Desperation, but there is no defence against
the threat of b4-b 5 . A sharp fight has developed in the very
opening, leading to great complications. The
29.ixf5 !U8 30.ie4 gxflt following brilliant combinative move is a
solution in keeping with the essence of the
position.

20.�d5!! �xb3
20 . . . exd5 is bad in view of 2 1 . ixd5 lL\xb3
22. ixf7t, and White wins.

21.�c7t i>e7 22.ixb3 �xe5 23.�xf7t i>d6

24.�dxe6 �f6 25.gxf6 �el t 26.gfl �e3t
27.i>hl ixe6 28.�xe6 gac8 29.�xb7
Black resigned.

***

a b c d e f g h
We conclude the chapter by touching on some
31.i>d3
questions about the classification of chess
White soon won.
players.
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics 27

When observing players in the process of
improving their competitive skills, it is rather
rare to find strategic thought and tactical
thought developing together in harmony (and
it is high-category players we are speaking of) .
Most often, i n practice, you will meet players
whose games show a predominance of either
strategic elements or tactical ones.
Players with tactical leanings have a delicate
feel for the concrete features of a position.
Their combinative vision develops rapidly. The
But now it turns out that there is no
satisfactory defence to the cunning tactical
threat of 20 . . . ttJ g4.
20.h3
On 20.l':�e2 Black would play 20 . . . ttJ g4 2 1 .g3
Wih3 22. Eife l ttJ xh2! 23.Eixh2 � xg3t etc.
Now with:
20 'ifg3!
...

following example is indicative of this type of Black could have decided the game
thinking. immediately.

Georgy Lisitsin - Alexander Tolush Quite often, however, tacticians will concentrate
too exclusively on the concrete details; lacking
Leningrad 1 938 a clear strategic guideline, they will base their
play chiefly on traps. This can prevent them
8 ... from grasping the strategic perspective in good
time.
7 The following example, in which profound
6 strategy triumphed over pure tactics, is
instructive.
5

4 Alexander Tolush - Mikhail Botvinnik

3
Leningrad 1 939
2

a b c d e f g h
With his last move Wic3-a5, Lisitsin
(incidentally a fervent partisan of strategic
rationalism) attacked the c7 -pawn, at the same
time setting up the unpleasant threat of Wia5-
g5.
Black unexpectedly replied:

18 h6!
...

One has the impression that by giving up

a b c d e f g h
the c7-pawn he was choosing the greater of the
two evils. 9.'ifd2
White has prepared a sly trap for his
19.'ifxc7 tLlf5! opponent. In answer to:
28 Soviet Chess Strategy

9 ... �xd5 IO ..ie7!? possibilities, those inescapable concomitants

White was counting on gaining a big of any game of chess.
advantage after:
Alexey Suetin I. V1Stanetskis
-

IO ..YlYxe7 1 1 .�xd5
.

Vilnius 1 953
Indeed in the event of 1 1 . . . YM d7 1 2J�d l e6
1 3 . lD c7! White's superiority is indisputable.
Instead, however, there followed a surprising
exchange sacrifice, which White will of course
have seen but probably failed to evaluate
deeply.

a b c d e f g h
At first sight this is not a position where
you would expect tactical complications. The
initiative rather seems to be with Black, who
controls the half-open file.
a b c d e f g h White, however, counters Black's designs
with a concealed operation that his opponent
II .. Jhd5!
fails to discern in good time.
It will soon become clear that Black has
an irresistible attack on the queenside, since
23.YlYfl! .ie6?
White has imprudently fallen behind in
Black should play 23 . . . b6, fortifying c5.
development.

24.�f5! b6 25.axb6 cxb6 26.b4!

12.YlYxd5 .ie6 13.YlYd2 �c6 14J�dl gd8
15.YlYcl YlYa5t 1 6.gd2 gd5!
White loses his queenside pawns one by one. 8
7
17.�e2 gxe5 18.�c3 hc3 1 9.bxc3 gxc3
6
20.YlYb2 ga3
Black attained a decisive plus. 5

4
Other players are quicker to discern the
strategic elements. They prefer a plan that is 3
geared to a lengthy manoeuvring game. AI; a 2
rule they avoid a double-edged struggle and
do not take account of "random" tactical 1

a b c d e f g h
 General Questions of Strategy and Tactics
This is the point of White's play: Black
cannot now support c5, but after 26 . . . cxb4
27.ixb4 he has no adequate defence against
the threats of 28. ttJ e7t and 28. Wlxb6.
A "random trait" of the position - the location
of the king and queen in relation to each other
- plays a decisive part at this j uncture.
26 ... b5 27.bxc5 a5 2S.Ac1 gaS 29.c3 b4
30.d4 bxc3 3 1 .d5
The white pawns advanced in dramatic
style.
On occasion there will be some veiled but
highly dynamic plans behind the mask of the
tactical operations.
V. Alatortsev - Gregory Levenfish
Leningrad 1 939
a b c d e f g h
The events of this game provide an example
of a large-scale unconventional strategy
initiated by what looks like a purely tactical
operation.
22 ... d4!
It will soon become clear that this pawn
sacrifice amounts to more than pure tactics.
It is linked to an interesting plan to enhance
29
the co-ordination of Black's pieces prior to
an attack on both the queenside and the
centre.
23.exd4 �d5 24..ic4 gdS 25.�b3 �f5
26.gg4 'i!?g7 27.hd5 gxd5 2s.gdl?
A characteristic mistake. Black's threats affect
his opponent's morale as well as his position. A
more stubborn defence was 28 .1:!ag l .
2S. .Jha4! 29.�xa4 �xf3t 30.l:!gl gxb5
3 1 .'i!?gl
The only way for White to retain drawing
chances was 3 1 . Wlxb5 Wlxdl t 32.E:g l Wlxd4
33. Wlxb7 Wl d5t 34.l:!g2 Wl d l t 3 5 . E:g l WiSt
36.E:g2 h5 37. Wl b2t 'kfih7 3 8 . Wl d2 ttJ e5
39. Wl d4 (but not 39. Wl e3 Wl d l t 40. E:g l Wl d5t
4 1 . E:g2 ttJ S, and Black wins) . In practice this
was very difficult to work out.
a b c d e f g h
32 ... �xd4! 33.�d2 �e2t 34.'i!?f1 ge5
35.�b2? �g3t!
Black soon won.
A player can only be called a truly great
strategist if his skills are completed by tactical,
especially combinative, mastery. It is precisely
such strategists who pioneer new paths in
chess.
Chapter 2
The Chess Gatne as a Unified
Process of Struggle

Perhaps no phase of the game is undergoing so much development as the modern opening, which
for a long time has represented a synthesis between piece mobilization and middlegame strategy.
The progress of opening theory is inexorably tending towards an even closer merging of the two
phases. Study of an opening implies simultaneous study of the middlegame that logically emerges
from the opening formation.
Let's consider the following factors .

The Results of Mobilization: Their Influence on the Character of the Middlegame

The character of the middlegame struggle is in many ways defined by the results of the preceding
mobilization phase. In numerous cases, when one side comes out of the opening with a definite
plus, the result of the game is already predetermined. In such games the denouement is often
hastened by a tactical blow.

Vassily Smyslov - Cenek Kottnauer

Groningen 1946

a b c d e f g h
32 Soviet Chess Strategy

Within a few moves White decides the game

8
by exploiting the plus he has acquired from
the opening (his space advantage and the poor 7
placing of the b lack pieces) . 6

13.e5! ttJxe5 14.ixb7 gxb7 1 5.'!Wxa6 '!WbS 5

16.ttJe6! 4
The events proceed on forced lines.
3
16 ... ttJxe6 17.'!Wxe6t ttJd7 lS.ttJe5!! 2

a b c d e f g h
As a result of some imprecise play by Black
in the opening, White has managed to acquire
a clear advantage in the centre. Although there
are no concrete threats in sight as yet, Black's
position is very difficult since he lacks active
counterplay. White methodically increases the
pressure.

16.tLle5!
Not allowing the b lack knight onto g6.
a e g h
The crowning combinative stroke. l S . . . Ek7 16 ...id6 17.ttJf1 '!We7 ls.ig3 ttJ6d7
is met by 1 9. 'tJ xd7 gxd7 20.l''1a S , winning. 19.ttJxd7 ttJxd7?
An inconspicuous b ut serious mistake;
l S... dxe5 1 9.if4! 1 9 . . . Wxd7, keeping the knight on its key
The point of the combination: on 1 9 . . . Wxf4, defensive position, was better.
White had prepared 20. W cSt � e7 2 1 . Wxb7
W f6 22. gxd7 W g6 23.g3 W f5 24.E\a7 etc. 2o.ixd6 '!Wxd6

19 ...id6 2o.ixd6 gb6 2 1 .'!Wxd7t!

8
Black resigned.
7
Frequently an opening plus can only be 6
consolidated by systematically increasing the
assets of your position. 5

4
Yuri Averbakh - Lev Aronin
3
Moscow 195 1 2

1 6.

a b c d e f g h
 The Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle 33

21 J:la3 ! Efim Geller I. Vatnikov -

Giving White's initiative a significant boost.

By bringing his rook into play and switching it Kiev 1 950
(0 the kingside, White starts a powerful attack
in that sector. 8

21 ... f6 7
Black's mistake in playing 1 9 . . . llJ xd7 makes 6
itself felt. With his knight on f8 he could have
5
continued with 2 1 . . .e5, which now simply
fails to 22.dxe5. 4

3
22J�g3 llJf8 23.e5 fle7 24.exf6 flxf6 25.�e3
gad8 26.�g4 flf4 27.fle3 flxe3 28.fxe3 2
ttt h8 29J'Ul �e7 30.�e5 ebg8 3 1 .�g4 ebh8 1 D.
32.�e5 ebg8
a b c d e f g h

8 White starts an energetic attack in the

centre and on the kingside, utilizing the active
7 placing of his pieces an d a number of tactical
6 weaknesses in the black camp.

5
n .e5!
4 Only thus.

3
The other method of attack is a good deal less
2 energetic:
1 1 . Y{f f3 .ib7 1 2.g4
In Padevsky - Botvinnik, Moscow 1 956,
a b c d e f g h after:
33.gf6! 1 2 . . .l'kB 1 3 .g5
Forcing the win of a pawn while continuing Black sacrificed the exchange brilliantly.
the attack.

33 ... �d7 34.�xd7 �dxd7 35.�xh6 e5

36.iS!
White confidently converted his material
plus into a win.

In other quite frequent cases, the transition

from opening to middlegame brings an
obligation to attack some specific objects.
Many an example of this can be found in the
a b c d e f g h
variolls lines of the Sicilian Defence.
34 Soviet Chess Strategy

1 3 . . . l:!xc3!
Shattering White's pawn posItIon on the
queens ide and in the centre, and seizing the
initiative. That game continued:
1 4.bxc3
The lesser evil for White was undoubtedly
1 4.gxf6 l:!xe3 1 5 . Wxe3 .ixf6.
14 . . . lLl xe4 1 5 . Wg4 WcB! 1 6. l:!f3 lLl xb3 1 7.axb3
f5 I B . Wh4 e5 1 9.1:!h3 h6 20. W h5 Wxc3
Black was victorious after a few more moves.
This example shows that at the transitional
stage (from opening to middlegame) , attacking
plans can be double-edged.
But let us return to the game Geller -
Vatnikov.
1 5.�d5!
The decisive stroke. Black cannot play
1 5 . . . lLl xa l on account of 1 6. lLl dxe7t,
when he loses his queen as a result of the
tactical weakness of his back rank, where
his pieces are obstructing each other. The
way White conducted the attack is highly
instructive.
In cases where neither side acquires a plus in
the opening, a complex struggle unfolds with
roughly equal chances. It may assume a slow
manoeuvring character, it may be double­
edged. The tendency to seek a struggle that
transcends the bounds of formal logic is
characteristic of modern strategy.

1 1 . .. �e8 As an example, the double-edged contest in

1 1 . . .dxe5 1 2. fxe5 lLl d7 is wholly bad on the following game is highly illuminating.
account of 1 3. l:!xf7!! , winning for White.
Viktor Korchnoi - Yori Sakharov
12.£5!!
The only way! To achieve success, White has Chelyabinsk 1 959
to open lines in the centre and on the kingside
without delay.
8
A very important point is that Black has no 7
time to exchange off the light-squared bishop,
6
as 12 . . . lLl xb3 is met by 1 3 . lLl c6! W c7 1 4. lLl xe7t
Wxe7 1 5 .f6! gxf6 1 6.exf6 etc. 5

4
12 ... dxe5 13.fxe6! f6 14.�£5! �xb3
3

8 2

7 1

6 a b c d e f g h
5 At the end of the opening phase, an extremely
complex position with approximately equal
4
chances has come about. The ensuing play
3 is very difficult for both sides. White links
2 his plans to an assault on the kingside;
Black envisages counterplay on the other
1 � wing.
a b c d e f g h
 The Chess Game as a Uni fi ed Process of Struggle
13J�gl b4 14.�ce2 dS l S.�xe6 .be6 16.eS
�d7
Of course not 1 6 . . . %Vxe5 1 7 . .if4, trapping
the queen.
17.£4 g5 18.�d4 gxf4 19 ..bf4 .ib7 20. � b l
�c5 21 .%Ve3 0-0-0
In view of White's kingside threats Black is
compelled to castle long, which naturally makes
his counterplay a good deal more complicated
to execute.
a b c d e f g h
22 ..id3 .if8?
In such situations the chief task lies in
constantly devising threats and seeking ways to
create counterplay. Natural-seeming defensive
moves, at odds with the nature of the position,
are essentially serious errors and can even
(as in the present case) bring defeat in their
wake.
Instead of the passive move in the game, Black
should have played 22 . . ttJ e4! followed by
. In modern openings - as we cannot help
. . . i e7-c5 . He would then have retained his full
share of the chances.
23.g5 hxgS 24..ixgS ge8 2S.h4 �d7
26J�lgf1 �xeS 27.Yfe2 �e4 28 ..be4 dxe4
29.1f6 gh7 30 ..ieS
35
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
White's threats are mounting. The black king
comes under a very strong attack.
30 ... Yfe5 3 1 ..ig3! .idS 32.�f5 gd8 33.�e3
.ie7 34.�xdS gxdS 3SJ�xdS YfxdS 36.gdl
Yfc6 37.YfeS Yfb7 38.Yff4 ghS 39.Yfxf'7 gdS
40.Yfxe6t gd7 4 1 .Yfxe4t
Black resigned.
As is quite easy to see, it can be very hard
and sometimes even impossible to alter the
logical course of events predetermined by the
opening. In selecting some particular opening
scheme, a master is not of course counting on
an obvious mistake from his opponent. He is
however attempting to steer the game into a
channel congenial to himself, which he has
already tested in practice. Given a choice of
continuations, a player tries as far as possible
to reach positions at odds with his opponent's
style.
observing - the questions of choosing
and evaluating this or that variation are a
highly complex affair even for experienced
masters. The possibility of an opening error,
which may be hard to assess straight away,
is very great. A slip that looks insignificant
can often bring trouble for the rest of the
game.
36 Soviet Chess Strategy

Mikhail Botvinnik Alexander Alekhine

-

Amsterdam 1 938

a b c d e f g h
White has taken firm control ofthe important
open c-file an d almost deprived the knight on
b8 of any mobility. It only now becomes clear
a b c d e f g h
that Black's opening error has led him, almost
Black carelessly continued with: by force, to a lost position.

10 ... b6?! 1 9 ...ge7 20.gxe7 YlYxe7 2 1 .YlYc7 YlYxc7

He should have played 1 O . . . lihc3 , and
1 1 . . .b6 afterward s. Instead the text move
led to some highly unpleasant long-term
consequences.
1 1 .tLlxd5! ad5 12 ..ib5 .id7 13.YlYa4
Exploiting his lead in development,
White applies very strong pressure to Black's
weakened queensi de. In this game, for all
his ingenuity, Black coul d not succeed in
altering the logical course of events which
stems from his inconspicuous error in the
opening.
22.gxc7 f6 23. � f1 ! gfl 24.gc8t gm 25.gc3!
g5 26.tLlel h5 27.h4! tLld7 28.gc7
This same move woul d have been the reply to
27 . . .:!:l:e8. Black woul d then be literally unable
to move a single piece! Despite the limited
material, he is helpless.
28 ... gfl 29.tLl8 g4 30.tLlel f5 3 1 . tLld3 f4
32.8 gxB 33.gxB a5 34.a4!
8
7

6
13 ... tLlb8
A forced move. 5

4
As Botvinnik has shown, 1 3 .. .:!:'k8 could be
3
met by 14 . .id2 a6 1 5 . .ixc6 .ixc6 1 6. 'lWxa6,
when Black has no compensation for the lost 2
material.
1

14 ..if4 ,ixb5 1 5.YlYxb5 a6 16.YlYa4 .id6 a b c d e f g h

17.,ixd6 YlYxd6 1 8J�acl ga7 19.YlYc2! White was soon victorious.
 Th e Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle
It is perfectly obvious that the study of many
middlegame problems is inseparable from
work on opening theory. This is particularly
characteristic of modern openings, in which
the amazingly precise investigation of many
structures takes us all the way to complex
middlegame positions an d sometimes even
right into the en ding.
In its purest form this occurs, for instance, in
the "Poisoned Pawn" variation of the Sicilian
Defence:
1.e4 c5 2.�f3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 �f6
5.�c3 a6 6 ..ig5 e6 7.f4 YlYb6 8.YlYd2 YlYxb2
9J:lb l Wa3 1 0.e5 dxe5 n .fxe5 �fd7
12.ic4
3 a
2 Now the move 1 3 ....ie7 gains consi derably
a b c d e f g h
Investigating critical positions such as this
means studying some concrete and indeed vital
middlegame problems. It requires knowledge
of a whole range of similar positions, well
established and already investigated , towards
which the play may be directed . (This
applies of course when the critical position
cannot be exhausted by purely analytical
means.)
The viability of many opening variations
depends on the assessment of these positions.
Let us for instance return to the position in
the last diagram - arising from a line that is
37
anything but passive. Analysis in dicates that
Black has no easy time repelling the attack.
Against natural moves such as 1 2 . . . Wc5 or
1 2 . . . ie7, the combinative stroke 1 3. ixe6! is
highly effective.
For this reason, the main variation lead ing to
the diagram has undergone major revision. In
answer to 7.f4, it is better for Black to play
7 h6 and only answer 8 .ih4 with 8 YlYb6.
••• • •••
The point of this refinement emerges after:
9.YlYd2 YlYxb2 10J:�bl YlYa3 n .e5 dxe5
1 2.fxe5 �fd7 13 .tc4•
b c d e f g h
in strength, for the white bishop on h4 is
not only un defen ded but under the threat of
capture with check! This frees Black from the
strike against e6 an d enables him to castle at an
opportune moment.
It is now White who is d issatisfied with the
new critical position. It is no accident that the
recent efforts of theorists have been geared to
exploring new paths involving 9 . W d3 (instead
of 9 . W d2) or 9.a3. In these cases the resulting
positions are still highly problematic.
Editor's Note:
[In such a sharp line as the Poisoned Pawn
Variation it is not surprising that opinions
38 Soviet Chess Strategy
have changed over the years about the merits
of various moves, but it is fascinating how
similar ideas to Suetin's are still being tried in
the state-of-the-art lines of20 1 O. For example,
at the end of the main line after 1 .e4 c5 2.�f3
d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 �f6 5.�c3 a6 6 ..tg5
e6 7.f4 fi'b6 8.fi'dl fi'xb2 9.gb l fi'a3 lO.e5
dxe5 1 l .f:x:e5 �fd7 modern players have
given up on 1 2 . .ic4, in particular due to
1 2 . . . � a5!.
The circus has moved on to 12.�e4.
a b c d e f g h
Now Suetin's point about the value of
. . . h7 -h6 is key. In fact 1 2 . . . h6! is regarded
as best, nudging the bishop to h4. (Instead
1 2 . . . �xa2 1 3 .l:!d 1 � d5 1 4. � e3 �xe5 1 5 . .ie2
ic5 is dangerous for Black after 1 6. 0-0! .
For example, note that 1 6 . . . ltl c6? ? loses to
1 7. ltl xc5 . ) After 1 3 . .ih4 �xa2 1 4. l:!d 1 � d5
1 5 . � e3 �xe5 16 . .ie2 .ic5 we see one point
of 1 2 . . . h6 - the white queen is now not
defended, so castling is no longer an option
for White - 1 7. 0-0? ltl c6! is a disaster.
Instead the theoretical debate continues after
1 7 . .ig3 ixd4 1 8 . l:!xd4 � a5t 1 9.1:!d2 0-0
20 . .id6.]
This briefexcursus into theory demonstrates the
firmness of the bond between opening theory
and many problems of the middlegame.
Features of the Middlegame Struggle at the
Start of the Game
Let us note that the character of the openin g
struggle itself has become more dynamic.
Contemporary theory focuses on the fact
that there is more going on at the start of the
game than the mere mobilization of the forces.
It is no accident that even at an early stage,
the search for the most effective path tends
more and more to be conducted in tactical
terms similar to middlegame procedures.
Even in less forcing lines, the openin g
struggle frequently unfolds at a very fast
pace, notwithstanding the large quantity of
material on the board, some of it not yet fully
mobilized.
The Task of Harmoniously Co-ordinating
the Forces Its Role in the Opening
-
The general theme of co-ordination between
the fighting forces is one that has to be studied
from the very start of the game. It is in the
opening that this co-ordination begins to take
shape; in bringing your pieces out to active
positions, you must aim for harmony in their
actions right from the outset .
A distinguishing feature of the struggle in
the opening is the large quantity of pieces
and pawns on the board. A matter of supreme
importance is therefore the co-operation
between pieces and pawns; they may be
complementing each other's actions or, on the
contrary, impeding them.
Let's look at some cases where the pawns
inhibit the actions of particular pieces and
thereby disturb the overall co-ordination of
the forces. This happens for instance when
the pawns are fixed on one colour of squares,
severely limiting the mobility of the bishop
that operates on the same colour.
Here is an instructive example:
 The Chess Game as a Unified Process of Struggle
Carl Schlechter - W. John
Barmen 1 905
l.d4 d5 2.e4 e6 3.�c3 5 4.�f3 c6 5 ..6.£4
id6 6.d �f6 7 id3 fle7
8
7 made a characteristic mistake.
6·
a b c d e f g h
8.g3!
As the pawns on c6, d5 , e6 and f5 are arranged
on light squares, Schlechter methodically
plays for the blockade of Black's light-squared
bishop.
8 ... 0-0 9.0-0 �e4 1 0.flb3 � h8 1 U :�acl
Lf4 12.exf4 flO 13.�e5 fle7 14..txe4
fxe4 1 5.f3 exf3 16.geel fle7 17.fla3!
White has successfully implemented his
strategic plan. The bishop on c8 is totally
deprived of mobility, and this was soon to lead
to a complete failure of co-ordination between
the black forces.
On the other hand, p ieces should on no
account inhibit the movement o f the pawns.
From the first moves of the game, pawns are a
highly important factor in the fight to control
more space.
39
Viktor Korchnoi - Stefan Szabo
Bucharest 1 954
l.e4 e5 2.�c3 �f6 3.g3 .ie5 4 ..igl 0-0 5.e3
ge8 6.�ge2 �e6 7.0-0 d6 8.d4 .ib6 9.h3
.i5
In trying to mobilize his p ieces as quickly as
possible and avoiding pawn moves, Black has
a b c d e f g h
It looks as i f he has solved the p roblem o f
developing his pieces and kept a n elastic pawn
chain; he would seem to have quite good
p rospects in the transition to the middlegame.
In reality, though, his position is very difficult
and perhaps even lost.
The point is that Black has completely deprived
his own pawns of mobility. He is powerless
against an attack by his opponent's pawn
p halanx in the centre and on the kingside.
White, by contrast, has solved the p roblem of
co-ordinating his p ieces and pawns in excellent
style.
1 0.d5 �b8 1 1 .g4! .id7 12.�g3 h6 13. � h2
a5 14.£4! exf4 1 5.exf4 �h7
40 Soviet Chess Strategy
a b c d e f g h
16.g5!
By now the attack is irresistible.
There are a good many opening systems
where one player allows his opponent's centre
pawns to advance a long way and intends
subsequently to attack them. The far-advanced
pawns are conducive to a gain of space only if
the pieces are supporting them. Otherwise the
pawns constitute a serious positional weakness.
This is the idea underlying many variations of
Alekhine's Defence ( 1 .e4 tLl f6) , as well as the
King's Indian line which goes 1 .d4 tLl f6 2.c4
g6 3. tLl c3 .ig7 4.e4 0-0 5.e5?! tLl e8, followed
by . . . d7-d6.
Quite often, in order to achieve good co­
ordination between the pieces and the pawn
chain in the opening phase of the game, a
player allows pawn weaknesses to be formed or
makes a spatial concession. Such cases demand
a precise, specific appraisal of each pawn
weakness, taking into account the positive
factors that make up for it.
Boris Ivkov - Vassily Smyslov
Belgrade 1 956
1 .e4 e5 2.�8 �c6 3.Ab5 a6 4 ..ia4 d6
5.,hc6t bxc6 6.d4 f6
a b c d e f g h
Black's queenside pawn configuration has
been weakened, and his pieces are rather
cramped for space.
Nonetheless, despite its apparent passivity,
Black's position is fully viable. A very
important role is played by his light-squared
bishop, which does a good job of covering
the slightly weakened squares in the centre
and complements the action of the pawns in
its own camp. Later, the pawn centre may be
set in motion with powerful effect ( . . . d6-d5 or
. . . f6-f5) .
7.Ad �e7 8.�c3 �g6 9.Yfd2 Ae7 1 0.0-0-0
Ae6 1 1 .h4 h5 12.dxe5 £Xe5 13.�g5
Black would answer 1 3 . .ig5 with 1 3 . . . .if6! .
13 ....ixg5 14 .ixg5 Yfb8!
•
An important manoeuvre; Black is aiming
for a counter-attack on the queenside.
White, for his part, has not managed to find
a good plan. He has not made any obvious
mistakes but has still landed in a strategically
lost position.
1 5.b3 Yfb4 16.8 a5 17.�a4 c5 1 8. � b2 0-0
19.Yfxb4 axb4 20.c3 �Ub8 2 1 .cxb4 �hb4
22.�c3
 Th e Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle 41

His weaknesses on the queensi de are scarcely

8
palpable and cannot in practice be exploited
7 by his opponent.
6
7.cx:d5! exd5 S.J.d3 0-0 9.�e2 b6 10.0-0
5 .ta6 1 1 ..ba6 �xa6 12.a �bS 13.Yfd3
4 White consistently strengthens his control
over e4; he is not afraid of . . . c5-c4, which
3
would merely free him from worry about the
2 defence of the d4-point.

13 ... geS 14.�g3 �c6 15 ..tb2 gc8 16.gael

a b c d e f g h h6 17.e4!
22 . .c4 23.�d5 gb7! 24.�e7t �xe7 25.L:e7
.
So the centre is set in motion; White's fighting
c3t 26.�xc3 gxa2 27J�b l gxg2 forces are arranged most harmoniously.
And with precise play Black exploited his
advantage.

This kind of set-up is characteristic of modern

openings in general.
Take the popular Samisch System in the
Nimzo-Indian Defence: l .d4 lLl f6 2.c4 e6
3 . tt:k3 ib4 4.a3 ixc3t 5 . bxc3 , followed
by 6.e3 or even 6.£3 and 7.e4. By way of
compensation for the weakening of his pawn
structure, White has a numerical superiority in
the centre. If circumstances permit, his bishops
may become very active. These potential assets
a b c d e f g h
can later take effect in a decisive manner, as for
example in the following game. 17 ... cx:d4 1 S.cx:d4 dxe4 19.fxe4 �e5 20.Yfdl
�c4 2 1 ..tc1 �h7 22.e5 ge6 23.ge4 �m
Alexander Kotov - Wolfgang Unzicker 24.�f5!
White has a decisive attack on the kingside.
Stockholm 1 952
In the opening you must strive for active co­
l .d4 �f6 2.c4 e6 3.�c3 .tb4 4.e3 d5 5.a3 operation between all your forces. For example,
hc3t 6.bxc3 c5 a piece that is badly defended or isolated can
In the ensuing play, White very accurately often become a serious long-term obstacle to
executes a plan that had fi rst been adopted achieving harmonious co-ord ination.
by Botvinnik in his famous game with The following line of the Ruy Lopez, for
Capablanca (Amsterdam 1 938) . White instance, is rightly considered unsatisfactory
releases the tension in the centre and then, from Black's viewpoint: l .e4 e5 2 . lLl £3 lLl c6
utilizing his numerical superiority in that part 3 . i. b5 a6 4. i.a4 lLl f6 5 .0-0 ie7 6.!!e l b5 7. i. b3
of the board, he gradually organizes an attack. d6 8.c3 lLl a5 9 . i. c2 c5 1 0 .d3 ig4? I l .h3 ih 5 ?
42 Soviet Chess Strategy

A mistaken i dea. 1 2. lLl b d2 0-0 1 3.g4! And so
on. White shuts the light-squared bishop out
of the game for a long time an d gains a clear
middlegame advantage. A similar idea also
crops up in some other opening systems that
are held to be unfavourable for Black.
An immense amount of attention is given
to questions of co-ordination iIi the modern
opening systems that involve a direct tactical
contest.
Black seems to have successfully solved the
problem of queenside development - a d ifficult
one for him in this system - and deployed his
fighting forces actively.
Nevertheless Black's scheme is still far from
clear, since he has yet to start mobilizing his
kingsi de an d has offen ded against the principle
of harmonious piece development.
SJlel �c6
8 . . lLl f6 is somewhat better.
.

In many systems, mobilization does

not proceed as quickly as the principles of 9.�xc6 Y!lxc6 10.a4 b4 1 1 .�d5!
development deman d . For this reason, a theme This combinative stroke, already envisaged
of new opening research is to test the co­ at move 8, exposes the disunity in Black's
ordination of one si de's forces an d exploit any army.
deficiency concealed in it. The point is that
an aggressive plan in the opening may prove
8
impracticable if mobilization has not been
achieved - if the forces are not yet sufficiently 7
active an d manoeuvrable to co-operate
6
purposefully. In such cases the complex issue
of achieving co-ord ination is being approached 5
without d ue regard for the elementary opening 4
tasks.
3
Mikhail Tal - Aivars Gipslis 2

Riga 1 95 8 1

a b c d e f g h
1 .e4 c5 2.c�� S e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 a6
5.�c3 b5!? 6.Ad3 .tb7 7.0-0 Y!lc7 In view of his queensi de weaknesses an d the
undeveloped state of his kingsi de, Black does
not succeed in co-ord inating the actions of his
8
forces.
7

6 1 1 . .. �f6
1 1 . . .a5 is very strongly answered by 1 2.c3!.
5

4 12..td2 �xd5 13.exd5 Y!lc5

Of course not 1 3 . . . Y!lxd 5 , on account of
3
1 4 . .ie4.
2
14 ..ie4 f5 15.AS bd5
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
 Th e Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle
a b c d e f g h
16.ixb4! Lf'3 17.Yfxf3
White obtained a decisive attack.
The struggle in the mo dern opening has made
us much more deeply aware of the issues of
piece co-ord ination at the beginning o f the
game; it has given them a concrete tactical
meaning. In modern opening variations, co­
ordination of the forces must not for one
moment be forgotten.
Let's look at an example which, though not
complicated , is highly instructive.
Robert James Fischer - Samuel Reshevsky
New York 1 95 8
1.e4 c5 2.tOS tOc6 3.d4 cx:d4 4.tOxd4 g6
sJk3 ig7 6 ..ie3 tOf6 7..ic4 0-0 8 ..tb3
A well-known variatio n of the Sicilian
Defence. The bishop exerts strong pressure on
the a2-g8 d iagonal, an d exchanging it offwoul d
be very useful to Black. This consi deration,
which seems entirely logical, may prompt
Black to play an immed iate:
8 �a5?
...
However, at this moment White has the
opportunity to co-ord inate the actions of his
forces in a decisive manner.
There followed :
43
9.e5 tOeS
a b c d e f g h
10.Lf7t!!
Black is lost, as after either 10 ... c!> xf7 o r
l O . . .lhf7, White replies with 1 1 . � e6! '
Transition from Opening to Middlegame -
The Principal Task Involved
Analysing the examples has led us to conclude
that on transition from the opening to the
mi ddlegame, a player's chief task must be to
elaborate a concrete plan for con d ucting the
ensuing fight; but then this plan will already
have been envisaged , even if only in the most
general o utline, at an earlier stage of the
opening.
The contemporary approach to mobilization
at the start of the game requires deep study of
the opening structures an d their link to the
mi ddlegame. In this way, a thought expressed
by the great Russian player Mikhail Chigorin
is increasingly confirmed :
"In nearly all openings it is possible to fin d
moves which are not inferior to the theoretical
ones. Generally speaking, chess is much richer
than you might suppose on the basis of existing
theory, which strives to compress the game
into narrow fixed forms."
The general feature uniting the most
varied forms of transition from opening to
44 Soviet Chess Strategy

middlegame is the fact that the strategic 9 . . . tiJ a5, 9 . . . h6, 9 . . .ib7, 9 . . . tiJ d7, 9 . . a5,
.

character of the main battle tends to be defined 9 .. .'IW d7, or even the paradoxical retreat of a
at this very point. And the development of knight to its starting square with 9 . . . tiJ b8. These
theory constantly opens up a very rich choice are all merely the rudiments of plans, albeit most
of possibilities. serious and positionally well-founded ones.
However, let us suppose the game continues
Let's take for example the following position with:
which forms the point of departure for the
Chigorin System in the Ruy Lopez: 9 ... �a5 10.i.c2 c5 1 l .d4 Yflc7 1 2.�bd2
�c6 13.d5
1 .e4 e5 2.c�� f3 �c6 3.i.b5 a6 4.i.a4 �f6 In many ways White's last move does lay
5.0-0 i.e7 6J!el b5 7.i.b3 d6 8.d 0-0 9.h3 down the terms for the coming struggle,
although the players' plans are still far from
clear. Mobilization is almost complete and the
8
structure in the centre is fixed, yet it is only in
7 the most general terms that this signifies the
6 end of the opening phase.
Still, the middlegame is no longer far off.
5 fu; an example we will take the game Geller -
4 Mecking, Palma de Mallorca 1 970:

3
W//,'h', ;:::;-;;,;r;='/., 13 ... �a5 14.b3 i.d7 1 5.�f1 �b7 16.�g3
2 c4?! 17.b4
1
8
a b c d e f g h
7
The basics of mobilization are completed,
but can we say that the transition to the 6
middlegame has begun? There is still a fair
5
distance to go before the main battle is joined or
the plans are even settled. For the present, both 4
sides, as they say, are left to their own devices. 3
In almost every case White intends to make the
"obligatory" moves d2-d4 and tiJ b 1 -d2, but 2
this by no means concludes his mobilization, 1
which remains open to a wide range of options.
a b c d e f g h
In many lines (for instance the Smyslov System
where Black plays 9 . . . h6 followed by 1 0 . . .l'�e8 The chief zone of conflict for the middlegame
and . . . j,e7-fS), White can choose between the is decided - it is the kingside, where White
manoeuvre tiJ d2-fl -g3 and a build-up with develops a lasting initiative.
ib3-c2, b2-b4, ic 1 -b2 etc.
17 .. J�fc8 1 8.�f5 i.m 1 9.�h2 a5 20J!e3
For Black, the critical position offers an even axb4 2 1 .cxb4 hf5? 22.ex5 c3 23.�g4!
greater choice of the most diverse continuations: With a clear plus for White.
 Th e Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle
In this last example the transition from opening
to middlegame passed almost imperceptibly; it
was disguised by the regroupings of pieces in
the respective camps. The players, so to speak,
were sizing each other up and were in no hurry
to engage in a heated skirmish.
In numerous other cases, especially in gambit
systems both old and new, the middlegame
"matures" long before the development of
the pieces is finished or the centre has been
seriously "cleared up" .
As an example, another Ruy Lopez line - the
Schliemann Variation - will suffice:
1.e4 e5 vta �c6 3 ..lb5 f5 4.�c3 fxe4
5.�xe4 d5 6.�xe5 dxe4 7.�xc6 bxc6
8.ixOOt .ld7 9.Vh5t �e7 lO.Ve5t .le6
l l .ixas Vxa8
a b c d e f g h
A good half of the forces on both sides are
standing totally idle. Nonetheless the opening
stage has been swept away as if by a tornado.
What remains is a characteristic middlegame
conflict with disparate material, in which it is
very hard to predict which way the scales will
come down. The transition to the middlegame
was most abrupt. The impulse for it was given
by Black's 5 . . . d5, whereupon a six-move forcing
operation followed, leading to the eccentric
position in the diagram.
45
Such contrasts in the choice of plan at the onset
of the middlegame are most noteworthy. The
art of playing in these "delicate" positions was
and remains a criterion of genuine mastery. It
was no accident that when preparing for his
worl d title match with Capablanca, Alekhine
took special care to perfect his skill in this phase
of the game. In so doing he gave particular
attention to such intangible factors as the
evaluation of a potential endgame, questions
of technique, the possibilities of exploiting
small advantages, and so forth.
It must be stated that the modern dynamic
approach to the transitional phase is
distinguished by the breadth of its imaginative
vision. It is far from obligatory to construct
your plan on the outward positional factors
and be gui ded by them alone.
It is interesting to follow the evolution in
the treatment of the following critical position,
arising from one of the main lines of the Caro­
Kann Defence:
1 .e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.�c3 dxe4 4.�xe4 �f6
5 .�xf6t exf6 6 ..ic4 .id6 7.Ve2t J.e7 8.�a
0-0 9.0-0
a b c d e f g h
In his Manual of Chess, Lasker assesses this
opening variation as follows: "White's plan is
to exploit his queenside pawn majority while
remaining passive on the kingsi de. Black will
46 Soviet Chess Strategy

try to force his opponent to move one of his
kingside pawns, creating an object for his own
pawns to play against."
Since then the strategic horiwns of this
position have considerably widened. The way
the fight developed in the following game may
serve as a striking illustration.
Here is another example from the 1 940s. In the
Sicilian Defence (which at that time, incidentally,
was comparatively little played) , after the moves
l .e4 c5 2. tD f3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4. tD xd4 tD f6 5.f3 e5,
Rabinovich's 6. tD b5 underwent a fair amount of
study. Its idea is to try to exploit the rather weak
d5-square.

Viacheslav Ragozin Isaak. Boleslavsky

-

Sverdlovsk 1 943

9 ...1d6 10J�e1 .lg4 l 1 .Yfe4! .lh5 12.�h4

�d7 13.Yff5!
By evaluating the position in concrete
terms, White launches an unexpected and very
energetic attack on the kingside; he is exploiting
the limited mobility of his opponent's pawns in
that area, as well as the position of the bishop a b c d e f g h
on h5 which is somewhat dubious from a
After the natural moves 6 . . . a6 7. tD 5c3 ie6
tactical viewpoint.
B . tD d5, White provokes an exchange on d5 and
afterwards tries to utilize his queens ide pawn
13 ... �b6 14.Yfxh5 �xc4
majority. That was how the theorists formulated
White's plan, which at the time seemed highly
8 promising.
7 Since then, interestingly, 6. tD b5 has not been
subjected to detailed analysis. The main reason
6 why there was no need for it was the appearance
5 of the Boleslavsky System: l .e4 c5 2. tD f3 tD c6
3.d4 cxd4 4. tD xd4 tD f6 5 . tD c3 d6 6. ie2 e5!?,
4
which threw down a bold challenge to the old
3 ideas about the weakness of central squares.
2

1 l:::.
a b c d e f g h
1 5 ..ih6! Yfd7
White wins after I 5 . . . gxh6 1 6.b3 tD b6
1 7. tD f5 � hB I B . Wfxh6 ggB 1 9.geB!! and mate
cannot be avoided in a reasonable way.

16.ixg7! <it>xg7 17.�f5t <it>h8 1 8J�e4

1xh2t 19.<it>hl a b c d e f g h
Black resigned.
 The Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle
It now becomes clear even without any
detailed analysis that in the variation 1 .e4
c5 2. tD f3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4 . lLl xd4 lLl f6 5 . £3 e5,
White's 6. lLl b5 manoeuvre - which aimed
to exploit the purely strategic assets of his
position (the d5-square) - is little suited to
the dynamics of modern opening play and
scarcely expedient.
Let us also note that at present, in many
Sicilian variations where this kind of central
pawn structure arises, it is Black who tries to
provoke an exchange on d5 which considerably
facilitates his own play in the centre. It has
been established that White's queenside
pawn majority in such positions cannot
bring him substantial dividends; as a rule its
significance in the ensuing struggle is purely
theoretical.
In the modern approach to studying the
system with l .e4 c5 2. lLl £3 d6 3 . d4 cxd4
4. iihd4 tD f6 5 . £3 , the questions are posed in
a fundamentally new way. According to the
earlier view, the lines where White achieves
the blockading move c2-c4 without hindrance
are unsatisfactory for Black. But in recent
years this notion has been revised. Practice
shows that in numerous cases Black can fight
successfully against White's blockading set­
up. In this respect the Accelerated Dragon
Variation is characteristic: l .e4 c5 2. lLl £3 lLl c6
3.d4 cxd4 4. lLl xd4 g6 5 . c4 ig7
a b c d e f g h
47
Black has plenty of counterplay in the
centre.
Recently therefore, after 1 .e4 c5 2. lLl f3 d6 3.d4
cxd4 4. lLl xd4 lLl f6 5 . £3 , Black has quite often
been playing 5 . . . e6, allowing the blockading
move 6.c4 .
a b c d e f g h
Subsequently he aims to obtain counterplay
in the centre by undermining White's bastions
with . . . d6-d5 .
Thus many earlier j udgements o n opening
structures, being based on general positional
considerations, are far from reflecting the true
picture of the struggle. The genuine wealth
of ideas goes far beyond the limits of that
framework.
To conclude this section we may note that the
assessment of many a middlegame position
can become more comprehensible if you give
careful attention to the way it came about.
The point is that the "complexion" of a game
(the peculiarities of its middlegame strategy
and tactics) begins to be formed as early as the
opening stage.
Hence a player studying some middlegame
position or other will find it useful to trace the
entire process of the foregoing struggle and
acquaint himself with the opening formation
from which the position arose.
48 Soviet Chess Strategy
Transition to the Endgame
If the transition from opening to middlegame
generally opens up full scope to the pieces'
power of action, the transition to the endgame
leads to a notable revision of middlegame
values.
Thus the kings, recently hidden away (under
"seven seals") , acquire real active strength
at long last, equal in many cases to that of
a rook. And every unit of material, even the
weakest, starts demanding careful attention.
This applies especially to passed pawns. In
the middlegame they possessed real power
in rare cases; in the endgame they become
genuine heroes, with a very high "price on
their heads" .
Clumsy in the cluttered space of the
middlegame, the rooks in the endgame are
ready to decimate the enemy's thinned-out
rear, which lacks reserves. On the other hand,
the knight's j umps and the bishop's long­
range shots - which recently, amidst a large
complement of forces, made the top brass
of the sixty-four squares "tremble" - tend
to be less effective, given their geometric
limitations. In the endgame the power of these
pieces is often subject to purely mathematical
analysis.
Players have to take these factors seriously into
account each time they go into an ending.
Handbooks on the final phase of the game
devote their main attention to purely technical
problems, but in practice, at the point of
transition to the ending, you are obliged to
cope with a complex state of play, in which
the ideas of the endgame and the middlegame
are sometimes closely interwoven.
What should we consider to be the moment
of transition to the ending? In numerous
cases it is the moment when the queens are
exchanged and the basic plan of attacking the
king is simultaneously ruled out. An ending
may also be brought about by an exchange of
most of the other pieces - both pairs of rooks,
all the bishops and knights.
Thus the transition to an endgame involves
simplification and, as a rule, the emancipation
of the kings, which assume an active role on
the stage. The principal difference between
an attack on the king in the endgame and in
the middlegame lies in the role played by the
hero of the drama. If in the middlegame the
monarch is generally compelled to sit in his
fortress, in the endgame he stations himself
close to the front line, and is ready not only to
defend himself but also, on occasion, to take
part in an offensive operation.
Everyone knows that simplification and
the resulting transition to an endgame are
favourable to the side with a material plus.
The ratio of the two sides' forces is, after
all, significantly altered, and the opponent's
counterplay with his pieces is "extinguished".
Of course, the extremely rich material of
contemporary practice supplies all kinds of
examples of the opposite approach - when
the exploitation of a material plus involves
a middlegame attack, etc. Nonetheless the
strategic precept of simplification to realize an
advantage remains valid, and you cannot attain
mastery without acquiring the technique of
this procedure.
Quite often the transition to an endgame is
favoured by weaknesses in your opponent's
pawn formation, the possibility of penetrating
to his rear with a rook, and such positional
factors. That is why, even in the heat of the
fiercest middlegame battles, an experienced
player never for one moment wants to
lose sight of the contours of a potential
endgame.
 Th e Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle
Max Euwe - Reuben Fine
Amsterdam 1 938
a b c d e f g h
At the moment, the passions of the
middlegame hold sway on the board. White
seems to have quite good prospects for an attack
on the kings ide. But Black has not only made
good preparations for defence; he also has a
favourable en dgame in view. This circumstance
supplies the theme of his operations.
19.h4?
Objectively Black's chances are already
preferable, but after 1 9.b3 White could still
have organized a solid defence. His nervous
attacking attempt has ruinous consequences.
19 ... h5 20JU4 geS!
Not only parrying the threat of 2 1 .�xf6
'i!lxf6 22. YMc3 , but also forcing simplifications
that favour Black.
2 1 .�xeS YlYxf4 22.�a gbS 23.YlYe4
Black was threatening 23 . . . .ie6. By this
time White is the one seeking salvation in an
ending, but now Black's chief trumps are laid
on the table.
23 ...�xe4 24..be4 ,tg4 25.gd2 geS
26.,td3
49
26. ic2 is very strongly answered by
26 . . . ix8 27.gx8 ixb2, when 28. ixg6 fails
to 28 . . . �e l t 29. c;t> g2 id .
26 ... gdS 27.b3 .bf3 2S.grl3 hl4 29.<bg2
,tg5 30.gdl ,tf4
a b c d e f g h
Despite the presence of opposite-coloured
bishops, the game is lost for White. The
decision is ultimately brought about by Black's
king advancing to the queenside.
31 .<bfl h4 32.<bg2 f5 33.<bh3 <bf6 34.<bg2
gd4 35.<bh3 g5 36.,tc2 gxdl 37.,txdl
,td6 3S.,tc2 <be5 39. <bg2 .tc5 40.,td3 a5
41 ..tc2 f4 42 ..tg6 <bd4 43.,tf5 <bc3 44 ..tc8
<bb2
White resigned.
There are many modern opening lines that
incorporate, from the very outset, some
favourable endgame factors for one of the
players. Apart from that, it frequently happens
that one player will take the game from the
opening into a complex ending in order to
avoid a sharp combinative fight. Objectively
such a method of playing may not promise any
special dividends, but it is quite often employed
by players who have a good command of the
technique required for the final phase of the
game.
50 Soviet Chess Strategy

We may state that in complex endgame

8
positions arising out of the opening struggle,
middlegame and endgame themes are likely 7
to be closely interwoven. The task for each
6
of the players is to utilize the assets of his
position while simultaneously neutralizing his 5
opponent's efforts to do likewise. 4

3
Some Other Key Moments in the Chess
Struggle 2

1
The two key moments in the struggle that we
have so far examined - the transition from a b c d e f g h
opening to middlegame, and from middlegame
12.Ae2
to ending - have a defining role in chess
The game has opened with the Cambridge
theory. In practice, however, these moments
Springs Defence to the Queen's Gambit. At
are far from being crucial and distinctive in
the present time, the plan with 1 2.g3 is rightly
every game. Other occasions in the struggle -
considered more dangerous.
associated as a rule with tactical "outbursts" or
the mounting of attacks - often prove far more
12 ... 0-0
important for the progress and outcome of a
Probably 1 2 . . . c5 was more energetic.
game.

13.0-0 .td7
Time and again we come across games that
Again both sides play rather slowly. White
are packed with adventures even though
had the restraining move b2-b4; Black
the moments of transition to and from the
could have freed his game successfully with
middlegame pass relatively quietly. This always
. . . c6-c5.
has its own specific reason. The point is that
the principles of the game and the objective
14.b4 b6 15.Aa gac8 1 6.gfdl gfd8 17J�acl
demands of the position are not the only
Ae8 1 8.g3 �d5 1 9.�b2 �b8 20.�d3 AgS
moving forces in chess; the game is played by
living people whose will and desires have a
major influence on its character. 8

7
Are not the unforeseen upheavals in the
following game fascinating? 6

5
Jose Raul Capablanca Alexander A1ekhine
-

4
Buenos Aires ( 1 1 ) 1 927 3

l .d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.�c3 �f6 4ig5 �bd7 2

5.d c6 6.�a �a5 7.�d2 Ab4 8.�c2 dxc4 1 6.
9 ..bf6 �xf6 10.�xc4 �c7 1 1 .a3 Ae7
a b c d e f g h
 Th e Chess Game as a Unified Process of Struggle
The players have entered a quiet middlegame
of the purely manoeuvring type, where White
maintains some pressure on Black's restricted
position.
2U:!bl �b7 22.e4 �xc3 23.�xc3 Yfe7
A barely perceptible inaccuracy. As Alekhine
has indicated, after 23 .. .i'k7 Black could fight
successfully for equality: 24. i.g2 i f6 2 5 .e5
ie7 26J!:bc 1 V9c8 etc.
24.h4 .ih6 25 . .tle5 g6 26 . .tlg4
A mistake in return. The right move was
26. tik4!, trying to gain control of d6 after
e4-e5. In that case Black should probably
continue with 26 . . . ig7 27.e5 h 5 , meeting
28. til d6 with 28 .. J�xd6! 29.exd6 �xd6 when
he has excellent drawing chances.
26...,tg7 27.e5 h5 2S.�e3 e5!
a b c d e f g h
As often happens in practice, the mutual
inaccuracies have merely led to a sharp
intensification of the fight. Some fascinating
tactical complications begin.
29.bxe5 bxe5 30.d5?!
It still wasn't too late to take the game
back into a peaceful channel: 30J!b7 �d7
31.�xd7 ixd7 32.d5 exd5 3 3 . lLl xd5 � e6
34. til f4 ixe5 3 5 . lLl xe6 ixc3 36.�xd7 fxe6,
51
with simplifications and bishops of opposite
colours.
30 exd5 3 1 . .tlxd5 Yfe6 32.�f6t?
•.•
A major error. Better drawing chances would
have been preserved by 32.�b7 ixe5 3 3 . V9a5,
although even then Black's position would be
preferable.
32 hf6 33.exf6 gxdl t 34J�xdl .ic6!
•..
35J�el �f5 36.ge3 e4 37.a4 a5!
After 37 . . . .txa4? 3 8 . ie4! White's position is
not worse.
3S.igl .hg2 39.c;!?xg2 �d5t 40.c;!?h2 �f5
4016 �e5 42JU4 c;!?h7
At this point Black had the strong manoeuvre
42 . . . V9 b6! at his disposal, after which White
would be in a peculiar kind of positional
zugzwang.
43j�M4 �e6? 44.�xa5 c3 45.�a7 c;!?gS
a b c d e f g h
So the ending that arose from moves 38-39
might seem to be technical and a trifle boring
in character. However, the ensuing struggle
and the numerous analytical controversies
surrounding it reveal the truly fabulous inner
content of the position.
46.�e7 Yfb6 47.�d7?
52 Soviet Chess Strategy

Taking the game to the brink of catastrophe 59. � h2 YlYxf6 60.a5?

again. The correct move was 47J'!d7!, for
example: 47 . . . �xf2t 48. � h l ! � a2 49.1'!d8t
1'!xd8 50. �xd8t � h7 5 1 . � f8 , and Black has
to give perpetual check.
Tipping the scales in Black's favour once
again. After 60.1'!c2! 1'!e8 6 1 . � g2! the draw
would have been unavoidable.
60 gd8 6 1 .a6
•••

47 YlYc5! 48J::l e4 YlYxflt 49. � h3 YlYfl t

••• This leads quickly to a crisis. White could
50. � h2 YlYflt 5 1 . � h3 gf8 52.YlYc6 YlYfl t have prolonged his resistance by 6 1 . � g2.
53. � h2 YlYflt 54.�h3 YlYfl t 55. � h2 � h7
56.YlYc4 YlYflt 57. � h3

a b c d e f g h
6 1 . YlYfl !
••

a b c d e f g h
The decisive manoeuvre.
57 YlYgl !
•••

This accurate move should lead to victory. 62.YlYe4 gd2 63.gxd2 cxd2 64.a7 d l =Yf
Instead 57 . . . �xf6 would be inadequate in view 65.a8=YlY YlYgl t 66. � h3 YlYdfl t
of 5 8 .1'!f4 with 59.1'!f3 to follow. White resigned rather than allow his
opponent to demonstrate the pretty mate -
58.ge2 67. � g2 � h l # - on the board.
On 5 8 .g4, Black gives mate with 58 . . . c2!
59. �xc2 1'!e8!! 60J'he8 hxg4#. Isn't that a 8
triumph of combinative creativity? Yet it 7
happens in a "purely technical ending". In
6
truth there are no boring positions, there are
5
just boring styles of play.
4

58 YlYfl t?
••• 3
The win could be achieved by 58 . . . � h l t 2
59 J!h2 � f3!' White then has no satisfactory
moves, seeing that on 60J"k2 Black has
a b c d e f g h
60 . . . � f5t, while 60.1'!e2 or 60.1'!a2 would be
met by 60 . . . �xf6 6 1 . � g2 1'!b8! etc.
 The Chess Game as a Uni fi e d Process of Struggle 53

It is hard to find a new angle on this game which Before examining the complex questions of
has been thoroughly analysed by the most the middlegame, we shall consider the elements
prominent specialists. At most we might resort of positional play; a separate chapter will then
to a fashionable device ofcontemporary research be devoted to problems of the centre and its
and draw a graph representing the strategic various structures.
course of the play. Then the turning-points
that we noted would stand out in bol d relieE
We may observe that in each case the upheaval
was preceded by errors. But this merely shows
that to err is human. Errors in chess can only
be eliminated in simple symmetrical positions,
and even then on cond ition that you have no
ambitions of victory. In complex positions full
of dynamism, mistakes an d delusions are not
to be avoided even by the strongest masters.
Our ancient game is not at all harmed
by this, but on the contrary enriched . The
philosophical concept of error has been very
little studied as yet. This complex question
awaits its investigation.

***

In the first two chapters I have tried to

present a panorama of the chess battle with
its multiplicity of plans and its constant
movemen t. In his customary practical thinking,
a player only quite rarely operates with such
general categories; he is above all confronting
the tactical and strategic elements of this or
that concrete position.
There are certain elements that are well
known to constitute the basis of positional
play - a spatial advantage for instance, or the
penetration of rooks to the seventh (or second)
rank; problems of weak an d strong squares,
open files and diagonals, are also relevant here.
A large group of elements involves the relative
values of the pieces, find ing an application
in the matter of favourable (or unfavourable)
exchanges. Modern practice gives a wealth of
new forms to the device of a positional sacrifice
of material, and thus broadens our notion of
the relative values.
Chapter 3
Foundations of Positional Play

Relative Values of the Pieces

For chess players, as we know, the start of the learning process is familiarization with the scale of
relative values of the pieces. With your very first steps in chess you learn that the pawn is taken
as the unit of measure. A minor piece - bishop or knight - is worth roughly three units, a rook is
worth four and a half. The queen, the strongest piece, is equal to nine units; and so on.
The king is a special case. Its significance in the opening and middlegame can hardly be
translated into the language of figures. Yet in the endgame, when the king is rarely threatened
with attack and becomes an actively engaged piece, its numerical equivalent is quite high -
roughly five units.
In practice, a player very quickly concludes that the generally accepted scale of values is very much
a conventional and fluid concept. This scale is nonetheless indispensable! It is what provides the
rudimentary starting point for finding your bearings in any position. However, with experience a
player gains more and more insight into the fact that any chess position is an indivisible complex
made up of the actions of the fighting forces. In every position there are strong pieces operating in
the forefront of the battle, and weak ones that are isolated or pointlessly reduplicating each other's
functions. In short, the strength of every piece and pawn in a concrete warlike environment is
relative, and varies with each move. Taken as a whole, this is what constantly destabilizes the
general "rate of exchange" of the values on the chessboard.
Genuine positional flair consists precisely in the ability to gauge the relative powers of the
pieces correctly during the course of the fight. These powers are susceptible of the most subtle and
innumerable fluctuations; there is still an untouched field of investigation here. Is it possible to
generate a dynamic scale of values for the pieces in every specific instance? This is a question for
the future. At present the delicate task of estimation has to be performed more or less accurately
with the "naked eye" , and we can only indicate the points of departure for developing this abil­
ity.

From an inexhaustible stock of examples, there is little point in trying to give a comprehensive
collection of even the most typical cases. We will confine ourselves to individual illustrations, with
a bias in favour of positions where the material on the two sides is dissimilar and the comparative
value of the pieces stands out in sharper relief.
However, let's start with the simplest elements.
56 Soviet Chess Strategy

Open FUe for a Rook - Penetration to the 22.b4 .ie6 23 ..ib3 gxd2 24.'ifxd2 hb3
Seventh Rank 25.a:x:b3 'ife6 26.c4 .lf6 27.c5 �c8 28.'ifd7!

Secure possession of an open file for a rook is

an important gauge of strategic success in the
implementation of a plan. Other things being
roughly equal, domination of the sole open file
will usually promise you an enduring plus and
sometimes guarantee victory.
In particular, players frequently employ a
strategy that uses the open file to penetrate with
a rook into the opponent's camp (especially
to the seventh rank) . I should like to recall a
pronouncement by Nimzowitsch, delivered in
his distinctive categorical manner: "The goal of
all manoeuvres in an open file is ultimately to a b c d e f g h
penetrate by way of this file to the seventh or The aim is achieved. In the new phase which
eighth rank, that is, to the enemy's rear." now begins, White exploits the advantage he
In the following game, White executed such has gained; this involves organizing an attack
a plan in energetic style. on the king.

Mikhail Botvinnik Isaak Boleslavsky

-
28 'ifxb3 29.'ifxb7 .igS 30.�xg5 hxg5
•.•

3 1 .'ifxa6 �e7 32.'ifb7 ge8 33.'ifd7 <it>m

Moscow 1 945 34.'ifd6 'ifxb4 35.�g4!
White has a won game.

8 Quite often the open file serves as a springboard

7 for switching the rook to another and more
important highway, on which it can penetrate
6 to the opponent's rear.
5
Alexey Suetin Evgeny Vasiukov
-

4
Voroshilovgrad 1 955
3

2 8
1 7
a b c d e f g h 6
White's firm occupation of the sole open file 5
in the centre defines his positional advantage.
His plan consists of invading the seventh 4
or eighth rank. A preliminary measure is a 3
queenside offensive with the aim of further
2
constricting the black pieces.
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
 Foun d ations o f Positional Play 57

With his next move White starts The threat was 3 1 .a6! , immuring the bishop
implementing a plan to exploit Black's pawn on a8 .
weaknesses on the queenside. To this end he
switches his rook on d3 from the open d-file 3 1 .lild3 �e7 32.gb4 ge7 33.lile5 .tc8
to the c-file. 34.gb8! �d6 35.b4 �d5 36.�d3 g5 37.e4t
�d6 38.ga8 g4 39.�xa6 .i5t
22.gc3! h5 23.gdl ged8 24.gxd8t gxd8
The exchange of one pair of rooks has
8
only increased White's chances, as Black's
possibilities for counterplay are even more 7
limited. 6

25.�a6 1e8 26.lilb4 1b7 27.ge4 5

Of course not 27. ltJ xc6? !!c8 etc. But 4
although Black succeeds in holding the c6-
3
point for the present, his position is devoid of
prospects, seeing that his weaknesses on a7 an d 2
c6 are incurable.
1

27... ge8 28 .�d2 f6 a b c d e f g h

40.�e3 gb7 41 .gf8 1e6 42.gxf6
Black resigned.

The Minor Pieces: Their Values Compared

It is well known that the two minor pieces -

bishop and knight - are of "equal worth" . On
examining these pieces more closely, however,
several finer points are fairly easy to discern.
Bishops are very powerful in their "long­
range" action. At the same time there are many
positions where knights develop immense
energy. This emerges especially clearly when
a b c d e f g h
battle is joined at close quarters. A knight's leaps
29.a4! are as dangerous as they are hard to foresee.
The start of the decisive offensive. The So which minor piece is stronger? There is of
forward march of the rook's pawn disorganizes course no straight answer. It all depen ds on the
Black's forces and creates new weaknesses. character of the position. The bishop possesses
great power in open positions. The knight with
29... e5 its j umping gait is stronger in hand-to-hand
If 29 . . . a5 30. ltJ d3 White would organize fighting and in closed positions. We may point
decisive pressure against the as-pawn. to a few further conditions which are useful to
take into account when assessing the mutual
30.a5 a6 strength of these pieces.
58 Soviet Chess Strategy
1) The bishop's strength is displayed with
particular clarity in endgames with action on
both wings. Here the knight with its short
jumps is noticeably inferior to the bishop.
Thus, a "good" bishop is that much stronger
than a knight.
2} In closed positions with blocked pawns,
especially when the bishop is impeded by pawns
of its own colour, the knight's role is enhanced.
A "bad" bishop is that much weaker than a
knight, especially if the latter is occupying a
secure position in the centre {blockading an
isolated pawn, for instance} .
3} A centralized knight is equal in value to an
active bishop.
Finally, the subjective factor in these j udgements
cannot be ignored. In many respects, a penchant
for the bishop or the knight is a matter of style
and taste. Thus, Steinitz and Tarrasch were
fervent champions of the bishop; Chigorin and
Nimwwitsch, by contrast, preferred knights.
Among contemporary grandmasters too, the
divergence is no less great. Thus, Spassky and
Tal "like" bishops better, while knights are
Petrosian's preference.
An accepted notion is that opposite-coloured
bishops make a draw likely. In the endgame they
do indeed provide serious grounds for peace
negotiations. Yet in the middlegame, especially
when the king is being attacked, the reverse
is the case; the opposite bishops, so to speak,
"forget" about their close kinship and act like
totally dissimilar pieces, either strengthening or
weakening the attack or the defence.
Diverse Material: Compensation for the
Queen
A frequent occurrence, especially in the
middlegame, is the sacrifice {or more exactly
the exchange} of queen for rook, minor piece
and pawn - and the initiative.
In the Open Variation of the Ruy Lopez, the
system worked out by Grandmaster Keres has
been the object of deep investigation:
1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 �c6 3.,ib5 a6 4 ..la4 �f6
5.0-0 �:x:e4 6.d4 b5 7.,ib3 d5 8.d:x:e5 .le6
9.'f!Ye2
a b c d e f g h
Preparing 1 0.gd l , White aims for active
pressure along the d-file against Black's most
important central point - d5.
At first, defending here by "usual" methods,
Black failed to achieve a fully equal game.
For example in Keres - Euwe, Moscow 1 948,
after 9 ..ie7 10Jldl 0-0 l 1 .c4 bxc4 1 2. i.xc4
••
i.c5?! 1 3 . i.e3 i.xe3 1 4. %Yxe3 %Y b8 1 5 . .i b3
ttJ a5 1 6. ttJ bd2! ttJ xd2 1 7.gxd2 ttJ xb3 1 8 .axb3
gc8 1 9 .9c 1 c5 20.gxc5 gxc5 2 1 . %Yxc5 %Yxb3
22. ttJ d4, White controlled the central squares
and quickly proceeded to a forthright attack
on the kingside: 22 . . . %Y b7 23.h3 gd8 24. i> h2
g6 2 5 . f4! etc.
Soon, however, Soviet researchers discovered
some interesting defensive systems in which
Black sacrifices his queen for a rook and bishop
in the opening and obtains the initiative. One
of these systems was devised by the Soviet
Master Grechkin: 1 2 . . . dxc4?! (in place of
1 2 . . . .ic5 , as played by Euwe) 1 3 .gxd8 gfxd8.
Practice showed, however, that by continuing
1 4. ttJ c3! White acquires a plus.
 Foun d ations of Positional Play
Yet the idea of the queen sacrifice, which
was brought up for the first time in the line
just mentioned, showed promise. It found
application in the variation 10 ... �e5!?
a e f g
The ensuing play in this variation abounds
in combinative ideas. Events proceed on forced
lines:
1 1 ..bd5 Axd5 12.�c3 .te4! 13J�xd8t
lhd8 14.YlYe3 b4! 15.b3! .ie6 16.�e4 gdl t
17.�e1 �d4 1 8..tb2 �xe2 19.YlYe2 gxal
20 .bal �xa1 2 1 .�xe5 Axe5
•
a b c d e f g h
An interesting posltlon arises in which
Black's chances are not at all worse than those
he obtains with quiet continuations. Practice
has shown that he has sufficient resources to
sustain his counterplay.
59
What these last examples had in common
was the characteristic exchanging operation
of queen for rook, minor piece and pawn. An
important issue, we should note, is whether
the minor piece in the transaction is a bishop
or a knight. As a rule, a bishop in this context
is considerably stronger. If in addition there
are two "healthy" extra pawns, then the queen
is more than compensated for, and the side
with rook plus bishop plus two pawns has a
significant advantage. As we have seen, if the
material balance is "queen versus rook, bishop
and pawn {or the initiative)" , the chances are
roughly equal. On the other hand in the case
of "queen versus rook, knight and pawn" , the
queen usually proves stronger.
It must be said that until recently such exchanges
were rather exceptional. The strength of the
queen tended to be overrated. Players would
exchange it for other material either when this
brought unequivocal advantages or when they
wanted to complicate the game in a difficult
situation.
In the modern dynamic struggle, with its
general ten dency for dissimilar contingents of
pieces to confront each other, the trade of a
queen for equivalent material is by no means
such a rarity. In these cases (and indeed generally
in cases with dissimilar opposing forces - as we
shall shortly see) , the balance of material is not
precisely equal but is slightly weighted in one
player's favour. In return (assuming of course
that his position is viable) , the other player
will possess more actively co-ordinated forces
or the initiative. All this makes for a game
not only sharply tactical but also positionally
complex in character.
***
The trade of a queen for two rooks occurs
more commonly in positions that have already
been simplified. Although the queen is the
60
equal of two rooks according to the scale of
relative values of the pieces, practice shows
that in general, especially in the endgame, the
rooks are manifestly stronger than the queen.
The chances of success for the rook "tandem"
will increase if there is the possibility to create
a passed pawn.
In that case the strength of the rooks stands
out very clearly. Whereas the rooks will almost
always secure the pawn's promotion, the queen
with a passed pawn wins only in exceptional
cases. If the rooks succeed in doubling behind
the enemy pawns, their effectiveness in defence
is adequate even in a fight against the queen
and two connected pawns. This presupposes, of
course, that the pawns are not too far advanced
and that the rooks have managed to cut off the
enemy king.
The following example is instructive.
Lajos Portisch - VassUy Smyslov
Havana 1 964
a b c d e f g h
White's passed pawns seem to be advancing
inexorably. But with some precise, well planned
rook manoeuvres, Black places a solid barrier
in their path.
45 J::l b 2!
••
It is important to put a brake on the back
Soviet Chess Strategy
pawn. Now White fails to reach his goal with
46.b5 �e5 47.a6 �bxb5 48.a7 �a5 49. Wl d8t
tJi h7 50.a8=Wl �xa8 5 1 . Wlxa8 �e6, when Black
constructs a fortress.
46.Wlb5 ge4 47.Yfb8t <!>h7 48.b5 geb4
49.b6 gb5 50.Yfa7 5
A draw is inevitable.
In the middlegame the opportunity fairly
often arises to exchange the queen for two
rooks or conversely to "win" it for that equiva­
lent. In this connection we should note that in
a sharp and complex middlegame position, a
mobile queen frequently proves stronger than
the sluggish rooks - especially when attacking
the king, if the latter is stripped of its cover
and the rooks are condemned to passivity. As a
rule, in this case the queen takes command of
the situation.
Mikhail Chigorin - George Mackenzie
Vienna 1 882
a b c d e f g h
White launches an energetic attack which
has the aim of obtaining an active queen for
his opponent's two rooks, which have little
mobility.
17.�b5! c6 1 8.�xa7t <!>c7 1 9.9xd5! adS
 Foun d ations of Position al Play 61

2o.1b5 'i«e6 2 1 .'i«c3t ebb6 22J�el ebxa7 5.�c3 d6 6 ..lc4 e6 7.0-0 a6 S ..le3 .le7
On 22 . . . �f5 White wins with: 23. � d4t 9 .lb3 �a5 10.£4 0-0 1 1 .'i«f3 b5
•

<li c7 24.l'!e7t � d7 2 5 . � c6! bxc6 26. � a7t

<li c8 27. ia6#

23.gxe6 fxe6 24.'i«e3t ebaS 25.'i«a3t �a6

26.ha6 bxa6 27.'i«xa6t ebb8 28.'i«b6t
chc8

a b c d e f g h
1 2.e5 .lb7 13.exf6! .lxf3 14.fxe7 'i«xe7
15J:�xf3, with f4-f5! to follow.

Or again:
l .d4 �f6 2.c4 g6 3.�c3 d5 4.�f3 .lg7
a b c d e f g h
5.'i«b3 dxc4 6.'i«xc4 0-0 7.e4 b6?
29.b4! gheS 30.'i«a7!
The aim is achieved. Black is helpless against
the advance b4-b5-b6!

It is much more rarely possible to obtain three

minor pieces for the queen. When such an
opportunity does arise, the pieces are stronger
than the queen even though they represent
no more than its equivalent on the numerical
scale. In complex middlegame positions, the
"three musketeers" offer a player much better
fighting chances than the "Cardinal". The
team of two bishops and a knight is especially
dangerous, although two knights and a bishop, a b c d e f g h
as a rule, are also stronger than a queen. S.e5 .le6 9.exf6! hc4 10.fxg7 ebxg7
In the transition stage from opening to 1 l .hc4
middlegame, certain positions where the queen
is helpless against the combined minor pieces In both these examples, in addition to a
are rightly considered unsatisfactory. healthy material equivalent, White has a strong
initiative giving him a notable advantage. But
For example: in such situations it is once again the concrete
1.e4 c5 2.c�f3 �c6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 �f6
62 Soviet Chess Strategy

factors that play the key role - as various 1 2 ... l:!xc3! 13.bxc3 lLlxe4
exceptions to the general rules arise. At a small cost in material Black disrupts his
opponent's pawn position on the queens ide
Compensation for a Rook and in the centre, and takes firm possession of
the initiative. As a rule such sacrifices are in
Let's consider sacrificing a rook for some other Black's favour. White has to be wary of them
piece. What often happens in practice is that and avert them in good time.
the exchange is sacrificed for one or two pawns
or the initiative. In the endgame, of course, A problematic and most interesting struggle
there can be positions where a cohort of pawns develops in one of the key variations of the
supplies even more than enough compensation Grunfeld Defence, where White sacrifices the
for the absence of a rook, but in the middle­ exchange for the initiative, obtaining attacking
game this is virtually impossible. chances and a powerful pawn centre:
If a minor piece and a pawn are worth
slightly less than a rook, a piece and two pawns 1 .d4 lLlf6 2.c4 g6 3.lLlc3 d5 4.cxd5 lLlxd5
are worth more. Thus there is never any exact 5.e4 lLlxc3 6.bxc3 c5 7.ic4 ig7 S.lLle2 cxd4
material compensation for the exchange, and 9.cxd4 0-0 10.ie3 lLlc6 1 1 .0-0 �g4 1 2.0
when taking the decision to sacrifice, you have lLla5 13.id3 �e6
to weigh up the other features of the position. The critical position is reached.
In practice an exchange sacrifice, just like a
pawn sacrifice, is a very common gambit device.
Sometimes this device acquires paramount
importance as early as the transitional phase
from opening to middlegame.
Thus in many lines of the Sicilian Defence
an exchange sacrifice by Black on c3 is typical.
For example:
1 .e4 c5 V�f3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.tihd4 lLlf6
5.lLlc3 a6 6.g3 b5 7.�g2 �b7 S.a3 e6 9.0-0
lLlbd7 10.f4 l:!cS 1 1 .£5 e5 12.lLlb3

a b c d e f g h
At this point, to forestall his opponent's
projected activity on the queenside and in
the centre ( l 4 . . . j,c4 or 1 4 . . . lt:l c4) , White
has a choice of distinctly uncompromising
continuations, one of which involves an
exchange sacrifice:

14.d5!? haI 1 5.�xal

The other such continuation is the pawn
sacrifice 1 4 .l"\c 1 j,xa2.
 Foun d ations o f Positional Play
By way of compensation for the material
deficit, White preserves his strong pawn centre
and obtains realistic chances o f an attack on
his opponent's castled position. For a long
time now the attention of researchers has been
riveted to this extremely interesting position,
in which the chances for either side can only be
assessed by means of the most precise concrete
analysis. An inconspicuous error can often lead
to quick defeat, although when placed on the
scales, the chances at present are balanced.
a b c d e f g h
A noteworthy variation is:
15 f6 16 ..ih6 ge8!
•••
But not 16 . . . ¥B b6t 1 7. Q;;l h l l:! fd8, on
account of 1 8 .l:!b l ¥B c5 1 9. id2! with a very
strong attack, as in Bronstein - Boleslavsky,
Moscow 1 9 50.
17.�f4 .if7 1 8.e5 .hd5! 1 9.YlYb l ic4!
20.hg6 YlYb6t
Black repels the assault.
[Editors' note: Recent trends suggest that
the exchange sacrifice is equal, but that it is
considered impractical for Black, as he runs a
great amount of risk, and cannot realistically
hope for more than equality. Recently Topalov
won two nice games against Shirov, diverting
from the line given by Suetin with: 1 6. ¥B d4
63
if7 1 7. ih6 l:!e8 1 8 . i b5 e5 1 9. ¥B f2 l:!e7. In
Linares 2008 their game continued: 20. i d3
l:!c8 2 l .f4 lLl c4 22.fxe5 lLl xe5 23. ¥Bxf6 ixd5
24.exd5 lLl g4 2 5 . ¥Bf4 lLl xh6 26. ¥Bxh6 ¥B b6t
27. Q;;l h l ¥B e3 28. ¥B h4 l:!e5 29. ¥B f6 l:!ee8
30.ixg6 hxg6 3 1 . ¥Bxg6t Q;;l h8 32. ¥Bf6t It> h7
33. ¥B f7t Q;;l h8 34. lLl f4 1 -0.]
I will state some further guidelines. In the
vast majority of cases, a bishop is better than a
knight at compensating for other material. But
then this depends on the general state of the
struggle. In the ending, for example, a rook is
by no means inferior - and can be superior - to
a knight and two pawns {unless o f course the
position is of the closed type and the knight
occupies a dominating post in the centre} .
The following endgame can serve as a good
example.
Efim Geller Isaak Boleslavsky
-
Moscow 1 949
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 6-
a b c d e f g h
For the sacrificed exchange Black would
seem to have more than enough compensation,
guaranteeing him a draw. But White finds
an interesting plan - utilizing the unstable
position of the knight, he starts an energetic
offensive with his rook's pawn.
64 Soviet Chess Strategy

41 .a4! �:U5 42. � e2 h4 43.g4 ga Isaak Boleslavsky Tigran Petrosian

-

Otherwise a4-a5 is very strong.

Moscow 1 957
44.gxe4! gxh3 45.ge7 �d3 46.g5!
Better than 46J:kc7 lLl f4t 47. <it> d2 'it> f6! 8
48Jl:xf7t <it> g5, with good counter-chances for
Black. 7

6
46 ... �f4t 47. � dl �h5 48.gc8
5
The threat of 49.l:%ee8 forces Black to incur a
major material loss. 4

3
48 .. Jfa t" ��h'h,//'h�'�'"

8 1

7 a b c d e f g h

6 White begins by sacrificing two pawns in

succession in order to sustain the initiative:
5

4 12.Ve2!? Vxc3 13.Adl Ve2 14.,id3 Va4

1 5.gfc1 �xd4 1 6.�xd4 Vxd4 17.,ib4
3
Black, however, had foreseen this turn of
2 events, and now extinguishes White's attacking
1 possibilities by a timely counter-sacrifice of the
�
exchange.
a b c d e f g h
49.gee8 �f6 50.gxf6t �xf6 5 1 . � e2 gf4
52.a5 bxa5 53J!k7 � g5 54.gxa7
White soon won.

On the other hand, positional sacrifices of the

exchange for a pawn are becoming a frequent
defensive measure in contemporary practice.
The sacrifice is fully appropriate if the defender
succeeds in firmly establishing his knight on a
central outpost.

The following example is characteristic.

a b c d e f g h
17 ...,id7! 18.Lf8 gxf8 1 9.,ib5 Axb5
20.Vxb5
A draw was agreed. With a secure post on dS
for his knight, Black has nothing to fear.
 Found ations o f Position al Play 65

Contemporary practice has made players look Reuben Fine Paul Keres
-

more deeply not only into the issue of pawns

supplying an equivalent for the exchange, but Amsterdam 1 938
also into the factor of initiative and attack, the
significance of which has noticeably grown. 8
Compensation for a Minor Piece 7

The sacrifice of a minor piece for one, two or 6

three pawns, especially at the point of transition 5
from a modern opening to the middlegame,
4
has become a typical means of developing an
attack (primarily against the enemy king) , and 3
consequently leans towards the realm of tactics
2
and combination. This is a separate theme not
directly connected with the aims of the present 1
study.
a b c d e f g h
Let's just consider some general points to
do with assessing the compensation for the 24.�b5?! �b6 25.b3 �xd5! 26.�d4 �b4
sacrifice. It is well known that three pawns 27id2
approximately compensate for a piece, and 27. ttJ xf5 i f6 leads to an end ing where Black
two are enough when you have a strong attack. is clearly better.
On the other hand three pawns for a piece are
27 d5!
•••

virtually powerless if it is your opponent who

This is the key to Black's plan. Keres sacrifices
starts attacking.
the exchange but obtains two fearsome
The following purely positional consider­
connected passed pawns which decide the
ations are not to be ignored. In a placid end­
result of the game.
game situation (with no intruding tactical
motifs), it is much harder for three pawns to
28.Axb4 gxb4 29.�c6 dxc4! 30.�xb4 cxb3
contend with a bishop than with a knight.
3 1 .�d5 �d3! 32.gd2 b2 33.gdl c5 34.gb l
Other things being equal, the player making
c4 35.cJ7f1 .Ac5 36.cJ7e2 .ixfl 37.�e3 c3!
the sacrifice must of course try to obtain an
38.�c2
elastic pawn chain. We should note that the
sacrifice very often supplies a refined solution
8
to strategic problems.
Modern dynamic methods have given rise 7
to several new forms of piece sacrifice. On the
6
other hand it must be stated that the classic
" Philidor" stratagem of sacrificing a piece for 5
a mighty pawn mass is finding comparatively 4
little application in contemporary practice.
Nonetheless the danger of allowing a pawn 3
"avalanche" must always be borne in mind. 2
This is confirmed in convincing style by the
1
following game.
a b c d e f g h
66 Soviet Chess Strategy

38 ... �el ! 1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 d6 3.d4 �f6 4.�c3 �bd7

A study-like manoeuvre. Black loosens the 5.i.c4 J.e7 6.�g5? 0-0
blockade of his pawns, and this quickly allows
him to attain his goal.

39.�a3 Ac5 4O.cbxe1 ha3 41 .cbdl Ad6

42.cbc2 .ixh2 43J�hl i.e5 44J�xh7 cbf7
45J�hl g5 46J��e1 cbf6 47J�gl cbg6 48.ge1
Af6 49Jlgl

5
a b c d e f g h
4 7.i.xf7t gxf7 8.�e6 'ilYe8 9.�xc7 'ilYd8
3 10.�xa8 exd4!
And so on. It is perfectly obvious that in a
2
complex middlegame or an opening position,
1 possibilities like this should be put aside.
a b c d e f g h
Of course there are all sorts of exceptions. A
49 ... g4! 50.fxg4 f4! 5 1 .g5 i.d4 52J!fdl i.e3 transaction of this kind may have profitable
53.cbxc3 Ael 54Jld6t consequences if:
54. � c2 � xg5 is hopeless for White. .:. the co-ordinated action of the opponent's
minor pieces is disrupted
54 ... cbxg5 55J!fb6 f3 56.cbd3 cbf4 57J�b8 .:. weaknesses arise in his position
cbg3
.:. his king's protection is inadequate, etc.
White resigned.

Matters are different when this kind of deal

Rare Types of Compensation for Queen or
Rook - Two Minor Pieces against Rook and
One or Two Pawns
In the middlegame two minor pieces are usu­
ally stronger than a rook - even if the latter
has two pawns to go with it, that is, more than
enough in numerical terms. Exchanging the
minor pieces in this way is therefore inadvis­
able, although opportunities for it arise quite
frequently.
Thus the following line of Philidor's Defence,
which has long been familiar, is rightly
considered bad for White:
arises in an endgame. Here the role of the
rook increases dramatically, especially if passed
pawns are created on different wings. Quite
often the minor pieces prove quite helpless.
A rarer case is the exchange of two rooks
for three minor pieces. As a rule the team of
pieces is a good deal stronger than the rook
pair, which is considerably harder to turn into
a co-ordinated tandem.
Sometimes, in endgame positions, a queen
and one or two pawns will be confronting a
rook and two minor pieces. Other things be­
ing equal, the chances are always on the side
 Foun d ations o f Positional Play 67

of the combined pieces, although exploiting

the advantage is usually a complicated, long
drawn-out affair.
In such cases, general advice is very hard to
give. Much depends on the position of the
kings, the presence of passed pawns and the
co-ordination of the piece "trio" . A revealing
example is the Karpov - Velimirovic game that
we examined earlier.

We may state a few brief rules that are relevant

to a positional contest with diverse material.

1 ) A queen is slightly weaker than two rooks.

2) A queen is about equal to a rook, bishop
and pawn, and slightly stronger than a rook,
knight and pawn.
3) In the middlegame a queen is weaker than
three minor pieces by a difference of roughly
one to one-and-a-half material units.
4) A rook and two minor pieces are significantly
stronger than a queen.
5) Three minor pieces are somewhat stronger
than two rooks.
6) Two minor pieces are generally stronger in
the middlegame, but weaker in the endgame,
than a rook and two pawns.
7) In the endgame a rook is approximately
equal to a bishop and two pawns, and slightly
stronger than a knight and two pawns. In a
situation with rook and two bishops versus
two rooks and a knight, the chances, as a rule,
are equal.
8) A solidly defended centralized knight or
bishop, with an extra pawn, is a little weaker
than a rook.
9) In endgame positions, a rook and an outside
passed pawn are not in ferior to two minor
pieces.
Chapter 4
The Centre ­
Typical Pawn Structures

The problem of the centre takes us beyond the confines of the purely positional elements, even
though in many ways it is closely associated with them. Even chess players with little experience
know that any piece placed in the centre develops its maximum activity and can easily be
transferred to any sector of the battle; in other words it has a high degree of manoeuvrability.
Hence the significance of controlling the centre. Whatever game we examine, we can easily
convince ourselves that the issue of the centre invariably has prime importance in any plan.

Old and New Conceptions of the Centre

The classical understanding of the centre involved, above all, the acquisition of an ideal pawn
couple (d4 and e4, or d5 and e5 for Black) , or at least the establishment of one fighting unit - say
a pawn on e4 - enabling the player to seize some space or press forward dynamically with the

support of the pieces and the adjacent wing pawn.

Until Steinitz's theory came to the fore, the strategy of the centre was extremely straightforward.
The attacker would typically strive to achieve a numerical superiority of pawns in the centre
without shrinking from offering wing pawns as a sacrifice. The King's Gambit and Evans Gambit
are examples of this. Since both sides would usually be pursuing the same goal, a blocked structure
in the centre would rarely arise; it was in the centre that endless skirmishes would be fought or
bridges would be hastily erected for attacks with pieces against the king.
Such heated skirmishing in the middlegame tended to make an open arena of the centre. This
merely intensified the tactical play but limited the strategic complexity of the players' plans.
Many judgements, voiced in the distant past, about the benefits of possessing a pawn centre
have not only proved durable but have undergone further development. As evidence of this, it
will suffice to recall the Nimw-Indian system that we examined earlier. One of the important
modern postulates is that the construction of a powerful pawn centre demands diligent and deeply
planned preparatory work.
In this connection, an integral part of strategic thought now consists in studying "the other side
of the coin" - the opponent's possibilities for pressurizing the pawn centre with his pieces. When
70 Soviet Chess Strategy
subjected to an energetic attack, a pawn centre
which is ideal in appearance may turn into a
serious weakness, and the enemy pieces may
found a strong centre on its ruins.
Modern strategy is indeed characterized
by its critical approach to the mechanical
occupation of the centre with pawns, which in
earlier times had seemed virtually an essential
condition for achieving an advantage. That
said, the concession of a numerical pawn
superiority to your opponent is only ever
permissible when you do have the possibility
of adequate piece pressure against the centre.
In My System, Nimzowitsch wrote:
"Certainly, pawns, as being the most stable,
are best suited to building a centre; nevertheless
centrally posted pieces can perfectly well take
their place."
It is this that gives rise to the concept of
dynamic equilibrium, in which the positional
trumps of one side - such as possession of a
pawn centre - are counterbalanced by pressure
exerted against the centre by the harmonious
action of the opponent's pieces.
Typical Pawn Structures in the Centre
Practical experience and theoretical
investigations have revealed a range of typical
pawn structures in the centre which are
largely determined by the outward contour
of the position. There is no doubt that if
you are familiar with the general character of
the struggle that goes with this or that pawn
structure, this makes it easier for you to find
your bearings in any specific position. These
typical structures, which often take shape
right at the start of the game, leave their long­
lasting imprint on the development of the
middlegame battle.
Let's first look at certain types of game where
the central pawn position is clearly defined.
The Open Centre
According to an accepted view, an open centre
is seriously infected with a "drawish" germ. But
this view is most superficial and misleading.
With the clearing of pawns from the centre
you always have to take account of the scope
opened up for piece play and all manner of
tactical operations.
Of course, the opening of the centre demands
far-sighted and accurate calculation of all the
peculiarities of the struggle. The position of
the king is very significant here. Attacks with
pieces after the centre is opened are especially
dangerous when the object of the aggression is
the king.
The following example is instructive.
Alexander Kotov - Isaak Boleslavsky
Moscow 1 945
12 ... d5!
Exploiting White's poor development and
the harmonious placing of his own forces,
Black advantageously opens the game in the
centre and starts a very strong attack against
the enemy king.
1 3.dxe5 �xe5 14..tb5t cotES 1 5.exd5 cotg7
16.�e2 a6 17.ic4 geS I sJ:Ml .lh3!
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures
a b c d e f g h
A brilliant stroke, underlining the disunity
of White's forces and setting him insoluble
problems.
19.1t>f1 �xf3 20.tff4 �g4! 2 1 .tfxf3 �e3t
22.lt>el hg2
With a won position.
Naturally, an open centre in the early stage of
the game will most often arise from one of the
numerous systems in the Open Games where
White's aim is the rapid and direct seizure of
the central squares. To this end, relying on the
natural protection of the d4-square, White
undermines the point e5 by playing d2-d4 (or
first 2.f4) .
This tendency vividly emerges in many
variations of openings that are rarely used
today, such as:
.:. the Centre Game
.:. the Two Knights Defence
.:. the Vienna Game, Hungarian Defence,
Giuoco Piano, Scotch Game, etc.
In opening systems of this kind it is mainly by
very fast and efficient piece development that
a player achieves the harmonious interaction
of his forces and resists his opponent's efforts
to do the same. As the conflict proceeds, Black
acquires the possibility to mobilize quickly and
71
without hindrance, and sometimes to prepare
a liberating blow in the centre with . . . d7-d5.
The way a tough opening struggle develops
from the Moller Attack in the Giuoco Piano is
characteristic:
1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 �c6 3 ..tc4 .tc5 4.c3 �f6 5.d4
exd4 6.cxd4 .tb4t 7.�c3
On 7. id2, Black achieves equality by:
7 . . . ixd2t 8 . llJ bxd2 d5!
7 ... �xe4 8.0-0 .txc3
a b c d e f g h
9.d5! .tf6! 1 0J�el �e7 I I J�xe4 0-0 1 2.d6
cxd6 1 3.tfxd6 �f5 1 4.tfd5 �e7
With a forced draw.
As we can see, if Black plays correctly and
energetically, White's attempt to gain a central
preponderance usually culminates in a clearing
of the pawn position in the centre and leads to
complete equality. At the slightest inaccuracy,
the initiative may pass to Black. The point is
that with an open centre a sharp conflict with
pieces breaks out, demanding exceptional
accuracy in the manoeuvres of both sides.
Numerical Equality of Pawns in the Centre
In many opening systems a typical state of
tension between the centre pawns arises from
72 Soviet Chess Strategy

the first few moves - for example white pawns
on e4 and d4, black pawns on e5 and d6; or
white pawns on e4 and d4, black pawns on e6
and d5.
It often happens that this tension is liquidated
within a short time, leading to a more stable
pawn structure in the centre. The centre may
be closed by the advance d4-d5 (or e4-e5), or
the pawns may be fixed by an exchange with
d4xe5 (or e4xd5) . In these cases the numerical
equality of pawns in the centre is preserved,
but the spatial balance is often disturbed.
Bearing in mind the closed nature of the
centre, White did not castle and instead
launched an energetic assault on the kingside.
lO.g4! �e8 1 1 .h4 f5 1 2.hS! f4 B .gS g f7
14 ..tg4!
It is very important to weaken the light
squares in the opponent's camp.
14 ... 'llYd8 l S ..txc8 'llYxc8 16.�f3 .lm
8

The Closed Centre 7

6
An immobile, rigid central pawn chain in a
complex middlegame is very frequently seen. 5
Under these conditions the play is slow and of­ 4
ten involves manoeuvring; the essential weight
3
of the struggle tends to be transferred to the
wings. Since in these cases the centre is diffi­ 2
cult to open up, attacks with pieces lose much
1 .6.
of their effectiveness. On the other hand, pawn
storms on the wing, with the activity of the a b c d e f g h
pieces in support, acquire great power.
17. � e2!
Sometimes it makes sense to leave the king in
In the present situation this is the most
the centre where no great danger is threatening
comfortable place for the king.
it.
17... gg7 18.gh4 �d7 19.hxg6 hxg6 20.'llYh l
Yuri Averbakh Oscar Panno
-
.te7 2 1 .gh8t � f7 22.'llYh6 �m 23.ghl gb8
24.hf4!
Buenos Aires 1 954
Seeing that 24 . . . exf4 fails to 25.gh4, we may
ascertain that White has acquired a decisive
8 plus.
7
Closure of the centre most often comes about
6 through the advance e4-e5 or d4-d5 (analo­
5 gously, . . . e5-e4 or . . . d5-d4) . In this way a cer­
tain spatial plus is acquired. This circumstance
4 must be taken into account when later pursu­
3 ing your operations on one of the flanks.
Thus, with a pawn on e5, White obtains re­
2
alistic chances of effective operations on the
1 .6. kingside .

a b c d e f g h
 Th e Centre - Typ ical Pawn Structures 73

Let's examine each of these cases in more

8
detail.
7

6 1) A closed pawn chain with a vanguard post

on d5 is especially characteristic of many
5 formations in the King's Indian Defence,
4 of which we may say that the technique for
handling it has reached a very high level. The
3
following sharp and ceaselessly topical King's
2 Indian variation may serve as an example: 1 .d4
lLl f6 2.c4 g6 3 . lLl c3 ig7 4.e4 d6 5 . lLl f3 0-0
6. ie2 e5 7.0-0 lLl c6
a b c d e f g h With this last move Black challenges White
In this case Black must strive for active to fix the position in the centre. The most
counterplay in the centre, combining it with thematic continuation is B.d5. Utilizing
operations on the queenside. the tempo (from attacking the knight on
c6) , White initiates active operations on the
With a pawn on d5, the flank operations gain queenside, where he is guaranteed a spatial plus
in significance. and has the possibility of rapidly concentrating
his forces and carrying out an effective attack.
On the other hand Black has a realistic
opportunity to launch a counter-attack on the
kingside.

In a position where the plans have largely

a b c d e f g h
Given that White usually tries for a pawn
storm on the queenside, the most effective
plan for Black here consists of a kings ide coun­
ter-attack.
One thing that must always be borne in
mind is that the kingside offensive is more
dangerous and effective in its results than the
corresponding offensive on the queenside,
although the latter is usually easier to
organize.
been settled, the heat of the battle intensifies
with each move, and the tempo factor grows
in significance. Exceptional accuracy of
manoeuvring is demanded from both players.
The difficulty of the tasks facing them is
due to the necessity of combining attack
with economical defence. You must on no
account switch over to a defensive stance,
yet some prophylactic defensive measures are
indispensable.
Of course, the closure of the centre with d4-
d5 in the King's Indian by no means always
leads to flank assaults. In many variations
the players' strategic plans are more flexible.
In such situations the prophylactic measures
are paramount. White tries to defuse Black's
threats on the kingside, Black sets up lines
of defence on the queenside with . . . a7-a5 ,
. . . lLl d7{a6)-c5 etc.
74 Soviet Chess Strategy

Then again, the players' plans in positions 20.a5! ttlc8 21.'IWd2 ttlh7 22. ci!?h2 Ae7 23. ttl5!
with the central dS wedge may sometimes Ag5 24.�xg5 hxg5 25.g4 g6 26.�g3 f6
be radically altered. Their choice of plan is
crucially influenced by the way the fighting
8
forces are co-ordinated. Thus you may come
across several opening positions where - 7
in contrast to what we have said - White 6
combines closure of the centre by d4-dS with
an offensive on the kingside. 5
This is often seen in the closed systems of the 4
Ruy Lopez.
3
Robert James Fischer - Svetozar Gligoric 2

1
Zagreb 1 970
a b c d e f g h
8 27J�h l !
An important preparatory manoeuvre.
7
White is aiming for a decisive strategic strike
6 on the h-file. Black has no adequate defence.
5
27 .. J�� m 2S.ci!?g2 gf7 29.8 �m 30.h4 gxh4
4 3 1 .gxh4 gh7 32J�ah l gxh4 33.gxh4 g5
3 34.gh6 ci!?g7

2
8
1
7
a b c d e f g h
6
A typical closed pawn structure has arisen
with a wedge on dS. The decision that White 5
now takes is highly instructive. He shuts down 4
the game on the queenside, transferring the
weight of the attack to the opposite wing. 3
This decision stems from the general 2
character of the position. Black's pieces are
1
ready to defend the queenside, but his kingside
is significantly weakened. This is what enables a b c d e f g h
the white pieces, concentrated on the kingside,
35.gxf6!
to launch a powerful attack there (promoted
This concluding combinative blow decides
by a knight invading on [5, followed by the
the game at once. Black resigned.
advance g2-g4-gS) .
Thus, in a number of cases with this kind
The continuation was:
of pawn structure, Black must be ready
 Th e Centre - Typical Pawn Structures
for active defence on the kingside, where
both players may later be focusing their
attention. We should note that on occasion
Black may respond with a counter-stroke
here, and even obtain good chances of an
initiative.
2) As we have said, a blocked pawn position
with a forward post on e5 for White is, in a
measure, favourable to his operations on the
kingside. This is significant, for instance, in
many branches of the French Defence.
In this case Black usually endeavours to
undermine White's central pawn bastion.
Instead, any localized counter-operations
on the queenside are generally fraught with
woeful results - after all, the attack on the
king is far more dangerous. Consequently, in
planning his kingside attack White is obliged
to watch carefully for possible counter-strokes
in the centre; underestimating them can
quickly bring grave consequences. Thus for a
long time the attention of both players needs
to be trained on the centre, even though the
fundamental struggle may be unfolding on the
flanks.
A variation of the French Defence with an
early closure of the centre is illuminating:
1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5 c5 4.c3 �c6 5.�f3 �b6
6.!e2 cxd4 7.cxd4 �h6 8.b3
75
White has to deal with the weakness of
the central d4-point, which in this position
is critical. In order to defend this pawn, by
answering 8 ... �f5 with 9 .ib2 .ib4t 1 O.c;t>fl ,
•
he has to arrange his pieces passively and
renounce castling.
Subsequently, by breaking with . . . £7 -f6,
Black may liven up the play on the kingside
and in the centre to his own benefit. Of course,
the activity of White's pieces may increase
significantly at the same time. The play in such
cases tends to be double-edged.
Such a struggle features in many variations of
one of the key systems in the French:
1 .e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.�c3 .ib4 4.e5 c5 5.a3
.bc3t 6.bxc3 �e7 7.a4 �bc6 8.�f3 �a5
9 ..id2 c4
a b c d e f g h
The position in the centre has assumed
a closed character, although in some
circumstances Black may liven up the play
with . . . £7 -f6. In this connection the following
game is of interest.
Vassily Smyslov Mikhail Botvinnik
-
Moscow 1 944
1O.�g5 h6 1 1 .�h3 �g6! 12.�f3 .id7
13.�f4 �xf4 14.�xf4 �e7 1 5.h4 .ixa4
76
16.h5 YlYb5 17.<.t>dl gc8 18 .td gc6 19 .te2
• •
ga6! 20. <.t>d2
Black was threatening 2o . . . ixc2t.
20 0-0
•••
The king is better left in the centre, although
the advantage of this is very hard to determine
in practice.
2 1 .g4
a b c d e f g h
21...f6!?
From this moment the play becomes much
more forcing, as the pieces on both sides gain
substantially in activity.
22.ex£6 gxf6 23.YlYc7 gO 24.YlYd8t <.t>h7
25.£4! YlYa5
25 . . . VB d7 was more circumspect.
26.YlYb8 �c6 27.YlYe8 ge7 28.YlYg6t?
Not an obvious mistake, but a very serious
one. White should play 28. VB f8! VBd8
(otherwise 29.g5 ! , threatening g5-g6t, is
decisive) 29. VBxd8 � xd8 30.g5, obtaining
excellent prospects on the kingside.
28 <.t>g8 29 .ta3
•.• • circumstances, it often takes the form of a
Soviet Chess Strategy
a b c d e f g h
29 e5?!
•••
Black in turn misses his chance to win with
29 . . . VB c7! 30.l::1 hfl � b4! followed by 3 1 . . . i e8,
trapping the queen.
30.fxe5?
This is already the decisive error. With
30.dxe5 White could have saved the game.
30 ... �xd4! 3 1 .ib4 YlYd8 32.YlYxa6 bxa6
33.cxd4 gb7!
Black soon won.
Fixed Central Pawn Position with Open
e-file or d-file
If the pawn tension in the centre is liquidated
through an exchange of the d-pawns or
e-pawns, one of the centre files is opened, and
squares become available as central outposts
for the pieces. A great deal of mobility between
the flanks remains a feature of these positions;
the players set great store by manoeuvring
their pieces to gain control of central squares
and files, subsequently aiming to transfer their
activities to the flanks.
When a flank attack is launched in these
combined assault with pieces and pawns. This
happens especially often in various systems
of the Ruy Lopez. The success of such a plan
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 77

depends on j udiciously combining a pawn h2-h3 and Black has not castled, but a pawn
storm with piece manoeuvres on the centre exchange on b5 has taken place.
squares.
Take for example one of the main lines of
8
the Chigorin System. After 1 .e4 e5 2.�a
�c6 3.J.b5 a6 4.J.a4 �f6 5.0-0 J.e7 6J�el 7
b5 7.J.b3 d6 S.d 0-0 9.h3 �a5 10.J.c2 e5 6
1 1 .d4 'f!Ie7 12.�bd2 �c6 13.me5 me5,
the resulting position is of a relatively closed 5
nature, since the further opening of lines is 4
difficult to accomplish.
3

1 l::,.
a b c d e f g h
1 5.�f1 .le6 1 6.�e3 0-0 17.�g5 f:lfdS
At that time the technique for playing this
kin d of position had been little studied. A
better move here was 1 7 . . g6, keeping White's
.

knight out of f5 .

a b c d e f g h
Most often White will combine active
operations on the kingside with piece pressure
against the central square d5. Black will
combine a queens ide pawn storm with piece
pressure along the d-file aimed at bringing a
knight to d3 .
The following game serves as a splendid
model of the kingside attack.

Vsevolod Rauzer - Nikolai Riumin

Leningrad 1 936 a b c d e f g h
19.�5!
1 .e4 e5 2.�a �c6 3.J.b5 a6 4.J.a4 �f6 5.0-0
By in ducing an exchange on f5 , White
ie7 6J�el d6 7.d b5 S.J.b3 �a5 9.J.c2
significantly increases the activity of his bishop
c5 10.d4 'f!Ie7 l 1 .�bd2 �c6 12.a4 f:lbS
on c2. In addition, the transfer of his pawn
1 3.axb5 axb5 14.me5 me5
from e4 to f5 facilitates the assault on Black's
We have reached a position analogous to the
kingside.
one in the last diagram. White has not played
78 Soviet Chess Strategy

19 . . . hf5 20.exf5 h6 2 1 .�e4 �xe4 22.,he4

8
.lf6 23 ..le3 �e7 24.M c4 25.g3
Deprived of any counterplay, Black is 7
defenceless against the kingside attack. 6

25 .. J�d7 26J:la7 YfdS 27J:lxd7 Yfxd7 2S.h4 5

�hS 4

3
8
2
7
1 �
6
a b c d e f g h
5
16.�h2!? gadS 17.Yfa .ie6 1 S.�hg4
4 To enliven the play on the kingside and
3 in the centre, White has recourse to some
intricate manoeuvres which eventually enable
2 him to achieve his purpose.
1
IS ... �xg4 19.hxg4 Yfc6?!
a b c d e f g h
This barely perceptible mistake lands Black
29.g4! �gS in very serious difficulties. He should have
Or 29 . . . .ixh4 10ses a piece after 30. %V h3 i f6 hastened to bring his knight into play with
3 1 .g5 . 1 9 . . . ttJ b7 followed by . . . c5-c4 and . . . ttJ b7-c5.

30.g5 20.Yfg3 f6 2 1 .g5! �hS 22.b3!

White won after a few more moves. Depriving the knight of the important
square on c4.
Subsequently there was a major growth in the
technique for handling this kind of system. 22 ... gm

The modern version of a similar plan for White

is well illustrated by our next example.

Isaak Boleslavsky Mikhail Tal

-

Moscow 1 957

1 .e4 e5 2.�a �c6 3 ..lb5 a6 4 ..ia4 �f6 5.0-0

.ie7 6J::le1 b5 7 ..ib3 0-0 S.d d6 9.h3 �a5
10 ..ic2 c5 I I .d4 Yfc7 12.�bd2 .ld7 1 3.�f1
gfeS I4.�e3 g6 1 5.dxe5 dxe5

a b c d e f g h
 Th e Centre - Typical Pawn Structures
23.�d5!?
An instructive manoeuvre. By sacrificing
a pawn, White brings his bishop on c2 to
life and exerts pressure all over the board (as
in the Rauzer - Riumin game, where White
acquired similar benefits with no sacrifice of
material) .
Also strong was 23.gxf6 and 24. � g4.
23 ...ixd5 24.exd5 Vxd5 25.gxf6 ixf6
26.ih6 �UeS 27.ie4 Ve6 2S.Va Ve7
29J!!Iadl ig7
a b c d e f g h
30.ie3!
By transferring the weight of his strategic
onslaught to the queenside, White obtained a
clear advantage.
Comparatively speaking, Black more rarely
succeeds in carrying out his active strategic
plan for an offensive on the queenside. In
such systems the chief struggle usually revolves
round White's strategic designs, which we have
j ust examined.
But then the players' fundamental plans in
the Chigorin System may also be utterly dif­
ferent from what we have so far seen. Quite
often White will go into action on the queen­
side while Black organizes kingside counter­
play, bringing his knight from f6 via h5 to f4.
79
We may state that in such positions both sides
have to be ready for active operations on either
wing.
Robert James Fischer - Ratmir Kholmov
Havana 1 965
1 .e4 e5 2.�a �c6 3.ib5 a6 4.ia4 �f6 5.0-0
ie7 6J;el b5 7.ib3 0-0 S.d d6 9.h3 �a5
10 ..tc2 c5 1 1 .d4 Vc7 12.�bd2 �c6 13.dxc5
dxc5 14.�fl ie6 1 5.�e3 gadS 16.Ve2
a b c d e f g h
1 6 ... c4!?
For a long time it was considered that Black
had to defend here with 1 6 . . . g6 1 7. lD g5 ic8
1 8 .a4 c4. However, by continuing 1 9 .axb5
axb5 20.b3! lD a5 (20 . . . cxb3 2 1 . ixb3 opens
the game up in White's favour) 2 1 .bxc4 bxc4
22. i a3 �fe8 23 . .txe7 �xe7 24.�ed 1 �ed7
25.�xd7 �xd7 26.�a4! ia6 27. 1M' fl ! ib5
28.�b4 1M' c5 29. 1M' b 1 �b7 30. i a4, White
works up strong pressure on the queenside.
This occurred in a game Suetin - Kamyshev,
Tbilisi 1 9 5 1 .
17.�g5?!
Subsequent practice was to show that a more
solid line may be 1 7. lD f5 �fe8 1 8 . ig5 (or
1 8 . lD 3h4) , trying to create pressure with his
pieces against the kingside.
80 Soviet Chess Strategy
17... h6! 1 8.�:x:e6 fre6
8
7 The tension has been released and the pawn
6 structure in the centre is fixed. White has
5 has the e-file at his disposal .
4
3
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
Here White played the imprudent:
19.M?
Whereupon there followed:
19 ... �d4!
With a very strong counter-attack in the
centre.
But then, finding a good plan for White is not
easy. For instance in the event of 1 9.b3 ic5!
20.bxc4 b4! , Black again has excellent play.
All these concrete variations strikingly
demonstrate the role played in such positions
by tactical "outbursts" in the centre. They also
show how dynamically the play in the centre
combines with operations on the flank.
* * *
Quite often the pawn structure in the centre
\'i> nl.td \D. tht Optn\D.g by "dD. tl.ch"dD.gt of tht
flank pawn on c4 for the opponent's centre
pawn on d5. In this way one side obtains the
half-open c-file, while the other possesses the
half-open e-file. The pawn configuration in the
centre usually remains very stable for a long
period.
The following system in the Queen's Gambit
is illuminating:
l .d4 d5 2.c4 e6 3.�c3 �f6 4.c:x:d5 ad5
obtained the half-open c-file; Black for his part
5 ..ig5 .ie7 6.e3 c6 7 ..id3 �bd7
a b c d e f g h
Let's consider the possibilities for play in the
centre. As we can see, enlivening the game is
not easy for either side. An attempt by Black to
undermine the d4-pawn with . . . c6-c5 can lead
to the isolation of his own central d5-pawn.
It is not easy for White to create play in the
centre either, as the implementation of e3-e4
comes up against major difficulties.
Nevertheless White has a wide choice of pos­
sibilities, on which the further course of the
game depends. A well-tried plan in this po­
sition involves transferring the weight of the
struggle to the flanks, leaving the centre un­
to'Uched fot the pte'l.eD.t. U\\det tn\.'I. 'l.cheme,
utilizing the half-open c-file, White starts a
pawn offensive on the queens ide (the so-called
"minority attack").
This plan has long been known and remains
topical to this day. For all that, there is still a
wide field for investigation here. This structure
 Th e Centre - Typ ical Pawn Structures 81

truly belongs to those which have aroused
theoretical controversies for ages. For instance,
the course of events in the game Pillsbury -
Showalter, played as long ago as 1 898, is
revealing: 8. tlJ £3 0-0 9. �c2 � e8 1 0.0-0 tlJ f8
to play 1 6 . .Axe4 dxe4 1 7 . .!LJ d2, neutralizing
the kingside threats and retaining slightly the
better chances.
16 1g4 17.�d2 �xd2 1 8.�xd2 �h4!
•••

l 1 . ttJ e5!? ttJ g4 1 2. ixe7 V!!xe7 1 3 . ttJ xg4 .ixg4

1 4,l':iae l V!! f6 1 5 .a4 �e7 1 6.b4 �ae8 1 7.b5!,
8
and White exerted lasting and unpleasant
pressure on the queenside. 7
Since then the technical investigation of 6
this position has advanced a long way, but in
principle White's plan has remained the same. 5
Practice has shown, however, that Black for his 4
part should on no account confine himself to
3
passive defence. He must endeavour to go into
action on the kingside, using e4 as a strong 2
outpost for his pieces.
1
Mark Taimanov - Rashid Nezmetdinov a b c d e f g h

Kiev 1 954 The threats of 1 9 . . . .!LJ f3t and 1 9 . . . i h3 are

l.d4 dS 2.c4 e6 3.tlJc3 tlJf6 4.cxdS adS
5.igS 1e7 6.e3 c6 7.J.d3 �bd7 8.�a 0-0
9.'ifc2 ge8 10.0-0 �ffi 1 1 .gab l as 1 2.a3
�e4!
A sharp struggle is under way on the flanks.
very strong, and White decided to give up a
pawn with 1 9.£3, simply to have a fighting
chance. He eventually held the game, but only
through his opponent's generosity.
It is essential to observe that the breadth of
the modern strategic outlook has considerably
expanded the old conceptions. In this system
White sometimes strives to build up a mobile
pawn centre. Such a plan can prove highly ef­
fective if Black fails to take timely measures to
o rganize central counterplay.

Mikhail Botvinnik - Paul Keres

Moscow 1 952

l .d4 dS 2.c4 e6 3.�c3 �f6 4.cxdS adS

S .igS 1e7 6.e3 c6 7.1d3 �bd7 8.�ge2 0-0
•

a b c d e f g h 9.0-0 ge8 10.gb l �ffi 1 l .�c2 .id6?

Black manoeuvres unsystematically,
1 3.1xe7 �xe7 14.b4 axb4 I S.axb4 �g6
underrating White's pawn offensive in the
16.b5?
centre. A better move was 1 1 . . . .ie6, so as to
An instructive mistake. White doesn't sense
answer 1 2.f3 with the central b reak 1 2 . . . c5!.
the danger and comes under attack. He had
82 Soviet Chess Strategy

12.c.t>hl ttlg6 13.a! 29.llc3 gfS 30.ttlf5!

With decisive threats.

8
In the next game, White carries out an
7 original plan of attack in the centre and on the
kingside.
6

5 Semyon Furman Alexander Konstantinopolsky

-

4
Moscow 1 948
3
l .d4 d5 2.c4 00 3.ttlc3 ttlf6 4 ..ig5 ttlbd7 5.e3
2
J.e7 6.ttla 0-0 7 ..td3 a6 S.ad5 exd5 9.�c2
1 geS 10.0-0 ttlfS l l .llacl c6 1 2JUe l !?
a b c d e f h White intends to open up the centre with
g
e3-e4 in the right circumstances.
Black proves to have no satisfactory antidote
to White's plan of building a powerful pawn 12 ... .tg4? 13.ttle5 J.h5 14.�b3! gbS 15.h3
centre. ttl6d7 1 6.he7 �xe7 17.f4
With White's last few moves his plan of
13 ....te7 14Jlbel ttld7? 1 5.he7 llxe7 attacking the centre and kingside has taken
16.ttlg3 ttlf6 17:�fl .too I S.ttlf5! hf5 shape.
19.hf5 �b6 20.e4 dxe4 2 1 .fxe4 lldS
22.e5! 17 ... ttlxe5 I S.dxe5 f6

a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h
Having b uilt his centre, White transfers the 19.e4! fxe5 20.exd5 .if! 2 1 .c.t>hl ad5?
attack to the kingside. With the timely ad­ 2 1 . . . 'lW h4! , with counterplay, was correct.
vance of his centre pawn he frees the e4-square
for active operations with his pieces. 22.llxe5 �h4 23.ttlxd5! b5 24J�g5!
White acquired a decisive advantage on the
22 .. .tl�d5 23.ttle4! ttlfS 24.ttld6 �c7 25.J.e4 kingside.
ttle6 26.�h4 g6 27.hd5 ad5 2S.llcl �d7
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures
Mobile Centre with Two Pawns on the
Fourth Rank
The old notion, that an "ideal" pawn centre
(d- and e-pawns on the fourth rank) confers
a positional advantage in itself, is received
critically at the present time. The following
theory is proposed in its place.
A pawn centre represents a significant
strength only when it is solidly defended
and reinforced by the pieces, and when the
opponent has insufficient means to create
effective pressure against it.
On the other hand, a pawn centre lacking
adequate piece support constitutes a definite
weakness, and can be demolished if the
opponent succeeds in exerting co-ordinated
pressure on it with his pieces and undermining
it.
Premature seizure of the centre with pawns
is not only inexpedient but even dangerous.
In such cases, as a rule, the centre pawns end
up being blocked, and it is the opponent,
pressurizing the centre with pieces, who
remains with a real advantage.
In contemporary strategy, positions where
one side has a pawn centre tend to produce
approximate equilibrium. One player's piece
pressure against the central squares more or
less counterbalances his opponent's occupation
of them. In the ensuing tense struggle for the
initiative, the side with the pawn centre tries to
fortify it solidly and then gradually deprive the
other side of counterplay. Conversely, the other
side has the task of consistently increasing the
pressure on the centre.
Naturally, in all such cases the pawn centre
has to be the chief focus of attention for both
players. It is here that the strategic battle is
generally fought out.
In many cases, for the player fighting
against the centre it pays to force an advance
of one of the pawns in order to blockade it
and increase the pressure. On the other hand
83
though, we should note that the player with
the centre should not try at all costs to avoid
pushing his pawns. We must remember that a
timely advance of the centre pawns is essential
since it procures space for the actions of the
pieces.
Of course, this kind of decision has to be
weighed in a concrete manner.
Reuben Fine - Andor Lilienthal
Moscow 1 937
a b c d e f g h
In the diagram position White possesses a
centre that guarantees him plenty of freedom
to manoeuvre. Weighing up the concrete
peculiarities of the position, Fine takes a
decision which is highly committal yet in a
profound sense correct.
14.e5!
A bold advance in the centre. White
considers, rightly, that the concession of the
central d5-square to his opponent plays no
substantial role in the current situation. What
counts for much more is the possibility he
acquires of manoeuvring his knight, via the
vacated e4-square, to d6 or f6.
14... �b6
Otherwise ttJ c3-bS-d6 follows.
84 Soviet Chess Strategy

1 5.'ife2 f5
8
Black resorts to a weakening of his kingside
pawn position. The passive continuation 7
I 5 . . .id7 I 6. � e4 l:!adB may have been
6
preferable.
5
16.exf6 �xf6 17.�e4 �f5 1 8ib4 �d5 4
19.�e5 �d8
3
I 9 . . . ixe5 20.dxe5 l:!xe5 2 1 . .id6, or
20 . . . VMxe5 2 1 . .ic3! , would be bad for Black. 2

1
20.�acl �d5 2 1 ia3 �e7
Again 2 I . . . ixe5 22.dxe5 VMxe5 is no good, a b c d e f g h
in view of 23 . .ie7! l:!eB 24. � f6t!. In this position, in my view, the only way to
keep the initiative is 13.e5. White utilizes his
gain of tempo without fearing a blockade of
his pawn centre after 13 ... �b4 14.Ae4 �d5.
8 Concrete analysis shows that he preserves a
distinct plus with 1 5.'ifb3!, as Black cannot
7
advantageously control the d5-point.
6 I believe this is the only way White can
5 punish Black for his slow manoeuvres in this
line ( . . . � c6-a5-c6) .
4

3 [Editors' note: Practice has been focussing on

1 3 . ib5 and 1 3 . ic2, both favouring White.
2
However, recently a young Ukrainian star used
1 1 3.e5!? to win an important game against a
young Vietnamese star: 1 3 . . . ie6 I 4 . VM b I l:!cB
a b c d e f g h
I 5 .l:!d I � a5 I 6. � f4 ig4 I 7.l:!e I VMd7 I B .h3
25.h4! .i f5
Having achieved dominance in the centre,
White decisively transfers the attack to his
opponent's weakened kingside.

A position arising from the following variation

of the Griinfeld Defence is also instructive:

l .d4 �f6 2.c4 g6 3.�c3 d5 4.cxd5 �xd5

5.e4 �xc3 6.bxc3 Ag7 7 ic4 c5 8.�e2
�c6 9.Ae3 0-0 10.0-0 cxd4 l 1 .cxd4 �a5?!
12.Ad3 �c6
a b c d e f g h

I 9 . .ixf5 gxf5 20. � h5 � c4 2 1 . VM b3 l:!c6

 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 8S

22J�ad 1 tLl xe3 23 -'Wxe3 .ih6 24. W B �g6
2S .dS .igS 26. tLl g3 f4 27. tLl e4 i. h4 28.d6 exd6
29.exd6 b6 30. i> h 1 fS 3 1 . Wxf4 i.d8 32. tLl g3
bS 33.�dS .igS 34. WeS f4 3 S . tLl fS B 36. tLl e7t
1-0 Korobov - Nguyen, Ngoc Truongson,
actively placed pieces it can, however, be very
strong and mobile. The lively contest in the
following example is noteworthy.
Viacheslav Ragozin Igor Bondarevsky
-

Moscow 20 1 0.]
Moscow 1 946
One Mobile Pawn in the Centre

It often comes about that one side possesses a

mobile centre pawn (for example on e4 or d4) ,
while the other side has an extra pawn on one
of the wings.
The nature of the fight under such conditions
is analogous to the positions with a central
pawn couple which we have j ust examined.
The main attention of both sides has to be fixed
on the centre. The player with the centre pawn
will attempt to use his pawns for an attack in
this area. In addition to the centre pawn, an
active role in the attack will be played by the a b c d e f g h
adjacent flank pawn on the c or f-file. 1 5.b4!
The other player will try to deprive his An interesting positional pawn sacrifice.
opponent's centre pawn of mobility and weaken White tries to gain control of d4, which in
it. Simplifications in such circumstances favour conj unction with the open c-file could give
the side without the centre pawn, as they make him a dangerous initiative.
it easier to exploit the pawn majority on the
wing. Thus in the event of l S . . . cxb4 1 6. Wc7 �ab8
Compared with a pawn couple (e4 + d4) , 1 7. ibS �fd8 1 8 .�ac 1 i> ffi 1 9. tLl d4 tLl f6
a single centre pawn does less to hamper the
20. W aS, White acquires a significant plus.
actions of the enemy pieces. However, with
a large number of minor pieces present, the
1 5 ... d4!
preponderance of pawns in the centre can A central counterstroke typical of this kind
make itself acutely felt and should not be of structure. Unexpectedly (and not without
underestimated. benefit to himself) , Black stirs up combinative
complexities.
The "Hanging Pawn" Centre
16.exd4 gae8! 17.dxc5
Another formation that is just as frequently A forced decision; 1 7.�ae 1 could be met by
seen is a mobile centre consisting of a centre 1 7 . . . .ixB, when 1 8 . .ixB fails to 1 8 . . . Wxe l .
pawn and the adjacent bishop's pawn, the rwo
forming a separate "island" . 1 7...'i9xe2 1 8.'i9xe2 gxe2 1 9.c6! hc6
Such a centre generally carries less weight 20.�d4 ge6 2 1 .�xe6 fxe6
than a pawn couple on e4 and d4. With
86 Soviet Chess Strategy

A variation indicated by Grandmaster Ragozin

is of interest: 29 . . . :B:h 1 t 30. 'tt> g3 llJ e4t 3 1 . cj;l f4
:B:f1 t 32. 'tt> e3 llJ d6 33.:B:axa7 llJ xb5 34.:B:xg7t
'tt> fS 3 5 .:B:ad7 .i c6 36.:B:de7 llJ d6

3
a b c d e f g h 2

The complications have finally led by force

to an ending where White has rook and pawn a b c d e f g h
against his opponent's two minor pieces. The
37.g4! llJ fl 3S.:B:gxfl t! :B:xfl 39.:B:xe6 :B:e7
extra pawn on the queens ide, however, gives
40.:B:xe7 'tt> xe7 4 1 .h4!, with a draw after the
him realistic drawing chances.
unavoidable exchange of Black's last pawn.
[Editors' note - 3 1 . . . llJ d6! 32.:B:axa7 llJ f5
22J!ac1 Ad5 23J!c7 �e5 24.b5 �U4 25J:le1
would be better, giving Black the advantage.
�d3 26J:le3! gb4
3 1 . 'tt> g4! is the right move, when White
26 . . . llJ xf2 is dangerous in view of 27.:B:g3 g5
probably has enough counterplay.]
2S.:B:a3! .

The Piece-and-Pawn Centre

27.h3 gbl t 2S.cbh2 �:dl

One of the most important problems in

8 modern chess is that of the piece-and-pawn
7 centre. A young player perfecting his skills
must not remain ignorant of classic paradigms
6 such as the following.
5
Mikhail Botvinnik - Andor Lilienthal
4

3 Moscow 1 936
2 1 .�f3 �f6 2.c4 b6 3.g3 .ib7 4.Ag2 c5 5.0-0
1 6- g6 6.d4 cxd4 7.�xd4 .bg2 s.cbxg2 .ig7
9.�c3 O-O?
a b c d e f g h
A stereotyped developing move. The correct
29.ga3! course was 9 . . . Wfcs 1 O.b3 Wf b7t 1 1 .f3 d5,
White has managed to retain enough neutralizing White's central plus.
counterplay to equalize the chances.
10.e4! �c6 1 1 ..ie3 tvcs
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 87

And here 1 1 . . . ttJ g4 was better, endeavouring

to simplify the position.

12.b3 ft'b7 13.f3 gfd8 14.gc1 gac8 15.ft'd2

a6

4 a b c d e f g h

3 A new and instructive stage of the struggle

2 counterplay in the centre, White intends to
l:J.
a b c d e f g h
Exploiting Black's passive and planless
play, White has built up a strong piece-and­
pawn centre. It's interesting to follow how
he methodically disposes of his opponent's
attempts to free himselfby . . . b6-b5 or . . . d7-d 5 ,
and gradually deprives him of counterplay.
16JUdl �xd4
Not 1 6 . . . b5 1 7.cxb5 ttJ xd4, because of
1 8.bxa6 winning a pawn.
17.ixd4 d6
'
Now 1 7 . . . b5 would be met by 1 8 . cxb5 axb5
1 9. ixf6 ixf6 20. ttJ d5 with the threat of e4-e5,
s o that Black would be left with a weak isolated
pawn at the very least. Black is therefore forced
to protect his e7-pawn, giving White time to
prevent the . . . b6-b5 break.
1 8.a4! �e8 1 9.�d5 gc6
On 1 9 . . . b5 White could play 20.cxb5 axb5
2 1 .a5!.
20.ixg7 �xg7 2 1 .h4 ge8 22.gc3 �h5
23.Wd4
begins. Having deprived his opponent of
switch the attack to Black's kingside. Reckoning
that passive defence offers little hope, Black
makes a desperate attempt to free himself by
breaking on the queenside, but this merely
hastens his defeat.
23 ... b5? 24.cxb5 axb5 25.gdc1! gxc3
26.gxc3 bxa4
Black had no defence against the invasion of
the seventh rank.
27.gc7 ft'b5 28.bxa4 ft'e2t 29.ft'fl ft'xflt
30.c�xfl
White easily exploited his advantage in the
endgame.
Since that time much water has flowed under
the bridge. The significance of a pawn-and­
piece centre of this type has been subject to
revaluation. If previously it was considered
that you must not allow your opponent to set
up such a centre, the opposite attitude now
prevails. Practice shows that in many cases it
does pay if you let your opponent construct
a pawn-and-piece centre but at the same time
exert co-ordinated pressure against it and thus
obtain adequate counterplay.
88 Soviet Chess Strategy

Paul Keres Vassily Smyslov

- 4.cxd5 lLl xd5 5 . �g2 lLl c7 6. lLl c3 lLl c6 7.a3!?
e5 8 . b4! (and now 8 . . . cxb4 9.axb4 �xb4 is
Leningrad 1 947 bad on account of 1 0. lLl xe5 ! ) . Undermining
Black's important central bastion on c5, White
l .e4 tlJf6 2.tlJc3 e5 3.ltla e6 4.g3 d5 5.cxd5 subsequently has a realistic basis for using his
tlJxd5 G.i.g2 ltlc6 7.0-0 i.e7 S.b3 ltle7? own "extra" pawn in the centre; in many lines
9.i.b2 e5? 10J3cl f6 he successfully implements the strike with d2-
d4, promising him a lasting initiative.
8 Similar pawn breaks for the black side form
a leitmotif of several variations of Taimanov's
7
system in the Sicilian Defence. For instance:
6
l .e4 e5 2.ltla eG 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 tlJe6
5
5.ltlb5 dG G.e4 ltlf6 7.ltl l c3 aG S.ltla3 i.e7
4 9.i.e2 0-0 10.0-0 i.d7 1 1 .i.e3 Wla5 12.Wlel
3 gabS
1 2 . . . E1fb8!? is also interesting; if then 1 3 .f3,
2 Black has 13 . . . b5! 1 4. cxb5 axb5 1 5 . lLl axb5
1 lLl b4 with adequate counterplay, as in Geller ­
1::,.
Boleslavsky, Moscow 1 967.
a b c d e f g h
In constructing his centre Black has lost a 13.a gfdS 14.gcl i.eS 15.Wln
valuable tempo ( . . . e7 -e6-e5 instead of . . . e7-
e5) . Utilizing his lead in development, White
carries out a precise plan to undermine the
central pawn position:

I l .ltla4! bG
Better was 1 1 . . . lLl e6.

12.ltlh4 i.d7
If 1 2 . . . � b7 then 1 3 .b4!.

13.e3! 0-0 14.d4! exd4 1 5.exd4 geS I G.dxe5

b5 17.ltlc3 f5 I S.ge2! hl4 1 9.9d2 gO
20.gxh4 a b c d e f g h
With a won position. 1 5 ... b5! I G.cxb5 axb5 17.�axb5 d5!
Black has excellent prospects.
We should also note that apart from the central
pawn break with d2-d4, an undermining Some other lines of the English are worth
operation on the flank with f2-f4 or b2-b4 is noting: l .c4 c5 2. lLl c3 lLl f6 3.g3 d5 4.cxd5
frequently employed. lLl xd5 5 . �g2 lLl c7 6.d3 e5 7. lLl f3 lLl c6 8.0-0
A variation of the English Opening is �e7 9 . lLl d2 �d7 1 O. lLl c4 f6 1 l . f4!, and White
a case in point: l .c4 c5 2. lLl f3 lLl f6 3.g3 d5 has a strong initiative.
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures
Alternatively 7.f4!?, or first 7. tiJ h3!? with
8.f4 to follow.
Pawn Weakness in the Centre
(Accepted in Return for Good Piece Play)
An entire complex of problems in modern
chess is associated with positions where one
player incurs a weakness in his central pawn
formation but endeavours in return to achieve
a superior co-ordination of his pieces. This is
directly connected wi th the concept of dynamic
equilibrium (which we have mentioned before
in this chapter) .
The concept of dynamic equilibrium in the
fight for the centre has truly revolutionized
many notions about the strategic elements.
Many formations where one side has a central
pawn weakness have come to be viewed in a
completely different light. There is no longer
anything paradoxical about the fact that the
"weakness" ceases to be real if jt is compensated
in a suitable measure by superior piece co­
ordination.
Let's look at the following example in which
(he art of attack and defence proved to be up
to standard.
Gideon Stahlberg - Isaak Boleslavsky
Zurich 1 953
2 a
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
89
We have taken a typical middlegame position
arising from a key system in the King's Indian
Defence. White has a numerical and spatial
superiority in the centre; in Black's camp there
is what looks like a major weakness - the d6-
pawn. Practice shows, however, that Black has
adequate counterplay. Note that at present
White's pieces are tied to the defence of his
frontiers, and that protecting his vanguard
posts on e4 and c4 demands no less effort than
Black's weak d6-point.
16.J.fl ttlb6 17 ..ifl .id7 l S.a3
Putting a firm stop to the undermining
move . . . a4-a3, at the price of a certain loss of
elasticity in White's queenside pawn structure.
lS .. J�adS 1 9. � h2 .ic8 20.ttla2 ttlbd7
2 1 ..ig2 ttlf6 22.ttlc3 gd7 23.ttla gde7
The regrouping of forces has preserved the
dynamic equilibrium. White, as before, is
trying to get at the d6-pawn, but he has had
to transfer his knight from d4 to a modest
position on g l . Black for his part has sufficient
resources to counter-attack against c4.
24.ttlgl ttlfd7 25.J.d4 ttlb6 26 ..ixg7 �xg7
27.gxd6 ttlxc4 2S.gddl .ie6
b c d e f g h
At last a significant transformation has taken
place in the centre. White's central e4-pawn is
90 Soviet Chess Strategy

free to advance; in return, Black has play on accordance with this. Here is a characteristic
the queenside squares. example from their creative duel.

29.Vf2 f6 30.�f3 Af7 3 1 .e5�! Johann Zukertort -Wtlhelm Steinitz

White tries to strip away the black king's
cover. Saint Louis (7) 1 886

3 1 . .. fxe5 32.�xe5 �xe5 33J�xe5 �he5

34.fxe5 gxe5
And in the ensuing lively play the balance
was maintained.

* * *

Let's turn to some of the most characteristic

problems in the dispute "for and against" a
central pawn weakness. They include problems
of the isolated pawn, the backward pawn,
and finally doubled pawns in the centre. As a
a b c d e f g h
rule, a game with pawns like these is perfectly
playable and can be very double-edged if the Let's watch how skilfully Steinitz increases
weaknesses are compensated by a generally the pressure against the weakness in White's
harmonious and active deployment of the camp while simultaneously dealing with his
opposing forces. opponent's varied tactical threats.
An isolated centre pawn constitutes both a
strength and a weakness, seeing that on the one 1 5 ...g6!
hand it facilitates the gaining of space but on The weakening is only apparent, since
the other hand it requires forces to be diverted Black has a bishop securely covering the dark
to its defence. As a rule the player possessing squares.
such a pawn will try to attack on the wing
(most often the kingside) or to open up the 16.Ve2 Am 17.gedl .tg7
game, which is usually achieved by an advance With his bishop manoeuvre Black has not
of this same pawn (d4-d5) . only fortified his kingside but also intensified
The defender attempts to neutralize his the pressure on d4.
opponent's initiative. To this end it is useful to
1 8 ..tal �e7!
bring about simplifications - to exchange off
Blockade!
the opponent's active pieces. The counterplay
is closely linked to organizing a blockade of the
1 9.Vdl Va6
pawn and pressurizing it.
Parrying the threat of ttJ c3-d5.
This type of defensive plan has been evolving
for a long time now, ever since the Steinitz -
2o.AgS �f5 2 1 .g4�
Zukertort match. When playing Black, Steinitz
White wilts in the heat of the battle. A
would regularly give his opponent an isolated
distinctly more stubborn line was 2 1 . ixf6 ixf6
pawn in the centre and form his own plans in
22. ttJ e4 ig7 23 Jhc8 l!xc8, though Black's
 The Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 91

prospects would still be clearly superior.
White had probably still not sensed the full
peril of his situation.
Since that time, not only the defensive but also
the active methods of fighting in such positions
have been improved and elaborated. Practice
has shown that if there are plenty of pieces
on the board and the active side's forces are
harmoniously deployed, the initiative becomes
dangerous within a relatively short time.
Mikhail Botvinnik made a large contribution
to working out the methods of attack in the
type of position we are examining.

Mikhail Botvinnik - Andrey Batuyev

Leningrad 1 93 1

a b c d e f g h
2 1 .. ,filxd4! 22.�xd4 e5 23.�d5 �xc1
24.YlYxc1 exd4 25.�xd4 �xd5 26.�xd5 �xd5
27.ixd5 YlYe2! 28.h3 h6 29.Ac4 ft'a
Black's pieces dominate the board, while the
weakness of White's kingside is irreparable.

30.YlYe3 ft'dl t 3 1 . � h2 .too 32 ..te7

a b c d e f g h
Black has a perfectly acceptable position, and
after 1 7 . . . lLl ed5 1 8 . lLl e4 :gc8 1 9 Jhc8 ,ixc8
the game would be about equal. However,
Black felt safe and didn't notice the thickening
storm-clouds around fl.

17 ... �c8 1 8.�xf7! �xf7 19.ft'xe6 ft'f8

It turns out that 1 9 . . . lLl ed5 fails to 2o. lLl xd5
lLl xd5 2 1 . ,ixd5 ! ,ixd5 22.:gxc8 , and White
wins.
a b c d e f g h
32 . ..te5t! 33.f4
.
20.�e4 �xc1 2 1 .gxc1 �fd5
On 33. YlYxe5 Black has 33 . . . YlY h l t 34. 'it> g3 Black's position is unsatisfactory. The threat
YNg2t 35. 'it> h4 YlYxf2t 36. Wfg3 g5t etc. was 22. Wfxflt Wfxfl 23. ,ixflt 'it> xfl 24. lLl d6t
etc.
33 ...ixf4t! 34.ft'xf4 ft'hl t 35. � g3 Y1Ygl t
White resigned. 22.�d6 .ta8
92 Soviet Chess Strategy

In occupying this outpost, White sets up a

8
springboard for an attack on the kingside.
7

6
13 ...�c6 14J!adl �b4 1 5.�h3!
The queen actively joins in the attack, taking
5 aim at two important points in the black camp
4 - e6 and h7.

3
15 ...�d5 16.�xd5 �bxd5?
2 A serious error. Black should have played
1 6 . . . tt.l fXd5 , maintaining a defensible position.
1 6.
White's attack now becomes virtually
a b c d e f g h irresistible.
23J!el !
Decisive. Th e objects o f attack o n e7 and f7 17.f4 gc8
are indefensible. On 1 7 . . . tt.l e4 there follows 1 8. tt.l xf7!,
and then 1 8 .. .l'hf7 1 9. '<Mfxe6 or 1 8 . . . @ xf7
23 ... g6 24.�xf7 �xf7 25.�xe7 1 9 .�de 1 ! .
Black resigned.
1 8.£5 exf5 1 9J3xf5 �d6
Mikhail Botvinnik - Milan Vidmar
Nottingham 1 936

2 a b c d e f g h
20.�xf7! gxf7 2 1 .hf6 hf6 22.gxd5 �c6
1 6.
23.gd6 �e8 24.gd7
a b c d e f g h Black resigned.
The diagram position is in many ways
analogous to the foregoing example. Let's see Another example features sharp counterplay in
how purposefully White exploits the assets of the modern style, compensating for a backward
his position. pawn in the centre.
 Th e Centre - Typ ical Pawn Structures
Vladimir Peresypkin Evgeny Sveshnikov
- H .hb5!? axb5 1 2.ltlxb5
Kiev 1 973
The posltlon has arisen from a sharp and
topical variation of the Sicilian Defence:
1.e4 c5 2,c�� a ltlc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.ltlxd4 ltlf6
5.�c3 e5 6.ltldb5 d6 7.AgS a6 8.ltla3 b5
9.hf6 gxf6 10.ltld5 f5
a b c d e f g h
You can quite easily see that White holds
a solid positional "deposit" in the shape
of his opponent's weaknesses in the centre
and notably exposed pawn position on the
kingside. Practice demonstrates, however,
that Black has a wealth of possibilities at his
disposal for dynamic combat. In many lines he
succeeds in working up strong counterplay on
the dark squares ( . . . .i ffi -h6, . . . llJ c6-d4) . The
unfortunate placing of the knight on a3 is also
significant. Bringing it into active play will
take a few tempos.
All this makes for a very tense struggle in
which there is no place for compromise. White's
task is to co-ordinate his pieces as quickly as
he can, utilizing his static advantages. Black
endeavours to isolate the knight on d5 and
instigate dynamic play.
In the game White chose a tactical means
of combat. He immediately sacrificed a piece.
93
Black is threatened with the immediately
crushing 1 3 . llJ bc7t. He has, however, an
interesting defence which shows that his
position contains not only abundant resources
for counterplay but also considerable reserves
of solidity.
1 2 .. J�a7
A forced sacrifice of the exchange. An
original position with diverse material now
arises, where a rook and two pawns on the
white side are facing two black minor pieces.
[Editors' Note: Modern practice shows that
1 2 . . J�a7!? is interesting but it is not forced, as
Suetin claims. The wild 1 2 . . J�a4! is now most
popular, giving Black at least equality.]
13.ltlxa7 ltlxa7
From White's point of view there is nothing
wrong with the material balance of forces. But
in the ensuing middlegame, as we shall see, the
black pieces operate harmoniously and it is
White who is soon in the role of defender.
14.Yfa ltlc6
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 �
a c e f h
1 5.0-0-0?
Another crucial and very risky decision,
after which Black's counterplay with his pieces
acquires ample scope.
94 Soviet Chess Strategy
There is no denying that the position on the
board is highly complex and, most importantly,
unconventional. This is j ust where a player
needs subtle positional flair, that special kind
of imagination which Lasker considered a sign
of supreme mastery. By this he understood
the gift of intuitively anticipating events.
White's chances can only lie in advancing his
queenside pawns, and this on no account fits
in with castling long.
For this very reason Black would be set far
more problems by 1 5 .c3 followed by 1 6.0-0.
After castling short, the white king would not
only be less vulnerable but Black would have
to reckon with a queens ide pawn offensive: a2-
a4, b2-b4 etc.
The game continuation was:
15 ... .th6t 1 6.<.t>b1 fxe4 17.Vxe4 0-0 1 8.g4
<.t>h8 19.9hgl f5 20.gxf5 .bf5 2 1 .Vc4 Ve8
22.�e3 .te6 23.Vh4 .if4 24.gxd6
8
7
6
5
4 pawns on the c-file are not a weakness, but on
3
2 weakness. To take firm control of it, White
1
a b c d e f g h
24 . . . �d4!
Black took over the initiative for good.
There are plenty of cases where doubled pawns,
constituting a separate pawn "island" for
good measure, amount to a serious positional
weakness. Despite this, in a number of opening
systems one player will voluntarily allow the
doubling of his pawns in the centre or on the
flank (most often on the c-file) . His reasoning
is that the concentration of his pawns to
control important points in the centre will
sometimes enable him to seize these points
with his pieces. Just as often, it will facilitate
constructing a pawn centre.
The following position can stand as an
instructive example.
Mikhail Botvinnik Ilya Kan
-
Leningrad 1 939
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 �
a c e g
A remarkable structure has arisen in the
centre. In this situation White's doubled
the contrary a genuine strength. The point is
that in Black's camp the d5-square is a palpable
needs to push his pawn from e3 to e4. Then
the c3-pawn will be a trusty guardian of the
d4-point, depriving Black of the chance to
settle there.
In the game there followed:
12 ..td3 h6 1 3.0-0 0-0 14.f4!
The reader should pay special attention to
this move. It might seem far simpler and more
natural to go straight to work transferring
 Th e Centre - Typical Pawn Structures 95

the knight to d5, by 1 4.e4 tlJ c6 1 5 Jl:fd l Lev Aronin- Alexey Suetin
ie6 1 6. tlJ fl l:!adB 1 7. tlJ e3. However, after
1 7... � e7! I B . tlJ d5? ixd5 ! 1 9. cxd5 tlJ cB! , Saratov 1 953
followed by bringing this knight t o d6, the
advantage could even turn out to be on Black's 8
side. For the moment, therefore, White keeps
his basic strategic design a secret, and plays out 7
a different trump - his lead in development. It 6
is in his interest to open the game as much as
5
possible, and his last move serves this end.
4
LL,,,J��� .e:::i ;
14... �d7
3
1 4 . . . exf4 1 5 .exf4 would merely be furthering
White's plans. 2

1
15.5 �f6
Better was 1 5 . . . f6. a b c d e f g h
Black unexpectedly played:
16.tLle4!
16 'We6!?
•••

The move looks antipositional; to add to his

queenside pawn weaknesses, Black is incurring
serious damage to his pawn position on the
other wing. In doing this, however, I had
given attention to the specific possibilities of
counterplay with my pieces - especially the
knight settling on the strong outpost on d4.

17.'Wxe6 fxe6 1 8.�c3 �b8!

a b c d e f g h
Another subtle point, testifying to positional
mastery of a high order. The knight exchange
favours White, as afterwards his bishop firmly
establishes itself on the critical d5-square.
16 ...'Wd8 17.�xf6t 'Wxf6 1 8.,te4 gb8
19J�adl b6 20.h3 ,ta6 2 1 .,td5 b5 22.cx:b5
gxb5 23.c4
With a clear plus.
The following example is noteworthy.
Again a paradoxical move. In reality, however,
this is an essential link in an important
manoeuvre aimed at penetrating with the
knight to d4.
19.�6 �c6 20.�d2 �d4 2 1 .gacl l:!f7
22.�c4 a5 23J�d2 a4 24.b3 .ta6 25.,te3
axb3 26.cx:b3 hc4 27.bxc4 c6!
A picturesque position. Remove all the pieces
from the board, and Black's pawn position
is dismal; but in the conditions of complex
"semi-middlegame" play, his pawn defects
retreat into the background - rather the pawns
are helping his pieces to control important
points in the centre.
96 Soviet Chess Strategy

problem arises: is it better to close the centre,

or to fix the pawn structure while opening one
central file?
Black is faced with this kind of problem -
investigated for ages, but still to be solved -
in the Samisch System of the King's Indian
Defence:

l .d4 lLlf6 2.c4 g6 3.lLlc3 .ig7 4.e4 d6 5.£3

0-0 6 ..ie3 e5 7.d5

a b c d e f g h
2SJ!b2 :!Ua7 29.a4 .ic7 30J�al .ia5 3 1 .lLldl
.ib4 32.i.xd4 exd4 33.gba2 d3!
Otherwise ttJ d I -b2-d3.

34.a5 gdS 35.£3 gd4 36.lLle3 .ic3 37.gbl

gxa5

a b c d e f g h
What suits Black best? Should he close the
game in the centre with 7 . . . c5 (giving White
the cue for a kingside attacking plan with
8.g4) ?
Should he leave the queenside untouched
and strive for kingside counterplay of his own,
with 7 . . . ttJ h5 8 . W d2 f5 9 .0-0-0 ttJ d7 etc. ?
Or finally, should he open one of the
a b c d e f g h queenside files with 7 . . . c6 8 . Wd2 cxd5 9.cxd5
Black has achieved a clear superiority in the a6, aiming to create active play on both wings
ending. as opportunities arise?

Essentially, then, the modern treatment of
pawn weaknesses in the centre is dialectical.
We may state that they are quite acceptable
if compensated by factors that can be placed
under one general heading - the dynamics of
the position.
In many games, on transition from the
opening to the middlegame, an excruciating
The choice between these lines is a matter of
taste, but the stabilized structure that results
has long-term consequences - it largely
compels both players to undertake certain
actions and requires them to know the typical
methods of play.
[Editors' Note: Modern practice suggests that
7 . . . c5 is an inferior line, as 8.g4, among others,
 Th e Centre - Typ ical Pawn Structures
is too strong. One of the last GM supporters
of 7 ... c5 was Wolfgang Uhlmann, but even he
could only score 1 Yl/9 with Black.]
Thus the emergence of a particular structure
in the centre is determined by the inner content
of the struggle. Our discussion of central pawn
structures has merely been the preface to this
very complex theme which we shall pursue in
the following chapters of the book. For now,
let us just note that in practice you will often
come across various types of centre - whether
stabilized, or in a state of tension - which we
have not considered, and which would need
more than a single volume of researches to
classify them. General questions about the
link between play in the centre and flank
operations are also a very important issue. In
what follows, we shall concentrate not so much
on classifying all these themes as on studying
the general methods employed in the struggle
for the centre.
Before turning to questions of the dynamics
of positional play (without which it is
impossible to "unlock the door" to the modern
theory of the middlegame) , let us carry out a
brief resume.
97
Our discussion of the elements of the
positional struggle has quite often gone far
outside its formal limits and steered into the
deep channels of contemporary positional play.
The fact is that at the heart of chess strategy
there are intimate connections between the
complex and the simple, the obvious and the
paradoxical , etc.
Turning to the practical side of the elements
we have examined, let us state the conclusion
that seems indicated: in positional play, other
things being equal, it is enough to gain an
advantage of a single material unit, or to
obtain a clear plus in j ust one positional area
(for example "good" knight against "bad"
bishop) , in order to confront your opponent
with serious difficulties. And the presence
of two organic weaknesses without obvious
compensation is almost certain to condemn a
player to defeat. As we shall soon see, in the
modern dynamic formations which are full of
tactical ideas and characterized by the great
mobility of the forces etc., other laws often
operate. But once the game enters classical
channels, the elements of positional play come
fully into force.
Chapter 6
The Dynamics
of the Chess Struggle

Some General Concepts: a Brief History Lesson

From the time when the great players Morphy and Steinitz showed in practice how a chess
game develops according to laws, and established the basic principles of strategy and tactics, the
pOSitional school of chess (and correspondingly, the positional style of play) gained wide currency.
Probably because of its critical clarity of logic, this style is often called classical.
Thus according to the views of the positional school, the attainment of an advantage is prepared
by logically executing a plan that derives from an appraisal of the real state of affairs on the
chessboard; the path to this goal leads through a series of stages:
• mobilizing on rational lines, that is, more expediently than your opponent
• gradually striving to increase your minimal plus
• exploiting the advantage you have accumulated

The positional school teaches that an attack can be successful only if prepared by accumulating a
number of "minor" advantages. Thus an attack represents one of the methods of exploiting a plus.
Correspondingly, a tactical strike should, so to speak, crown a successfully executed plan. Hence
the elements of tactical play are strictly subordinate to strategic designs.
The positional style of play corresponded to the systematization of a set of ideas and plans (and
this basically gave rise to the notion of typical positions) . The methods of defence were noticeably
enriched; economy of forces was proposed as the most important defensive principle. Various
means of exploiting an advantage, and methods of conducting the fight in so-called balanced
positions, were cultivated.
The positional school does not deny the role of contingency in the chess struggle, but you could
say that it sharply separates the "contingent" from the "orderly" and sometimes opposes the one
to the other. The views of the positional school were set out on repeated occasions, in a detailed
and highly accessible form, in the widely familiar chess treatises of Tarrasch, Emanuel Lasker,
Nimzowitsch, Reti and Euwe.
In its essentials the theory of positional play is undoubtedly valid, as it is founded on the laws
of logic and proceeds from evaluating the genuine conditions of the struggle. Yet its rigorous
100 Soviet Chess Strategy
application can curtail the richness of life on
the chessboard.
With this manner of conducting the fight,
the whole process of the game is grounded
principally on the outward contours of the
positions that occur; the strategy and tactics
arise out of the static elements of the position.
The positional factors constitute the chief
underlying method, the pivot of the contest.
The remarkable Russian player Chigorin
resolutely opposed the dogmatism of Steinitz's
theory, demonstrating in his games the
immense role of imagination in chess. The
progress of theory is increasingly confirming the
validity of Chigorin's views. The inexhaustible
richness of chess cannot be confined within
the framework of any immutable rules.
Contemporary theory and practice are
disclosing the boundless possibilities for
obtaining complex positions abounding in
potential combinations. The play in such
positions is distinguished by the wealth and
variety of ideas that exceed the bounds of
formal logic. As a result, positional factors
become an auxiliary resource; and sometimes
the struggle to acquire them proceeds in ways
which appear nowhere near as logical as those
laid down by the positional school.
From this it follows that the system of play
which envisages the accumulation of small
positional advantages has its limits, beyond
which it ceases to operate. The positional
principles are applicable mainly to those
formations where slow manoeuvring and the
gradual multiplication of assets are indeed the
most expedient plan. And yet in numerous
situations that can arise on the chessboard,
guidance solely by general positional principles
is inadequate.
Consequently an ever-increasing role is
played by the dynamic factors of the struggle,
which distinctly enrich the strategy and tactics
of chess.
Some Important Features of the Dynamic
Approach
Adherents of the dynamic approach start out
from the fact that in many complex situations,
apart from the external stable factors
determined by the contours of the position, a
major role is played by latent factors that are
hi ghly volatile. These largely imponderable
factors include for instance the co-ordination
of the fighting forces, their disposition at a
particular moment, and so on. Ultimately, the
assessment of such positions relies heavily on
the individual peculiarities that each of them
contains.
A strategy based on dynamics is distinguished
by maximum closeness to the action; the plan
does not try to subordinate the action at any
cost but constantly adapts to it, absorbing
the full wealth of ideas from the life on the
chessboard.
In this sense the struggle in the following
game is illuminating.
Mikhail Tal - VassUy Smyslov
Bled 1959
a b c d e f g h
Acting on general positional considerations,
Black played:
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 101

1l b5
••• But not 1 6.�xh5 lLlf6! 1 7.�g5 ixf5
With the aim of driving back his opponent's 1 8 .�xf5 �xa2 etc.
active li ght-squared bishop and starting a
counter-attack on the queenside. Probing 16 ... ctt>h8 17.Yfxh5 Yfxa2?
deeply into the complexities of the position, Black succumbs to the heat of the battle.
White replied: A much more stubborn reply was 1 7 . . . if6,
although analysis has shown that White should
12.id2! Yfa6 still win.
This response is an unobtrusive but
substantial error. AI; later analysis indicated, lS.J.c3 �f6
Black should have preferred 1 2 .. -'1!fa4, settling
for somewhat the worse ending after 1 3.lLlxc8
8
�axc8 14 . .tb3 �xd4 1 5 .lLlxd4.
7
13.lLlf5!
6
As unexpected as it is brilliant! White
launches a sharp tactical offensive against the 5
king, based on some highly original ideas.
4

13."idS 14.Yfh4! 3
White would have had the same answer to
2
13 . ic5 .
1
. .

14".bxc4 1 5.YfgS a b c d e f h
g
19.Yfxf7!!
Black had overlooked this.

19".Yfalt
Accepting the sacrifice would lead to a
smothered mate after 1 9 . . J'hf7 20J':i xd8t lLlg8
2 1 .lLlxf7#. An analogous finish is 1 9 . . . !!e8
20.�g8t! and 2 1 .lLlf7#.

20.ctt>d2 gxf7 2 1 .�xf7t ctt>gS 22.gxal ctt>xf7

23.�e5t ctt>e6 24.�xc6 �e4t 25.ctt>e3 .ib6t
26 .id4!
a b c d e f h
•

g Black resigned.
15".lLlh5
Some beautiful variations arise from Thus the dynamic element in the chess
15 .. lLle8, for instance 1 6.�xd8 �xa2 1 7.ic3!
.
struggle greatly enhances the significance of
�ef6 1 8 .!!xd7! ixd7 1 9.1Llh6t cj;>h8 20.�xf6!, tactics and, especially, combinative methods.
and White wins. In contemporary practice, for instance, a
positional sacrifice of material to obtain
dynamic advantages is seen very frequently.
102 Soviet Chess Strategy
This noteworthy feature of chess which
Grandmaster Spielmann called the conversion
of material into power significantly broadens
the means of fighting for positional assets.
The following example illustrates the
effectiveness of combinative means in the
positional struggle.
Isaak Boleslavsky - Grigory Ravinsky
Leningrad 1949
1
a b c d e f g h
From the diagram position, a lengthy
positional struggle to accumulate an advantage
appears likely. The manoeuvre tLl b l -d2-fl -e3
seems indicated, taking the important squares
d5 and f5 under control. A purely positional
treatment on these lines would give White
somewhat the better prospects.
A deeper, dynamic investi gation shows that
despite the closed nature of the position, White
has the possibility of a positional sacrifice to
inject a good deal more life into the play. His
advantage in development, scarcely palpable up
to now, will then come very clearly to the fore.
8.M! aM 9.aM l[}xM 10.l[}c3 l[}f6
Il.tJb3 l[}c6 12.dxe5 dxe5 13J�dl!
So the small sacrifice has proved a much more
powerful means to attain positional assets than
a slow regrouping of White's forces.
Black already has great difficulty holding the
balance. For example, 1 3 . . . .td6 1 4.,ia3 VlJe7
is bad on account of 1 5 J�xd6! �xd6 1 6.tLlb5
tLlxe4 1 7.tLlxd6t tLlxd6 1 8 .�d l tLld4 1 9.tLlxd4
exd4 20.VlJb4 etc.
In what follows, it is instructive to see how
dynamically White's attack grows.
13 ...l[}d4 14.l[}xd4 exd4 1 5.e5 l[}g4 16.l[}b5
.1c5 17 ..1a3 b6 18.l[}d6t 'itlfll
a b c d e f g h
19.9xd4!
This combination already decides the issue.
19 ....ixd4 20.l[}xf'7t .1c5
White would have a more complex task in
the event of 20 . . . �e8, although even then,
as analysis has shown, he should win after
2 1 .tLld6t �f8 22.VlJf3t tLlf6 23.�e l ! .
21..ixc5t bxc5 22.l[}xd8 tJxd8 23.tJf3t l[}f6
24J�dl Y!le7 25.exf6 gxf6 26J�bl
White gradually conducted the game to
victory.
Undoubtedly one of the most effective
tactical devices in the dynamic struggle is a
positional combination. This concept has been
considerably enriched in recent times.
Here is one of the characteristic illustrations
of the modern positional combination,
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 103

demanding both long-range calculation and 20...YlYxflt

subtle evaluation of the resulting positions.
Mikhail TaI- Lev Polugaevsky
Tbilisi 1959
Black takes the game into an ending by force,
reckoning that if he tried to hold on to the
material with 20 .. J�he8 he would be crushed by
2 1 .ixf6 ixf6 22.l%c7t 'i!ig8 23.l%xg7t!.
We should note that when beginning the
combination, White was obliged not only
to calculate his attacking possibilities a long
way ahead, but also to evaluate the probable
transition to an endin g with equal material.

21 .q;,xfl �g4t 22.q;,gl �xe5 23.gxe5 ixg5

24.�xg5t q;,g6 25.�e6
White has emerged with a large positional
plus in the endgame.

In the foregoin g examples the dynamic treatment

enabled a player to exploit the hidden positional
assets he had achieved. In this way an already
a b c d e f g h existing advantage was brought into the open.
We should also give attention to the way
White embarks on a very interesting attack
dynamic factors may function to the same
against the king, following a complex, many­
extent even in so-called balanced positions. In
sided plan.
these positions the scrupulous accumulation of
an advantage is by no means always advisable.
15.,he6! fxe6 16.�xe6 YlYxc2 17.YlYd4 q;,f7
The path to success often leads through an
lUkl YlYa2 19.e5!
intensification of the tactical contest.
White would achieve nothing with: 1 9. tlJxg7
Our next example is highly indicative of
mxg7 20Jk7 Wfe6 2 1 ..ixf6t Wfxf6 22J�xe7t
the modern struggle to increase a player's
mg6
advantage.

19... dxe5 20.YlYxe5 Mark Taimanov - Bukhuty Gurgenidze

8 � Tbilisi 1959

7
8
6
7
5
6
4
5
3
4
2
3

2
a b c d e f g h
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
104 Soviet Chess Strategy

17.Ae5! The following example is also characteristic.

This looks purely positional. Indeed, after
the natural 1 7 . . . ¥Mb6 I B.ixd4 cxd4 1 9J3fe l , Mikhail Botvinnik Isaak Boleslavsky
-

White achieves a blockade o f the black pawn

centre, turning it into the object of an enduring Moscow 1952
siege. However, in making this move White
also had to foresee the sharp combative line 8
that occurs in the game.
7
17 ...,he5!? 6
By sacrificing his queen and thereby
5
dramatically intensifying the play, Black
obtains the chance to fight actively for the 4
ini tiative.
3

ISJlxdS gxdS 19.Y!!Ie3 Ad4 20.Y!!Ig5 Aa6 2

21 .b3 geS 22.h41 gadS 23.h5 gd7? 1
The tension of the double-edged positional
struggle proves too much for Black. He a b c d e f g h
should have played 23 .. .'it)f7, and if 24.¥Mh6 The double-edged struggle in this
then 24 . . J3hB! with a sound and active position of dynamic equilibrium is highly
defence. instructive.

Now with an unexpected tactical stroke White
shatters Black's sturdy positional bastion on
the queenside.
14.�f5! gx5 1 5.ex5 �e5 16.fxe6 ,he6
17.,hb7 � hSI
A very subtle move. Black is prepared to give
up the exchange to obtain counterplay on the
light squares. The natural 1 7 . . . l3bB I B . .id5
l3xb4 1 9.ixe6t l3xe6 20.f4 would leave White
with a clear plus.

I S.Ad5
Acceptance of the sacrifice would allow
Black a dangerous attack after I B .ixaB ¥Mxa8
1 9.1tJd5 ¥Mc6!.

IS ....ig4 19.Y!!Ia4?!
An inconspicuous error. White should play
1 9.¥Mc2 with some initiative.
a b c d e f g h
24.b4! gg7 25.Aa4 gcs 26.h6! gf7 27.bxc5 19 £5! 20.Y!!Ic2 Y!!If6 21 ..lg5! Y!!Ixg5 22.£4
..•

,hc5 2S.Ab5 ,hb5 29.cxb5 Ad4 30.gc1! Y!!Ih6

White soon converted his advantage into a
win.
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 105

of time is only permissible in cases where it

leads to secure control of vital points on the
board." Some truly immortal models of this
principle are preserved in his games.

l.d4 dS 2.�f3 cS 3.c4 cxd4 4.cxdS �f6

S.�xd4 a6?

6
a b c d e f g h
5
23.fxeS?!
4
The position is very complex. No wonder
both opponents commit unobtrusive errors. 3
White should have played 23.1Lxa8 , as Black
2
could now have obtained a clear plus.
1
�.....==.����
23 ...Yfe3t? a b c d e f g h
With this move Black misses his chance for
an advantage. The right move was 23 . . J:!ab8!. Black is playing the opening poorly and has
fallen behind in development - but how is his
24.'it>hl AxeS 2S .ixas gxa8
•
sluggishness to be exploited? Alekhine finds an
As a result of the lively struggle, equilibrium effective solution based purely on middlegame
is re-established.
methods (a very rare thing at such an early
stage of the opening) .
The dynamic treatment of the position has in
6.e4! �xe4 7.Yfa4t! Ad7
many ways enriched our approach to the basic
Instead 7 . . . Yfd7 fails to 8.ib5!.
elements of the chess struggle - material, space
and time - by linking them closely to concrete
8.Yfb3 �cS 9.Yfe3! g6 lO.�f3!!
plans for acquiring specific positional assets.
The time element, for instance, is evaluated
8 �
not by the mechanical counting of moves,
but in terms of concrete aims that tempos 7
must be expended to attain. In this light, time
6
represents a form of invisible positionalfoctor.
5
Alexander Alekhine - Heinrich Wolf 4

Pistyan 1922 3

2
Roundly condemning any senseless losses of
tempo in the opening, Alekhine wrote: "Loss 1

a b c d e f g h
106 Soviet Chess Strategy

White seems to have offended against the

principle of economy of tempo. Of the ten
moves he has so far played, six were with his
queen and knight. Nevertheless he has an
overwhelming position - the game is virtually
won for him. How could this come about?
The point is that Alekhine has played in
the only possible way to disorganize Black's
development and prevent his king from
escaping. Sure enough, after:

10 ... ec7 H.ed! gg8 12 ..ie3 b6 1 3.�bd2

.ig7 14 ..td4 .hd4 1 5.exd4 .ib5 16..txb5t a b c d e f g h
axb5 17.0-0 ga4 18.b4 ed8 19.a3 �bd7 4.e4! �xe4 5.dxc5 �xc5 6.�f3 e6 7.�c3
20.gfel <it>f8 exd5 8.exd5 ee7t 9..te3 �c6 1 0 ..ib5
.id7 1 1 .0-0 �e6 12.�e5! �xe5 13.exe5
8 .hb5 14.�xb5 a6 15.gadl gd8 16 ..ib6
gxdl 17.gxdl f6 1 8.ef5! g6 19.�c7t <it>f7
7
20.ed5
6 Black laid down his arms. A crushing
defeat!
5

4 The concepts of static and dynamic qualities

3 in a position, j ust like the concepts of strategy
and tactics, can be interpreted in two ways. In
2 a straightforward sense of the word, the "static"
1 6. elements of the position are the visible ones; in
the professional sense, they are the principles
a b c d e f g h
of positional play founded on a regard for
21 .d6! these visible factors.
White worked up a decisive attack against The concept of dynamic qualities can be
the black king stranded in the centre. taken to embrace the totality of moving
forces in the position. Essentially, however,
In a way, this kind of method has become this concept implies studying the position's
typical. individual peculiarities and ascertaining the
most important moving force in this or that
Lajos Portisch David Bronstein
-
concrete situation. In every case with this
approach, the principles of the positional
Monte Carlo 1969 school undergo a form of revision.
Only the dynamic approach to the struggle
l.d4 d5 2.c4 c5?! 3.cxd5 �f6 enables us to establish the profound dialectical
At an early stage of the game White begins a relation between the individual and the general,
very energetic offensive in the centre. the enduring and the transient, the orderly and
the contingent in chess.
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 107

The Relation of Logic to Imagination Black's advantage in development IS

in Chess obvious, and White should have tried to
finish developing his own kingside as soon as
It is completely incorrect to suppose that the possible. After, for instance, 1 2.g3 0-0 1 3 .j,g2
positional and dynamic treatments are opposed :B:eS 1 4 .j,f3, with 0-0 to follow, his position is
to each other. Rather they complement one somewhat worse but probably defensible.
another.
When speaking of the interrelation between Instead of this natural plan he begins an active
positional and dynamic factors, we must but wholly unj ustified demonstration on the
not forget that the dynamic approach arose kingside, which meets with simple and highly
on positional foundations, even though it instructive counter-measures from Black.
represented a protest on behalf of living chess
thought against those dogmatic canons which 12.h4? 0-0 1 3J�bl 'lWd7 14J�h3 gfe8 1 5.gg3
dried up chess creativity. lLlc4 16 . .ih6 g6 17.'lWc1
Naturally, concealed individual factors
cannot by any means always play the primary
role in the struggle. On the contrary, in practice
you must be guided first and foremost by the
external factors of the position. Like it or not,
there is more stern prosaic logic in chess than
elements of fantasy. As Tal aptly put it: chess
would otherwise be too beautiful a game!
Hence the attempt to "find something",
particularly at the expense of a clear plan, quite
often comes to grief. The following game may
serve as a characteristic example.

a b c d e f g h
Isaac Lipnitsky Vassily Smyslov
-

17... lLld6!
Moscow 195 1 This simple retort pinpoints the artificiality
of White's attacking plan.

18.'lWf4 .ia6
Not however l S . . . l2lf5 on account of
1 9.:B:xb5! l2lxg3 20.fxg3 Wlxb5 2 1 .Wlf6, and
Black is forced to give perpetual check with
2 1 . . .Wlb l t 22.cj;ld2 (22.cj;lf2 Wlf5t) 22 . . . Wlb2t
23. cj;le 1 Wlb 1 t etc.

Now White's attack quickly peters out, and

Black proceeds to the decisive assault himself.

19.e3 lLlfS 20 ..ha6 bxa6 2 1 .gb7 gab8!

a b c d e f g h 22.gxc7 :B:blt 23. � e2 'lWa4!
White resigned.
108 Soviet Chess Strategy
In this connection, an observation made by
Alekhine in his notes to the following game is
of interest.
Alexander Alekhine - Eugene Znosko-Borovsky
Birmingham 1926
a b c d e f g h
Alekhine played:
12.'ll�d2!
Here is what he writes:
"This move has the aim of exchanging the
light-squared bishops and then bringing about
a further weakening of Black's queens ide
pawn position, which was insecure anyway.
Black cannot prevent this. Of course this plan
cannot be said to guarantee White a decisive
advantage, but he does obtain a comfortable
game with winning chances - while saddling
his opponent with the heavy obligation to
fight for the draw.
"1 am convinced that every chess master
ought to take this kind of opportunity and
try to solve the problem of winning without
'fear' of simplification. Playing to complicate
the position is an extreme measure, to which a
player should resort only when he cannot find
a clear and logical plan."
12 eS 1 3.i.f3! .ixf3 14.lLlxf3 e4 I s.lLld2
..•
WIe7 16.WIa4 f5 1 7.WIc6 lLlf6 1 8.b4! a5
1 9J�a3! WId7 20.WIxd7 lLlxd7 2 1.bxa5
gxaS 22.gxaS bxaS 23.gbl gb8 24.gxb8t
lLlxb8
A knight endgame has been reached.
8
1 �
a b c d e f g h
In spite of the simplification White's
advantage has increased, thanks to the threats
against the a5-pawn and the potential thrust
g2-g4.
There now followed:
2s.c.t:?f1 lLld7 26.c;t>e2 lLlb6 27.c;t>dl a4 28.dS!
lLld7 29.c;t>c2 lLleS 30.c;t>c3 lLlg4 31.c;t>b4
lLlxn 32.c;t>xa4 £4 33.exf4 e3 34.lLlf3 lLld3
3S.c;t>bS!
And the pawn on a2 decided the outcome
of the struggle.
These examples vividly demonstrate that
in a very large number of cases, positional
principles have real force. The dynamic
treatment of a position not only entails no
rejection of the positional elements and
principles evolved by long years of experience;
on the contrary, in taking account of the most
significant and vital features of the struggle, it
deepens the understanding of the positional
indicators.
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
What dynamics does indeed oppose is the
routine stereotype. The basic method of
dynamics is to inquire searchingly, to be daring ,
to penetrate the true depths of a position.
It would be a mistake to assert that dynamic
ideas were lacking in the play of the founders
and adherents of the positional school. The
chess of a practical player is in a large measure
intuitive. And in practice, of course, the
outstanding masters of the game, endowed
with natural gifts, are great artists above all else,
whatever school they belong to. For this very
reason, elements of dynamics do play a very
large part in the games of Steinitz, Pillsbury,
Tarrasch and other representatives of the
positional school of chess. Where the necessity
arose for a dynamic solution to the problems
of the position, the intuition of these eminent
masters successfully overcame the dogmatic
limitations of their school. Possessing talent
and a high level of thought, they had what
we may call a feel for chess dynamics . And in
this respect many of their games are highly
instructive.
Therefore we can only say that in games by
representatives of the positional or the dynamic
school, a particular force predominates. And
this force is determined by the totality of a
player's theoretical views on the conduct of
the game.
The adherents of the positional school had a
feeling for the dynamic factors which emerged
in the process of a game independently of
their will. Yet the limited chess vision of that
time meant that they could not consciously
and methodically create positions in which
the elements of dynamism predominated.
Therefore their dynamics were in a way
fortuitous and could not radically alter the
direction their school was taking.
The assertion of the new ideas required a
1 09
lengthy and purposeful ideological struggle by
the creative innovators (Chigorin, Alekhine
and others) against the narrowing of the
horizons of chess art.
Both in practice and in theoretical investigations
which subjected various aspects of dogmatism
to rigorous criticism, a new direction in chess
- the dynamism firmly established in the views
of the Soviet school - gradually emerged.
Essentially the dynamic approach discloses
the profound dialectical nature of chess
creativity, which fuses the elements of logic
and imagination. The modern game has, so
to speak, harmoniously absorbed everything
that was best in the conflicting positional
and romantic schools. This did not come
about in any artificial manner but resulted
from a lengthy historical process of chess
development.
The combinative art which flowered in the
middle of the 1 9th century has been revived
on a new positional basis. For the masters of
the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries, combinations had
chiefly been employed as the decisive stroke
in an attack on the king; at the present time,
when the strategic resources of the struggle
have been immensely broadened, a style that
closely unites the elements of logic and fantasy
has been evolved.
Modern dynamic positional play is
undoubtedly more complex and refined than
what preceded it. A contemporary master
needs a perfect command of both the art of
positional play and the skills of combination;
he has to be ready for the most varied tests
at the board in conditions of limited thinking
time.
In the following example a positional contest
seems to be taking place, yet at the same time
dynamic factors are of no small significance.
110 Soviet Chess Strategy

Vassily Smyslov Mikhail Tal

- 22.ctldl ge2 23.Adl gc3 24.c;!?f1 ctle5
White aims to strengthen his position with
Bled 1959 'i!?fl -e2, ie3-d4, ga 1 -b 1 etc., so Black decides
on an exchange sacrifice to alter the course of
8 the fight.

7 25 .id4 gd3 26 ..ixe5 dxe5 27.c;!?e2 gxdlt

•

6 28.c;!?xd2 ctlxe4t 29. c;!? e2

Strategically White has won the battle,
5
although it proved far from easy to turn his
4 advantage into a win.

3
It should also be noted that moments when
2 dynamic factors can take effect are often easy to
1 miss, and - most importantly - irrecoverable.
!:J.
Here is an example where one player missed
a b c d e f g h a dynamic solution to the problems of the
With the threat of . . . e5-e4, Black's position position.
looks highly promising. The following
remarkable move, however, abruptly alters this AleIey Suetin - Alexander Kotov
assessment.
Riga 1958
15.Yfd3!!
This unconventional idea demanded far­ 8
reaching calculation, since the ensuing struggle
7
in the ending hinges largely on which side will
be able to activate its rooks more quickly. White 6
voluntarily allows the doubling of his pawns
5
on the d-file, relying on a more substantial
weakness - the pawn on b7. 4

3
15 JUe8 16.gfc1 Yfxd3
2
.•

The threat of 1 7.c4 induces Black to go into

the ending. A better chance may, however,
have been the pawn sacrifice 1 6 . . . e4! ? 1 7 . .ixe4
lLlxe4 1 8 .Wxe4 .if6 etc.
17.cxd3 g6 1 8.gc3 gxc3 19.bxc3 ge8 20.e4
e4 21 .dxe4 gxe4
The positional struggle proceeds in an
extremely lively manner. Having activated
his rook, Black might seem to have seized the
initiative, but White's calculations are very
deep.
1 !:J.
a b c d e f g h
White has very good attacking possibilities on
the kingside; his pieces are most harmoniously
deployed.
Black's last move, . . . h7-h6, looks provocative.
It was possible to punish it only by potent
dynamic means, namely: 1 6.g6! fxg6 1 7.f5!,
and White breaks the position open.
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
In the game, the continuation was:
16.gxh6? g6! 17.a3? .bh6 1 8.,te3 �a4
19.�xa4 bxa4 20.�a .lb7
As a result of White's flabby although
outwardly unobjectionable play, the initiative
has unexpectedly passed to Black.
Here on the other hand is an example of the
timely utilization of dynamic assets.
Isaak Boleslavsky - Boris Goldenov
Leningrad 1947
a b c d e f g h
White's superiority is obvious. A positional
plan to take possession of the weak d5-square
might seem indicated. However, after 24.ltJf1
&iJc7 25 .ltJe3 ltJe6 26.i.b2 ltJc5 27.V!!c2 ltJxd3
28.Wfxd3 f6 Black manages to set up a robust
defence.
White finds a dynamic solution which is deeply
thought out. He abandons any conventional
attempts to exploit the backward pawn on
d6; on the contrary, he rids his opponent
of it. He is reckoning on the possibility of a
sudden attack against the king, facilitated
by the excellent placing of his pieces and
the lack of co-ordination in his opponent's
actions.
1 11
24.e5!
Only thus. The right moment is all­
important!
24...dxe5 25 ..he5 .ld6 26.�a ga4 27..ib2
gf4 28.�e5 'i'a7 29.ge2 .le6 30.'i'c2 �f6
31..hb5 gc8 32.'i'dl Axe5 33.gxe5! ge4
34.ggS 'i'e7
a b c d e f g h
35.gxg7t!
Black resigned.
* * *
Of course in practice, and in conditions of
limited thinking time, we often come across
positions where it is hard to decide which way
of fighting is more correct - the positional way,
subject to logic alone, or the dynamic way
which takes more account of subjective themes
and leads to double-edged play.
It can be said of such complex positions that
they contain scope for logic and fantasy in
equal measure and that the choice of means is
a matter of the player's taste and style.
The emergence of dynamic factors by no
means constrains a player to one single style
(except that the thinking of a true master
has to be sufficiently developed to exclude
stereotypes) . Many masters, even great ones,
prefer a method ofsteering the struggle towards
1 12 Soviet Chess Strategy

positions where the elements of logic matter �g8 1 7.ttJxf6t gxf6 1 8.�d3 V;Vf7!, when things
most. Others seek an involved double-edged clearly turn out in Black's favour.
struggle containing a multitude of diverse
ideas, where the element of imagination and
8
combinative creativity predominates.
The latter ultra-dynamic tendency is especially 7
noticeable in the games of Tal, Spassky and 6
Korchnoi. The characteristic features of this
strategy are, above all, the striving for a sharp 5
tactical fight, the creation of positions where 4
disparate material gives chances of initiative -
3
and so on.
Here is an example. 2

1
Mikhail Tal - Atanas Kolarov
a b c d e f g h
Reykjavik 1957
1 5 ...� g8?!
Black's first inaccuracy; he is not aware of
8 all the complexities of the position. He had
7 nothing better than a draw by perpetual check
after 1 5 . . . V;Va l t! 1 6 .�d2 V;Vxb2 1 7.e5 V;Vd4t
6 1 8 .'j{ c l V;Va l t.
5
16 .ixf6 gxf6?
4
.

The decisive error. The correct line was

3 1 6 . . . ttJxf6 1 7. ttJe7t @f7! 1 8 . ttJc6 @g8!,
maintaining the balance.
2

1 !:::. 17.gd3! VaI t 18.� d2 Vxb2 19.f4 b3

a b c d e f g h
20.�e7t �h8 21.gxb3 Va2 22.Vd5 ga7

An exceedingly sharp position, which White

deliberately strives to make even sharper. Placid 8
methods are already impossible. 7

6
10.hoo!?
Later analysis established that 1 0.J.d5 !? was 5
stronger. But the dynamic configurations are
4
such that even that analysis could not exhaust
the problems of the position! 3

2
10...&00 1 1.�xOO �f7 12.�xf8 gxf8
13.Vxd6 b4 14.�d5 Vxa2! 1 5.ghel! 1 !:::.
Th e best chance. Not 1 5 .i.xf6 ttJxf6 1 6.V;Ve7t a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 113

23.�g6t! � g7
If 23 . . . hxg6, then 24.E:h3t and 25 .YMxa2.

24.�xffi � xffi 25.e5! �xe5 26.Vc5t � g8

27.Vxc8t � f7 28.exe5 Va5t 29.Vc3 gd7t
30.�c1
Black resigned.

If a preponderance of forces in the relevant

sector was one of the requirements highlighted
by the classical method of conducting an attack,
the dynamic treatment gives most attention to
the real strikingforce. a b c d e f g h
Such attacks are distinguished by particular
A very sly defence. The natural 1 8 .fxe6t is
originality.
met by 1 8 . . . .ixe6! 1 9.tiJxe6t i>g8!, and Black
Boris Spassky - Vladimir Shishkin wins.

Tallinn 1959 18.Vxe6t Vxe6 19.�xe6

The game has entered a complex ending
with unbalanced material, where dynamic and
positional factors are tightly interwoven as
before.

19... �c4?
Not an obvious mistake, but a very serious
one. The right move was 1 9 . . . .if6!, with good
counterplay for Black.

20..tg5 gg8 21.gf4 .if6 22.gxg4 h6 23.dxc5

�e5

a b c d e f g h
8
13.£5 gxf5 14.J.xf7t!?
7
This attack and sacrifice may look like a
bolt from the blue. White seems to have very 6
few pieces participating in the assault. Yet an
5
attacking force quickly springs up, as if at the
wave of a magic wand. 4

3
14...�xf7 1 5.Vb3t e6
The only move. If 1 5 .. .'it>f8 or 1 5 . . . We8, 2
then 1 6.tiJf4! is decisive. 1 6-

16.ttJf4 Vd7 17.exf5 �a5! a b c d e f g h

1 14 Soviet Chess Strategy
24.hf6!
This quickly decides the game. In his
calculations Black had probably only foreseen
that he was emerging the exchange up; he
failed to assess the resulting position.
24... �xg4 25.J.d4!
And, setting his kingside pawns in motion,
'\\lhlte soon aChleveo tne w·m.
Representatives of the ultra-dynamic style
aim the points of their spears especially often
at those players who are under the powerful
influence of the positional school. The latter,
as a rule, are not keen to play a double­
edged position with a pronounced dynamic
tendency.
That is why, when facing them, ultra-dynamic
players endeavour to steer the struggle towards
formations where the laws of customary chess
logic are not of primary significance. It is no
accident that representatives of the young
generation of Soviet grandmasters are trying
increasingly often to resurrect old gambit
systems. Of course, this type of play involves a
good deal of risk.
In this respect the following game
characteristic.
Boris Spassky - Semyon Furman
Tallinn 1959
Reckoning that his experienced opponent liked
playing under the guidance of a positional
compass, Boris Spassky was already working
up dynamic complications in the opening.
1.e4 e5 2.£4 exf4 3.�c3!?
The old and very risky Keres Gambit. This
kind of play proved inimical to Furman. At
this point he already took a long think.
3 'ilYh4t 4.<i!?e2 d5! 5.�xd5 .id6
•••
Theory recommends 5 . . . ig4t 6.lLlf3 lLlc6!
7.lLlxc7t 'kt>d8 8.lLlxa8 lLle5! 9.We l ! lLlxf.3
1 O.Wxh4t lLlxh4t, j udging the position to
be in Black's favour. To evade his opponent's
preparation, Black opts for another objectively
good line, but one that is positional in
character.
6.�f3 .ig4 7.d4 �c6 8.e5 O-O-O! 9..ixf4
�ge7
Black has played the opening excellently, but
does that mean he has probed into the essence
of the struggle? Spassky played:
10.c4!?
And Furman, after a large expenditure
of time and energy, failed to find the best
continuation. In such situations this very often
means losing the game.
is
a b c d e f g h
10 ... �f5? 1 l.exd6 �fxd4t 12.<i!?d3!
White quickly and easily converted his
advantage into a win.
The result could have been different if instead of
l o . . . lLlfS Black had played the unconventional
1 o . . . ib4!, with a big advantage. But such moves
don't come easily to a positional player, even
one with a very subtle positional flair. Not even
when it is the only way to save the bishop!
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 1 15

Such are some of the general features of
contemporary dynamics.
In the following sections I shall specially focus
the reader's attention on two more factors that
play a large role in modern dynamic chess:
new forms of co-ordination between the
fighting forces, and a sudden swift increase in
the initiative which often becomes a vigorous
attack. In very many cases this involves
flouting the usual notions about material and
the positional sacrifice of it.
takes the game into a complex ending with
bishops of opposite colours. But in so doing
he seriously weakens his opponent's pawn
structure and acquires a number of squares for
invasion.
17.i.xf5! exf5 18.exf6 gxf6 19J�abl h6
20J�b5 .ie6 21.geb l gfF7 22.c��e l £4 23.8
g5 24.�d3!
White makes opportune use of the weakness
of the squares c5 and e5, which are a major
defect of Black's position.

At this point we will give j ust one example of

the precise and opportune transformation of
positional factors.
8

Vassily Smyslov - Rene Leteller 7

6
Venice 1950
5

8 4

7 3

6 2

5 1

4 a b c d e f g h

3 27.�b4! �xb4 28.gxe6!

This well-prepared combinative stroke settles
2
the outcome of the game.
1
28...gxe6 29.gxc8 �c6 30.a6!
a b c d e f g h
A very important move. Now at last White
There is no doubt that White's pieces are more gets to the d5-pawn and obtains two connected
actively placed. He has two mighty bishops, passed pawns in the centre.
pressure on the dark squares and a spatial
plus. But how is he to utilize these advantages? 30...bxa6 3 l J�c7t c;t>g6 32.gd7 �e7 33 ..ib4
Black, for his part, is aiming to open the f-file �f5 34Jhd5 �e3 35.gd8 �xg2 36.d5
and obtain distinct counterplay. White soon conducted his advantage to
victory.
The decision that Smyslov takes is most
instructive. He abandons the famous
advantage of the bishop pair. Furthermore he
116 Soviet Chess Strategy
Co-ordination of the Forces
The principles of strategy can be divided into
special and general types.
Special principles, we may say, are directly
linked to the precise character of the position
and therefore have a localized concrete meaning.
Among them, for instance, is the principle that
the best antidote to a flank assault is often a
counter-stroke in the centre. Or again - as a
rule, there is no doubting the principle that in
positions with blocked pawn chains it is useful
to exchange off the bishop that reduplicates
the work of your own pawns; and so on.
As the reader has already had more than
one chance to observe, the stock of special
principles is constantly being increased by the
fruits of practice and theory. But the validity
of these principles applies only to positions of
a particular type.
Aside from these, there are principles of a
more general order, stemming from the aims
and rules of the chess struggle itself. They have
more of a universal validity. In this category
we may place activity, manoeuvrability and
resilience in the deployment of the fighting
forces.
We should note straight away that there is
an essential distinction between the elements
of the strategic contest which we have so far
systematically examined and principles of the
universal type. The former require knowledge,
or more exactly they require you to manage
them, to know how to use them. A chess master
has to command these elements of strategy
with as much assurance as an engineer who
rapidly makes sense of blueprints; when time
is short he has to act almost automatically, like
an experienced driver whose car is in trouble.
The universal principles that always operate
in a position (sometimes invisibly) are much
less plainly defined. In each individual case,
positional flair is required to assess the power
and effectiveness of the co-operation, the
possible aCtiVity, the manoeuvrability, of a
player's forces - and so on.
Undoubtedly one of the most important
principles of this type is the principle of
harmony or co-ordination between the
fighting forces. It is only if your pieces are
acting in concert and purposefully that you
can successfully execute tactical operations and
a strategic plan. In essence, co-ordination of
the forces is an inseparable attribute of a chess
game.
In practical play - which is a struggle
between two camps - achieving full harmony,
full co-ordination of your forces, is relatively
difficult. The concept of the dispOSition of the
forces, rather than harmony, is more applicable
to a practical game. But this of course by no
means lessens the significance of the harmony
principle. Essentially this principle is always a
concomitant of a game of chess (though not
always an obvious one) . It should therefore be
taken constantly into account.
The principle of harmonious co-ordination
is continually developing. Its evolution is
directly linked to the general development of
theoretical ideas.
As long ago as the end of the 1 8th century,
the great French player Philidor propounded
a set of interesting strategic ideas on the co­
operation of pieces and pawns, according to
which the pieces should advance under cover
of the pawn chains.
"General" principles (including that of co­
ordination) began developing with particular
rapidity once the views of the positional school
had been established. We will now look at
how these views apply to the co-ordination
principle.
In the course of a positional struggle in which
immobile objects (weak pawns and squares) are
subjected to lasting pressure, the co-ordination
of the fighting forces flows directly, so to speak,
from the outward form of the position and
takes shape gradually and logically.
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 117

Akiba Rubinstein Georg Salwe

- ordination of the black ones, tied to passive and
thankless defence, is gradually deteriorating.
Lodz 1908 This enables White to deal the decisive tactical
blow.
8

a b c d e f g h
In Black's camp a long-term weakness has
emerged - the backward pawn on c6. White's
task is to deprive it of mobility (block it) and
then methodically increase the pressure on it.
The first stage of his plan therefore consists in
organizing the concerted action of his pieces
against the c5-point.
18.'i'd4 gee8 19 ..tfl
This piece is not participating directly in the
action against c5, but by helping to dislodge
the black queen from its important defensive
post, the bishop too makes a key contribution
a b c d e f g h
27J�xe6! 'i'xe6 28.'i'xa7 gaS 29.'I'e5
White soon won.
In this last example the positional concentra­
tion of White's forces against his opponent's
weak points led to complete disharmony in
the black ranks. This enabled White to acquire
a large plus and subsequently decide the game
by combinative means.
The following example is also characteristic.
Viacheslav Ragozin Mikhail Botvinnik
-

to co-ordinating White's forces.

Leningrad 1940
19... gec8 20.�e5 �xe5 21.gxe5
White has fixed the weak black pawn on c6. 8
His next task is to co-ordinate the action of his
fighting units against this point. 7

6
21...'i'b6 22.e3 ge7 23.gfe2 gac8 24.h4!
Pawns also play an active role in the positional 5
co-ordination of the forces. Now the threat of 4
h4-b5 is very strong.
3
24...a6 25.ga5 gb8 26.a3 ga7 2
While the white forces are acting more
1 6.
harmoniously with every move, the co-
a b c d e f g h
118 Soviet Chess Strategy

A concerted action by White's pieces (lLlc3, 1 5.he7 tfxe7 16.a5 �a8 17.tfa3! �xc3
ih4) has taken shape, directed against a key 18.bxc3 �c7 19.�e5
object in the black camp: the d5-point. White achieved his aim.
White's strategic task is to turn that point
into an enduring weakness. Black for his part The examples I have given demonstrate that in
has to try to rid himself of White's pressure the execution of a strategic plan, a paramount
against the key square. White's next move, role is played by the co-ordination of the forces
however, underlines the difficulty of the task directed against some particular object.
his opponent faces. In a struggle conducted in positional style,
the attainment of harmonious co-ordination
13.tfb3! is facilitated by the presence of a long-term
Not only increasing the pressure against weakness in the opponent's camp. Conversely,
d5 but also tying down Black's forces on the the defence of this weakness makes the
queenside. opponent impair the co-ordination of his own
forces in both its positional and combinative
Interestingly, if Black now tries to free himself aspects.
from the pressure with a move that looks Such indeed - in broad terms - was the
tempting, 1 3 . . . lLle4, this fails to the tactical notion of co-ordination and its role that was
refutation 1 4.,txe7 Wixe7 1 5 .Wixb7 �b8 implemented in games by the followers of
1 6.lLlxd5! Wid6 1 7.lLle7t! Wixe7 1 8.Wixe4 and Steinitz's positional school. They considered
White wins by force. that it was weak immobile objects that could
What comes strikingly to the fore in this be most conveniently subjected to co-ordinated
line is the combinative potential of the co­ pressure.
operation between White's forces: 1 5 .Wixb7,
1 6.lLlxd5 and 1 7.lLle7t with 1 8 .Wixe4 to Naturally the practical results could not help
follow. The variation also shows that the black being reflected in the works of theorists and
pieces are passively placed and lack possibilities chess educators. Thus in his book Common Sense
for co-ordinated action of their own. in Chess, first published in 1 896, and a little
later in his Manual of Chess, Emanuel Lasker
Botvinnik had to play: was already drawing several methodologically
valuable conclusions about the principle of
13...�b6 14.a4! �e4 co-ordination. The thrust of his argument is
that pieces and pawns should complement
8 each other's action and not duplicate it. He
illustrates this proposition with a whole series
7
of examples of co-ordination in various forms:
6 co-operation between pieces and the pawn
5 chain, or involving the two bishops - or two
knights, bishop and pawn, or rook and passed
4 pawn; or some combinative devices of co­
3 ordination.
Generalizing from the various specific forms
2
of co-ordination, Lasker propounds - as the
1 6. core of this principle - the idea of a phalanx,

a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 119

which can be applied equally to the action of Jose Raul Capablanca Efim Bogoljubow
-

the pieces and that of the pawns. A phalanx,

in Lasker's use of the term, is the strongest London 1922
and most flexible form of deployment of the
fighting forces. 8

Lasker also examined some problems of the 7

co-ordination principle that go beyond the 6
confines of Steinitz's theory. One of his very
5
interesting ideas is that the value of a number
of pieces is not equivalent to their mechanical 4
total. In evaluating them, you need to take
3
into account not only the factor of power but
also the factor of co-ordinated play. From this 2
Lasker concluded that there tends to be an 1 �
element of extra tension in the position, which ������

is far from simple to account for. a b c d e f g h

Thus Lasker to some extent anticipated how White played:
the principle of harmonious co-ordination
would be developed; he indicated its major 2 1 .h3
independent role in the assessment of a Whereupon Black incautiously retreated
position. with:

The next significant contribution to 2 1 ...Ah5?

developing this principle, both in practice
and in explanatory writings, was made by
Capablanca. Treating the co-ordination
principle dynamically, he took a great step
forward from the positional school.
Capablanca regards the harmonious action
of the pieces as the most important and at
the same time the most difficult principle and
element of the game. He expressed much more
concretely the independent significance of
co-ordination, elaborating a number of new
strategic precepts - the expulsion of pieces
from strong positions, the isolation of pieces
from the rest of their force.
The following example is characteristic.
This allowed Capablanca to shut the enemy
bishop out of play for a long period and
brilliantly execute an original strategic plan.
22.tiHdl Af6 23 ..bf6 'ifxf6 24.a4
Having cut a piece off on the kingside,
White opens up the game in the opposite
battle sector. For all Black's ingenuity, White is
bound to have the advantage.
24... c4! 25.bxc4 �c5 26.'ife3 bxa4 27.£4
'ife7 28.g4 Ag6 29.5 Ah7 30.�g3 'ife5
3U�g2 gab8 32.gabl f6?
A mistake, after which White acquires a
decisive plus. A considerably better option was
32 . . .l:!b2 33.!!xb2 VMxb2, although even then
White would consolidate his superiority with
34.!!e2!.
120 Soviet Chess Strategy

So White has created a passed pawn on

8
the d-file while his opponent's light-squared
7 bishop still remains out of play. The fate of the
6
game is decided.

5 45...�bl 46.gd3 a3 47.d6t � d8 48.�d4!

4 gb6 49.�de6t .ixe6 50.&e6 gb8 5 1.e7t
� e8 52.�xa6
3
Black resigned.
2
Practice keeps on supplying new examples
1 6.
confirming the strength of this noteworthy
a b c d e f g h strategic ploy - that of cutting off a part of the
36.�d4! opposing force.
An instructive manoeuvre, underlining
Black's powerlessness; essentially Black is
Lev Polugaevsky - Tigran Petrosian
playing with a piece less. If for instance he
Leningrad 1960
accepts the pawn sacrifice with 36 . . . VNxc4,
then after 37.tLle6! �b8 38.tLlxc5 dxc5 39.�d2
�b3 40.VNf2 the passed pawn on d5 decides 8
the issue.
7

36...ttxe3 37Jhe3 gb8 38.gc3 �f7 39.�f3 6

gb2 40.�ge2 .ig8 41.�e6! �b3 5
Here too, acceptance of the pawn sacrifice is
fatal: after 4 1 . . .tLlxe4 42.'Jixe4 �xe2t 43.@d4 4
�d2t 44.�d3 �a2 45.c5! Black loses quickly 3
on account of the bad position of his bishop.
2

42.c5! dxc5 43.�xc5 �d2t 44.�fl �e7 1 6.

45.@e1 a b c d e f g h

... Exploiting the fact that his opponent's dark­

8 squared bishop is out of play, White executes
7 an attractive strike against the kingside.

6
14.e4! �xd7 1 5.�g5 gad8 16..ixf7t
5 Undoubtedly the most forcing line.
4
16...gxf7 17.�e6
3 A pretty device making use of the pin on the
2 d-file.

1
17...ttc8 1 8.�xd8 .ta6
a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
A practical chance. If 1 8 . . . �xd8 then 1 9.e5!
is quickly decisive, as there is no adequate
defence against the threat of e5-e6.
[Editors' note: Although this is true, it does
not mean that 20.e6 wins the house.
After 1 9 . . . �e8! 20.e6 �f6!
a b c d f g h
e
White is in trouble. Black is threatening
...�g6 and simply to keep the piece. And after
2 1 .exd7 �xe2 22.d8=�t �f8 and White has
to play 23 . .ie3 to be able to fight for a draw,
but even this is not necessarily successful.
This does not mean that Suetin's positional
points are irrelevant. White could have won
with 1 6.�h5! ttJf6
a b c d e f g h
17.if4!! with a winning attack now the
rooks are connected. The two main lines are
17 ... �xf4 1 8 .�xf7t! and 1 7 . . . �e7 1 8 . .ixf7t!
Wh8 1 9.�h3.1
121
It is notable that White conducts the attack
with very economical means. But this of
course is facilitated by the fact that Black is
essentially playing all the time without his
dark-squared bishop, which is shut out of the
game.
8
1
a b c d e f g h
19.ft'e3!
Simplest; 1 9.�xa6 �xa6 20.ttJxf7 is not so
clear, although even then the white rooks are
stronger than the enemy queen.
19..J�e7 20.ft'b3t c4 21.ft'a3 tt1c5 22..ie3
�xe4 23.,lxc5 ft'xc5 24.ft'f3
Black resigned.
* * *
Modern theory is increasingly characterized by
its recognition of the great independent role of
the harmonious co-ordination of the forces.
This has also significantly broadened our
conception of the objects against which the
co-ordinated forces are directed.
Attention is being paid not only to the
outward character of the co-ordination but
also to its concealed tactical forms. This is one
feature of the dynamiCS of the contemporary
chess struggle for the control of positional
assets.
The following game, which went the rounds
of the world's press, remains a superb example.
122 Soviet Chess Strategy

Frantisek lita David Bronstein

- 17 ..Jhal!! 18Jhal tLlxfl! 19Jie3
1 9.@xf2 is met by I 9 . . . ltJxb3!, while 1 9.'\Wxf2
Prague 1956 loses to 1 9 . . . ltJd3!.

19...ltJxh3t 20.cj;>h2ltJfl! 2UU3ltJcxe4

Black has achieved a won position.

In this case the harmonious co-ordination of

Black's forces (a co-ordination owing much
to its concealed tactical factors) more than
compensated for his opponent's outward
positional trumps. As a result, White's
apparently sturdy centre proved devoid of true
strength and became an object (a target!) for
Black's aggressive actions.
The following example is also most
a b c d e f g h
instructive.
White has a numerical preponderance, both
in the centre and in overall control of space. In
appearance Black's position is very constricted.
From the standpoint of purely positional assets,
the advantage seems to be with White. For the
evaluation of this position, however, a more
significant fact is that Black's forces are acting
very harmoniously. White's pieces, on the other
hand, though deployed in an outwardly active
manner, are operating without unity.

1 5 ... axb3 16.axb3 tLlg4! 17.h3?

White is unaware of the danger and does
not sense the tactical factors inherent in the
a b c d e f g h
co-ordination of Black's forces.
A decisive combination follows: In the diagram position White appears to have
gained some distinct positional advantages,
8 � as his pressure against the central point d5 is
highly unpleasant. (Note the positional co­
7 ordination �h4+ltJc3+l'l:d 1 .)
6 This was demonstrated, for example, in a
game Mikenas - Botvinnik, Moscow 1 940,
5 where the position first occurred. Mter
4 8 . . . 0-0 9.dxc5 �xc3 1 0.'\Wxc3 g5 1 1 .�g3 ltJe4
1 2.'\Wa3 �e6 1 3.f3 ltJxg3 1 4.hxg3 '\Wf6 1 5 .e3
3
l'l:c8 1 6.@b l ltJd7 1 7.ltJe2 l'l:xc5 1 8 .ltJd4 a6
2 1 9.�b5! Black had paid a high price for shaking
off the pressure against the critical point d5.
1

a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
His kingside was seriously weakened, while in
any case the d5-point still continued to be a
lasting weakness in his camp.
However, in that game Black made a very
important though far from obvious mistake.
Giving exclusive attention to the concerted
positional action of White's pieces against the
d5-point, he overrated its significance. Playing
from general considerations, he fell in with his
opponent's plan.
Botvinnik rectified this mistake in a game
with Keres. This time, in the critical diagram
position, he found a very interesting plan of
counterplay:
Paul Keres Mikhail Botvinnik
-
Absolute USSR Championship 194 1
8....bc3! 9.�xc3 gS! lO.J.g3 cx:d4! 1 1.�xd4
�c6 12.�a4 J.f5!
a b c d e f g h
White's king becomes the target of a very
strong attack. It turns out that thanks to the
wholly undeveloped state of his kingside, the
co-ordination of his forces is decisively crippled.
Black's forces, by contrast, are operating against
the enemy king in a most harmonious fashion.
His bishop wields immense power on the h7-
b I diagonal, cutting off the white king's path to
shelter from the principal thrust in the c-file.
123
In this example, what proved more
significant was not White's obvious-looking
positional co-ordination of forces against
the d5-point but the concealed tactical co­
ordination of the black forces against the
enemy king. The latter factor had not yet
taken shape in the position we started from,
but came together in the dynamics of the
struggle. Its chief prerequisites were White's
undeveloped kings ide and the possibility of
opening the game on the queenside where the
white king had taken refuge. A most important
circumstance (though outwardly not at all an
obvious one!) was the opportunity to drive back
the bishop on h4 by . . . g7-g5 ! at the requisite
moment.
Making use ofall these premises, Black carried
out a very energetic operation (8 . . . ixc3!,
9 ... g5! and lO ... cxd4!) , co-ordinating the
actions of his pieces at maximum speed and
not caring about positional concessions and
weaknesses.
The example shows how effective some
covert possibilities of co-ordination,
emerging in the course of the fight, can be.
It is therefore often necessary to take a highly
critical view of the overt positional forms of
co-ordination.
The foregoing examples of the modern
treatment, testifying to the great independent
importance of co-ordinating the fighting
forces, do not at all play down the question as
to the object of the operation. Co-ordination
cannot of course be an end in itself; it must be
directed at some object, and its entire value
often depends on what the significance of the
object is.
It is not out of place to recall the classic
principle which states that an attack on the
king often proceeds with greater difficulty
than attacks on more minor objects,
but in its consequences it is the most
dangerous.
Let's look at the following example.
1 24 Soviet Chess Strategy

Mark Taimanov - Miguel Najdorf

Zurich 1953

3
vmw�'/nh,7�=�ff�yO�M�fi7,w a b c d e f g h
2
20.hxg3 fXg3 21..bg3 �hS 22..ih2 .ie7
1 23.�b1 .id7 24.Wel .igS 2S.�d2 .ie3t
26.� hl WgS! 27..ifl gaf8 28J�dl bS 29.a4
a b c d e f g h
a6 30.axbS axbS 3 1 J�c7 gg7 32.�b3 �h4!
White's pieces are aiming at the queenside Black's attack is already irresistible.
in a highly co-ordinated manner. Black's hopes
can only be pinned on a kingside counter­ In the next game White appears to accomplish
attack. But at the moment his fighting forces the maximum possible on the queenside, yet
are far from harmoniously arranged. with the white king coming under attack,
Black is able to co-ordinate his own forces
Nevertheless the subsequent unfolding of more effectively.
events demonstrates that Black's counter­
attack is more effective than White's play on Ludek Pachman - Nikola Padevsky
the queenside.
Dresden 1956
l SJlc1 gf7
Black transfers his rook to the seventh rank
8
where it not only defends the key point c7
on the queenside, but also joins in the attack 7
on the kingside. At the same time the fB­ 6
square is freed for the important manoeuvre
. . . ig7-fB . 5

4
16Jlc2 .if8 17.cxd6 cxd6 1 8.Wd2 g4
3
19.9fc1 g3!
It is interesting to observe how quickly 2
Black's fighting forces on the kingside achieve
1 �
harmony; this is facilitated by White's king
acting as a magnet. a b c d e f g h
l S.�bS a6!
Black is not afraid of the piece sacrifice
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
1 6.cxd6 axb5 1 7.dxc7, on account of 1 7 . . . %Vd7
1 8 .ib4 ttJe8! 1 9.ixfB ixfB 20.%Vb3 id6,
maintaining counterplay.
Here 1 5 . . .l:'U7 would be a good deal weaker
in view of 1 6.ia5 !, which induces the serious
weakening . . . b7-b6.
16.�a3
White should probably have sacrificed the
piece all the same, as Black now determinedly
wrests the initiative from him.
16 ...g4 17 ..iel g3! 18.hxg3 �h5 1 9.9d4
exf4 20 ..ic3 .bc3 2 lJ::l xc3 �g3 22.f!el
YlYb4 23.cxd6 Yfhl t 24. � fl Yfh2 25.dxc7
�b4! 26.f!gl
a b c d e f g h
Here Black could have obtained a winning
attack with the fine combination:
26 ... �xe4t!
Instead Padevsky chose 26 . . . ih3.
27.fxe4 a! 28.Yfcl fxe2t 29.�xe2 �a!
In the modern treatment of the co-ordination
principle, the time factor is also of vital
significance. From the examples we have j ust
looked at, the reader can see that the nature of
the co-ordination is constantly apt to change.
125
At any moment, generally speaking, one
particular form of co-ordination will play the
paramount role in the position, while others
are either j ust taking shape or, on the contrary,
fading away.
David Bronstein - Anatoly Lutikov
Leningrad 1960
a b c d e f g h
In the diagram position White has set up
the active co-ordination of his fighting units
- %Vb3+l:!d 1 +id5+ttJd4 - directed against
the queens ide where the opponent's forces are
largely tied up.
Wishing to free himself, Black played:
17 ... e5
Seemingly disrupting that co-ordination.
But now, exploiting the deflection of Black's
pieces from the kingside, White delivered a
mighty blow to that part of the board.
18 ..ixf7t!
The start of the winning combination. It is
remarkable to watch how a harmonious co­
ordination of white forces comes about on the
kingside, as if by a wave of a magic wand.
18 ... f!xf7 1 9.�xOO .boo
If 1 9 . . . Wxc6, then 20.ttJg5.
126 Soviet Chess Strategy
20J3d8t i.f8 21.�xe5 bxc5 22.i.h6!
a b c d e f g h
The new and highly attractive co­
ordination of white forces has been formed -
1Mfb3+!'1d8+�h6+ttJe5 - the object of which is
the enemy king. The threat now is 23.!'1xf8#! .
AI> a result, Black suffers a decisive loss of
material.
22 c4 23.Wfxb7 gbxb7 24.�xf7 !'1xf7
••.
25Jhc8 hg2 26.gg1 i.b7 27.gxf8t gxf8
28.i.xf8 @xf8 29.gg5
Black resigned.
The reason for Black's quick defeat was that
while fighting against the pressure on the
queens ide, he left White's kingside prospects
totally out of account. Of course the priority
must be to fight against your opponent's
most substantial concerted action at any
given moment, but it pays just as much to
take account of the overall dynamics of the
struggle. This purpose would have been served
by 1 7 . . e6!, not only easing the pressure on the
.
queenside but also removing the danger to the
kingside. In that case White would retain no
more than a minimal plus.
The following example is noteworthy.
Yuri Sakharov -Viktor Korchnoi
Leningrad 1960
a b c d e f g h
Among the various cases of interaction
between pieces in the diagram position, what
strikes you above all is the active co-operation
of White's rooks directed against f7. This is
opposed by the co-operation of the black rooks,
securely covering the critical point. Black's
knight and bishop, for their part, are actively
aiming at b2, which White has defended with
his knight on d3 and his king.
A deeper investigation into the position
reveals that White's attack against f7 is in a
blind alley and doomed to failure. Moreover,
as a result of this, his rooks will be cut off for a
long time from the main scene of the struggle,
which is the queens ide. Black's threats here are
very potent.
At the moment the direct attack is
being conducted by Black's minor pieces,
harmoniously pressurizing the b2-point. But
unlike White's attack on the kingside, which is
not supported by the rest of his army, Black's
attack against the king will receive powerful
reinforcement.
By a tactical method utilizing the co-ordination
of his minor pieces, Black clears a path for his
main forces to enter the attack:
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
31....txb2! 32.�xb2 �c3t 33.� al a4!
a b c d e f g h
This pawn is destined to deal the second
fateful blow to White's position on the
queens ide. Lines are now forced open for the
invasion of the major pieces.
34.�cl YlYd4! 35J�h2 a3 36.�bd3 �dlt
37.� bl �c3t 38.� al �e2t 39.� bl �xcl
40.YlYxcl b3!
With a winning attack.
This example shows how much a particular co­
ordinated action gains in strength if it can be
supported by the remaining pieces connecting
with it.
The true assessment of any co-ordinated
action can be arrived at only by studying all its
concrete peculiarities in the given position. In
the Zita - Bronstein example, we saw a case of
co-ordinated pressure by Black's pieces against
White's centre. The measures Black took are
highly typical of such positions. Yet with even
just a slight alteration to the arrangement
of the fighting units, White's centre could
prove to be a real force and the black
pieces could lose the co-ordination of their
actions.
127
Viktor Korchnoi - Boris Ivkov
Hastings 1955
a b c d e f g h
In its general outward contours this position
resembles one from the Zita - Bronstein game,
but in the present case White's pieces are much
more actively placed.
This enables White to begin a forthright
offensive and utterly wreck the co-ordination
of Black's pieces.
19.Ae3! YlYb4 20.YlYd2!
It emerges that White has the threat of
2 1 .lLlc2 at his disposal (answering a queen
move with 22.b4) . This places Black in
insuperable difficulties.
20...YlYb6 21.b4 �cxe4 22.�xe4 �xe4
23.YlYd3 �xf2 24..txf2 YlYc7 25J��el
Black soon resigned.
Thus the co-ordination of the fighting forces is
a very important factor in the assessment of a
position. Co-ordination takes various specific
forms, subordinated to the fundamental law of
chess - the law of struggle. No doubt for this
reason, appraising the co-ordination in both
camps is the most difficult part of forming
your assessment. Often a single minute detail
in the arrangement of your opponent's forces
128 Soviet Chess Strategy

can totally alter the verdict of your overall 43.c;t>h3 c;t>h7 44 .tg6t c;t>gS 45.gg3 c;t>hS
•

co-ordination. 46.c;t>h3 c;t>h7 47 .tg6t c;t>gS 4S.gg3 c;t>hS

•

The threat was 49.Wlxe7 13xe7 5o.ixfS t.

Alexer Suetin - Vladimir Liberzon
49.h5 �c8 50.c;t>h4 �a7
Leningrad 1960 Black also loses with 50 . . . <j;lg8 5 1 .if7t!
Wlxfl 52.13xg7t Wlxg7 53 .Wlxe6t . Now the

8 � issue is decided by a piece sacrifice.

a b c d e f g h
The co-ordination of White's pieces, directed
a b c d e f g h
at the kingside, looks very menacing. Black has
no active counterplay. The move 34 .. .l:kg8, 5 1.Wxe7 gxe7 52.L5! exf5 53.gg6 �c8
which looks inviting at first sight, proves to be 54.gxh6t c;t>g7 55.gc6 geS 56.c;t>g5!
bad on account of 3 5 .ixh7!, when Black loses And so on.
at once. However, after the simple:
Let's look at the following noteworthy
34 J!gdS
••
example.
It turned out that White would need to
abandon the harmonious co-ordination of his Jan Timman - Ljubomir Ljubojevic
pieces, since there was no way of decisively
Amsterdam 1975
increasing the attack. The only way to maintain
a plus was to transfer active operations to the
8 �
queenside. To do this, White dismantled the
harmonious formation of his pieces on the 7
other wing.
6
35.c;t>h2 �c8 36 .th5! gxg3 37.gxg3 ggS
•
5
3SJ:lc3! �a7 39.Wf6t gg7
4
39 . . . Wlxf6 40.exf6 would lose quickly.
3
4oJ�c2 c;t>gS 41.gc3 c;t>hS 42.h4 h6 2
Otherwise White wins by withdrawing his
bishop to e2 and marching his h-pawn to h6. 1

a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
The outward co-ordination of White's
fighting forces looks most impressive. He
has an ideal pawn centre and his pieces are
unequivocally eyeing the kingside. However,
Black has quite a few concealed resources for
co-ordinated action, which are destined to
play a major role.
19..J3xe5! 2o.Vlf3?
The right continuation was 20 . .ixeS YNxeS
2 1 .YN£3 b4 22J�ae l YNd4t 23.@h l , with
double-edged play.
20..J&g5!
A superb retort. Black responds to the attack
on f6 with a counterstroke against g3 .
2
1
a b c d e f g h
22...�g4!
Another of Black's latent combinative
resources, turning the game dramatically in
his favour. On 23.hxg4 he plays 23 . . . .bd4t
24.'it> h l .ixg4, and there is no defence against
2S .. J!hSt.
23.d6 hd4t 24.cJ7 hl Vlxd6 25.Vlxf7t cJ7 h8
White resigned.
We will conclude this section by considering
some questions as to how various types of co-
129
ordination come about. We should first of all
observe that the process cannot be artificial.
It is determined by the specific aims of the
struggle.
Irrespective of the type of co-ordination
in question, tactical devices tend to play a
large part in achieving it - as the reader has
repeatedly seen.
A notable case, for instance, is the kind of
tactical device which brings a piece suddenly
into active play.
Rudolf Spielmann - David Janowski
Carlsbad 1907
a b c d e f g h
White's advantage lies in his powerfully
placed rook on e7. Yet this rook's position
cannot be considered secure, if only because
Black is threatening to trap it with a knight
move to eS. Of course if the rook retreats,
the advantage may quickly evaporate. Hence
White's task is to sustain the initiative by
establishing intercommunication between the
rook and his other pieces. This is achieved by
a pawn sacrifice.
19.d6!
By clearing the dS-square for his knight,
White strengthens his position substantially.
130 Soviet Chess Strategy

19... lLlxd6 Efim Geller Mark Taimanov

-

Relatively best. After 1 9 . . . cxd6 20.lLld5!,

followed by lLlf3-d4, ga l -e l and if appropriate Leningrad 1960
£2-f4, Black loses quickly; while 1 9 . . . VMxd6 is
refuted by 2o.lLlb5!. 8

2o.lLldS fU7 2 U :lel .id7 22.lLlh4 gaS 7

23.gxf'7 lLlxf'7 24.lLl5! 6

5
8
4
7
3
6
2
5
1
4
a b c d e f g h
3
Black's king is in the danger wne. But at the
2 moment White's forces are disunited, and it
1 may seem that Black has time to defend.
However, the unexpected continuation was:
a b c d e f g h
The knights are immune: 24 . . . ixf5 25 .VMe8t 23.cS!
VMxe8 26.gxe8#, or 24 . . . gxd5 2 5 .lLle7t etc. As it turns out, White does succeed - all at
The overall result of the combination is a major once - in co-ordinating his forces for the attack.
improvement in White's position. Now 23 . . . lLlxc5 is bad in view of 24.gf1 t Q;>g8
25 .VMf3!, and the attack is decisive.
24 lLleS 2S.lLlfe7t mh8 26.b4! gaS 27.f4
.••

lLlg6 28.lLlxg6t hxg6 29.lLle7 Y«e8 30.Y«fl 23...ge8 24.lLlxb6 lLlxb6 2S.cxb6 Axe4
gS 31.fxg5 fxgS 32.Y«d2! bS 33.Y«xgS ga6 26.J.a .txf3 27.Y«xf3t Y«5
34.ge4 gh6 3s.lLl5! Y«g6 36.Y«d8t mh7
37.Y«xd7 ghS 38.gg4 ggS 39.gh4t 8
Black resigned.
7
Commenting on this game, Rudolf Spielmann, 6
that remarkable master of the attack, wrote: "It
5
is instructive to follow how the white pieces
acquired scope for harmonious action thanks 4
to the powerful position of the knight on d5."
3

In the following game, events unfolded j ust as 2

swiftly. 1 �
a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
28J�xd6
White has acquired a winning material
advantage.
And now one more instructive example to
conclude with.
Rudolf Spielmann - Oldrich Duras
Ostend 1 907
a b c d e f g h
Here White struck with:
16.g6!!
In his book The Art of Sacrifice in Chess,
Spielmann wrote about this move as follows.
"White's attack acquires fresh forces, as the
fighting power of the major pieces on the g-file
is substantially increased. [ . . . J
"White also had some other good moves
at his disposal, such as 1 6.h5, but then after
16 . . . g6! 1 7. J.f4 d5! the g-file would remain
closed, and White would need to switch his
pieces to new squares in order to exert real
aggressive pressure on his opponent's position.
Given that the attack should be conducted
economically, it is better to increase its efficacy
by a small sacrifice than to undertake time­
consuming manoeuvres."
So thanks to the sacrifice, White's forces acquire
order and harmony in their actions. We should
131
also note that this kind of strike has become
typical in analogous situations.
16 ... hxg6 17.hS! fxe4
Black cannot of course play 1 7 . . . gxh5 due to
1 8.exfS Ad7 1 9 .f6! etc.
1 8Jh:f7 Lf7 19.Axe4 dS 20 ..id3 'ifd7
2 1 ..id2 �f5 22.'ifgS �e7 23.�e2 �e6
24.'ifg2 gS 2S..ixg5 .ixhs 26 .if6! Axe2
•
27.'ifxe2 gf8 28 ..ieS gf'7 29.'ifhS
a b c d e f g h
White's pieces are harmoniously placed. The
mate threat can be averted only at a great cost
in material.
29 ... �f8 30.'ifh8t �g8 3 1 ..ih7 � e8
32 ..bg8
Black resigned.
The conclusion is evident: in the process of
play it is imperative to try to act with your
pieces and pawns in concert - to seek the
shortest, that is the quickest, way to achieve
co-ordination between your forces (and
disrupt your opponent's co-ordination at the
same time) , utilizing a well-stocked arsenal
of tactical means. We should note that the
effective co-ordination of the fighting forces
is attainable only when it corresponds to the
profound aims of the struggle.
1 32 Soviet Chess Strategy
The Initiative
The initiative is an inalienable factor of the
game.
The fight for the initiative begins from the
opening moves. The right of moving first
(the so-called "advantage of the move") has a
major influence on the course of the opening
struggle. It grants White some initiative in
the opening phase. This initiative means that
White has rather more scope for choosing
between various plans.
The time factor in chess plays a crucial
role in the progress of the game. Its unit is
a tempo - a move made by one side. Other
things being equal, a gain of time tends to be
a major achievement in itself. Even j ust one
extra tempo can drastically alter the course of
events.
This stands out with particular clarity in the
most crucial moments of the game - when
there are mutual pawn storms, combinative
complexities and so forth.
The importance of tempo can be observed in
almost any game. We will confine ourselves to
one small and widely known example.
Carlos Torre - Emanuel Lasker
Moscow 1925
8 of chess is incompatible with empty, insipid
7 moves. It develops in accordance with the
6 The initiative foctor is equivalent to the
5 degree of preparedness for executing an active
4
3 the chess struggle. It is easy to see that the
2
1 �
a b c d e f h
g
It looks as if the scales are tipping in Black's
favour. White has landed in an unpleasant pin
along the fifth rank. But it is his move, and
this drastically alters the whole complexion of
the fight.
2S .if6!!
•
The start of a brilliant combination. As it
turns out, Black perishes for the very reason
that his queen is on the same rank as White's
- the confrontation he had deliberately been
playing for. He thought he was pinning the
white bishop, but comes under attack himself.
Truly, "All they that take the sword shall perish
with the sword."
2S VxhS 26.gxg7t <i!.>hS 27.gxf7t <i!.>gS
•••
2SJlg7t <i!.>hS 29.gxb7t <i!.>gS 30Jlg7t <i!.>hS
3 1 .ggSt <i!.>h7 32.gxhS <i!.>g6 33.gh3 <i!.>xf6
34.gxh6t <i!.>gS 3SJ�fh3
White has acquired a decisive material
advantage.
How often it happens that you are j ust one
tempo short! This very circumstance can
decide the result of the game, it can determine
the success of a tactical operation and an
entire strategic plan. What looks like the most
harmonious co-operation between your pieces
can, if you lack one tempo, be very quickly
disrupted and disorganized.
The conflict of ideas and plans in a game
strictest regard for every unit of time.
plan (or a particular operation) , and is of
paramount importance in the dynamics of
initiative is closely associated with the time
factor. Possession of the initiative often indeed
depends on the availability of an extra tempo.
The role of the initiative in a game of chess is
very great. It is only if you possess it that you
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle
can realize your plans and make your opponent
go over to passive defence.
Theory and practice are revealing the
significance of the initiative factor in ever­
greater depth. A highly characteristic point, for
instance, is that in many cases the initiative has
a propensity to develop, to grow.
The development of the initiative in the
following game is illuminating.
Vassily Smyslov - VIktor Liublinsky
Moscow 1949
a b c d e f g h
White's position is noticeably more active,
but it may seem that once the knight has been
driven back to f3 or h3, Black will have the
chance to deploy his forces and fully equalize.
White is faced with the task of developing his
initiative. It is interesting to watch how he
succeeds.
18.Y!Yh5!
Aiming to answer 1 8 . . . hxg5 with 1 9.hxg5
ie7 20.YMxg6, regaining the piece. Black is
forced to withdraw his knight to a passive
position.
18 ... /t)h8 19.dxe5 dxe5 20ie3 Y!Ye7
Once again it doesn't pay to take the
knight. After 20 . . . hxg5 2 1 .hxg5 g6 22.YMh4
133
ig7 23.<.t>g2 ic6 24.�h l �e8 2 5 .YMh7t �fS
26.ic5t �e7 27.YMxh8t! ixh8 28.�xh8 t �g7
29.�xd8 �xd8 30.ixe7, White wins (analysis
by Smyslov) .
8
7
6
5
4
3
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
2l .Ad5!
In firm possession of the initiative, White
strives to limit his opponent's counterplay. As
before, the knight sacrifice cannot be accepted:
2 1 . .. hxg 5 22.hxg5 g6 23.gxf6!
Nor is 2 1 . . .ic6 a good idea, as after 22.,ixc6
bxc6 Black's queenside pawn structure is
severely weakened. Black is therefore compelled
to occupy c6 with a pawn and deprive his
bishop of this important square.
2 l . c6 22.Ab3 .td7 23J�� adl gad8 24.gdl
••
Ac8 25.gedl gxdl 26.gxdl 'ffc7 27..tc5!
White's initiative is growin g and becoming
very powerful. He will now answer 27 . . . hxg5
with 28.ixfS, while on 27 . . . ie7 there follows
28.ixe7 YMxe7 29.�f3 �e8 30.YMxe5! YMxe5
3 1 .�xe5 �xe5 32.�d8t �h7 33 .�xc8, and
Black cannot take the e4-pawn because of
34.ic2.
It is interesting to follow how White's
threats increase in number with every move,
while Black's defensive resources gradually
diminish.
134 Soviet Chess Strategy

27.. J�dS 2SJhdSt AxdS White's position is considerably more

The culminating moment in the growth active. The following manoeuvres increase his
of White's initiative - it turns into a sharp advantage.
combinative attack.
26.'!Wn! '!Wa6
8 There is no improvement in 26 . . .l"1:d7 27.f5!
gxf5 28 .�b6! �e5 29.exf5 , and White wins.
7

6 A more tenacious move was 26 . . . ltJc5, though

even then White's advantage would be
5 undeniable.
4
27 ..tb6! gd7 2S.e5 .te4
3 Another forced move. If 28 . . . �a8, then
2 29.f5 is decisive.

1 29.he4 '!Wxe4 30.e5! d5

a b c d e f g h
29.tihf7! �xf7 30 . .tb6! '!Wd7 8
After 30 . . . �xb6 Black is mated one way
7
or another: 3 1 .�xf7t 'it> h7 32.�g8t 'it> g6
33 .�e8t 'it> h7 (33 . . . 'it> f6 34.�f7#) 34.�g8t 6
'it> h8 3 5 .�f7t 'it> h7 36.�g8# 5

3 1 .AxdS @h7 32 ..txf7 '!WxdS 33 ..tg6t 4

Black resigned. 3

I will now give another instructive example. 2

1
Tigran Petrosian - Alexander Kotov
a b c d e f g h
Moscow 195 1 3 1 .tLle4!
All this is forced. Black has to give up the
exchange in view of the threatened 32.ltJf6t
or 32.ltJd6.

3 1 . .. dxe4 32.gxd7 Axe5 33.he5 �xe5

34.gd4 '!We6 35.'!We2! b6 36.gd6 '!WeS
37.'!We4
White has achieved both a material and
a positional plus, which he soon confidently
converted into a win.

The growth and development of the initiative

is closely connected with improving the co-
a b c d e f g h
 The Dynamics of the Chess Struggle 1 35

ordination in the actions ofyour fightin g forces, with diverse material, in which the balance of
and, correspondingly, disorganizing the forces forces might seem to favour White. However,
of your opponent. It is for this very purpose the fact that Black holds the initiative is very
- often simply for the sake of the initiative - important for the assessment of this position.
that positional concessions and even material The next phase of the struggle, in which Black's
sacrifices are admissible. harmoniously co-ordinated pieces restrict the
The basic task consists in rapidly achieving white queen's mobility, is very instructive.
harmonious co-operation between your forces
and compelling your opponent to submit to
your active plans - to go over to the defence.
In the next example this principle was
implemented in a striking manner.

Miguel Najdorf -Viacheslav Ragozin

Saltsjobaden 1948

a b c d e f g h
20.i.d2 lLle4 2 1 .i.e3 �d6 22.gc1 �5
23.i.f4 i.d5 24.i.c4 .bc4 25.gxc4 e5!
26.i.g5?
The decisive mistake. White would retain
hopes of a draw after 26.1'!xc6! bxc6 27.ixe5,
returning some material at once but simplifying
the position.
a b c d e f g h
26 ... gdlf 27.�h2 h6 28.gc1 gd7 29.i.e3
With his last move, 'lWb3-a3, White has set e4! 30.�el gad8 3 1 .i.c5 i.e5t 32.g3 gd2
up the tactical threat of tLlxe7t followed by a 33.gc2
capture on d6, and has apparently obtained
strong pressure on the d-file. Yet he has failed
8 T
to allow for Black's ensuing combination
involving a positional sacrifice of the queen. 7

6
17 ... lLlxe4! 18.lLlf6t
White is forced to accept the challenge, 5
as otherwise he would simply be left a pawn 4
down.
3
18 ... lLlxf6 19J::!xd8 �Uxd8 2
So Black has carried out his combination
and the game has resolved itself into a contest 1

a b c d e f g h
136 Soviet Chess Strategy

33 .. .i.xg3t 34.<bg2 Ae5 35.<bfl gxc2

36.�xc2 gdl t 37.<be2 gbl 38.M gb2
Black has achieved a decisive plus. A revealing
fact is that throughout this engagement the
white queen did not make a single move.

As we can see, the problems of the initiative

are intimately connected with the modern
methods of attack and active defence. These
issues will be specially examined in the next
chapter, which will discuss certain complex
forms of positional play.
Chapter 6

Modern Positional Play

Having examined various elements and novel features of positional play, let us try to approach it
afresh by focusing on some of its complex contemporary forms.

From the material already examined we may conclude that in the modern positional game, both
methods of play are equally indispensable: the classic positional method, and the dynamic one,
which is linked to independent and sharp tactical procedures. The method depends wholly on
the nature of the individual position.
In numerous cases the problems of strategy can be solved only by applying the iron logic of the
classical principles. At the same time, the progress of theory increasingly reveals the unlimited
scope for obtaining complex positions replete with tactical possibilities. Here the play is highly
dynamic and distinguished by the originality of ideas which exceed the bounds of formal logic.
Only the dynamic method can enable you to overcome the narrow confines of dogmatism and
embrace the full wealth of ideas in positions of this type.
We can see from this that the modern treatment of strategic plans is remarkable for its creative
breadth and demands a truly universal outlook.

Dynamics is by no means opposed to strict positional play but goes hand in hand with it. At times
strict logic sets the tone, at other times you must entrust yourself to the restless but fascinating
waves of dynamics. Always be ready for a sudden change in the methods of struggle.
In many ways this synthetic method has also deepened our conception of the basic factors of
positional play. With this in mind, let's examine the following concrete problems.

The Modem Understanding of Centralization

Structures with Tension in the Centre

In present-day positional play, the problems of tension or fluidity in the centre play a prominent
role. The modern closed openings tend to give rise either to a state of tension between the centre
pawns or else to an elastic formation that lacks any sharp delineation.
There is a marked difference between these two types of formation. A state of tension between
pawns in the centre cannot as a rule be maintained for long; and on transition to the middlegame
138 Soviet Chess Strategy
(or already in the opening stage) , an exchange
of pawns or the closure of the position will give
firm contours to the central structure.
In general, the active side possessing the
initiative or greater space will not want to
release the tension prematurely. In a number
of cases, by the logic of the struggle, Black has
to make certain concessions by being the first
to resolve the tension and abandon his central
strongpoint.
Thus, in the old line of the Steinitz Defence to
the Ruy Lopez, after l .e4 e5 2.iOf3 iOc6 3.ib5
d6 4.d4 id7 5 .iOc3 iOf6 6.0-0 i.e7 7J'Ie 1 ,
the time has come for Black to surrender the
centre with 7 . . . exd4 8 .iOxd4 0-0. The attempt
to maintain the e5-pawn entails serious
consequences. The point is that after 7 . . . 0-0?
a b c d e f g h
8 .i.xc6 i.xc6 9.dxe5 dxe5 1 O.�xd8 White
wins by force:
a) 1 O .. J�axd8 I l .iOxe5 ixe4 1 2.iOxe4 iOxe4
1 3 .iOd3 f5 1 4.f3 ic5t 1 5 .iOxc5 iOxc5 1 6 . .ig5!
1'!d5 1 7.ie7 1'!e8 1 8 .c4
b) 1 0 . . . 1'!fxd8 1 1 . iOxe 5 ixe4 1 2.iOxe4 iOxe4
1 3 .iOd3 f5 1 4.f3 i.c5 t 1 5 .'kf.1f1 1'!f8 1 6.@e2
Hence the surrender of the centre with
7 . . .exd4 is essential, although it does not
involve any major concession. With the
typical central structure that emerges (pawn
on e4 versus pawn on d6) , White has a
certain spatial advantage, yet there are no
vulnerable weaknesses in Black's camp, and
the mobilization of his pieces is essentially
complete. Practice shows that Black has
sufficient resources for gradually equalizing
the game.
The liquidation of the central tension is always
a crucial strategic decision for either side. For
Black, as a rule, it is associated with freeing his
game. For instance, the following line of the
Vienna Game is characteristic:
1 .e4 e5 2.iOc3 �c6 3.ic4 �f6 4.d3 iM
5.�ge2
a b c d e f g h
5 . . . d5! 6.exd5 iOxd5 Black has successfully
solved his problems of development as well as
the problem of fighting for the centre in the
opening.
Of course, the defending side's attempt to
liquidate the central tension is by no means
always successful. For example, take the
position in the Dragon Variation of the Sicilian
Defence after:
1 .e4 c5 2.�f3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 �f6
5.�c3 g6 6.ie3 ig7 7.f3 �c6 8.�d2
 Modern Positional Play 1 39

interests, White for his part cannot afford to

leave Black's counterplay out of account. In
order to forestall it, he is often forced to take
a pragmatic decision - whether to uphold the
tension or close the centre.

Let's look at one fairly complex example,

namely the Keres System in the Chigorin
Defence to the Ruy Lopez:
1 .e4 e5 2.1L1f3 1L1c6 3.ib5 a6 4.ia4 1L1f6 5 . 0-0
ie7 6J.'l:e l b5 7.ib3 0-0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 lLla5
1 0 .ic2 c5 1 1 .d4 lLld7! ?
a b c d e f g h With this "mysterious" manoeuvre Black is
Here Black's attempt to free himself in the preparing to bring the central pawn position
centre with 8 . . . d5? appears premature in view dramatically to life. This is illustrated in the
of the very strong reply 9.ib5!, landing Black following game.
in a difficult situation.
Mikhail Tal - Paul Keres
Overall, the classical precept still remains in
Curar;:ao 1962
force: it pays the defending side to maintain
a pawn outpost in the centre as long as this
l .e4 e5 2,c�:lf3 lLlc6 3.i.b5 a6 4.i.a4 tl)f6
does not bring any clear disadvantages. Take
5.0-0 i.e7 6J�el b5 7.i.b3 0-0 8.d d6 9.h3
the position after:
lLla5 10.i.c2 c5 1 l .d4 lLld7!? 12.lLlbdl cxd4
l .e4 e5 2.tl)f3 tl)c6 3.i.c4 i.e7 4.d4
13.cxd4 lLlc6 14.a3?! exd4! 1 5.lLlb3 lLlde5
16.lLlfxd4 i.f6 17.i.dl lLlxd4 1 8.lLlxd4 lLld3!
8 19.1Llc6
7
8
6
7
5
6
4
5
3
4
2
3

2
a b c d e f g h
1
For the moment the judicious course for
Black is to support the critical e5-point by a b c d e f g h
playing 4 . . . d6, without fear of 5.dxe5 dxe5
19 ... lLlxf2! 20.YMf3 lLlxh3t 2 1 .<j{h2 i.e5t!
6.\Wxd8t ixd8.
22.lLlxe5 dxe5 23J!edl lLlf4!
While maintaining the tension in his own
Black acquired a decisive material plus.
140 Soviet Chess Strategy

The cause of White's troubles was that he Here we encounter one further positional
obviously neglected the possibility of Black's element: the over-protection of critical points.
powerful counterplay based on freeing the Simultaneously with this, White clears the path
position in the centre. Where did White go for his bishop on c 1 , not shelving the problem
wrong? Should he have put a radical stop to of finishing his queenside development.
Black's plan by fixing or closing the centre in In this case, incidentally, after a continuation
good time? such as 14 . . . aS 1 S .,id3 ,ia6, the advance 1 6.dS
already looks much more appropriate, setting
8 up long-term pressure on the queenside.
Releasing the pawn tension at the right
7
moment constitutes the theme of the great
6 majority of modern (and indeed classical)
systems in the closed openings.
5

4 * * *

3
Let's take a look at one principle of importance.
2 A typical mistake consists in prematurely
1 6. removing the tension from an unsecured
������
centre with the short-term aim of pursuing
a b c d e f g h operations on the flank. The following game
Well, practice shows that Black has no may serve as an illustration.
difficulties after either 1 2.dxcS dxcS 1 3 .liJbd2
f6! 1 4.liJf1 liJb6 1 S .%Ve2 l:!a7! 1 6.liJe3 i.e6 VIktor Liublinsky Yori Averbakb
-

1 7.liJf5 l:!e8 as in Vasiukov - Gligoric,

Hastings 1 966, or 1 2.liJbd2 cxd4 1 3 .cxd4 Gorky 1940
liJc6 1 4.dS liJb4 1 S . .ib 1 as 1 6.a3 liJa6 1 7.b4!
liJb6 1 8 .%Vb3 i.d7 1 9.id3 liJc7 as in Suetin ­ 1 .e4 e5 2.c�c3 t[}c6 3.Ac4 t[}f6 4.d3 Ac5
Tal, Kiev 1 964. 5.£4 d6 6.t[}f3 %Ve7
The line that sets Black the most difficult
problems is one in which the tension is
maintained after all: 1 2.liJbd2 cxd4 1 3 .cxd4
liJc6 1 4.liJb3!

a b c d e f g h
Here White committed a typical error:

a b c d e f g h
 Modern Positional Play
7.f5?
Liublinsky's plans involve transferring the
centre of graviry of the struggle to the kingside.
But things will not come to that. Exploiting
White's premature switch of attention away
from the centre to operations on the flank,
Black is the first to go into action in the centre
and on the queenside.
7 ... �d4! 8 ..1g5 c6 9JUl b5 10 .1b3 .tb7
•
1 1 .�xd4 .bd4 12.Ve2 h6 13 ..th4 a6
14.�d1 d5! 15.c3 .1b6 16.�e3 Vd6 17.0-0-0
0-0-0 1 8. <i!?b1 gd7 19.exd5 ad5 20 ..tg3 Ve7
21 .�c2 ge8 22.gde1 .tc7 23.d4 e4 24.a4
.ixg3 25.hxg3 .tc6 26.�b4 Vd6! 27.<i!?c2
gb7 28.ga1 .td7! 29.a5 gc7 30.<i!?b1 <i!?b7
31.gf4 <i!?a7 32.<i!?a2 Ac8 33.gafl .1b7
Black has a clear advantage.
Here Nimzowitsch's aphorism seems
appropriate: "The centre is the dominant
principle, the flank is subordinate."
Fluid Situation in the Centre
One of the notable tendencies in contemporary
strategy is the creation of durable elastic pawn
formations with no discernible "landmarks" .
Such formations already take shape in the
opening and can occur in any modern system.
They are met with especially often in the
English Opening, Reti's Opening, the Pirc
Defence, etc.
What characterizes these formations is that
they allow great flexibiliry in the subsequent
choice and implementation of a strategic plan.
A striking thing about them is the tendency
to avoid skirmishes in the centre and give
preference to preliminary action with pieces
on the flank. It often happens that the centre
pawns remain unmoved for a long period or
only advance to modest stations.
As long ago as the 1 920s, Reti demonstrated
the great potential strength of such positions.
141
Above all they are strong because, after a long
time "dozing", the centre pawns can be set in
motion at the opportune moment.
Here's an example that has become a
classic.
Richard Reti Akiba Rubinstein
-
Carlsbad 1923
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
Nowadays such positions have become
rypical, and are rightly judged to be in White's
favour thanks to his powerful pawn phalanx
in the centre. The pawns commence their
decisive advance after a preliminary increase of
White's piece pressure in the centre and on the
queenside.
1 5.Val!
Following Reti's example, this manoeuvre
has become characteristic of such positions.
The pressure on the a 1 -h8 diagonal compels
Black to seek simplification.
1 5 ... �e8 16 ..ixg7 �xg7 17.0-0 �e6 1 8.gb1
Ac6 19.d4! .te4 20J��d1 a5 21 .d5! �c5
22.�d4
Now White's knight obtains strong outposts
on d4 and c6, giving him a clear ascendancy
in the centre.
142 Soviet Chess Strategy

with operations on the flank becomes an

important issue. The strategic device of quickly
transferring operations from one sector of
the board to another is continually gaining
ground.

* * *

In a fluid position, choosing the right moment

to set up a favourable structure in the centre
becomes a key problem. There is no denying
the wealth of strategic prospects that open up
a b c d e f g h for White when, for instance, he posts a knight
on d5 in front of a backward pawn on d6. Yet
22 ...Lg2 23.�xg2 gfd8 24.�c6 gd6
modern practice shows that this has genuine
25.ge3 ge8 26.'ilYe5 f6 27.'ilYb2 e5 28.'ilYb5!
value only when the commanding post is
�f7 29.gbl �d7 30.8 gc8 3 1 .gd3!
under firm control. Otherwise the knight
Preventing 3 1 . . .llJb8 on account of 32.c5!.
looks too presumptuous and will be expelled
from its uninvited station, to the opponent's
3 1 . .. e4
advantage.
On 3 1 . . .llJc5 White would have the very
strong 32.Wfxb6!, not shrinking from an
Take the position after:
exchange sacrifice.
1 .d4 �f6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e6 4.�c3 ad5
32.fxe4 �e5
8 I • .iJ �._ �
7 lfi"� 'i%� 'i '_'i
6 '� �1liJJ 1liJJ. ,�
5
4
IliJJ
��7,1liJJ.8��!�t�� . ��
3
IliJJm 1liJJ� 1liJJ�
IliJJW d" 1liJJ IliJJW " �W'"
2 t;)Jl]�p ��Jt]%�Jlj
1 � �if� ' Ltm � 6
a b c d e f g h

a b c d e f g h Here an elementary question arises. Why

doesn't White (in master play, of course) take
33.'ilYxb6! �xc6 34.c5!
the seemingly favourable opportunity to settle
White achieved an overwhelming plus.
a piece on d5? Why does he prefer to fix the
central pawn structure immediately, with
In modern systems with a fluid central
5 . cxd5 d6 6.e4 etc.?
position, the blending of play in the centre
The answer is simple. In this case the queen
 Modern Positional Play 143

in its lofty position feels like an uninvited Svetozar Gligoric - Wlodzimierz Schmidt
guest rather than the owner of the house. After
5.ttJxd5?! ttJxd5 6.�xd5 ttJc6 7.ttJf3 d6, with Bath 1973
8 . . . .te6 to follow, Black quickly completes his
development and can count on seizing the
initiative.

So the modern concept of centralization is

based not on pawns formally taking over the
centre, but on practical control of it. To this
day a pronouncement by Nimzowitsch remains
a striking motto: "The important thing is not
just the occupation of the centre by pawns.
The interrelation of the two sides' forces in the
centre is much more important!"

The Centre and Space Crossing the

-
a b c d e f g h
"Demarcation" Line Black's irresolute play has allowed White to
arrange his pieces favourably and create the
The line above the fourth rank, dividing the conditions for an effective advance of his pawn
board in half, may be called the "demarcation centre.
line" . To cross this line with fighting units
suitably reinforced is to gain more space than 1 7.d5! b6 18 .ta6 gc7 19.Yfd3 �b7 20 .tf4
• •

your opponent. And this, as a rule, means �d6 2 1 .e5

greater manoeuvring freedom for your pieces. White's advantage assumes vivid contours.
A spatial preponderance is one of the elements His central avalanche (and a spatial plus
of a positional advantage. generally means problems for the opponent in
We will now look at an example in which the centre) irresistibly tears apart the defensive
an imposing spatial plus is achieved in the dam.
centre.
Earlier we illustrated in detail a typical
structure with a pawn couple on d4 and e4. If
this structure comes under sufficient pressure
from pieces, positions of dynamic equilibrium
arise. But suppose that some careless play from
the defending side allows the centre pawns to
advance to d5 and e5 . Then a crisis situation
results.

a b c d e f g h
Black went in for a tactical line, but after:
144 Soviet Chess Strategy

21 ... J.f5 22.exd6 hd3 23.dxe7 1!!ixd5
24.hd3 1!!ixd3 25J:Ud l ! 1!!ixe2 26.gd8! e5
27 ..idl 1!!ia6 28 ..ib4 1!!ie4 29.J.xf8 1!!ixe7
30 ..ie7t!
He ended up in a hopeless position.
The continuation in Gligoric - Petrosian,
Bled 1 959, is noteworthy:
1 1 ... �be6
1 1 . . . .id7 is probably better.

Tarrasch once said that two connected passed 1 2.�a �xe5 13 ..ig5! �5g6
pawns on the sixth rank were worth a rook. At this point, in place of 1 4.he7 &iJxe7
Practice shows that in many situations a pawn 1 5 .cxd4 id7 as played in the game, White
couple on d5 and e5 is also worth more than could have increased the pressure with 1 4 . .if6!
an insignificant material deficit. followed by h2-h4.
At the same time we should note that in a
number of cases a hasty and unmotivated seizure Sometimes the long-term aim of a complex
of space can lead to unsatisfactory results. flank operation is not to acquire purely local
gains but to weaken the opponent's influence
The Centre and the Flanks in the centre in order to achieve superiority
there.
As we have observed already, modern positional
play attaches key importance to numerous
Take the position arising after:
subtleties bound up with the interconnections
1 .e4 e5 2.&iJa &iJc6 3.ib5 a6 4.ia4 &iJf6 5.0-0
between flank operations and play in the
ie7 6J�e1 b5 7.ib3 d6 8.e3 0-0 9.h3 &iJa5
centre. Sharp flank attacks begun in the very
1 0.J.e2 e5 1 l .d4 'Be7 1 2.&iJbdl g6?! 1 3.&iJfl
opening, abounding in powerful tactical ploys,
ge8 1 4.&iJe3 �g7
account for a major part of this issue. How
intently and constantly events in the centre
need to be watched!
A characteristic case, for instance, is the
amazingly wild play arising from one of the
fashionable lines of the French Defence:

1 .e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.�c3 J.b4 4.e5 e5 5.a3

J.xc3t 6.bxc3 1!!ie7 7.1!!ig4 f5 8.1!!ig3 �e7
9.1!!ixg7 gg8 10.1!!ixh7 cx:d4 l l . 'it> dl!?

8 T

7
a b c d e f g h
6
Here the correct approach is not at all a
5
local offensive on the kingside with 1 5 .dxe5
4 dxe5 1 6.g4?, which is j ust what Black is well
3 prepared for, but a surprising blow on the
queenside with 1 5 .b4!. This enables White
2 to start an effective attack on his opponent's
1 central strong-points after 1 5 . . . cxb4 1 6.cxb4

a b c d e f g h
 Modern Positional Play 145

llJc6 1 7 . .ib2. This kind of plan has become In Geller Boleslavsky, Moscow 1 9 52, the
-

typical of such situations. continuation was:

Interrelations between centre and flanks 12.�b3 YlYc7 13.dxe5! dxe5 14.c5! �f8
occupy a special place in positions where the 15.YlYd6 �e6 16.i.c4! i.f8 17.YlYxc7 �xc7
players have castled on opposite sides. The 18.�a5 gb8
most interesting and problematic formations
are those where mutual flank attacks and
central play are combined. In these cases the
pawn structure often remains fluid, with no
predominance for either side.
Although of course the ensuing play is bound
to focus on efforts to attack on the flank, the
players must also constantly reckon with a
shift in the weight of the struggle towards the
centre. With a fluid structure in the centre
they have to take special care in watching for
possible activity there.

The progress of events in the following line a b c d e f g h

of the King's Indian Defence may serve as an
19.�a4!
example:
And by taking the game into a favourable
ending, White attained an overwhelming plus
l .d4 �f6 2.c4 g6 3.�c3 i.g7 4.e4 d6 5.6 0-0
in the centre and on the queenside.
6.i.e3 e5 7.�ge2 c6 8.YlYd2 �bd7 9.0-0-0
a6 1O. � bl YlYa5 1 1 .�c1 ge8 * * *

If the players castle on opposite wings with

a closed pawn structure in the centre, the
ensuing struggle assumes a different, less
forcing, character. In such situations, quite
often, sturdy defensive barriers will be erected
and the battle on the flanks becomes a lengthy
manoeuvring process.

Vladimir Makogonov Alexander Tolush

-

Parnu 1947

a b c d e f g h l .d4 �f6 2.c4 g6 3.�c3 i.g7 4.e4 d6 5.6

In this position the most effective plan for
0-0 6 ..ie3 e5 7.d5 �h5 8.YlYd2 f5 9.0-0-0 a6
White undoubtedly consists in active play
10.�ge2 �d7 1 1 .�bl �df6 12.h3
A characteristic expedient: White provokes
in the centre. This is the best way for him
his opponent into the following advance, after
to paralyse Black's counter-attack against his
which the game is closed on the kingside.
castled position.
146 Soviet Chess Strategy

12 ... f4 Let's examine the following characteristic

Otherwise g2-g4!, with an attack on the example.
kingside, is unpleasant.
Bolger Neergaard Vladimir Simagin
-

13 ..tr.z .td7 14.c5!

Correspondence 1964
8

7 8

6 7

5 6

4 5

3 4
�"F"< , , , ,, ,/,, , , , , �,, �,,/ ,: , , , , "���

2 3

1 V////Y"// '"-"-'
2

a b c d e f g h 1

This type of pawn break characterizes many a b c d e f g

closed formations where the players have
castled on opposite wings. Utilizing his space
advantage on the queenside, White begins an
active advance in that sector.
14 ... ¥;Ye7 1 5.cx:d6 cx:d6 16.�c1 b5 17.b4!
�g3 18J�gl a5 19 ..td3 axb4 20.�3e2 �Uc8?
21 .¥;Yxb4 �a4 22.¥;Yd2 b4 23.�b3 gca8
24.gc1 ¥;Ye8 25.gc2 ¥;Yb8 26J�gc1 �gh5?
Better was 26 . . . llJxe2.
27J�b2 .tb5?
The exchange of light-squared bishops
merely plays into White's hands.
28.hb5 ¥;Yxb5 29.gc6 .if8 30.gb6!
White has achieved an
position on the queenside.
Pawn Counter-stroke in the Centre
The classic strategic precept of a counter­
stroke with pawns in the centre in answer to a
flank attack remains unshakable and is merely
enriched by taking new forms.
White has started a pawn offensive on
the kingside, trusting in the solidity of his
central fortifications. Black nevertheless
finds an effective means of opening up the
game with the aid of counter-blows with his
pawns.
16 ... b5! 17.cx:b5 d5!! 18.exd5 e4!
Black sacrifices three pawns one after the
other, but obtains the chance to launch a very
strong attack on the white king.
19.¥;Yxe4
Instead 1 9.fxe4 would be met by 1 9 . . . llJe5!.
overwhelming 19 ....ixg4 20.¥;Yf4
Black's threats are also dangerous after
20.YMxg4 �xe3 2 1 .@f2 .ic5 .
20 ....th5 2 1 . c;!? r.z �e5 22 ..tg2 .td6 23.¥;Ya4
gc8 24J�d2 ¥;Yf6
 Modern Positional Play 1 47

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 � 1

a b c d e f g h a b c d e f g h
All Black's pieces are participating in the Utilizing his space advantage on the
attack; White's position is hopeless. queens ide, White goes for an attack in that
sector of the board.
2S.,tgS itS 26.�f4 La! 27.olh3
Or 27 . .ixf3 lLlxf3 28.lt>xB l3c3t 29.1t>f2 1 1 .b4 eS
ic5 t 30.@fl l3Bt 3 1 .@g2 Wg4t 32.@h2 Black does not want to wait passively for
�g3#. White's breakthrough with c4-c5-c6. But now
he incurs a weakness on the half-open b-file,
27...olg4 28. � g2 ge2! while White's pawn on d5 becomes a protected
White resigned. passed pawn.

Pawn Chains - Pawn Restraint 12.bxeS! dxeS 1 3.Ld7 �xd7 14.a4 as

I S.gb l b6 16.gb3 �f6 17.itb l gb8 18.itb2
In both the opening and middlegame, pawn ite7 19J;bl �d7 20.ite2 h6 2 1 .�f1 �f4
phalanxes are a most important aggressive 22J�dl itd6 23.olcl g6 24.�e3 �h7 2S.g3
force for gaining space. Their advance creates �hS 26.�g4
scope for the actions of the pieces, at the
same time as restricting the mobility of the
8
opponent's fighting forces. Indeed, in the
majority of closed formations, how else can the 7
fortifications be shattered? 6
Let's examine one of the characteristic plans
for a pawn offensive on the queenside. 5

4
Efim Geller - Igor Bondarevsky
3
Leningrad 1963 2

1
1.e4 eS 2.�f3 �c6 3.olbS a6 4..ia4 d6 s.o-o
old7 6.d4 �ge7 7.dS �b8 8.e4 �g6 9.ole3 a b c d e f g h
ole7 10.�bd2 0-0
1 48 Soviet Chess Strategy

It isn't hard to see that White has obtained a

clear plus on both wings.

26,..5?! 27.tl:}xh6 f4 28.tl:}g4 gbe8 29. g;, gl

.1d8 30 ..1b2 g5 3IJ:1bd3 g;, g6 32 . .1c3 tl:}hf6
33.tl:}xf6 .txf6 34.h3 gh8 35.Yfe2 J.g7
36Jlg1 fxg3 37.fxg3 tl:}f6 38.gfl
White has increased his advantage and
proceeded in confident style to convert it into
a win.

The conclusion that suggests itself is that

against any active pawn unit on the enemy side, a b c d e f g h
you should try to oppose one of your own. You 1 0.tl:}e2 tl:}b6 1 1 .g4 g6?
mustn't allow your opponent to form a mighty Not only a pointless weakening but also a
pawn phalanx. waste of precious time. The right continuation
Let's consider a few examples of positions is 1 1 . . .bxc3! 1 2.bxc3 ltJa4 as in Gutman - V.
with locked pawn chains, where mutual Zilberstein, Chelyabinsk 1 975, striving to create
restraint is effected by the simplest of building a direct threat against c3 without any delay.
materials - the pawns themselves.
In these situations, a factor acquiring key 12.h4 bxc3 13.bxc3 cxd4 14.cxd4 tl:}b4
significance is the attack against the base (or 1 5 ..1b l Yfa4 16.Yfxa4t tl:}xa4 17.a3 tl:}c6
foundation) of the pawn chain, that is, the
bottom link on which all the upper units, so to
speak, are resting. Frequently the weight of the 8
struggle shifts to the flanks, and this in turn is 7
bound up with further efforts directed to more
6
important objects.
Here are some characteristic examples of 5
a struggle involving pawn chains and the 4
undermining of their base.
3
Lajos Portisch Werner Hug
-
2

Skopje 1972 1

a b c d e f g h
l .d4 e6 2.e4 d5 3.tl:}d2 tl:}f6 4.e5 tl:}fd7 5.f4
c5 6.c3 tl:}c6 7.tl:}df3 Yfa5 8. g;, fl b5 9.J.d3 1 8.h5! gxh5 19.9xh5 .ta6 20 ..txh7 g;, d7
b4 21 ..tc2 gxh5 22.gxh5 tl:}b6 23.5!
White's kingside operation has proved far
The strategic picture takes shape. Black's aim
more effective.
is to attack the base of White's chain on c3.
White prepares to reciprocate by undermining
In the following game Black undoubtedly
Black's base - the e6-pawn - and attacking the
showed far greater accuracy in his handling of
kingside.
an analogous situation.
 Modern Positional Play
Aleksandar Matanovic - Lajos Portisch
Ljubljana 1973
1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.tLld2 tLlf6 4.e5 tLlfd7 5.f4
c5 6.c3 tLlc6 7.tLldf3 '!Wa5 8.tLle2 b5 9 .id2
•
a b c d e f g h
9 b4 10.ab4 tLlxb4 1 1 .tLlc3 c4!
•••
An astute decision. Portisch appears to be
easing White's game by releasing the pressure
on d4. However, in the first place the d4-point
has been somewhat weakened anyway by
the removal of its base, and secondly Black's
decision is linked to a specific plan for active
queenside play.
We should note incidentally that Portisch
had thoroughly investigated this position as
far as move 20.
12.a3 tLlc6 13.b3 ab3 14.'!Wxb3 gb8 1 5.'!Wc2
Wb6
It's easy to understand that by (temporarily)
taking away the important d3-square from
the white bishop, Black's . . . c5-c4 effectively
deprived White of the chance of an effective
kingside pawn storm. This means that Black's
strategic idea has turned out very well.
16.gbl tLlxd4 17.tLlxd4 '!Wxd4 1 8.gxb8
�xb8 19.tLlxd5 '!Wc5 20.,tb5t!
Only this tactical resource enables White to
14 9
dispel the thickening storm clouds. A major
simplification followed:
20 .id7 2 1 .hd7t tLlxd7 22.'!Wxc5 hc5
•••
23.tLlb4 tLlb6 24. 'it> e2 'it> d7
With equality and a draw.
The problems of restraining the pawn chains,
in modern practice especially, are closely
connected with timely prophylactic measures.
For it quite often happens that the formation
of a pawn phalanx (or the destruction of an
opposing one) comes about suddenly, by
tactical means.
In the following example White needs to
take great care.
1 .e4 g6 2.d4 .ig7 3.f4 c5 4.d5 d6 5.tLlc3 tLlf6
6 .ie2 0-0
•
a b c d e f g h
The natural move 7.tLlf3 is met by a sharp
counterstroke on the queens ide: 7 . . . b5!? Black's
queenside pawns unexpectedly come to life
and are energetically set in motion. It turns out
that the variations 8 .tLlxb5 tLlxe4 and 8 . .ixb5
tLlxe4! 9.tLlxe4 �a5 t 1 0.tLlc3 .ixc3t 1 1 .bxc3
�xb5 are agreeable to Black, breaking up his
opponent's centre. The alternative (if White
doesn't want to force events) is that Black
acquires a queenside pawn phalanx, which
again is most welcome to him.
150 Soviet Chess Strategy

White's error consisted in not taking Since then, 9.\&g4 has not been seen any more
prophylactic measures against this counter­ in the games of serious chess players. White
offensive. Instead of 7.lLlf3?! he had to play prefers the circumspect 9.\&f4, forestalling the
7.a4!, clamping down on . . . b7-b5 . plan that we have j ust seen.

You more rarely have occasion t o see a similar Connected Wmg Pawns versw a Central
explosion on the kingside. For that reason the Pair: the Key Role of Blockading
next example appears truly sensational.
A configuration with connected wing pawns
Yori Sakharov - Tigran Petrosian against connected centre pawns occurs quite
frequently in practice. Its evaluation depends
Kiev 1957 on many factors - primarily, the mutual
possibilities for blockading. In a simplified
1 .e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.�c3 .ib4 4.e5 c5 5 ..id2 position or endgame situation, the pair of
�e7 6.a3 .bc3 7 .bc3 cxd4 S.Vxd4 �f5
•
wing pawns, remote from the enemy king, is
9.Vg4 apt to be more dangerous than the pair in the
centre. In a complex middlegame the matter is
8 different. Here, as a rule, dynamic situations
arise in which a mere grain is enough to tip
7
the scales.
6 Let's look at an example in which the flank
5 blockade triumphed.

4 Svetozar Gligoric - Laszlo Szabo

3
Helsinki 1952
2

1 8

7
There would seem to be no sign of any danger 6
to White. Yet all of a sudden there followed:
5
9 ... h5 10.Vf4 g5! 1 l . .ib5t �c6 12.Vd2 d4 4
13 ..ib4 Vd5
3
It turns out that Black's attack with his pawn
avalanche has brought him splendid dividends: 2
he dominates the centre and has clearly
1
surpassed White in development. After:
a b c d e f g h
14.Ve2 Vxg2 15.Va Vxa 16.�xa .id7 White seems to have had success with his
17.�xg5 �xe5 IS..ixd7t �xd7 19.0-0-0 a5 queenside play. But as the result of a precisely
20 ..id2 ggS calculated operation, his dangerous-looking
Black already had a won position. pawns are subjected to a solid blockade.
 Modern Positional Play 151

14.. J�b8 1 S .L3

8
•

Not 1 5 .b5 ixc5! 1 6.bxc6 �xb l 1 7.llJxb l

I!Bb6 and Black has a strong attack. 7

6
I S .. .Ad7 16.0-0
Again 1 6.b5 llJa7! etc. is bad for White. 5

4
16 ... �a7! 17.�el �e8
3

1 6-

a b c d e f g h
Thus the first part of Black's grand design
is accomplished. The blockade has utterly
shackled White's queenside play. All the same,
a very tense struggle still lies ahead.

The second and decisive stage of Black's all­

important central offensive now commences.

a b c d e f g h
28.�bel h6 29.g4 �be8?
Having taken control of b5, Black prepares A serious tactical slip, which could have
to occupy it securely. The need for over­ reduced Black's previous efforts to nothing.
protection in cases like this was something The right move was 29 . . . �fe8, to be followed
that Nimzowitsch pointed out repeatedly in by . . . e5-e4 with an overwhelming plus.
his writings.

8
Hastening to occupy the blockade square with
17 . . . llJb5 would be incorrect on account of 7
1 8 .llJxb5 ixb5 1 9.1lJd4 followed by ig2-fl , 6
driving the blocking pieces away.
5
18.Ac1 Af6 19.i.f4? 4
By provoking Black's pawn centre into
3
advancing, White is merely pouring oil on the
flames. Better was 1 9 .f4. 2

1 6-
19 eS 20.Adl d4 21 .�dS Ac6 22.�xf6t
•••

Wxf6 23.hc6 Wxc6 24.f4 f6 2S.Wb3t i> h8 a b c d e f g h

26.�f1 �c7 27.Wc4 �abS 30.S?
After 30.fxe5 fxe5 3 1 .llJg3! White in
turn could have blocked up the centre
1 52 Soviet Chess Strategy
and equalized the game. The point is that
3 1 . . J'!xfl t 32.�xfl e4? fails to 33.lLlxe4!
�xe4 34.�f8t, with 3 5 .�f5t and 36.�xe4 to
follow.
30 'ilYd5! 3 1 .'ilYc1 mh7 32.tt'lg3 e4 33 .tf4
••• • of the fight against a blockading piece. The
e3 34.'ilYdl 'ilYc4 35.h4 tt'ld5 36.g5 d3 37.'ilYg4
gg8!
An essential defensive measure, parrying
White's threats on the g-file.
38.tt'lh5 ge4! 39.g6t mh8
White resigned.
This example, showing the triumph of a
blockade that paralysed the white queenside
pawns, vividly illustrates the benefits of that
strategy.
This is a suitable moment to recall the original
maxims set forth by Nimzowitsch, which have
retained their value to this day. Emphasizing
the serious mission of the blockading piece, he
observed that the blockading square becomes
a weak point for the opponent; moreover
he asserted that the very concept of a "weak
point" arose out of the concept of blockaded
squares.
The blockade will often fetter an entire
complex of enemy forces. They will first lose
their freedom of manoeuvre in particular areas
of the board, then the entire enemy position
will become immobile.
In this connection, here are Nimzowitsch's
relevant assertions:
1) The blockading piece creates threats from
where it stands.
2) If necessary it may abandon its post while
retaining overall control of the key square.
3) The blockading activity is enhanced by the
summoning of reserves to aid it; the reserves in
turn must occupy secure positions.
4) A genuine strengthening of the blockade
means greater elasticity in the deployment of
the pieces and an increase in the threats from
the occupied point.
Nimwwitsch also presented several examples
important thing above all is to reduce the
number of pieces defending the blockade
square. This is achieved by exchanges, by
evicting the opponent's pieces from key points,
by diverting them, and so on. The approved
strategic method consists in transferring
the attack from the blockading piece to its
defenders.
Undoubtedly our understanding of the
blockading principle continues to grow, thanks
both to new forms of blockade and to the
corresponding theoretical tenets. Stratagems
involving the positional sacrifice of material,
playing on a weak square complex, etc., arose
out of the principle of blockade. But the classic
propositions I have cited form the basis of this
principle.
Pawn Sacrifices
In various dynamic situations the issues of
tactics and strategy are linked particularly
closely. In this respect, pawn sacrifices are
characteristic; in many cases this tactical
operation has profound implications.
The specific aims and forms of positional
pawn sacrifices are exceedingly diverse. Typical
examples are sacrifices to open important lines,
to gain space, to weaken the opponent's overall
pawn structure, to gain control of key points,
and so on. These objectives are usually closely
interrelated, and often one will be replaced by
another.
Let's examine one characteristic modern device
consisting of a positional pawn sacrifice to gain
control of a strategic point in the centre.
 Modern Positional Play 153

Hermann Pilnik E6m Geller

- The presence of an extra pawn on the white
side is not felt - on the contrary, the incipient
Gothenburg 1955 avalanche of black pawns on the kingside is
what will decide the game.
8
26J�df1 Yfh4 27.,tdl gf7 28.Yfc2 g5
7 29.Yfc3 gaf8 30.h3 h5 3 1 .,te2 g4! 32.gxf4
6 gxf4 33.gxf4 gxf4 34.g3 �f3t 35. � f.2
Yfxh3 36.gxf4
5

4
8
3
7
2
6
1
5
a b c d e f g h
4
Black has an excellent position in the centre
3
and his queens ide forces are actively placed.
At present White has no active counterplay. 2
But what plan should Black adopt in order 1
to develop his initiative? The following
transformation, involving a pawn sacrifice a b c d e f g h
to gain an important central strongpoint, is 36 ... g3t! 37. �xf3 g2t 38.�f.2 Yfh2!
highly instructive. White resigned.

22 ... e4! 23.hf6 Yfxf6 24.fxe4 f4! 25J:ifl In our day, pawn sacrifices for positional gains
�e5! have become a mass phenomenon. Numerous
stratagems which partly involve pawn sacrifices
8 are employed to achieve a more active co­
operation of the pieces, to develop them
7 quickly, to enhance their manoeuvrability -
6 in other words to gain dynamic objectives, or
simply to obtain the initiative for executing
5
some specific plan.
4 Today dynamic gambits have become j ust as
normal a concept as, let us say, the methods
3
of exploiting pawn weaknesses which we
2 examined earlier. Yet in the 1 930s, any unclear
1 pawn sacrifice of this type was still viewed as
�
something of a revelation. Here again, the
a b c d e f g h service performed by Alekhine was invaluable.
The operation is concluded. Black has He opened up boundless possibilities for
acquired a permanent post for his knight. widening chess players' horiwns, by his use
1 54 Soviet Chess Strategy
of a strategic device which at that time was
novel - a pawn sacrifice for the initiative and
for switching a sudden attack from one part of
the board to another.
Like any initial steps in a complex field of
activity, many of Alekhine's experiments may
strike us today as dubious. Yet their practical
success at that time is the best testimony to
the power of the pawn sacrifice as a strategic
device.
Here is a paradigm which has become a
classic.
Alexander Alekhine - Reuben Fine
Hastings 1937
1 6
a b c d e f g h
In this position White has gone in for quite
a risky pawn sacrifice to gain the initiative with
his pieces.
1 5.�f5!?
A quieter line is 1 5 .cxd4 exd4 1 6.ltJf5 �xc2
1 7.ltJxe7t @hB I B .ltJf5, as played in a later
game Foltys - E. Richter, Trencianske Teplice
1 949.
15 ... dxc3 16.YlYxc3! �Uc8! 17.YlYg3
White would of course gain nothing from
1 7.ltJxe7t �xe7 I B .�xa5 l:!xc2 etc.
17 ... i.f8 1 8.i.d3 �c6 19.i.g5 �e8 20J�ac1
Alekhine was later to recommend 20.l:!ad l !?
followed by a2-a3 and .id3-b l -a2.
20 ...YlYb7 21 .a3 g6 22.�h6t i.xh6 23.i.xh6
�d4 24Jtcdl b4 25.f4! exf4 26.YlYxf4
Alekhine persistently looks for ways to
pursue the initiative. At present, however,
White can only reasonably hope to hold the
balance. But Black still faces a wearisome
defensive task, having to cope all the time with
specific threats.
26 ... bxa3 27.bxa3 Ek3 28.YlYfl �e6?
The heat of battle proves too much for Black,
and he starts on a rapid slide to disaster. After
the correct 2B . . . ltJc6 29 . .ic l ltJe5 3o.if! , his
position would be sound enough.
29.a4 gac8 30JUI g3c7 3 I J�bl YlYc6 32.a5!
�c5?
This already is the decisive mistake. The least
of the evils was 32 . . . l:!aB .
33.i.c4 YlYd7
7
6
a b c d e f g h
34.YlYa2! �xe4 35.gxf7 YlYxf7 36 .ixf7t gxf7
•
37.YlYe6
Black resigned.
The following game was played nearly a quarter
of a century later.
 Modern Positional Play
David Bronstein - Paul Keres
Budapest 1950
1.e4 e5 2.�f3 �c6 3 ..ib5 a6 4.ia4 �f6
5.0-0 ie7 6.Ele1 b5 7.J.b3 0-0 8.d4 d6 9.c3
.ig4
At this point White took an original strategic
decision:
10.h3?! La 1 1 .Yfxa
a b c d e f g h
For the sake of the initiative and a wealth of
piece play, White offers a pawn sacrifice which
objectively is wholly unclear.
1 l ... exd4 1 2.Yfdl dxc3 1 3.�xc3 �a5
14..ic2 Ele8
It was later established that 14 . . . c5 would be
better. After that, White hardly has sufficient
compensation.
15.f4 b4 16.�d5 �xd5 17.Yfxd5 c6 1 8.Yfd3
g6 19. ci!> hl .if8 20.Elfl .ig7
It was worth considering 20 . . . Wb6 or
20 . . . c5. By acting irresolutely, Black helps his
opponent's initiative to develop.
21 .id2 c5 22.ia4 �U8 23.Elabl Yfb6
And here an improvement was 23 . . . c4 with
counterplay.
1 55
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
24.£5! .id4 25.Yfg3 �c4 26 ..ih6 ig7?
The lesser evil was 26 . . . liJxb2 27.ixf8 gxfB.
27.hg7 ci!>xg7 28.f6t ci!> h8 29.Yfg5 b3
30.axb3 Yfb4 3 1 .bxc4 Yfxa4 32.Elf4 Yfc2
33.Yfh6!
Black resigned, a few moves before being
mated: 33 . . . Wxb l t 34.'it?h2 ggB 3 5 .Wxh7t!
<;t>xh7 36.gh4#
Don't the ideas of the Alekhine - Fine game
overlap with those of this last example?
Weak Square Complexes
In a number of previous examples we saw that
the secure deployment and active operation of
the fighting forces was helped by gaining firm
control of weak points in the opponent's camp
(for example outposts in front of a backward
or isolated pawn, etc.) .
A fairly common situation i s one that
features a complex of weak squares of one
colour. The emergence of such a complex
depends not only on the character of the pawn
chain but also on the presence and positioning
of any minor pieces (and of the queens!). A
particularly important question is whether
there are bishops on the board, and where. Is
there a defending bishop to cover the colour of
the weak square complex? Is there an attacking
156 Soviet Chess Strategy

bishop, pressurizing this same object (which 15.0-0 0-0 16 ..bc3 dxc3 17.\Wel a5 1 8.\Wxc3
is rather unusual in being an "empty" one) ? J.a6 19.gfal .ib5
Naturally the strength of the aggressive bishop
greatly increases if it has no opposite number
on the defending side. In that case the weak
square complex is all the more keenly felt.
In addition the weakness is especially palpable
while queens are on the board, and, of course,
when the king is threatened with attack.
The game given below, in which a full-scale
plan for playing on a weak square complex
was broadcast loud and clear for the first time,
appeared as a veritable strategic sensation.

Reuben Fine - Mikhail Botvinnik

a b c d e f g h
Amsterdam 1938
20.gd4!
Refusing to be tempted by the unnecessary
8
20.l'!xa5 l'!xa5 2 1 .Wxa5 Wxa5 22.l'!xa5 l'!d8,
7 when Black has put the worst behind him.

6
20 ...\We7 21 .gd6! a4 22.\We3 ga7 23.�d2 a3
5 24.c4 .ia4 25.exf6 \Wxf6 26.gxa3 ge8 27.h3
4 gaa8 28.�f3 \Wb2 29.�e5 \Wb I t 30.�h2
\WfS 3 1 .\Wg3!
3 Black resigned.
2
The final phase of the game was transformed
1
into a powerful attack against the black king.
a b c d e f g h The threat of l'!a3-f3, with l'!f7 to follow, was
12 ..bc6t bxc6 1 3J�a4! unanswerable.
A remarkable manoeuvre. If it doesn't yet In this example White had no dark-squared
decide the outcome of the struggle, it does set bishop, but the weakness of the dark squares
the opponent some highly unpleasant strategic was underlined by the action of his other
problems in connection with White's conquest pieces, with the leading roles filled not only by
of the dark-square complex. The white rook's the mighty knight on e5 or the queen, but also
outwardly risky but very effective journey to (quite a rare case!) by the rook that performed
miracles with its manoeuvrability. The power
d4 and d6 is already prefigured!
of the blockade on Black's position is worthy
13 ....bc3t 14.J.d2 f6? of attention.
This already brings defeat in its wake. A
more stubborn defence was 1 4 . . . a5 1 5 .i.xc3 The issue of utilizing a complex of squares was
dxc3 1 6.Wa l i.a6! 1 7J�xa5 Wc8 , with fair expounded, albeit in very general terms, as long
chances of survival. ago as the end of the 1 920s, by Nimzowitsch
 Modern Positional Play 157

in My System. By an irony of fate, Nimwwitsch

8
himselfhad to experience all the unpleasantness
of defending a weak square complex in the 7
following well-known game. 6

Aron Nimzowitsch - Jose Raul Capablanca 5

4
New York 1927
3

a b c d e f g h
33 .. J:�e4!
In our previous example (Fine - Botvinnik)
we already saw what power a rook can exert
on breaking through to the enemy rear. White
can't prevent Black from further strengthening
the position of his pieces.

34.�d4 �c4 35.'ifn 'ifb5 36. i> g3 �cxd4

a b c d e f g h
37.cxd4 'ifc4 3S. i> g2 b5 39. i> gl b4!
White's position is very difficult in view of 4O.axb4 axb4 4 1 . i> g2 'ifc1 ! 42. i> g3 'ifhl !
the irreparable weakness of the light squares 43.�d3 g e l 44.ga � d l 45.b3
and Black's resolute pressure with his pieces on
the queenside. Although Black has no light­
8
squared bishop and is basically operating with
his major pieces, his "white key" performance 7
proceeds inexorabl�
6

30 ... �f5! 3 1 .�xf5t 5

White can't avoid exchanging. After 3 1 .E!:ed2 4
ClJxd4 32.E!:xd4 E!:xd4 33.cxd4 Wfb5! 34.Wff3
E!:el Black would even more quickly penetrate 3
to his opponent's rear. 2

1
31. .. gxf5 32.'ifa
32.Wfxh5 would lose at once to 32 . . . E!:h8 a b c d e f g h
33.Wff3 E!:h4!.
45 ... gc1 ! 46J:le3 �fl!
White resigned. On 47.Wfe2 Black plays
32...i> g6 33J��ed2 47 . . . Wfg1 t 48.�h3 E!:fl (or even 48 . . . E!:e l ) .

Th e scope o f this issue was immeasurably

increased in the 1 940s and 50s, when such
158 Soviet Chess Strategy

openings as the French Defence, the Slav, the

Nimzo-Indian, the Caro-Kann etc., began to
undergo intensive development. A number of
systems in these openings lead by a direct route
to middlegame positions where the leitmotif is
play on a weakened complex of squares.
In our day several new and important
maxims have been established. According to
one of these, play on a weak square complex
can sometimes more than compensate for the
loss of one or two pawns or the exchange. In
such cases, where a player utterly dominates
one colour of squares, the result is a severe
limitation of his opponent's play on the other
colour too. This reveals a close affinity between
the weak square theme and the principle of
blockade.
The exploitation of a weak square complex
is, then, intimately linked to two characteristic
and very important strategic plans: an attack
on the opponent's king, and the gradual
restriction of his play due to a tightening of
the blockade on the critical squares.
Chapter 7

The Attack - Affinity between

Strategic and Tactical Methods
General Concepts

Attack, together with defence, is undoubtedly the most universal of strategic concepts. The no­
tion of the attack is above all associated with such attractive qualities as unfettered boldness,
imagination, resoluteness in action, breadth of scope, and, especially, tactical precision. At the
moment of attack, the entire might of the blow is concentrated, so to speak, on a narrow spatial
sector; the attacker is sometimes " burning his boats" that would have enabled him to retreat from
his intended goal.

In attack, the elements of strategy and tactics are extremely tightly interwoven . It is often hard to
decide whether a particular attack (especially against the king) should come under the heading of
a strategic plan or a purely tactical operation .

Th e concept of attack should on no account be narrowed down t o include o n l y t h e k i n g a s its

obj ect, which is what some chess teaching books do. An attack on other objects is equally pos­
sible. Its spearhead is often pointed at the centre, the queenside, mobile objects, and so on. Such
attacks frequently demand j ust as much resolution, strategic risk and resourceful ness as an attack
on the king.

In Steinitz's positional theory, the attack was regarded primarily as a means to exploit an ad­
vantage. It was supposed to crown certain other offensive operations: pressure, initiative, siege,
restriction of the mobility in the hostile camp, and so forth . Perhaps this was what gave rise to
Steinitz's dictum that the player with the advantage is obliged to attack!

At the present time, our understanding of the attack is much broader. In many cases it represents
not the ultimate aim but an essential means of fighting for some particular positional trumps .
Sometimes, rather than conclude the game, an attack will merely begin a new stage in the
struggle for the advantage. In the modern view, the general aim of the attack is not the obligatory
destruction of the enemy camp but the attainment of a tangible plus.
We will j ust dwell on some dynamic contemporary methods of conducting the attack.
1 60 Soviet Chess Strategy

Dynamic Moments - Launching the
Assault
In many games the unleashing of the direct as­
sault is highly dynamic. Choosing the moment
for it demands great skill. What hesitations
afflict even the most experienced masters on
sensing that such a moment has come! How
difficult these moments sometimes are to de­
tect, and how irrecoverable they are!
The psychological factors of mastery are a
theme little investigated up to now. Let us j ust
note that the taking of risks, in the face of a
possible tactical refutation, is also a frequently
effective weapon in the practical struggle.
The Sudden Attacking Coup
Objectively, Black has the better prospects.
White, however, has a slight but unpleasant
kingside initiative. Black has to defend very
carefully.
Probably 27 . . .1::k 6 was appropriate here,
although after 28 .�d l �d8 29.�d3 it still
would not be a simple matter to neutralize
White's threats. Black failed to sense the
danger, however, and allowed his opponent to
concentrate his forces rapidly on the kingside.
27 .. J�d4 28.tlf6t � h8 29.Vxe6!
8
7
6

Such actions have come to characterize the 5

modern conception of the attack, especially 4
against the king. A sudden blow against the king
results from a weakness in the latter's shelter or 3
from the opponent's swift concentration of his 2
attacking forces.
1

Boris Spassky - Robert James Fischer a b c d e f g h

An unpleasant surprise for sure, and Fischer's
Siegen Olympiad 1970
state of mind was evidently quite affected by it;
his subsequent play was not a success.
8 �

7
29 .. J�d6!
The true power of White's threats is revealed
6 after 29 . . .!'!d l ?! 30.YMf7!! �xe l t 3 1 .<j;lg2 liJe3t
5 32. c;ilf3 ! YMc6t 33.c;ilg3 �gl t 34.c;ilh4 �xg4t
35.hxg4 YMh l t 36.c;ilg5 and Black has to play
4
36 . . . liJxg4 giving up a piece for insufficient
3 compensation to say in the game. After
36 . . . �c8 37.�e2 YMh3 38.5! wins, avoiding
2
the draw with a check on c5 and sacrifice
1 on 5 .
a b c d e f g h
30.Ve4 gflm
A few moves earlier Fischer had quite The right way is 30 .. J'!ad8! 3 1 .g5 �d2 when
reasonably accepted a pawn sacrifice. Black has no concerns.
 The Attack - Affi n ity between Strategic and Tactical Methods 161

31 .g5 gd2 32.gefl Vc7? 39.gmt!

This leads to defeat. By now White's position
is dearly better, but Black could still defend
stubbornly, for instance with 32 .. .l:k8! with
the idea 33.'1We7 Vlic7 with even chances.
White can still push with 33.f5, but Black is
not without counterplay.
33.gxd2! �xd2
Black resigned.
Against a weakened structure round the castled
king, a sudden attack is constantly lurking. As
a rule this kind of attack involves powerful
tactical measures.
Thus in the following example the outcome
of the fight was decided by a sudden attack on
weakened squares in the castled position.

Alexey Suetin Vadim Faibisovich

-

Kaliningrad 1972

8 �

4
a b c d e f g h 3
34.Vd4! 2
Fischer must have missed this manoeuvre.
1
Now even after the best reply, 34 . . . Vlib6
35 .Vlixb6 axb6 36J:k l �c4 37.a4, Black is in a b c d e f g h
a bad way.
White rather seems to be eyeing the
queenside, but an attack on the other wing is
34 gd8 35.�d5t 'it> g8 36.gfl! �c4 37.ge2
•.•
his chief underlying design. In answer to:
gd6 38.ge8t 'it> f7
29 �c5
••.

8 There followed:

7 30Jlxf8t gxf8 3 1 .Vd4 Ve5 32.Vc4t!

6 And it became dear that 32 . . . Vlie6 would
be met by the immediately decisive 33.i!a7!!
5 i!O (33 . . . Vlixc4 34.i!g7t 'iii h 8 35.i!xg6t and
4 mates) 34.i!a8t i!fB 3 5 .Vlid4 Vlie5 36.Vlixe5
dxe5 37.i!xfBt 'iii xfB 38 . .ia3 . Black therefore
3
resigned.
2 The possibility of quickly concentrating your
forces on the vulnerable sector is what tends to
1 �
stimulate a sudden attack on the king.
a b c d e f g h
1 62 Soviet Chess Strategy

A sudden attack is possible not only against

8
the king but against other objects. Here is an
example of a sudden attack on the centre. 7

6
Mikhail Botvinnik - VassUr Smyslov
5
Moscow 1 954 4

l .d4 1L1f6 2.e4 g6 3.g3 .ig7 4 ..ig2 0-0 5.1L1c3 3

d6 6.1L1f3 lLlbd7 7.0-0 e5 S.e4 e6 9 .ie3 lLlg4
•
2
10.i.g5 'lWb6
1

a b c d e f g h
22 ...haS! 23.gxb2 lLlxg5t! 24. i> h2 lLlf3t
25. i> h3 hb2 26.'lWxa7 .ie4 27.a4 i> g7
2SJ�d1 .ie5 29.'lWe7 geS 30.a5 ge2 3 1 . i> g2
tLld4t 32. i> f1 .if3 33.gb1 lLle6
White resigned.

Such impromptu attacks had also been seen in

earlier games, but to execute them was not to
employ a method; rather they were viewed as
an outburst of creativity and intuition. Suffice
a b c d e f g h it to recall the following remarkable game.

In answer to the natural:

Jose Raul Capablanca - Alexander Alekhine
1 1 .h3
Buenos Aires 1927
Black began a sudden, sharp and risky attack
on the centre.

1 l ... exd4! 12.tLla4 'lWa6 13.hxg4 b5 14.1L1xd4

bxa4 15.1L1xe6 'lWxe6 16.e5 'lWxe4 17.haS
lLlxe5! 1sJk1 'lWb4 19.a3 'lWxb2 20.'lWxa4
i.b7!
Better than 20 . . . il.xg4 2 1 .'lWxa7.

21.gbl?
Such sudden attacks have a powerful effect
on the defender's mental state. The right
continuation is 2 1 .il.xb7 'lWxb7 22.!'k3 .!tJf3t
23.!'i:xf3 'lWxf3 24.il.e7 !'i:c8 25 .il.xd6, when a a b c d e f g h
draw is the most likely result.
Black has sacrificed a pawn but seems to
have fettered White's kingside development.
21 ... 1L1f3t 22. i> h1
 The Attack - Affi n ity between Strategic and Tactical Methods
However, Capablanca finds an effective plan
which involves sacrificing the pawn back in
order to attack the black king . The attack is
very dangerous despite the small number of
forces participating in it.
19.i.d3! Y!!ixgl 20.hln � f8 2l .i.e4 Y!!ih3
22.Y!!id2! i.e6 23.c4 a5 24J�gl ! Y!!ixh2 25.ghl
Y!!ic7 26.Y!!ib 2!
The threats are continuous and devastating.
White now threatens 27.¥;Va3t Q1g8 28 .ih7t
Wh8 29.i.f5t Q1g8 30J�dh4.
26 Y!!ic5 27..id5!
•••
Now the threat of 28.i.xe6 fxe6 29J'l:f4t
Wg8 30.¥;Vc2 rears its head.
27 J�a6
••
A more stubborn defence was 27 . . Jl:ad8,
though after 28 .i.xe6 White would still have
every chance of winning.
a b c d e f g h
28J:ie4! gd6 29J�h7! � e7 30.Y!!ixg7 � d8
31 ..he6 fxe6 32.Y!!ixb7
White won.
Transferring the Attack to the King
This strategic device, closely linked to the fore­
going one, is perhaps merely a more complex
case of a sudden coup. If tactical factors clearly
1 63
predominated in the examples we have j ust
looked at, here the strategic aspect of similar
plans is more ptonounced. At the same time
this kind of attack does not arise spontane­
ously but results from the development of an
offensive begun on other parts of the board.
Very often this device amounts to the rightful
transformation of a positional advantage; for
instance, superiority in the centre is utilized in
order to shift the weight of the assault onto the
opponent's king.
Robert James Fischer - Svetozar Gligoric
Havana 1964
1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 �oo 3 .ib5 a6 4 .hOO dxOO
• •
5.0-0 f6 6.d4 i.g4 7.c3 exd4 8.cxd4 Y!!id7
9.h3 .le6 lO.�c3 0-0-0 1 l ..if4!
White has acquired a pawn centre and
plainly reveals his intentions for queenside
action. Already in the event of 1 1 . . .g5 1 2.ig3
h5 1 3 .d5! cxd5 1 4Jk l ! , a very sharp attack on
the enemy king could arise:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
a b c d e f g h
The variations given by Fischer are
revealing:
a) 14 . . . id6 1 5 .tLla4! Q1b8 1 6.tLlc5 ¥;Ve7
1 7.tLlxa6t! bxa6 1 8 .tLld4 i.d7 1 9.¥;Vb3t Q1a7
20J'hc7t!! ixc7 2 1 .ixc7 ib5 22.tLlc6t!
ixc6 23 .¥;Vb6t Q1a8 24.¥;Vxa6# [Editors' note:
1 6 . . . i.xc5 is good for Black, so 1 6.e5! with an
initiative is better.]
164 Soviet Chess Strategy

b) On 1 4 . . . dxe4 White wins the game in 18 .. .J.xh3 19.e5! �xe5 20.dxe5 £Xe5
fantastic style with: 1 6J!xc7!! �xd l 1 7Jk8t!! 21 .�c5t �b8 22.gxh3 e4 23.�xe4 'ee7
�a7 ( l 7 ... �xc8 1 8 .lLlb6#) 1 8 .ib8t �a8 24J�c3 b5 25.'ec2
1 9.1Llb6#! Black resigned.

1 l ... �e7 Sometimes such a transfer of the assault is

1 1 . . . id6 is safer.
12J��c1 �g6 13.J.g3 J.d6 14.�a4! .ixg3
After this, White's outpost on c5 gains
noticeably in strength. The correct course was
14 .. .'�b8 1 5 .lLlc5 �e7.
1 5.fxg3 �b8
White's attack, initially directed against the
centre, is increasingly changing its character
and switching to the enemy king. Thus,
1 5 . . . b6 is bad in view of 1 6.d5! .ifl 1 7.�e2
etc.
16.�c5 'ed6 17.'ea4
facilitated by weaknesses in the pawn cover
round the king that were created at an early
stage in the game. Initially these weaknesses
may not play a major role in the struggle, yet
because of them the king's position is always
to some extent uncomfortable. Of course, you
may point to plenty of positions where this last
factor had practically no influence on the fate
of the game. Nonetheless this kind of strategic
resource should not be forgotten.
In the following example Black's "Achilles'
heel" turned out to be the h6-point, which for
a long time had been a wholly insignificant
weakness.
Alexey Suetin - Vitaly Tseshkovsky
Kislovodsk 1973

3
V///" //'. . .-:-:-:"://.7>-'-;- ,

2
a b c d e f g h
1
17 ... �a7?
Leading to the denouement. After 1 7 . . . ic8 a b c d e f g h
1 8 Jk3 lLlf8! Black could still defend For the moment the active operations are
stubbornly. unfolding in the centre:

18.�xa6! 22.'ed2! J.e8 23.�d5 �xd5 24.'exd5t �h7

The decisive stroke, demolishing the black 25.'exc5
king's cover. But not 25.lLlxc5 �a5t 26.�f1 ic6
27.lLlxb7 �c7 etc.
 The Attack - Affinity between Strategic and Tactical Methods 1 65

25 ...f1xc5 26.flxc5 hb2 27.fle6!

Although the game has been transformed
into a complex ending, Black's position is
growing more and more difficult. His king
comes under an unexpected and very sharp
attack.

27 .. J�g8
Forced; after 27 . . '!,!f6 28.l2k7 l'!c8 29.tiJxe8!
l'!xe8 30.l'!d7t cj;>h8 3 1 .l'!xb7, White has a won
position.

Of course 27 . . . l'!f7? is also unplayable owing

to 28.tiJg5t.

28J�d5! .tf6 29J�lhl !

The only way. White keeps h 6 firmly i n his
sights, whereas 29.l'!f4? would give Black some
counter-chances after 29 . . ..ig6 with the idea
of . . . .tf6-g5.

29 ....ig6 30J�d7t .ig7 3 1 .c5! �ab8 32 ..ic4

.ie8

a b c d e f g h
33.�xg7t!
Black resigns. After 33 . . . l'!xg7 34.tiJf8t cj;>h8
35 .l'!xh6t, he is mated.
Chapter 8

Methods of Defence - Switching

from Defence to Attack

In numerous cases at the end of an offensive which has brought material or positional gains, some
initiative or attacking potential passes into the opponent's hands. As a rule, extinguishing the
counterattack requires accurate defensive action. In short, the switch from attack to defence is a
perfectly normal occurrence. According to the modern view of chess, an equally high level of skill
in attack and defence is of paramount importance.
Qualities needed for the defence are persistence, tenacity, meticulous precision in executing
your plans, and, of course, activity. It would be wrong to suppose that defence requires less
imagination than attack. Imagination here takes a specific form, which consists in divining your
opponent's intentions in good time.

Samuel Reshevsky - Tigran Petrosian

Zurich 1953

a b c d e f g h
White has two bishops and a mobile pawn centre. He is threatening e5-e6. But Black takes a
decision which completely upsets White's plans.
168 Soviet Chess Strategy
2S .. J�e6!
An excellent idea. Pursuing his basic aim (a
blockade on the light squares) , Black offers a
positional exchange sacrifice - a concession
which, in the present situation, is both
minimal and highly opportune. White would
probably do better to ignore the sacrifice and
try to mount an attack on the kingside with
E:g3, h2-h4 etc.
26.a4 �e7!
But not 26 . . . b4 27.d5! E:xd5 28 .,ixe6 fxe6
29.Y!Yxc4, and the situation turns in White's
favour.
27..he6 fxe6 2S.Vfl �dS
8
7
a b c d e f g h
Black's pieces have come to life as if at the
wave of a magic wand. White's material plus is
purely academic. Black's chances are no worse.
Let's examine the most important modern
defensive principles.
Persistence
Persistence and resilience are essential in many
situations. Every master has to possess these
qualities. With the modern strategic approach,
however, instances of patient passive defence
are fairly rare. In practice such defence is very
difficult. In the absence of counterplay, you
constantly have to face the prospect of your
defensive resources diminishing step by step,
while conversely your opponent's resources for
active play are increasing.
In this respect the following example is
revealing.
Vladimir Bagirov Lev Polugaevsky
-
Leningrad 1977
l .d4 �f6 2.c4 cS 3.�a ad4 4.�xd4 �c6
S.�c3 e6 6.e3 dS 7.adS exdS S.J.e2 Ad6
9.0-0 0-0 10.Aa AeS 1 1 .�xc6
l 1 .liJ de2 is better.
1 l bxc6 12.J.dl Vd6 1 3.g3 .th3 14 ..igl
•••
.ixg2 I S. 'Iflxgl cS
a b c d e f g h
16.f4?
White commits a typical error, incautiously
weakening the light squares in his own
position. Black conducts the following phase
of the game with the utmost precision.
16 ....ixc3 17 ..ixc3 �e4 I S.Va �UeS
19JUdl Vb6 20J:�acl gadS 21 .gc2 d4!
Black creates a central passed pawn which
ties down White's forces even more.
 Methods of Defence - Switching fro m Defence to Attack 1 69

Championship in 1 9 53, and he was only j ust

sixteen. Playing against experienced masters
was not easy for him, but it was his exceptional
tenacity in defence that stood out - perhaps
more than his art of attack which was later ro
become famous.
As a rule, tenacity is inextricably bound
up with an even more important quality -
ingenuity. Fischer too distinguished himself
from the outset by outstanding defensive
tenacity.

a b c d e f g h Robert James Fischer ESm Geller-

22.exd4 cxd4 23 ..te1 'ifa6 24.'ifb3 h5 25.'ifc4

Curali=ao 1962
'ifb7 26.'ifc6 'ife7 27 ..ta5 �d6 28.'ifc7 'ife6
29.'ifc4 �d5 30 ..tb4 a5 3 1 ..ta3
8
L .=co; P,"///·,

a b c d e f g h

a b c d e f g h White's situation is unenviable. Black only

needs to play 1 6 . . . a6! to make the position
31 ... h4! 32.'ifc6 h3t 33.�gl d3 34.'ifxe6
critical, in view of the threatened 1 7 . . . b 5 . But
�xe6 35.�c8t � h7 36.£5 �ee5 37.�c4 d2
he hesitates and White saves himself.
38.b4 �c3!
White resigned.
16 ... �e8 17.�dl �g4?
Another mistake. It was essential to play
Tenacity
1 7 . . . llJe4. Now White goes over from defence
to attack.
From my own observations I may say that
tenacity in defence is j ust as good a "litmus
1 8.h3 'ifh4 19.�df1 .ixd4 20.'ifxd4 �ad8
test" for genuine chess talent (and for a
21 .�xd5! .ixd5 22 ..ixd5 �f6 23.c4! �d7
chess fighter, of course!) as the ability to
24.�e3 �ed8 25.'ife5 h6 26 .ta
attack. I cannot help recalling the first time
•

With precise play White converted his

I met Mikhail Tal. It was at the USSR Team
advantage into a win.
1 70 Soviet Chess Strategy
The following game is a splendid model of
ingenious defence.
Lothar Schmid Isaak Boleslavsky
-
Hamburg 1960
a b c d e f g h
It looks as if Black's position is hopeless, as
there is no defence to the threats on the e- and
f-files. From this moment on, however, Black
finds some astonishing defensive resources.
17 d5! 1 8J��xe7 dxc4 19.'iffl .th3!
.•.
Once more Black gains a tempo for the
defence.
20.i.xf6 .ixfl 2 IJ�te5 'ifh3! 22.hd8 gxd8
23.ge7 gf8 24.gxb7
Black has fended off the direct attack on his
king, but it now looks as if White has gained a
decisive plus on the queens ide. Black's pieces,
moreover, are thoroughly tied up on the other
wing.
And yet Black's ingenuity continues to work
wonders.
24 ....ig2 25.gxa7 'ifxh2 26.b4 cxb3 27.axb3
'ifhlt 28. c;f;I b2 .ih3! 29.b4 'ifc6 30.'ifd4 'ifg2
3 1 .'ife5 'iffl!
With amazing skill Black keeps on worrying
his opponent with counter-threats.
32J�b7 .if5 33.�e2 gc8 34.gb8 gxb8
35.'ifxb8t c;f;I h7
Draw.
Defence and the Elements of Strategy
The elements of strategy are the inseparable
accompaniment to plans for attack and de­
fence. Take, say, the notion of simplification.
In most cases simplification is unwelcome to
the attacker, but it is a different matter if he
is exchanging off his opponent's key defensive
pieces. This is an important stage in the devel­
opment of the offensive. Let us recall, for in­
stance, the typical attack against Black's castled
position on the kingside in the Dragon Varia­
tion of the Sicilian Defence. An integral part of
White's plan is exchanging the bishop on g7.
Without this, it is hard to imagine the attack
succeeding.
Conversely, although as a rule the interests
of defence are served by simplifying, it is im­
portant to preserve some particular pieces
from the general exchanges. Sometimes the
whole defence is held together literally by one
piece. Take that same Sicilian Dragon struc­
ture. In the interests of defence and counter­
attack Black sometimes needs to preserve his
dark-squared bishop at any cost, even that of
an exchange sacrifice.
Or take the elements of the pawn forma­
tion. The attack almost inevitably requires
pawn advances. Without them it is hard to
open the lines that are essential for mounting
the decisive assault. Conversely in defence it is
very important to leave your pawn shield un­
touched for as long as you can. Even a slight
weakening of the pawn position round your
opponent's castled king creates conditions for
striking the decisive blow. The methods of at­
tack against various weakened pawn structures
have become standard.
Under a broader conception of positional
play, several valuable generalizations can be
 Methods of Defence - Switching fro m Defence to Attack
made about the principles o f defence. For the
defending side, as a rule, a closed structure is
more congenial, as it makes it harder for the at­
tacking forces to deploy their activity. But this
only holds if the defender has enough space for
manoeuvring! Otherwise a gradual paralysis of
his own forces may set in.
Activity the Main Theme of the Defence
-
Defence is very active by nature; it comprises
a wide range of precepts. To this day the
following example offers an instructive model
of active defence.
Max Euwe - Alexander Alekhine
Holland 1937
a b c d e f g h
White comes up with an energetic thrust:
19.a5!
We should note that the win of a pawn
would give him nothing to speak of:
1 9.tiJxfS tiJb3 20J�b l g6
And now:
2 1 .tiJd4 tiJxd4 22.ed �d7, or 2 1 .tiJg3 �e7
22J�d l �c8 23.e4 tiJxc l 24.�bxc l �xc l
25 .�xc l id6! 26.exd5 �xb2
In all lines Black has adequate compensation
in the shape of his better placed pieces.
171
19 .. J�a6
There is no future at all in 1 9 . . . �f6
20.�d l ! when White increases the pressure
unhindered.
a b c d e f g h
20 ... ha5! 2 1 .b4 .ixb4!
An amazing situation. White is unable to
exploit Black's "hanging" pieces: 22.�xa6
tiJxa6 23.tiJxb4 tiJxb4 etc.
But then he was not actually counting on
an immediate win. His next move, however,
seems to do irreparable damage to Black's
pawn structure.
22 ..ib2 �a5 23 ..ixg7 gg8 24..ie5
After 24.id4 �ag6! 2 5 .g3 ib6 Black has
adequate play.
24 ... �b3 25.ga4
Other rook moves would not bring any real
gains either.
For example: 2 5 J:%ab l tiJd2 26J:%b8t id8
27.ic7 �d7, or 2 5 J!a3 tiJd2 26.�fa l tiJc4
27.�a4 �ag6 28.g3 ib6, and White has no
significant advantage.
25 ... gag6 26 ..ig3 .ib6 27.gf4 h5 28.gh4
172 Soviet Chess Strategy

White's last move was e5-e6. There

followed:

2 1 . . .'I11Yxe6 22.�d2 Lf3 23.gel gd8!!

A remarkable counterstroke, not only
extinguishing the attack but taking over the
initiative. Play proceeded:

24.gxe6t fxe6 25.i.g6t bxg6 26.�c3 i.e4

27.�e5 i.d5 28.�xg7 gf8 29.�xg6t c,!;> d7
30.�g7t i.e7 3 1 .a4 �c6 32.axb5 axb5
33.i.h4 gg8 34.�f7 ga8 35.gxa8 gxa8
a b c d e f g h 36.h3 b4
28 ... a5! 29.gxh5 gc6 30.�a3 d4! 3 1 .exd4 Black gradually exploited his material
�xd4 32.gelt c,!;> d7 33. c,!;> fl gc3 34.�bl advantage.
gc2 35.gdl c,!;> c6
It isn't hard to see that Black's resourcefulness Thus, active defence is an effective way not
has brought definite results. By now the only to equalize the chances but also, not
chances are even. infrequently, to achieve a plus. Defendin g can
be one way of winning the game. The whole
Modern methods of active defence are question is how to defend, and how to attack!
extremely varied. The answer to a direct attack
may, for instance, be a counter-attack against
Interrelation between Methods of Attack
different objects in the opponent's camp. This
and Defence
device goes far beyond the bounds of tactics; in
In chess, as we saw from a number of foregoing
numerous cases it has a strategic content.
examples, the initiative can often pass to and
Karen Grigorian - Vladimir Tukmakov fro in the course of the same game. It frequently
happens that after acquiring a specific gain of
Baku 1972 an enduring nature, the attacking side needs to
go over temporarily to the defence (in order to
... preserve that gain) . The defence will often be
8
a lengthy affair. As an instance of this, we may
7 take the situations that arise from the Marshall
Attack in the Ruy Lopez: l .e4 e5 2.lLlf3 lLlc6
6
3 .i.b5 a6 4.i.a4 lLlf6 5 . 0-0 i.e7 6.Ei:e l b5
5 7.i.b3 0-0 S .c3 d5 9.exd5 lLlxd5 1 0.lLlxe5
4 lLlxe5 1 1 .Ei:xe5 c6 etc. Here, as a rule, White
finds himself in the role of defender in the very
3 opening.
2 In the modern dynamic struggle, the switch
from attack to defence (and vice versa) tends
I
to be a most delicate matter, demanding acute
a b c d e f g h positional flair and deep calculation.
 Methods of Defence - Switching from Defence to Attack
Let's look at the following examples.
Switching from Attack to Defence
Ratmir Kholmov Mark Taimanov
- The threat was 33.E:xf5 ! .
Tbilisi 1959
a b c d e f g h
Over a long period Black has held a strong
initiative. At this point, however, it appears
he should have contented himself with the
minimum gain by exchanging queens and
trying to exploit his superior queenside pawn
structure. Stubbornly, he tries to achieve
more.
21. f6 22.YlYe2 YlYd5 23.�bl �d4 24.YlYfl
••
�oo 25.YlYe2 �d4 26.YlYg2!
At this point another strategic precept stands
out very clearly - the switch from defence to
attack (this will be discussed further on) . We
should note that the two precepts are closely
interrelated.
26 �e6 27.g5 f5
•••
It wasn't too late to find a way to compromise,
by playing 27 . . . ltJxg5 28.ltJxg5 fxg5 29.VNxg5
E:f8 30.E:xe5 VNxf3 with a certain draw.
28.�c3 YlYd2 29.YlYf1 ! YlYxg5?
This has lamentable consequences. Better
1 73
was 29 . . . �xh2 30.�c4 cbf7 3 1 .�b 5 , with
double-edged play.
30.YlYc4 YlYf6 3 1 .�d5 YlYfl 32.glte5 g6
33.h4 gd6
Not 33 . . . h5? 34.ltJe7t! �xe7 3 5 .!!xe6 �f7
36.E:xg6t etc.
34.h5 goo
a b c d e f g h
35.YlYh4! �fll 36.h:x:g6 YlYxg6 37.YlYe7t � g8
38.�f6t eb h8 39.glte6 YlYgl t 40. eb a2
Black resigned.
From Defence to Counterattack
If switching from attack to defence is rather a
gloomy necessity even in the most auspicious
cases, the switch from defence to attack is always
illuminated in rosy tones. Counterplay is the
best way of fighting against your opponent's
initiative and attack. If neutralizing the threats
by purely defensive methods may eventually
achieve static equilibrium, counterplay means
contending for the advantage.
In my view, in modern chess the art of
counterattack is indeed the most widespread
defensive resource. It would not be much of
an exaggeration to say that this art is the only
174 Soviet Chess Strategy
thing that can genuinely widen your creative
scope. In our examples of active defence we
already saw what rich possibilities there were
for going over to the offensive. And of course
the most powerful means of asymmetrical
defence - and counterplay - is counterattack,
leading as a rule to an extremely sharp fight.
Eivind Poulsson - Ivan Farago
Gausdal 1976
l .d4 e6 2.�a �f6 3.c4 dS 4.�c3 cS S.cx:dS
�xdS 6.e3 �c6 7.i.c4 cx:d4 S.exd4 i.e7 9.0-0
0-0 10J:tel �xc3 1 l .bxc3 b6 12.i.d3 i.b7
13.YlYc2 g6 14.YlYd2 i.f6 IS.h4 gcs 16.hS
a b c d e f g h
This position represents the moment of
transition from opening to middlegame. What
seems to be very much a strategic struggle is in
progress. At this stage Black's usual plan was
to play "for points" on the queens ide, with
1 6 . llJa5 etc. White in turn would strive to
. .
work up an attack with his pieces against the
king.
But now a completely new treatment of the
position, or more exactly a new solution to it,
was revealed. Like a bolt from the blue, there
followed:
16 ... �xd4!! 17.�xd4 gxc3!!
Black went on to win after:
IS.YlYxc3 hd4 19.YlYc2 .bal 20.i.a3 YlYgS!
21 .i.e4 gcs 22.YlYe2 he4 23.YlYxe4 i.g7
Counter-attack has become the leitmotif of
many a contemporary opening system. Take
this variation of the Sicilian Defence:
Albin Planinec - Dragoljub Mink
Ljubljana 1973
1 .e4 cS 2.�a d6 3.d4 cx:d4 4.�xd4 �f6
S.�c3 a6 6.i.g5 e6 7.£4 �bd7 s.YlYa YlYc7
9.0-0-0 bS 10.eS i.b7 1 1 .YlYh3 dxeS 12.�xe6
fxe6 13.YlYxe6t i.e7 14.hbS axbS I S.�xbS
YlYc6 16.�d6t c;f? dS 17.fxeS
Only a few years ago hardly anyone would
seriously have taken up Black's cause. His king
is virtually under fire from the entire white
army. And yet in view of some remarkable
counter-attacking resources, Black's defence
is by no means broken. The following game
serves to confirm this.
a b c d e f g h
17 ... 'i�k7!
To show the full seriousness of the problem
of counter-attack, I should point out that this
move is an improvement of Black's defence
discovered during home analysis.
 Methods of Defence - Switching from Defence to Attack 175

Previously 1 7 . . .i':�e8 1 8 .exf6 gxf6 1 9.1Llxb7t Strategic Aims of Tactical Operations

had been played, with a slight advantage to
White in Bronstein - Ciocaltea, Kislovodsk In a number of cases a strategic plan has its
1 968. source, so to speak, in a purely tactical opera­
tion. For instance an exchange is undoubtedly
18.Yfxe7!? one of the most widespread tactical devices. In
Perhaps White should have settled for most cases it takes place for eminently tactical
equality with 1 8 .Axf6 gxf6 1 9.'lWxe7 l'!xa2 reasons. Yet there are circumstances where the
20.lLlxb7 l'!al t 2 1 .\tld2 'lWxg2t 22.\tlc3 'lWc6t exchanging operation has profound strategic
etc. implications.
Let's return to the issues of attack and defence
18 .. J�xa2! 19J�d4? that we have just examined.
It was essential to play 1 9 .Axf6 gxf6 20 .lLlxb 7, In the vast majority of cases the attacking
reverting to the line in the last note. side avoids simplification {unless of course it
brings concrete dividends} , while the defender
19 .. Jlalt! conversely looks for ways to exchange pieces.
The start of the decisive counter-attack. For the exploitation of a material advantage
or a clear positional one, simplification can be
the most rational method. After all, whenever
pieces of equal status are exchanged, this in­
creases the relative disparity in value between
8
the remaining forces. This principle is linked
7 to some subtler tactical devices that have a
strategic import. In particular, the threat of an
6
exchange may be partly utilized to compel the
5 opponent to abandon some strong outpost or
4 other. In other words, by this device you pursue
the strategic aim of improving the position of
3 your own pieces {while that of your opponent's
2 pieces is weakened} .
Very often, then, positional themes are
1 furthered by exchanges. Similar themes also
a b c d e f g h underlie some other devices that might seem
purely tactical. This applies primarily to the
22 .. J�a4t!! 23.�xa4 .ic6t 24. � b4
pin. Most often, of course, a pin makes a
White could not save himself with 24.lLlb5t
serious impact in moments of purely tactical
either: 24 ... Axb5t 25.\tlxb5 'lWc6t 26.\tlb4
conflict. Yet in numerous cases a pin in the
lLld5t
opening phase will logically influence the way
the play develops.
24..J�b8t 25. � c4 �d5 26.�e8t gxe8
The strategic significance of a pin is that
27.Yfd6t �b7 28.gxd5 Yfxhl 29J!�a5 Yfe4t
sooner or later it induces the opponent to
30.�b3 gxe5 3 1 ..id8 Yff3t 32.c3 Yff7t
make moves which weaken his position in a
33.c4 ge3t 34.�b4 Yfm
way that affects the whole course of the game.
Black soon won.
As Nimzowitsch said, a pin doesn't have to last
176 Soviet Chess Strategy

for ages. A sporadic pin (or the threat of it) is in
itself an important positional factor.
How many issues of this kind are raised by the
Ruy Lopez! Or by the Four Knights Game:
1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 �c6 3.�c3 �f6 4.J.b5 J.b4
5.0-0 0-0 6.d3 .ixc3 7.bxc3 d6 8.J.g5 Yffe7
9.�el
What is best for Black now? Should he drive
the bishop away at once with 6 . . . h6 7 . .lh4 g5,
or should he play 6 . . .J.g4 with a counter-pin?
Should he parry the positional threat of 7.llJd5
with 6 . . . .le6, or should he ignore this threat by
playing 6 . . . llJa5 or even castling?
In all these cases he will, primarily, be giving
attention to purely positional and strategic
considerations.

The Art of Manoeuvring in Balanced

Positions

In master play you often have to cope with

"prosaic" situations - with playing balanced
positions that are boring in appearance. As
we observed before, balanced positions in
modern play are not symmetrical in character
and are by no means synonymous with a
quick draw. Playing such positions demands
great manoeuvring skill. Frequently one of the
a b c d e f g h
players will command a good deal more space.
9 ... �d8!? 1 0.d4 �e6 But if the constricted side has possibilities for
And so on. flexible manoeuvring, such positions are not
only defensible but viable in every sense.
Or take the following example, from an already
forgotten line of the Giuoco Piano: Tigran Petrosian - Boris Spassky
1 .e4 e5 2.�f3 �c6 3.J.c4 J.c5 4.�c3 �f6 Moscow 1966
5.d3 d6 6.J.g5
The line perhaps merely presents us with
8
a complex of characteristic ideas that always
accompany the problem of pinning. 7

6
8 'Y
5
7
4
6
3
5
2
4
1
3
a b c d e f g h
2
Black appears to be suffocating for lack of
1

a b c d e f g h
 Methods of Defence - Switching from Defence to Attack
space, but upon closer inspection he proves
to have excellent scope for manoeuvring.
Interestingly Spassky even rated his position
as the pleasanter of the two. This is probably
an over-optimistic j udgement, but the further
course of the game demonstrates that Black does
have a wealth of resources for counterplay.
41. 1Ye6t 42. <.t> g2 Ah6 43.tldl tlf8
•.
44.tlb2 tld7 45J�df3 1Yg4 46.1Yc4t <.t> g7
47.tld3 geS 4SJ�bl
White misses the strongest continuation
of the attack: 48 .ib2! The idea is to meet
48 . . . YMe6 with the decisive 49.itJxe5! itJxe5
50.YMxe6 l:he6 5 1 Jhf6! etc.
4S 1Ye6 49.1Yxe6 gxe6 50.b4 axM 5 1 .gxM
.•.
ga7 52.gb2
Better was 52.:B:n , to bring this rook to b 1 .
The initiative is gradually passing to Black.
52 ... geS 53JUl <.t> f7 54.a5 <.t> e6
a b c d e f g h
Move by move Spassky improves the placing
of his pieces by finding secure posts for
them. The position of his king on e6 is very
comfortable.
55.Ab4 Ae3!
After a long slumber, the bishop too starts to
play an active role.
1 77
56.ge2 Ad4 57. <.t> h3 gf8 5S.gel gaaS
59. <.t> g2 ggS
Black could already have seized the initiative
with 59 . . . g5!.
60.tle1 g5 61 .tla gxh4 62.tlxh4 gg4
63.tlfS gagS 64. <.t> h3 gSg5?!
Black has been manoeuvring superbly,
deploying the concealed mechanism of his
cramped position with great skill. But here
he fails to find an effective way to take the
initiative: 64 . . . h4! 6 5 .gxh4 :B:f4 etc.
65.gb l gxe4 66.gxe4 gxrs 67.ge2 ga
6S. <.t> g2 gd3 69.gd2 ge3 70.ga2! fS 7 1 .Ae1
tlxc5 n.Ar.z
8
7
6
5
a b c d e f g h
n ... gb3
Now it is Black who needs to force the draw.
If 72 . . . :B:d3?, then 73 .ixd4 :B:xd4 74.:B:xb7!
itJxb7 75 .a6, and White wins. A rook exchange
is therefore unavoidable.
73J�xb3 tlxb3 74.ga3 tlc5 75.Axd4 exd4
76.ga d3! 77. <.t> r.z
Draw.
We should note that on transition from the
opening to the middlegame there are a good
many restricted positions which nonetheless
contain considerable potential, thanks to their
convenient manoeuvring possibilities.
178 Soviet Chess Strategy
Take the position arising from this variation
of the English Opening:
l.c4 cS 2.c�� 6 �f6 3.�c3 dS 4.cxdS �xdS
S.e4 �b4 6..tc4 �d3t 7.c;!?e2 �xc1 t SJ�xc1
e6 9.d4 cxd4 10.�xd4
Better is l O.ibStL
10 ...�xd4 1 1 .�xd4 a6 12J::lhdl
a b c d e f g h
Even though White is six tempos ahead in
development and has noticeably more space,
his advantage is very slight. The point is that
Black has no weak spots, and this enables
him to manoeuvre flexibly and complete his
mobilization successfully.
Of course, such life-sustaining resources are
by no means available in every constricted
position. The examples we have looked
at should not be confused with that large
group of cramped and forlorn positions
to which Tarrasch's dictum applies: ''A
constricted position contains the seeds of
defeat!" Contemporary practice yields a finely
differentiated scale to measure the most minute
advantages in positions where the opponent
has no possibilities for active counterplay.
Anatoly Karpov - Lajos Portisch
Milan 1975
8 T
7
6
a b c d e f g h
It looks as if the resources for combat are
very limited and the game must unavoidably
end in a draw. However, White has a small
plus in the shape of slightly greater space in
the centre, and this permits him to work up a
kingside initiative.
17 J::leS lSJUel ge6 19.c4 Ab7 20.6
.•
gbeS
Black had to think about breakin g with . . . f7-
f5 to gain more space on the kingside. To this
end it was worth considering 20 .. J�f8.
21 .�d2 .ic6 22.b3 �e7 23.�f4 gbS 24..ic3
f6 2S. c;!? fl �f7 26.h4 geeS?!
A much more active move was 26 . . . hS.
Black's trouble is that he puts off any active
counter-measures and gradually ends up in a
thoroughly cramped position.
27.g4 gb7 2S.gb2 gebS 29.geb l gffi 30.gg1
Ad7 3 1 .�e3 �e6 32.�d3 .ic6 33.b4 cxb4
34.axb4 .ieS 3SJ::ld2 gb6 36.�d4!
Starting a resolute offensive.
36 ...�eS?
This leads to the loss of a pawn. But in the
 Methods of Defence - Switchin g from Defence to Attack 179

event of 36 . . . Wfe7 37.g5! fxg5 38 .l'!xg5 , Black's

game is still very difficult.

2 a b c d e f g h

1 54.id2 gg8 55.�f4! gb8 56.ga7 g;, f6

57.gg7 �e6 58.gc7 gh8 59.gc6 gg8
a b c d e f g h
60.gxd6 g;, 5 61 .gxb6 gg4 62J�xe6 g;,xe6
37.ti'xb6 ti'h2t 38. g;, e1 ti'xd2t 39. g;,xd2 63. g;, e4 ggl 64.b6
cx:b6 40J�al �f7 41.gxa6 gb8 42. g;, d3 h5 Black resigned.
43.b5! hxg4 44.fxg4 gc8 45.ga4 �e6 46.g5
5 47.ex5 h5t 48. g;, d4 g;, f7 49.�b4 g;, e6 With this we conclude our examination of the
50.ga6 gb8 5 1 .h5 �g4 52.h6! gxh6 53.gxh6 objective factors in modern positional play.
i5
It isn't hard to see that the endgame is lost
for Black.
 Conclusion
Th e examples discussed in this book show how dangerous it i s t o overrate the si gnificance of
obvious-seeming advantages in a position. I have tried to demonstrate that in the vast majority
of cases a most important role is played by covert and primarily tactical features of the struggle.
They come to light only in the dynamics of the game.
The concept of chess dynamics is constantly being elaborated and enriched. It is in consequence
of this that such factors as the co-operation of the forces, the initiative, the transformation of
positional advantages, and so forth, have acquired great importance. With the contemporary
evolution of opening theory, the investi gation of many middlegame problems is intimately
connected with the study of opening structures.
The role of dynamics, immeasurably increased, has brought far more complexity into chess
thought. In numerous cases where complicated positions arise, it is insufficient to be guided by
general positional considerations and the variations that support and clarify them. The boundaries
of concrete thought in chess have been immensely widened.
Yet it must not be supposed that chess is becoming drier and more uninteresting as a result of
this. Far from it - the concrete thinking of our time is directed against the canons of formal logic
and is based, above all, on the elements of imagination in the art of chess; and this constantly
enhances the subtlety and interest of the chess struggle.
Hence the ever-increasing demands on a chess player's skill. Acquiring this skill means not j ust
filling your baggage with knowledge and tricks of the trade. It also means being able to foresee the
concrete development of the struggle for a long way - and this is aided by possession of a wide­
ranging arsenal of strategic and tactical ideas and of course a high-level technique for calculating
variations. Exercising chess skill also means not being afraid to take a healthy risk, and knowing
how to apply the principles of the chess struggle flexibly.
All this shows that the game of chess, like all creativity, is fascinating and infinite.
Appendix

From the Book

"The Middlegame in Chess"
The Initiative

Modern strategy accords prime importance to sacrifices for the initiative, continuing the best
traditions of such notable masters of the attack as Anderssen, Morphy, Chigorin, Charousek,
Alekhine, Breyer, Reti and Spielmann. Here is a classic example of such a sacrifice.

Ernst Griinfeld - Rudolf Spielmann

Sopron 1934

a b c d e f g h
Black has a lead in development, but how is he to exploit it in such a closed position? The
following solution is of great interest.

12 ... e5! 13.fxe5 �xe5!

Black sacrifices a piece, obtaining a strong initiative which threatens to grow into an attack. The
specific aim of the sacrifice is to keep the enemy king in the centre. It will then become an object
of attack for Black's developed and harmoniously-working pieces.
182 Soviet Chess Strategy
Of course, this operation required far­
reaching calculation. But no matter how it
was performed, concrete calculation could not
have exhausted this position. When embarking
on the combination, Black was guided first
and foremost by his faith in the initiative, and
his confidence that it would grow. What the
author of the combination himself said on this
subject is noteworthy:
"The correctness of the knight sacrifice
cannot be proved analytically, and in a
correspondence game it might have met with
a refutation. Yet in an over-the-board game
with thinking time limited to one hour for
1 8 moves, such sacrifices are almost bound to
lead to victory." (Rudolf Spielmann, The Art of
Sacrifice in Chess)
14.dxe5 d4! 1 5.lLldl
1 5 .exd4 was a better choice - not fearing a
queen check on h4, in view of 1 6.';t>d l and
1 7.@c2.
1 5 ....L:e5 16.e4
At the cost of another pawn White holds up
the opening of lines.
16 ... .L:e4 17.lLlfl .id5 1 8.W1h3
19 ..ie2?
Not an obvious mistake, but already decisive.
White should have played 1 9.�d l , when the
position remains very double-edged.
a b c d e f g h
19 ... d3!
White had not foreseen this. His king is
now stuck in the centre and comes under a
devastating attack.
2o.lLlxd3 gfe8 21 .@f1
2 1 .0-0 loses to 2 1 . . .i.d4 t.
21. ..hb2! 22.gel W1f6t 23.lLlfl .id4 24.W1g3
ge4! 25.h4
On 25 .W1f3 Black wins with 25 . . . Ei:xe2!
26.WI'xe2 i.c4!.
25 ... gae8 26 ..ib5 gxel t 27..L:el ge3
28.W1g5 gxel t 29.@xel W1xf2t 30.@dl
.ixg2
White resigned after a few more moves.
We must observe that to assess the initiative
factor correctly, it is imperative to take its
stability and durability into account and to
consider the active resources of the defending
side. It should be borne in mind that in many
cases one player will have conceded the initia­
tive to his opponent deliberately, in exchange
for some positional or material factors of an
enduring nature. He will be counting on the
possibility of gradually neutralizing his op­
W1e7
ponent's initiative and utilizing the positional
trumps he has gained.
The following example is characteristic.
Semyon Furman Alexey Suetin
-
Kiev 1954
8 ...
2
1
a b c d e f g h
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 183

Black is the exchange up, but White holds

the initiative. His threats are very dangerous.

17 J1k8!
••

Possibly the only move. Black gives up a

pawn but takes urgent measures to obtain
active counterplay. It would only take a single
passive move, such as 1 7 . . . .id7, to incur an
irresistible attack after 1 8 .e5.

18.YlYd4 .id7 19.'l!rxa7 �e4!

a b c d e f g h
8
40.f4?
7
The decisive though barely obvious mistake.
6 White hastens to carry out his plan of attack
in the centre but does so prematurely, giving
5
Black the chance to activate his rooks to good
4 effect and seize the initiative.
3
4O ge4! 41 .a3 gae8 42.ge3 gd4 43.mh2
2
•••

mm
1 !:J. White is tied down defending the key points
in the centre. He cannot prevent the further
a b c d e f g h strengthening of Black's position.
Black is willing to give up another pawn to
wrest the initiative from his opponent. After 44.h5 gxh5 45.e5 �e4 46.ge1 fxe5 47.fxe5
20 ..ixc4 l:!xc4 2 1 .'l!rxb7 he would have a very
active position; White would already have
numerous threats to parry.

20.h4 �e5 2 1 .ib l .ib5 22J:�e1 ga8 23.'l!re3

•

'l!ra5
By means of various threats, Black thwarts
White's basic plan of an offensive in the centre
(8-f4 and e4-e5) . Over a long series of moves
a fierce battle for the initiative is fought out,
demanding rapid and accurate calculation.

24.�d4 gee8 25-"1g1 .id7 26.�b3 'l!ra7

27.'l!rel 'l!ra6 28 ..ie3 .ia4 29.�e5 'l!ra5 a b c d e f g h
30.'l!rfl �e4 31 ..id4 b6 32.�e6 .id7 33.�f4 47 �xa3! 48.gfl t me8 49.e6 he6! 50.dxe6
•••

'l!rd2 34.�e2 .ia4 35 .ic3 'l!re3 36.'l!re1 .ib5

•
gMt 5 1 .mgl gxb4
37 .ib4 �d6 38.�c3 'l!rxe1 39.gxel .id7
•
Black soon won.
1 84 Soviet Chess Strategy

This example shows that to contend with the 19.�bd2 �xh3 20.lYxc7 .tg4
opponent's initiative in such situations, it is
most important to strive to obtain counter­
8
play.
Difficult situations with concealed 7
possibilities of counterplay are handled with 6
remarkable skill by Viktor Korchnoi.
5
Vtktor Korchnoi - Bogdan Sliwa 4

Bucharest 1954 3

2
8 1 6.
7 a b c d e f g h
6 2U�xh3!
5 An unpleasant surprise. White seizes the
initiative from his opponent and his centre
4 becomes a formidable force.
3
2 1 . .txh3 22.0-0-0 hfI?
2
••

22 . . . J.g4 23.!!e l !!ab8 was much stronger.

1
������
23.gxf1 lYd3 24.e4 gac8 25.lYf4 b5
a b c d e f g h
On the white side of a Two Knights
Defence, Korchnoi has gone into a difficult
variation. He has won a pawn but conceded
a dangerous initiative to his opponent.
Some very instructive complications arise, in
which White ingeniously finds resources for
counterplay at the same time as preserving his
material plus.

1 l e3!?
•••

By sacrificing another pawn, Black opens

lines for the attack.
a b c d e f g h
12.he3 he3 1 3.fxe3 �e4 14.�f1 lYh4t
26.g;,dl!
1 5.g3 lYf6 16.c3 .tf5 17.lYa �g5 1 8.lYf4
An astute move. The threat is 27.!!f3 and
lYg6?
Black is forced into a serious weakening of
Black has lost his way in the complexities.
his position. Essentially the game has been
He had to play 1 8 . . . lDxh3, maintaining the
decided.
initiative after 1 9.!!xh3 .lxh3 20.lYxf6 gxf6.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
26 £5 17.e5 bxc4 1 8.d6 Wd5 29.Wd4 We6
•..
30.gel gf7 3 1 .b3 cxb3 32.axb3 a5 33.c4
gd7 34.ge3 gb7 35.Wd5! Wxd5 36.cxd5
White easily exploited his advantage.
At the beginning of the game Black is
compelled (to some extent) to submit to
White's initiative. His own plans are in a
measure dependent on the particular intentions
of the attacking side. This does not of course
mean that Black is condemned to defence and
deprived of activity. He j ust has more in the
way of difficulties, and may have to take more
responsibility for his actions. If a minor error
on White's part usually leads to no more than
loss of the initiative, there are plenty of cases
where a similar error by Black can have much
worse consequences.
Naturally, in the opening stage White
should endeavour to consolidate and increase
his initiative. Black conversely will try to
neutralize White's endeavours and, if the
occasion offers, seize the initiative for himself
In master play it is considered a distinct
achievement if you manage to gain firm
possession of the initiative, guaranteeing a
small but lasting plus.
In the modern opening, the initiative factor
plays a most important role. This indeed is
what constitutes the new approach to the role
of time in chess, an approach which rejects
the mechanical counting of tempos. The main
thing is to consider the link between a tempo
and a concrete idea, since it is only on this
condition that a particular plan can be carried
out successfully.
Of course, the struggle for initiative in the
opening most often revolves round possession
of the centre squares.
The methods of fighting for the initiative
in the modern opening are continually being
refined. Active methods (for playing with
White) as well as defensive ones (for Black) are
elaborated in detail, and this is what supplies
185
the driving impulse for the development of
opening theory.
The endeavour to organize consistent lon g­
term pressure on the central squares remains
the fundamental modern opening strategy
for White. It finds vivid expression in such
currently popular openings as the Ruy Lopez
and the Half-Open and Closed Games.
Avoiding any rapid simplification of the game
or premature liquidation of the pressure on
the centre, White's chief task here is to prevent
Black from developing freely - and gradually
to deprive him of active play.
Propounded ever since Steinitz's day, this
strategy for White has undergone much
modification and its content has been greatly
enriched. At the present time it opens the way
to a complex dynamic struggle rather than to
the accumulation of small advantages (as we
discussed earlier) .
In the modern opening White conducts an
extremely active fight for the initiative, and to
this end he often boldly undertakes to sharpen
the play. The changes to White's strategy in
favour of aggression and dynamism have been
induced to a large extent by the significant
increase in activity by Black, who strives for
counterplay at the very start of the game (this
may be considered his basic contemporary
strategy) . In this style of play Black doesn't
confine himself to passive defence of the
centre squares in the opening, but consistently
tries to thwart White's plans, opposing them
with plans of his own for counterplay in the
centre.
Given Black's aspirations to active
counterplay in the opening, White is obliged
to take concrete measures and not rely
complacently on the advantage of the move.
With routine play he is liable not only to lose
the initiative quickly but also to land in severe
difficulties.
Let's look at the following example.
186 Soviet Chess Strategy
Mark Taimanov Lev Aronin
-
Tbilisi 195 1
a b c d e f g h
Proceeding from general considerations,
White selects what looks like the natural plan
for a kingside pawn storm after castling long.
This could have been a good plan if Black had
not been able to organize active counterplay.
In this case, however, Black very astutely
exploits the peculiarities of the position (strong
pressure on the hB-a l diagonal; the possibility
of quickly opening the game in the centre and
on the queenside) , and shows that White's
stereotyped designs are unfounded.
The game continued:
9.g4
Black would have found it much harder to
organize counterplay after i.f1 -d3, tLlgl -e2
and 0-0.
9 ...ti'a5 10 ..th6 .th8 1 1 .h4 �e5! 12.h5 e6
13.0-0-0 exd5 14.exd5 .td7 1 5 ..tg5 .ta4!
16.�xa4 ti'xa4 17.<bb l b5! 1 8.hxg6 fxg6
19 ..txf6 .txf6 20.cxb5 �c4!
White has ended up facing insurmountable
difficulties.
8
7
a b c d e f g h
The strategy of counterplay predetermines
Black's choice of opening system. At the present
time we may state that many well-established
defensive systems are being re-examined from
the standpoint of searching for counterplay,
and are being notably enriched with new
content as a result of this treatment.
In positions where Black has counterplay
against White's bid for a lasting initiative, what
is least of all permissible is the mechanical
implementation of commonplace principles.
In the struggle for the centre at the start of
the game, both sides are already striving to
disrupt the co-ordination of each other's forces
with the concrete middlegame prospects in
mind. As the fight for the initiative proceeds,
complex positions arise involving rich and
varied strategic plans. Approximate equality
of the chances does not point towards
simplification and an early draw. It merely
emphasizes that both sides are fully entitled to
their undertakings in the coming struggle.
Summing up, we may conclude that
counterplay is the best means offighting against
the workings of the opponent's initiative at
all stages of the game. If neutralization of
the initiative by purely defensive and passive
methods enables you, in the final reckoning, to
achieve static equilibrium, counterplay means
fighting for the advantage.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 1 87

Hence a player should resort to passive defence
only in a case of extreme necessity.
Transformation of Positional Factors
In the struggle for mastety of the positional
factors in the course of a game, there are
successive changes of scene. We are not
speaking of the minor and often insubstantial
alterations to the position that are basically
happening all the time, but of the crucial
moments in the struggle which radically
redirect its outward course. This means, in
the first place, the moments of transformation
from one phase to another (opening to
middlegame - middlegame to endgame) ; major
operations such as forced attacking lines or
complex exchanging sequences; various types
of combination (perhaps the most striking of
these crucial scenarios) ; and so on.
What happens in these cases is what chess
writers tend to call a transformation of
positional factors. It is by no means fortuitous,
but on the contrary underlines the strict logic
of the chess struggle. In these special moments
the positional and material factors are
transformed in accordance, so to speak, with
the underlying strategic and tactical content of
the particular game.
How this comes about will be elucidated in
our next example.
As the result of an opening error on his
opponent's part, White has attained a clear
preponderance in the centre. With his next few
moves he strives to consolidate his advantage.
12.l1kl .ib7 13 ..ib5!
In order to strengthen his centre, White has
to set it in motion with d4-d 5 . The move he
plays is essential preparation for this, seeing
that the immediate 1 3 .d5 is bad on account
of 1 3 . . . llJe5.
13 .. J�c8 14.fta4 otlaS 15.d5!
So the centre has started moving, constricting
Black's position still further. Black, therefore,
must endeavour to undermine the centre at
any cost, but at the moment 1 5 . . . e6? fails to
1 6.dxe6 fxe6 1 7.id7!.
1 5 ...ftd6 16 ..id2!
Again preventing 1 6 . . . e6 in view of 1 7 . .ib4,
and at the same time threatening to win a
pawn with 1 7.ixa5.

Semyon Furman Vassily Smyslov

-

Moscow 1949

6 a b c d e f g h
5 A critical moment. In his search for
4 counterplay, Black goes in for this risky break
in the centre. It's interesting to note what
3 would now happen if White attempted to
2 maintain his pair of centre pawns {which up

1 6-

a b c d e f g h
188 Soviet Chess Strategy
to here have been his chief concern} at any
price: after 1 8 .S? Black would obtain excellent
counterplay by 1 8 . . . fxe4 1 9.fxe4 .ie5 20.h3
�f6.
Therefore in order to retain his advantage,
White has to submit to the underlying necessity
of the position and radically alter his strategic
plan. Bearing in mind the new conditions of
the struggle {the kingside weakening which
Black's . . . £1-5 conceded} , White now starts
an attack with his pieces, utilizing their greater
freedom of manoeuvre. He ignores Black's
counterplay in the centre and allows his own
pawn centre to be broken up, since this sector
of the battle no longer fills the main, essential
role.
18.i.d7! Ue5 19 .ic3!
• with 1 8 . .id7! and 1 9 . .ic3!. The success of
Proceeding to the decisive attack on the
king. White's threats grow quickly and become
irresistible.
19 ... Uxe4 20.J.e6t <it>h8 21 .bg7t <it>xg7
22.Ua3!
a b c d e f g h
The threat of 23.�xe7t is very powerful. If
now 22 .. .'it>f6, then 23.�c3t �e5 24.llJd4, and
Black has no defence to the threat of 25 J'!e 1 .
On 22 . . . �e8, White has 23.Ub2t <it>h6 24.�c3
with a mating attack.
22 ... Uh4 23J:�c7 <it>h8 24Jhe7 Uf6 25J�k7
.ia6 26.�f4 Ual t 27J:kl Ug7 28.gc3 gd8
29.Ub2
White wins, since there is no satisfactory
defence against the threatened 30.llJxg6t.
In this game Black's error in the opening gave
White the chance to achieve superiority in the
centre. Subsequently White implemented an
active, aggressive plan ( l 5 .d5!) which cramped
Black's pieces even more. With a view to
obtaining counterplay, Black urgently needed
to organize an undermining of the centre with
1 7 . . . 5. Acting on his concrete perception of
the dynamics of the struggle, White abandoned
the centre, and, ignoring Black's counterplay,
started an energetic attack on the kingside
the attack was predetermined by the clearly
superior placing of White's pieces as well as by
his spatial advantage.
The path White took was the only way to
retain his advantage and subsequently increase
it. His advance in the centre and his switching
of the attack to the kingside were the basic
stages in the transformation of the advantage
in the above game.
This example shows that there are moments
in a game when the logical course of the struggle
requires certain positional assets to be replaced
by others {that is, transformed} . Usually this
occurs when a player needs to alter his plan
and carry out an effective tactical operation.
These abrupt outward changes in the position
are an inseparable feature of the dynamic chess
struggle. The process of transforming the
positional factors highlights the indissoluble
bond that exists in chess between the positional
and dynamic factors of the contest - with the
dynamic ones having the leading, driving role.
The most careful attention must be given
to the tactical features of the struggle in these
transitional moments. Often, for instance,
after attaining some positional {or material}
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
advantages, you find that - according to the
logic of the struggle in the particular situation
- the initiative temporarily passes to your
opponent (sometimes for a long period) . It
is important in such cases to switch over to
defence in time, and seriously attend to the
prophylactic measures necessary to disarm your
opponent's threats. You can only then count
on exploiting your advantage successfully.
In this connection, the progress of events in
the following game is characteristic.
Tigran Petrosian - Vassily Smyslov
Bled 1959
a b c d e f g h
As the result of an interesting contest in the
opening, Black has succeeded in acquiring a
clear plus. He has not only won a pawn but has
good attacking prospects. With the following
energetic moves he increases his advantage.
19 �g4 20.g3 ic5! 2UM2 Ba7 22.fUl h6!
•••
23.1f4 1a6 24.BfS
Black would meet 24.BxdS with 24 . . . 1xfl
2S. 'it> xfl l:!ad8!, not only winning the exchange
but retaining the initiative. The move in the
game is White's only possible attempt to
sharpen the play. He manages temporarily
to seize the initiative and create some threats
against the black king.
189
24 hfl 25.Bxg4
•••
A new phase of the struggle begins; in order
to capitalize on his material plus, Black must
now go over to flexible defence.
a b c d e f g h
25 1c4! 26 .ixh6 g6 27 .ixc4 dxc4 28J:�d7
••• • •
Ba6!
Not only defending his pawn but also
parrying the threat of a rook sacrifice on fl.
In the event of 29 .l:!xfl 'it> xf7 30.YMd7t l:!e7
3 1 .lLlgst <j,Jg8 32.YMdSt 'it> h8 33.YMxcS YMf6
34.YMxc4 l:!d8 3 S .YMh4 l:! d l t 36. 'it> g2 YMc6t
37. 'it> h3 YMd7t 38. 'it> g2 YMdSt 39. 'it> h3 'it> g8,
Black successfully nullifies his opponent's
threats and has no trouble achieving the win -
analysis by G. Ravinsky.
29J:k7 YMd6 30.1f4 YMd5 3 U�d7 YMe6
32.Bxe6 �e6
After the queen exchange, Black's task is
perfectly simple.
33.gc7 ib6 34.gb7 c3 35.bxc3 bxc3 36.'it>fl
gd8 37.�g5 gf6 38.�xf7 gxf7 39.gxb6
gxf4!
White resigned.
In this last example the stronger side successfully
coped with realizing a material plus despite
the temporary loss of the initiative. But many
a game concludes in a far less logical way. It
often takes no more than a single inaccuracy
190 Soviet Chess Strategy

to imbue the opponent's threats, which looked

easy to parry, with formidable strength.

Mikhail TaI - E6m Geller

Riga 1958

a b c d e f g h
At this point, evidently succumbing to the
psychological stress of White's initiative, Black
blundered with:

25 gxf6??
•••

a b c d e f g h Which led to an immediate loss after:

With his last move Black tookoffan important
pawn on b4 with tempo. In appearance he has
not only secured the initiative but gained a
A logical conclusion to this game could have
clear positional plus.
been 25 . . . �xf6 26.�xf6 gxf6 27.d7 with a
Realizing that moving his rook from e 1 offers
draw. White's strong passed pawn compensates
no prospects, White takes the sole correct
for the material deficit.
decision - he sacrifices the exchange for the
initiative.
Naturally, in those moments when the
18Jlb l ! he1 19J�xb7 ge8 positional factors are decisively transformed,
It was seriously worth considering the the consequences of the change in the position
counter-sacrifice of a piece with 1 9 . . . �xd5! need to be evaluated with special accuracy.
20.�xd5 �xd5 2 1 .�xe l �c3!' White's Among such moments (and certainly among
initiative would be fully neutralized; the game the most difficult of them) are the so-called
would enter an ending that is very pleasant for transitions from one phase to another.
Black.
We will now demonstrate some features of the
20.d6! tvc8 21 .i.g5! ge2! transition from middlegame to endgame.
Taking the second exchange sacrifice with
2 1 . . .�xb7 would be bad on account of
22 . .ixf6 gxf6 23.�g4t c;i>fB (23 . . . c;i>h8 24.�(5)
24 . .ixh7 J.xf2t 25 .c;i>h2 and mates.

22.gc7 tve6 23.�xe1 gxe1t 24.c;i>h2 gd8

25 .hf6
•
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 191

Jose Raul Capablanca Frederick Yates

- bxa4 28.�3xa4 gc6 29.�b2!
By eventually converting his advantage into
New York 1924 a material plus, Capablanca achieved the win.

8 In this last example, the transition to an ending

was undoubtedly the most effective solution
7 for White, and perhaps even the sole correct
6 one. It was precisely in the endgame that the
advantages of his position, acquired in the
5 preceding struggle, could be exploited.
4 Bringing about simplification in this way
is particularly expedient when one side has a
3
material plus. But of course this rule should
2 not be dogmatized. The problems of chess are
exceedingly diverse and flexible. And often the
1 6.
most natural method of realizin g a material
a b c d e f g h plus - by simplification - may prove on closer
White executed an exceptionally precise inspection to be mistaken and merely forfeit
operation involving a queen exchange and the advantage.
transition to a complex ending. In a number of cases, choosing the correct
path to exploit a plus is no easy matter even for
18.ixc4 dxc4 19.ti'd4! ti'c7 20.ti'c5! ti'xc5 the world's strongest players. This is confirmed
21.�xc5 b6 22.�5a4 gb8 23.0-0-0 b5 by the following example.
24.�c5
Vassily Smyslov Mikhail Botvinnik
-

8 Moscow 1954
7

6 8

5 7

4 6

3 5

2 4

1 3

a b c d e f g h 2

White has gained control of the only open 1

file and induced a substantial weakening of his a b c d e f g h
opponent's queenside. With some energetic
White has an extra piece. Black admittedly
strokes he breaks up Black's pawn chain.
has three pawns for it, but considering that his
pawns on the g-file are tripled, it is perfectly
24...gb6 25.a4! �h5 26.b3! cxb3 27.cxb3
192 Soviet Chess Strategy

obvious that the material balance is very much Returning to the position before 27.'We6t,
in White's favour. White's task therefore is to we should note that the correct method of
exploit this advantage. exploitation lay in an attack on the kingside.
Being a very subtle endgame connoisseur, That was just where the extra piece could have
Smyslov chooses the seemingly simplest played a decisive role.
method of exploitation, taking the game into The following convincing vanation,
an ending. recommended by Botvinnik, shows how
quickly White could have achieved his aim:
27.ti'e6t ti'xe6 28J!xe6 27.'Wg2!
However, in this position Black has an
astonishing way to save himself, which even 8
Smyslov had failed to foresee in the heat of the 7
battle.
6
5
28 ... 'it?f7 29J�fel
29.i::1 e5 would not attain White's goal either: 4
29 .. .l':1fe8! 30.�xd5 �e3! 3 1 ..ib 1 �e2, or 3
30.�fe 1 .ic7. 2

29 .. JUe8 30.gxe8 gxe8 3 1 .gxe8

a b c d e f g h
This leads to a forced draw. But 3 1 .�d 1
would also have allowed Black adequate 27 . . . �fe8 28.h3 .ia5 29.�e5! with an irresistible
counter-chances in view of 3 1 . . .�e3 32. 'it?f2 attack.
�h3 .
The above examples have illustrated various
3 1 ...'it?xe8 32 ..ic3 'it?d7 33.a5 .id8 34. .ib4 means of transforming an advantage already
b6 35.a6 .if6! acquired; they have shown how an advantage
undergoes a succession of changes before the
game can be won. But in a wholly analogous
8
way, the transformation of positional factors
7 may be applied to balanced positions. They
too, after all, are full of genuine fight. This
6
is especially true of positions of dynamic
5 equilibrium, where the advantages on one
4 side are counterbalanced by the opponent's
advantages of a different type. In the process of
3 this fight, maintaining the balance is far from
2 simple. To do so, however paradoxical this may
seem, you often even have to sacrifice material!
1
But ultimately, if both sides play purposefully
a b c d e f g h and correctly, new positions of dynamic
equilibrium are created.
Black has constructed a fortress which White
The following example is notable.
has no way of breaching. After a few more
moves a draw was agreed.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
Evgeny Vasiukov - Boris Spassky
Tbilisi 1959
1 .e4 �f6 2.e5 �d5 3.c4 �b6 4.c5 �d5
5.ic4 e6 6.�c3 d6 7.�xd5 ad5 8.ixd5 c6
9.J.xf'7t <tIxf7 10.ad6
White has three pawns for the sacrificed piece.
Black's king cannot castle. In addition, the
pawn couple d6 + e5 looks most impressive.
Nevertheless Black's chances are no worse.
The point is that he can choose his moment to
return the piece for the suitable equivalent in
pawns, after which his forces will develop their
activity. Of course, he needs to play with great
care to maintain the balance.
10 ...Yfe8!
Best. The natural 1 O . . . ,ie6 would be worse
in view of 1 1 .liJh3!.
I 1 .Yff3t <tIg8 12.Yfe3 ie6 13.�e2 �d7
14.0-0
a b c d e f g h
14... �xe5!
A correct counter-sacrifice. The game now
enters a very sharp tactical phase.
1 5.Yfxe5 ic4 16.Yfxe8 gxe8 17.d3!
The only way. In the event of 1 7.d7 �d8
1 8 J�e l the ending would clearly favour Black,
193
with his two strong bishops and superior
development.
17 ... ixd3 18.gdl! ixe2 19.d7 gd8 20.igS
ixdl 21 .gxdl ie7!
The final link in the combination that was
essentially begun by 1 4 . . . liJxe5.
It turns out that White cannot maintain his
pawn on d7. The game enters a dead level
ending, with a draw rapidly approaching.
22.ixe7 <tIf7 23.ixd8 gxd8 24.£4 <tIe7
25.<tIfl �d7 26.gxd7t <tIxd7
A few moves later the draw was agreed.
The following game is an even more strikin g
example of such dynamic equilibrium.
Mikhail Tal - Lev Aronin
Moscow 1957
a b c d e f g h
In this game, as we can see from the diagram,
the struggle has taken on an uncommonly
sharp character. White has created some very
strong threats on the kingside, but Black's
threats, with a simultaneous attack on his
opponent's queen and rook, look even more
convincing. The further course of events
shows, however, that in this position, with its
194 Soviet Chess Strategy
wealth of combinative themes, neither player
can upset the equilibrium to his own benefit.
In the following combinative complexities, the
equilibrium merely changes its form.
26.hxg6! gxd3
Not 26 . . . hxg6, on account of 27.%YxdB!
E:xdB 2B.E:xdB %YxdB 29.l:!hBt! 'tt> x hB 30.lDxf7t
<;t> gB 3 1 . lDxdB, and the ending is clearly in
White's favour.
27J�xd3 hxg6 28.gh7!
a b c d e f g h
28 .. J1�c8!
Only thus. White's main threat was 29.f3!
ih5 30.l:!d7! or 29 ...ie6 30.E:d2! and
3 1 .E:dh2.
Black would also lose with 2B ... E:dB 29.E:xdB
%YxdB 30.E:hBt! etc.
29.a gc6!
This move is Black's salvation. In the event
of 30.fxg4 l:!xf6 3 1 .E:dh3 E:f2t 32.'tt> b 3 %Yd6,
there could be winning chances only on his
side.
30.gxf'7 Yfxf'7 3 1 .�xf'7 'tt>xf'7 32.fxg4 'tt>xf6
33.gd7 gb6
An equal rook endgame has been reached,
which quickly ended in a draw.
Every juncture where positional factors
are transformed demands a fair degree of
resoluteness from the player. It is often hard
to renounce some outward merits of a position
(such as a good centre, strong pieces and so
forth) for the sake of some other prospects.
But we should remember that a game of chess
is a dynamic process. However attractive we
may find this or that position in the process
of the struggle, it will nonetheless have to be
modified. More than that - the outward merits
of the position are only real when they can be
successfully transformed. A player has to bend
his efforts to the timely utilization of these
merits, or they may be lost for good.
The transformation of positional factors is
one of the most important principles of the
chess struggle. To master this principle is to
conquer various prej udices consisting in a
range of dogmatic rules.
The Concrete Approach to
Evaluating a Position
Chess thought is not assimilated all at once.
A player first has to absorb various principles,
schemes, typical tactical and strategic devices.
At the same time he starts acquiring the skills
of combinative vision, as the prerequisite for
the further development of his thought. This
too is a complex process. To begin with, the
player notices only simple threats, then he
begins to see combinative strokes; finally
he starts to appreciate that harmonious co­
ordination which is conducive to combination.
It is only by following this learning course that
he gains the essential foundation enabling him
to utilize his knowledge and skills flexibly. He
begins to be a thinker once he becomes aware
of the internal connections between the various
factors of the game, between the objective and
subjective concepts.
A chessplayer calls this the concrete approach
to the position {in a broad sense of the term, you
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
understand} . To think concretely means, above
all, to grasp the features of any given position
in a comprehensive manner and to be able to
relate them to general principles.
Of course it is only through the concrete
approach that you can penetrate to the essence
of the struggle taking place in a position. The
fundamental aim of the concrete approach is
to investi gate the dynamics of the position and
find the most effective path, as circumstances
permit. In this process each individual move,
in keeping with the general plan, must fulfil
the most vital task that the position presents.
Alexander Nikitin Semyon Furman
-
Tbilisi 1959
a b c d e f g h
In this position Black's basic task is to fend
off the pressure on the kingside, then deploy
his forces and set about exploiting his material
plus.
The most urgent part of this plan is to
neutralize White's threats along the g-file, and
the best way to do so is by the bold move:
19 ig4!
•••
Which required far-sighted calculation. The
events develop almost on forced lines.
20.ixg4 hxg4 2UhhSt ixhs 22.Wh2 if6
195
23.Wh7 a6!
Driving the knight from its active post at
a very opportune moment. Now 24.ltJa3
would be met by 24 . . . %Ve6, developing Black's
queenside forces.
24.Wgst q"d7 25.%Vxg4t e6 26.ltJa3
a b c d e f g h
26 WhS!
•••
Having beaten off the attack, Black proceeds
to a decisive counter-offensive of his own.
It is instructive to follow how accurately he
deals with the essential problems during the
concluding stage of the game.
27.%Vgl id4 2s.ixd4 %Vxd4 29Jf!fl We3t
30.q"b l �gS! 3 1 .%Vc2
After 3 1 . %VxgB %V d3 t , Black regains his
material with interest.
3 1 . �gI 32.%Vdl %Ve4t 33.q"al �xfl 34.%Vxfl
••
ltJd4 35.%Vfl %Vhl t 36.�b 1 Wgl !
Winning the pawn o n f4 for good measure.
37.%Vdl %Ve3! 3S.%Vdl %Vxf4 39.�c3 Wfl
40.a3 WeI !
White resigned.
In the course of the chess struggle, dependin g
on your opponent's particular actions, it can
be necessary to alter your strategic plan or the
196 Soviet Chess Strategy
tactical means to its accomplishment. Such
changes in the course of the fight are something
else which can only be handled by a concrete
approach to the position.
Among other things we should note that only
concrete thought can rid a chessplayer of those
oversights - occurring so frequently in practice
- which invariably stem from conventionality,
from assessing a position superficially by
general criteria alone. It must be remembered
that literally up until the final move, a game
of chess abounds in tactical threats - so that
accuracy is essential even in completely won
positions. Every move in the game requires a
concrete grounding .
Here is one example of punishment for a
non-concrete approach to the position.
Viktor Korchnoi Alexey Suetin
-
Leningrad 1960
a b c d e f g h
This position is clearly favourable to Black,
who in effect has an extra passed pawn, and a
powerful one, on the c-file.
With 36 . . . lLla3! Black could, as a minimum,
have won a piece for two pawns. The natural
37J::k l for instance, is wholly bad on account
of37 . . . c2 38 . .ib2 lLld3! 39 . .if3t @c4 40 . .txa3
lLlxcl 4 1 ..txc l l3b8 42.,if4 l3b l t 43.@f2 a5!
followed by 44 ... c l =Wf.
The only line to keep some saving chances
for White would be 37.l3b7 c2 38 .,ixc2 l3xc2
39.he5 �xe5 40.l3xg7.
Wishing to avoid the penetration of White's
rook to the seventh rank, Black relied on
general considerations and played:
36 lLld6?
•••
In this he was failing to take White's concrete
threats into account. There followed:
37 .tb3t! @e4
•
Not 37 . . .'it>d4 38 .l3d l t lLld3 39 . .ic2 etc.
38J�e1 t @f5 39 .tc2t @e6 4O .tb3t @f5
• •
41 ..tc2t @e6
a b c d e f g h
Black's punishment now immediately began,
as White eliminated the c-pawn with:
42J��e3
And then exploited his advantage to win.
All this shows that for advanced thinkin g ,
a chessplayer has to command a high level
of technique in calculating variations and
to possess a well-stocked arsenal of strategic
and tactical ideas. A whole range of positions
require inexhaustible fantasy and inventiveness
to handle them, and for this you need to
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 197

cultivate a refined aesthetic chess flair. Finally,
a player with advanced qualities of thought
should never lose that "compass" which
consists in mastery of the general principles of
the struggle.
There are complex positions, rich in ideas,
which offer a number of ways of fighting -
objectively equal in worth, but varying in
character. Here the choice of plan depends
The subsequent play is ofan exclusively concrete
(or, as chess players say, forced) nature.
17.£4! .be3t 18.cbhl .ixcl 1 9.fxg5!!
White forces an opening of lines on the
kingside in the quickest way, without shrinking
from significant material sacrifices.
19 .bg5 20J::txf6 !
.••

mainly on a player's style, his creative leanings.

But concrete thinking is essential all the same
8
- both when choosing any of these paths and,
even more, in the subsequent conduct of the 7
fight. 6
Here are a few illustrations.
5
Vladas Mikenas - B. Lebedev 4

Tbilisi 194 1 3

2
8 1
7 a b c d e f g h
6 On 20 . . . ,ixf6 2 1 .%Yd3 the attack is
5 immediately decisive.

4 The profundity of White's plan and the extent

3 of his calculations are strikingly illustrated by
the following variation:
2
20 . . . %Yb5!
1 D. Probably Black's best option.
2 1 .ltJg4
a b c d e f g h
But not 2 1 .%Yc2 %Yxb I t! 22.%Yxb l i.xf6,
An advantage for White has taken shape on when in return for the queen Black has two
the kingside and in the centre. His forces are rooks and a solid position.
much more actively deployed, and in addition 2 1 . . .i.xf6 22.ltJxf6t cbg7 23 .i.h4 %Yc4 24.i.e4
the pawn formation in front of Black's castled e5 25.ltJh5t
king has been somewhat weakened. Taking But not 2 5 .%Ye l , in view of 25 ... ,ig4
account of these factors, White carried out 26.ltJxg4 f5 .
an unexpected and very sharp attack on the 2 5 . . . cbg8 26.%yf3
kingside, which above all required a high With an irresistible attack.
degree of imagination as well as long-range
calculation. 20 cbg7 2 1 .Y!Yd3!
•••

The rook cannot be taken, as White gives

1 98 Soviet Chess Strategy

a check on g4. Now follows a beautiful The right continuation was 1 5 .f4! lLled3
combination. 1 6.lLlxa4 lLlxa4 1 7.bxa4 lLlc5 1 8.lLlxc6!, as
indicated by Botvinnik.
21. .. h5 22.h4! mxf6
Black might now seem to be in a very difficult
position owing to the strong threat of 1 6 .ixc5 .
8
Yet he finds a remarkable concrete plan
7 involving an unconventional piece sacrifice.
6
There followed:
5
1 5 axb3!!
4
•••

Such a move can only be made by a

3 player endowed with outstanding creative
imagination.
2

1 16.he5 lOxe4 17.ti'cl bxa2

An even more decisive line was 1 7 . . . b2! -
a b c d e f g h
Bronstein.
23.lOg4f! hxg4 24..le5f! mxe5 25.�M4#
I s.lOxa2 ti'a5 19.ti'xe4 .le6 20.ti'cl dxe5
Alexander Kotov E6m Geller
-

8
Moscow 1949
7

a b c d e f g h
Black has sacrificed a piece for two pawns
but obtained a strong initiative. In practice the
a b c d e f g h
task of defending against the advance of Black's
White has achieved considerable positional queenside pawn phalanx is very difficult.
superiority. However, failing to delve deeply
into the peculiarities of the position and 21.lOac3 b5 22.lObl?!
allowing himself to be guided mainly by After this Black's mltlatlve develops
general considerations, he played: unimpeded. White should have resolved on
returning the piece with 22.f4 .ib3 23J'!d6 b4
1 5.lOde2 24.e5 ! , obtaining counterplay.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 1 99

The attempt to preserve his material plus leads Abram Khasin Mikhail Tal
-

White quickly to defeat.

Leningrad 1956
22 h4 23.�f4 J.b3 24JM6
..•

24.lt:ld2! ixd l 25 J%xd l was somewhat 8

better.
7
24 ... c4 25Jhc6 c3 26.�d5 ixd5 27.exd5 6
Bxd5 28.f4 Bd4t 29.cbhl ga2 30.J.6 gb2
5
3 1 .£5 J.e5 32.Be1 gd8 33.J.e4 cbg7!
A subtle idea. Black provokes f5-f6 to give 4
tactical reinforcement to the g6-point.
3

34.f6t cbg8 35.ga6 h5 36.ga5 h4 37.ixg6 2

a b c d e f g h
It looks as if Black would benefit from
exchanging the dark-squared bishops, as
he would then remain with a strong knight
against a bishop with little mobility, and would
obtain strong pressure on the dark squares in
the centre.

However, concrete analysis shows that after

1 9 . . . ixd4 20.l%xd4 (of course not 2o.Bxf7t?
cbh8 2 1 .l%xd4 l%fB) 20 ... lt:le5 2 1 .c3 l%e8
a b c d e f g h 22.ic2 there is no clear way for Black to utilize
A pretty combination concludes the game: his positional trumps, while White exerts
mounting pressure on the kingside.
37 gxh2t! 38.cbxh2 ixg3t 39.Bxg3 hxg3t
.•.

4O.cbh3 fxg6 19 ...ge8!

White resigned.
In the foregoing examples the struggle was
rich in combinative themes, and the concrete
approach to the position flowed, so to speak,
from the nature of the struggle.
Now let's consider the following example where
the play is mainly positional in character.
Black concerns himself with the initiative
above all else, striving to go into action on the
e-file.
20.c3 ge7 21 .J.c2 ixd4
At this point the exchange of dark-squared
bishops is timely. Black is in secure possession
of the open e-file and is well prepared to parry
the threats on the kingside.

22.Bh4 �f8 23J�xd4 ge2 24.J.£5 �ke8

25.gb4 gd2 26.J.e4 Be7
200 Soviet Chess Strategy

8.0-0 or 8.ltJc3, Black carries out the important

8
break ... f7-f5 with quite good counterplay.
7

6 White already has to search for the most

effective plan that surpasses other possibilities.
5 Concrete investigations reveal that he has at
4 his disposal a highly effective method of play,
giving him a lasting initiative:
3

a b c d e f g h
27.�el ? �xd5!
Black quickly turned his advantage into a
win.

In this game, featuring what looked like a

purely positional struggle, the most important
role was still played by the "concrete" approach
to assessing the positions that arose.
a b c d e f g h
You need to think concretely at every
stage in the progress of a game, starting with 8.g4!
the opening. Although the strategic plans In this game 8.g4! occurred for the first time.
at the start of the game are extremely varied After this, the complications arising in the
and flexible, they often acquire "concrete" main variation, 8 .. ,1,Wa5t 9.id2 Wfb6 10.g5!,
substance from the very first moves. As more turn out clearly in White's favour.
pieces are developed, the concrete tasks facing
the players keep increasing in complexity. This 8...£6
applies especially to attacking systems. Black ended up in grave difficulties after:

The following example is characteristic.

Alexey Suetin - Vladimir Simagin

Tula 1950

1.e4 c5 2.�f3 �c6 3.d4 cxd4 4.�xd4 g6

5.c4 .ig7 6.�c2 d6 7..ie2 �h6!?
7.. .f5 and 7.. ltJf6 8.ltJc3 0-0 are quieter
.

options.

This is the Veresov-Simagin System. In

answer to natural developing moves, such as a b c d e f g h
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
9.h4! �f'7 10.h5 g5 1l.ie3
The struggle in one of the sharp variations of
the Ruy Lopez is also instructive:
1.e4 e5 2.�a �c6 3.ib5 5 4.�c3 �f6
5.exf5 �d4
a b c d e f g h
If White now plays to hold his extra pawn
in the centre, this promises him little, as was
shown by two games from Moscow 1957:
Boleslavsky - Tolush and Tal - Spassky.
The former continued with 6.ia4 ic5 7.d3
0-0 8.0-0 d5 9.�xe5 hf5 1O.ig5 �d6
11.l'!e1 c6 12.ih4 l'!ae8. Black has a lasting
initiative on the kingside which compensates
for White's modest material plus. After 13.ig3
�d8 14.�e2 l'!xe5! 15.ixe5 ig4 16.�d2
llJxe2t 17.l'!xe2 ixe2 18.�xe2 llJe4! it took
White a great deal of trouble to maintain the
balance.
In the second of the games mentioned, White
continued 6.llJxe5 ic5 7.0-0 0-0 8.llJf3 c6
9.llJxd4?! ixd4 10.id3 d5 l1.llJe2 ie5
12.llJg3 llJe4! 13.ixe4 dxe4 14.d3 exd3
15.�xd3 �xd3 16.cxd3 hg3 17.hxg3 ixf5,
which similarly led to complete equality.
White should not try to maintain his extra
central pawn at all costs. In our view, the
201
only effective plan can be one that hinders
Black's development of his kingside initiative.
With this in mind, it is worth considering the
variation:
6.�xe5 ic5 7.0-0 0-0 8.�a c6
Up to here as in Tal - Spassky, and now:
a b c d e f g h
9.b4! �xf3t 10.�xf3 ixb4 11.id3!
White has every reason to count on
maintaining the important point f5, on which
all Black's kingside counterplay founders.
This analysis was performed in collaboration
with Grandmaster Isaak Boleslavsky. [Russian
Editor's Note: This later received confirmation
in the game Shartner - Zhuravlev, USSR 1963,
which went 11. ..d5 12.ib2llJe8 13.l'!ael �g5
14.llJxd5! cxd5 15.�xd5t @h8 16.�b5 ie7
17.f4, and Black resigned.]
These examples testify to the fact that the
struggle in the modern opening is highly
dynamic. In many cases, within a very short
space of moves, we arrive at complex positions
rich in combinative possibilities, where it is
not enough to be guided by general principles
alone.
This is where the need arises for a concrete
approach to the application of opening
principles - an approach that takes account of
all the concealed tactical possibilities of this or
that opening formation.
202 Soviet Chess Strategy
The following is another characteristic
example.
Isaak Boleslavsky Alexander Kotov
- For that very reason he prefers this developing
Zurich 1953
In the Queen's Gambit Accepted, after:
l.d4 d5 2.c4 dxc4 3.�6 �f6 4.e3 e6 5 .ixc4 •
c5 6.0-0 a6 7.YlYe2 cxd4 8.exd4 .te7 9.�c3
Black made the mistake of playing a
premature:
9...b5?
This was to involve him in serious difficulties,
since owing to the undeveloped state of Black's
queenside, White has the powerful tactical
threat of d4-d5! at his disposal. It is instructive
to watch how White utilizes the advantages of
his position, combining specific threats with
the further mobilization of his pieces.
10.J.b3 J.b7 1l.J.g5 0-0
a b c d e f g h
12JUel!
Th e accepted view i s that such developing
moves are played from purely positional
considerations. But in this case White is
primarily responding to the concrete demands
of the position when he concentrates on
executing his basic plan (a breakthrough with
d4-d5!).
move to a different one - 12.l:!adl - which
looks no less strong and natural. As concrete
calculation shows, after 12J'3adl lDc6 White
gains nothing from 13.d5 on account of
13... lDxd5 14. .ixd5 (14.lDxd5 ixg5!)
14... exd5 15.l:!xd5 VfJc7.
Thus 12.l:!fel is essential as preparation for
the d4-d5 break, as it sets up a genuine threat
along the e-file.
12...�c6 13J�adl
It now becomes clear that Black is helpless
against the threatened d4-d5. On 13... lDb4
White plays 14.d5! regardless, and if Black
takes on d5 he loses a piece. This is where the
significance of 12.l:!fe I ! comes across.
The game continued:
13...�a5 14.d5! �xb3 15.dxe6 YlYb6 16.axb3
fxe6 17.�d4
And Black emerged a pawn down.
It's interesting to note that Black could only
have defended against the tactical threat of d4-
d5 by playing 13...l:!e8.
a b c d e f g h
Then 14.d5 achieves nothing in view of
14... exd5 15.lDxd5 lDxd5 16. .ixd5 .ixg5
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 203

17.Wlxe8t Wlxe8 18J'he8t E:xe8 19.tLlxg5 sacrifices can hardly be proved analytically.
tLld8, with an equal game. But then, analytical correctness at all costs
is not what players of the dynamic style are
Therefore after 13... E:e8, in accordance with striving for. They are primarily counting on
the concrete conditions of the struggle, White the practical difficulty of the tasks facing the
would need to alter his basic plan and play opponent.
14.tLle5!, threatening to exploit the weakening This factor in chess thought is constantly
of Black's kingside by taking on f7. growing in significance. It is a wholly natural
This would enable him to keep his opening phenomenon, seeing that in chess the objective
advantage even against Black's best play: and subjective forces are inextricably linked.
14... tLlxe5! (14... tLlxd4? 15.Wle3 .ic5 16.Wlg3! Here is a characteristic example.
is bad for Black) 15.dxe5 tLld7 16.if4 Wlc7
17. .ic2, and White has excellent prospects for Mikhail Tal- Oscar Panno
attacking the king.
In this case the concrete threats were entirely Portoroz 1958
dependent on bringing the reserves into play.
But as we have seen more than once already, 8
there can also be the converse scenario - when
out of concrete considerations it pays to execute 7
some manoeuvre in the opening in apparent 6
neglect of development.
5
As the last few examples show, a feature of the 4
opening fight is that the two sides' forces will
3
often come into contact very quickly. Then,
with mobilization still unfinished, the battle 2
begins, and naturally the principles of the 1
overall chess struggle, which we have examined
before, will come into force. As a result, the a b c d e f g h
specific opening tasks (mobilization and the Black played:
fight to control the centre) will often be more
or less relegated to the background. 18... �xb3!
Chess thought is continually evolving. A To which White, after looking deeply into
characteristic of the modern chess style is the the position, replied:
quest for a struggle that transcends the confines
of normal logic. This tendency is associated 19.�c6!?
with healthy risk and a particular dynamic With this move he initiated some
quality of play. Under these conditions the exceptionally sharp complications.
fight often takes on such a "concrete" character
that, as chess players say, everything rests on What were White's guiding thoughts in
the calculation of variations. evaluating and choosing this line of play?
Adherents of this kind of play are fond of In the first place he was not satisfied with the
sacrificing material for the initiative. We should natural continuation 19.Wlxb3 if6 20.tLlxc4
note that in many cases the correctness of such bxc4 21.Wlxc4t 'iifh8, after which Black obtains
204 Soviet Chess Strategy

powerful positional pressure for the sacrificed
pawn.
Secondly, such a notable master of
combinative play as Tal will undoubtedly have
seen a long way ahead into the complications
which now ensue, and will have found them
alluring. If his designs could have been refuted
by precise analysis, he would not of course have
embarked on them. But that was not the case,
and Tal's extremely keen combinative flair will
have hinted to him that he and his opponent
were risking just as much here. Considering
that Tal was going to be in his element, and
this in a game with limited thinking time, his
decision becomes perfectly easy to justifY.
19...�xal 20.�xdS .if5 21.YlYf3 gaxdS
22J!xe7 hbl 23..ixf4!
This very circumstance determined his choice
in the position we started from. The attack
against g7 forms the pivot of his following
play.
23.. J!xd4 24.YlYg4! .ig6 25. YlYe6t .iO
26.YlYf5 �c2
On 26...i.g6 White had prepared the
combination 27J:l:xg7t! i>xg7 28.i.h6t!
i>xh6 29.�xf8t, followed by 30.�xc5t and
31.�xd4.
27.b3 .ig6
It may have been more judicious to play
27 .. .l'l:dl t 28.<;!;>h2 ttJd2, inviting White to
go for simplification; after 29.i.xd2 gxd2
30.�xc5 the game is roughly equal.
2SJ!xg7t! i>xg7 29 .ih6t <;!;>xh6 30.YlYxf8t
•

<;!;>g5 31.bxc4 bxc4 32.g3 .ie4 33.h4t

8
i>g4 34.<;!;>h2 .if5! 35.YlYf6 h6 36.YlYe5 ge4
7 37.YlYg7t <;!;>f3 3S.YlYc3t �e3
6 The simplest way to draw was 38... <;!;>xf2
39.�xc2t i>f3, but Black gradually loses the
5 thread.
4
39.i>gl .ig4 40.fxe3 h5 41.YlYel
3

a b c d e f g h
A mind-bending position to assess! Black's
chances look clearly better, as he has two minor
pieces and a rook for the queen. True, his knight
on al is out of play for the moment, and his
minor pieces are generally disunited in their
actions. On the other hand the white bishop is
pinned, which gives Black counterplay.

a b c d e f g h
Tal foresaw all this of course, but realized at
the same time that he had the option of a 41...gxe3?
combinative attack against the g7-point, which Black has not withstood the tension. After
was hard for Black to defend. 41.. .l'l:e6 42.e4 c3 he could count on drawing
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
by constructing a fortress. But we must not
forget what a storm Black had to live through
in this game!
42.�fl t me4 43.�xc4t ma 44.�fl t me4
45.�xa6 md4
45...1hg3t was more stubborn.
46.�d6t
White quickly conducted his advantage to
victory.
One other fact I would like to emphasize
is that young practitioners of the dynamic
treatment are anything but one-sided in their
undertakings. They not only sacrifice material
for the attack and the initiative. Far from it
- in many cases, with just as much success,
they deliberately incur an attack, counting
on repulsing it and exploiting the material
sacrificed by the opponent. It all depends on
the requirements of the position.
Here is one example of inventiveness in
unearthing resources for counterplay.
Leonid Sbamkovicb - Vtktor Korcbnoi
Leningrad 1960
3
2 28 gat!
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
White's attack seems about to decide the
game.
205
22.be7
This looks crushing. What is Black to do
now? He cannot play 22...mxe7, on account
of 23.�xg7t and mate. But Grandmaster
Korchnoi, the virtuoso of counterplay, finds
an ingenious resource, making it a good deal
more complicated for his opponent to exploit
the assets of his position.
22 .bg2t!
•••
The sole counter-chance.
23.mxg2 �f4t
The white king has no convenient moves.
24.gxf4 gxf4 25.gdl
25.mg3 could be met by 25...1�f5.
25...�c6t 26.mg3 �a4 27.c6t?
White wilts under the heat of battle. Now
his initiative is quickly extinguished by Black's
counterplay. The right move was 27J�b1!,
retaining the advantage.
27 bxc6 28.�:xg7
•••
a b c d e f g h
•••
This is the "point" of the position. Now, to
his opponent's surprise, Black has at least a
draw.
29.mxa �xdl t 30.me3 �c1t 31.md3?
206 Soviet Chess Strategy
No doubt shaken by the turn of events,
White collapsed. He had to find the only move
31. Wf3! when Black has an easy perpetual, but
no more than that.
31..:f!Yb l t 32.�e3 trg6!
It turns out that if the queens are exchanged,
White loses one of his pieces.
33.trb2 �xe7 34.trb7t �xd6 35.trxaS
trgl t 36.�d3 trfl t 37.�c2 trc4t
Black confidently exploited his material
advantage to win the queen endgame.
Indeed I am bound to state that the "dynamists"
do not lose hope of salvation even in the most
difficult of positions, they literally make use
of every chance, striving to wear down their
opponent's strength as far as they can. This
faith in the wealth of defensive methods, this
psychological resilience, is undoubtedly a
further enrichment of chess thought.
The following example is characteristic.
Mikhail 1a1- Mikhail Botvinnik
Moscow 1960
a b c d e f g h
Black has achieved a clear advantage. He has
an extra pawn for which White has essentially
no compensation. But the position remains
highly complex, and Black still faces quite a
few difficulties on the way to victory. In such
cases you have to make use of any opportunity
to gain the initiative. With this in mind, White
played:
27J�h7
Black replied with a wholly natural move.
27..JU8
Yet this very move proved to be a faulty
decision. The correct response was 27... ic5!,
followed by .. J'%d8-d7 and an offensive on the
queenside.
White now starts some ingenious counterplay:
28..if4 trd8 29..id3! gh8 30.gxh8
Of course not 30J'%xf7 �e8. But now, in
ridding himself of the intrusive rook, Black
for one moment removes his queen from the
defence of his castled position.
30...trxh8 31.tra5!
Surprisingly White turns out to have a wealth
of counter-chances.
a b c d e f g h
Now 31...Wb7 is met by 32.ixb5!, and
White saves himself
Black's best winning try was 31... Wb8! 32. .ixfS
trhlt 33.�a2 �xf3, but even then White can
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 207

draw with precise play. There are two drawing "Here is what Lasker's secret consists o£
lines with a common theme - diverting the e7- For him, the main thing in a game of chess is
bishop to allow a perpetual check. the war of nerves: he strives above all to break
his opponent's psyche, to bring about that
8 nervous collapse of his forces which follows
7 from a weak move, and thereby to induce the
decisive mistake. [ ... J
6
"He tries to play not the objectively best
5
moves, but those that are the most unpleasant
4 for each of his opponents individually. He
3 steers the game into what, to his opponent, is a
V'="",,,,,,,,,

2 foreign channel. In this way, often deliberately

a b c d e f g h
The simple solution is 34.id2 gxf5 35.ib4!
Lb4 36.1M'd8t Q;>b7 37.axb4. More stylish
is 34.ih6 gxfS 35.ifB! ixfB 36.1M'd8t <;t>b7
37.1M'd7t Q;>b6 38.b4!. In either case the white
queen's checks are unavoidable.
Black was in time trouble and had little chance
of working out all these variations.
31...'@Yhl t 32.c;t>a2 '@Yxf3 33.'@Ya6t c;t>b8
34.'@Yxc6 '@Y:x:f4 35.J.xb5 '@Yxe5 36.'@Ye8t c;t>b7
37.'@Yc6t c;t>b8
A draw was agreed.
All these elements of chess thought, closely
linked to the psychological struggle, are not
something totally new but stand in a profound
historical continuity.
Thus, in the past, the sacrifice of material for
the initiative was a favourite strategic device
of such outstanding masters of the attack as
Chigorin, Janowski, Alekhine, Spielmann,
Breyer... By contrast, Lasker was fond of
faCing an attack, defending with exceptional
stubbornness in strategically the most difficult
of positions.
In an article published after the New York
1924 tournament, Grandmaster Richard Reti
wrote:
making weak moves, he takes the game
right to the brink of the abyss. As a result,
Lasker's opponent has no chance of keeping
to positions that suit his style. Instead, in a
superior {indeed objectively won} position, he
is constantly faced with solving new problems
which are difficult for him in particular. This
makes him use up too much time, he is forced
to move quickly in a difficult situation, he
begins to get confused in the complications
- and this is where Lasker starts playing with
all his colossal, authentic strength. Then the
opponent, who still stands better, suffers that
nervous debility, that psychic catastrophe,
which leads straight to catastrophe on the
chessboard."
Since Lasker's time, the psychological
elements in the struggle have never been
denied by anyone.
With the rapid growth of knowledge and
technique over the last few decades, it began to
appear as if the objective positional factors were
increasingly dominating the chess struggle,
while subjective psychological elements were
playing an ever-diminishing role. And yet the
innovation of the young generation of Soviet
players consists precisely in a revival of the
psychological motifs in chess thought, within
this context of immensely more advanced
knowledge and technique. There is no doubt
about the viability and promise of such a style.
What recently seemed implausible, even to
208 Soviet Chess Strategy
the most distinguished chess thinkers, is now
becoming a reality.
The chess luminaries Lasker and Reti
considered that the human brain was strictly
limited in its capacity for calculating variations.
Of course, no one envisages reducing the game
to endless calculations in our own day either.
Yet it is also indisputable that the horizons
of concrete thinking in our time have been
significantly widened. The vision attained by
chess players is becoming ever sharper, with
results of a veritable "X-ray" quality.
Thus it is that thought based solely on
general positional principles (as a method!) has
become decidedly antiquated.
The modern psychological style is above
all bound up with faith in the immense
wealth of concrete ideas in chess. Its cutting
edge is directed first and foremost against
conventionality, the routines of chess thinking.
In opposition to these routines, young players
place fantasy, long-range calculation, and the
courage for healthy risk. All this significantly
enriches the game of chess.
Let us now turn to some practical questions
relevant to evaluating a position.
From the extreme wealth and diversity of
the forms taken by the chess struggle, we must
conclude that to point to a general criterion,
applicable to assessing any position, is scarcely
possible.
There is an entire range of positions that are
relatively easy to evaluate. Some of them can be
wholly exhausted by analytical means (take for
instance any chess problem or study) ; others
can be assessed with comparative ease by using
general positional considerations. At the same
time, though, there is a whole class of positions
of a complex critical nature. Suffice it to take
some situations arising from problematic
openings - for example, l.e4 c5 2.lLlf3 d6 3.d4
cxd4 4.lLlxd4 lLlf6 5.lLlc3 a6 6.ig5 e6 7.f4
Vffb6!?, or 7...b5!? These kinds of position can
be exhausted neither by analytical calculation
nor by an approximate assessment based on
purely positional concepts. The difficulty of
evaluating them is due to the fact that they
contain a rich selection of tactical and strategic
ideas, giving wide scope to a chess player's
thought.
But the systematic foundations on which the
assessment of a position should be built have
already been very deeply investigated. The
assessment is based on objective factors that
have been tested by the practice of centuries.
Hence it is indispensable for a player to know
the basic general norms and principles of chess
which always operate in one form or another.
In the chess struggle, apart from the most
general principles, there are a whole range of
special ones. Mastery of the latter depends to a
large extent on a player's individual qualities.
Of course, any chess player has his own
experience and his views on how to conduct
the game. Everyone also has his favourite
positions that he understands best. One player,
let us say, likes to go in for simplification,
aiming to exploit his opponent's "bad" bishop.
Another, by contrast, will strive to attack,
counting chiefly on the more active placing of
his pieces when the attack is launched. This is
as much as to say that the former type of player
believes above all in the principles of positional
manoeuvring, and the latter in the principle of
aggression.
The methodical assessment of a posltlon is
best begun by surveying its outward (static)
features; specifically, this means considering
the material balance of forces, the placing of
the kings, the central structure, the presence of
weak and strong squares, and so on.
Experience shows that after the mutual
possibilities are weighed in this manner, a
deeper analysis of the position is easier to
perform. Bear in mind that static advantages
(meaning the control of positional elements)
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 209

are only important when they enhance the Semyon Furman Alex:ey Suetin
-

prospects for the dynamic struggle. It follows

that the static evaluation represents, so to Tallinn 1959
speak, the preliminary stage in the assessment
of a position. Without studying the position in l.d4 dS 2.c4 dxc4 3.�f3 �f6 4.e3 e6 S ..bc4
its dynamic aspect, it is hard to arrive at its true cS 6.'tYe2 a6 7.dxcS .bcs 8.0-0 �c6 9.e4 bS
evaluation. Only a dynamic assessment allows 10.eS bxc4 11.exf6 gd6 12.'tYxc4 'tYb6
you to take account of the various underlying
features of the position. 8
The assessment, of course, has more
7
than just two stages. Something like the
following rough account of those stages, from 6
P.A. Romanovsky's book The Middlegame,
5
undoubtedly comes closer to a chess player's
actual thinking: 4
.:. consider the material factors
3
.:. consider the positional factors
.:. consider the basic principles of strategy 2
and tactics that operate in the given 1
position
.:. consider the combinative motifs. a b c d e f g h
Black has deliberately allowed a sharpening
In plenty of cases in practice, this classification of the play, mainly on the basis of concrete
of stages proves distinctly arbitrary. It merely variations. His main idea is that on:
emphasizes that the position ought to be
assessed according to a definite method, 13.�c3
which must take account of the various Which looks very dangerous in view of the
combinative motifs as well as the material and threatened �c3-a4, he has the saving retort:
positional factors. It is only on acquiring such
a systematic approach that you can rid yourself 13...'tYb4!
of unthematic play in which moves are selected The complications arising from:
from casual motives.
Of course, in practice a chess player's 14.'tYe2
thinking by no means always proceeds from Were dealt with as follows:
statics to dynamics. It very often happens that
you are initially struck by some sharp variation 14...J.e7!
or other, which "cuts the Gordian knot" in The threat was 15.ttJd5!'
the position in question. It is only then, on
analysing the resulting complexities, that IS.h3
you turn your attention to specific positional
. To deprive the queen of the g4-square.
considerations.
IS .J.b7 16.a3 'tYaS 17.J.f4 gg8 18.J.g3
••

'tYhS 19.9fel gd8 20.gadl gxdl 21.'tYxdl

�d8!
210 Soviet Chess Strategy

position, Black gave his initial attention to

8
the concrete defensive ploy 13...ti'b4! 14.ti'e2
7 ie7!. It was only then that he turned to
V///W/"-

6 general considerations, correctly judging that

the ending after 14.ti'xb4 ixb4 would turn
5 out in his favour. He had two strong bishops,
4 pressure on the g-file and a compact centre;
with the queens off, his king would not be in
3
any danger; and so on.
2 It was these very circumstances of a general
order that played a very important although
1
unseen role in the events that followed. The
a b c d e f g h point is that a queen exchange was favourable
The "point" of Black's strategic design. His to Black in all cases. He could boldly head for a
pieces are now working very harmoniously. For number of variations in which such simplifying
the moment his knight is merely occupying a possibilities arose. To White, conversely, a
defensive position, but it too is going to play queen exchange on move 14 was decidedly
an active role. inauspicious and later even more so - which
significantly reduced his concrete options.
22.�e4 ti'd5 23.ti'a4t ti'c6 24.ti'd4 e5 In this case, then, the positional advantages
Setting Black's centre in motion and freeing were taken into account only after a concrete
the important e6-square for the knight. investigation into the dynamics of the fight.
In practice this happens very often. Hence the
25.ti'dl �e6 26.ihl advice to young players is that in a position
which intrigues you mainly by its concrete
tactical scope, your choice of line must still
be checked by reference to general positional
concepts. The "compass" must always be held
firmly in your hands. However sharp a player's
tactical vision may be, it needs to be grounded
in the objective factors of the position.
Thus it is that the evaluation of a position
tests a player's entire equipment of knowledge,
experience and abilities.

Middlegame Mastery: Ways of Working to

Improve It
a b c d e f g h
In working to perfect their mastery, young
26 £5! 27.�xe5 ti'd5!
•••

players should give special attention to

Black soon conducted his advantage to
developing their abilities of concrete thinking.
victory.
Among the basic features of concrete thought
we should count, above all, the skills of
Let's return to the critical posItIon after
combinative vision and the art of calculating
White's 13th move. In heading for this
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess"
variations. These qualities are largely amenable
to education and coaching. Thus for example
the technique of calculation can be developed
by regular and purposeful training.
The basic means of training on these
lines is analytical work, the forms of which
can be highly diverse. We may say that the
development of a player's analytical abilities
is directly proportional to the strength
of his concrete thinking. The following
pronouncement by Botvinnik is not irrelevant
here:
"What does a chess master's art consist of?
Basically, the ability to analyse chess positions.
To be sure, a master sitting at the board has to
be able to analyse fairly quickly and without
moving the pieces about; but ultimately, the
calculation of variations or the assessment of
the position is what makes the art of analysis.
''Analysis carried out at home has its own
peculiarities: the master is not limited for
time and can move the pieces. Despite these
differences between analysis and practical
play, the two also have much in common.
It is well known that nearly all outstanding
chess players have also been superb analysts.
The conclusion from this is self-evident: those
who wish to distinguish themselves as players
must also perfect themselves in the domain of
analysis."
For young players who want to raise the level
of their game, it is essential to make home
analysis an integral part of their training. The
best positions to select for analysis are from
complex middlegames abounding in tactical
possibilities. Work on such positions improves
both your combinative vision and your
accuracy in calculation.
Of course it quite often happens that despite
all your efforts, these analyses fall a long way
short of the truth. It is therefore useful to show
the results of particular analytical labours to
more experienced players or publish them in
the chess press. This gives you the chance to
21 1
clarifY their true worth and receive objective
criticism, helping you to rid your thinking of
any specific defects.
Let me recount an experience - not an
entirely successful one, but instructive - in the
field of chess analysis.
In 1948 I became interested in a critical and
at the same time topical position in the Meran
Variation of the Semi-Slav Defence:
Botvinnik Euwe
-
Moscow 1 948
l.d4 d5 2.�f3 �f6 3.c4 e6 4.�c3 c6 5.e3
�bd7 6 .id3 dxc4 7 .bc4 b5 S .1d3 a6
• • •
9.e4 c5 10.e5 cxd4 11.�xb5 nb5 12.exf6
'@Yb6 13.fxg7.ixg7 14.0-0 �c5 15 .1£4 .ib7 •
16J�el �MS 17.�kl :!:'!d5 IS..1e5
a b c d e f g h
IS....be5? 19.:!:'!xe5 :!:'!xe5 20.�xe5 �xd3
21.'@Yxd3 f6 22.'@Yg3!
With the powerful threat of'@Yg3-g7, he was
quickly crushed.
On the basis of this, some authorities suggested
that in place of 18... .ixe5? Black could improve
with 18. . 0-0, not fearing the various attacking
.
tries on the kingside.
Analysing the position after 18... 0-0 greatly
21 2 Soviet Chess Strategy

interested me. Here are the main lines resulting succeeded in finding a major improvement
from my analytical labours: for White in 20.b4! (instead of the exchange
sacrifice). After this move, White really does
8 have the better chances. Yet even this could not
7 allay the bitter feeling from my original faulty
analysis.
6
A while after, when time had extinguished
5
my immediate reaction to this "defeat" , I
4 managed to place a different value on the
3 work I had done. Yes, it had been less than
2 infallible. But in the first place, my labours
had not been for nothing; I began to analyse
better all round, I freed myself to some extent
a b c d e f g h
from superficiality. Secondly, this analysis had
19.�xh7t Q;;>xh7 20J'!xc5!? And now: opened my eyes to the full complexity and
substance of contemporary opening theory.
a) 20...l'!xc5 21.YMd3t f5 22.ci)g5t Q;;>g6 And finally, even that bitter feeling had not
23.hg7 Q;;>xg7 24.YM g3 l'!gB 25.YMh4 l'!hB been an entirely bad one. If you are dissatisfied,
26.YMxd4t e5 27.YMxc5! YMxc5 2B.ci)e6t and it means you are searching, you are improving.
29.ci)xc5. This indeed is part of the charm of chess. Young
players, I think, should be least of all afraid of
b) 20...YMxc5 21.YMd3t f5 22.ci)g5t Q;;>g6 such chagrin. The harder the learning course,
23.hg7 YMb4 24.l'!xe6t Q;;>xg7 25.YMg3! etc. the easier the play of the game.

I sent my analysis to the editors of Chess in the
USSR. Soon afterwards it was published, with
minor cuts, in the pages of the magazine.
About half a year passed, then suddenly in
one of the theoretical surveys by Paul Keres,
likewise published in Chess in the USSR, I saw
the familiar position from the diagram once
again. After thoroughly familiarizing himself
with my analysis, Grandmaster Keres had
discovered a fairly conspicuous "hole" in it. This
was in the variation 19.ixh7t Q;;>xh7 20.l'!xc5
l'!xc5 21.YMd3t f5 22.ci)g5t Q;;>g6 23.�xg7
'i!?xg7 24.YMg3. Now instead of 24...l'!gB?,
Keres and Igor Bondarevsky in collaboration
found the ingenious 24...e5!, tipping the scales
rather in Black's favour.
However much I looked for attacking lines,
however hard I tried to refute this advance of
the centre pawn, nothing came of it. Later, I
The best teacher is practice. But study takes
place not only during play or in post-mortem
analysis of a finished game. Work on adjourned
positions can do much to develop our
analytical skills. Some young players approach
this work perfunctorily. They view adjourned
positions as a kind of pointless chore on which
extra time must be squandered. Such players
shirk spending plenty of time analysing their
adjourned games. Small wonder that on
resuming play, surprises very often await them,
costing them points.
Yet home analysis of adjourned positions
should not be regarded solely from the
practical viewpoint of the game in question. By
mastering this task, a player greatly enhances
his concrete thinking. Every well-analysed
position adds something to his skills.
The following example is most instructive.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 213

Viacheslav Ragozin Mikhail Botvinnik

- 41...ge3

Leningrad 1 930

a b c d e f g h

a b c d e f g h 42.�c6?!
The first inaccuracy - although outwardly
The game was adjourned in an exceedingly
the move looks strong. White is evidently
sharp endgame position - which looks more
overestimating his chances.
promising for White, who has the possibility
of quickly creating a passed pawn by b4-b5-b6.
Instead he ought to have forced events with
Black on the other hand has active counterplay,
42.l:!a2! l:!c8t 43.'it>b4 l:!e6 44.'it>b5 l:!e5t
as he too acquires a passed pawn by picking up
45.'it>b4 (45.'it>a6 l:!a8t) 45...l:!e6, drawing by
the pawn on f3.
repetition.
It should be observed that in such situations
the struggle abounds in concrete points and
42 ge4t 43.�d4
therefore presents extremely rich material for
•••

Not 43.'it>b3 !!xa4 44.'it>xa4 f3! 45.ttJxd8 f2

analysis. It is no accident that players call such
46.b7 fl=%V 47.b8=%V %Valt, and Black wins.
positions "analytical".
At that time Botvinnik was still a very young
43 8 44.ga2 gc8t 45.'it>b4!
master, with relatively little experience of
•••

By now it is White who keeps having to play

chess battles. The seriousness with which he
the only move. All other king moves are bad.
set about analysing this game is all the more
noteworthy.
On 45.'it>d3 or 45.'it>b3, Black has 45...l:!e7
Over the next twelve moves, Botvinnik is
46.ttJxf3l:!b7.
following his adjournment analysis!

3S.b5 Lf3 39.b6 ab6 40.ab6 gdSt!
The only move. In the event of the natural
40...l'�e3 41.b7 l:!d8t 42.'it>c5 f3 43.tDc4!,
Black would lose by force.
41.'it>c4
Not 41.'it>e5 !!xc3 42.'it>xf4 l:!c5! 43.b7 l:!b5
If 45.'it>d5 !!e7 46.ttJxf3, then 46...l:!d7t!
47.<j;Je4l:!b7 is decisive.
Finally in the event of 45.'it>b5, Black wins by
45...l:!e5t 46.'it>b4l:!b8!.
45 gel 46.c4 ge4 47.'it>c3 ge3t 4S.'it>b4
•••

etc. ge4 49.'it>c3 gdS!

214 Soviet Chess Strategy

only very inadequately worked out. In my

8
view the significance of outside help ought not
7 to be overrated. Analysis by a large number
6 of "heads" quite often turns into analysis by
"hands", which merely creates turmoil and
5 weakens the effort.
4 In the course of the practical game, especially
in the fifth and last hour of the session, even
3
the best tacticians sometimes fail to fathom the
2 hidden tactical resources of a position. When
analysing adjourned games you must always
1
take this into consideration and seek out the
a b c d e f g h concealed possibilities, even in the apparently
A subtle idea which White fails to figure simplest of variations.
out. At this point his sole path to salvation was Perhaps the episode that most stands out
50.llJb3 ge2 51.gal f2 52.gn gfB 53. b7 gb8 in my memory is one that occurred in the
54.llJa5, when a draw is likely. last round of the 19th Soviet Championship.
The outcome of the game Aronin - Smyslov
In the game, there followed: was of exceptional importance. If he won,
International Master Aronin would gain the
50.�c6? ge3t! 5U�b4 ge2 52.gal il! right to play in the World Championship
53.�xd8 Interzonal Tournament. On the other hand if
53.gn also fails to save him: 53... gfB 54. b7 Smyslov won, he stood a chance of victory in
gb2t! the Championship of the USSR.
Aronin had White, and the game was going
53...gel 54.gaS f1 =ti' 55.�c6t mg7 his way. Up until the adjournment, no one
Black easily realized his advantage. doubted that he would win.

Lev Aronin - Vassily Smyslov

In his annotations to this game, Botvinnik
wrote:
Moscow 1 95 1
"In the adjourned position after move 37,
I carried out a very thorough analysis and
'polished up' the whole sequence of moves 8
as far as the 48th. I found 49... gd8! over the
7
board (after missing it at the adjournment) . All
the same I was very pleased with this 'polished' 6
line, since before that time I had been a good 5
deal weaker in analysis."
It was no accident that within some five or 4
six years, Botvinnik was to grow from a young 3
master into one of the strongest players in the
2
world.
It must be said that a methodology for 1 6.
analysing adjourned games has as yet been
a b c d e f g h
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 21 5

Aronin sealed. At this point 42.l:!xc6 could The main line that he had in mind went as
quickly have led to victory, but he wrote down follows: 45.g4 @f7 46.'�e2 @ e6 47.@ d3 @d6
a different move which objectively also wins 48.@c4 a5 49.f3 @d7 50.@c5 @c7 51.c3 bxc3
easily: 52.bxc3 @b7 53.@d6 @b6 54.c4 @b7 55.c5,
and White wins.
42.gg8
I was assisting him during the adjournment, 45.g4
so naturally I was the first to know about However, here Smyslov unexpectedly
his "secret" move. I confess that I didn't like played:
42.l:!g8, even though I couldn't see any concrete
refutation of the variations associated with it. 45...hxg3 46.fxg3 g4!
Aronin's intention, after the forced 42... @h7, In our analysis we hadn't examined this at
was to go into the pawn ending which (at first all. It looks as if White, obtaining an outside
sight) was a win for White. pawn, should win easily:
It was late in the evening when the game
was adjourned. Resumption was fixed for
the following day. We decided to analyse
in the morning, but as things turned out, it
8
wasn't at all simple to create a good working
environment. Aronin had a large number of 7
fans who were eager to congratulate him on 6
his success, and of course they made it hard
to concentrate. To them, the outcome of the 5
game was clear! 4

3
42 @h7
•..

Aronin did not return to the original position 2

with 43.l:!c8!, but instead entered the pawn
1
endgame with:
a b c d e f g h
It was only here that Black's shrewd idea
became clear. The natural 50.@c4 loses to
8 50... fS! 51.exfS e4!, when the white king is in
a trap - it can only go forward, but then the
7
black e-pawn advances to queen. If instead
6 51.@d3, then 51...f4 52.gxf4 exf4 53.@e2
c;f;>h5 54.e5 @g6, followed by 55... @fS and
5
56... @xe5 - and again Black wins.
4

3 An instructive case. White was forced to take

a draw.
2

1 6. 50.c3 a5 5l.ab4 axb4

The final position is very pretty. It is notable
a b c d e f g h
216 Soviet Chess Strategy
that Grandmaster Smyslov had already seen it
on adjourning the game.
The adjournment often comes at a moment
when a tactical engagement is in full swing.
Quite often, too, the logical course of the game
will just have been overturned by a "feverish"
time scramble. When adjourning the game, a
player's impressions are frequently dominated
by what had been the case a few moves earlier.
In the USSR Team Championship, playing
White against Isaac Lipnitsky, I ran into
trouble in the opening and conducted a
difficult defence all through the game; but by
adjournment time, after some time-trouble
vicissitudes, I managed to obtain quite good
counterplay. In the diagram position I sealed
my move.
Alexey Suetin Isaac Lipnitsky
-
Voroshilovgrad 1 955
8
7
6 And so on.
5
4 objectivity. A chessplayer striving to master his
3 art must not be obsessed by any one particular
2
1 Not infrequently, a player adjourning in a
a b c d e f g h
Lipnitsky left the board in the most radiant
mood, reckoning the position was clearly in
his favour; but while immersed in his analysis,
he suddenly noticed a possibility that was
unpleasant for him: 41.lZJd4!. As I discovered
afterwards, he spent the whole night analysing
this move, giving no attention at all to White's
other continuations.
Lipnitsky succeeded in finding an adequate
antidote to this tactical stroke, but on
resumption he discovered that I had sealed:
41. tLl g3
He was totally unprepared for this. He spent
a long time thinking at the board, but couldn't
find anything better than giving up a pawn.
41. e4
.•
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
42.tLlfSt! �xf5 43.i.xdl �c8 44.�xc8 tLlxc8
45.tLlc2 i.d6 46.tLla3
Analysing adjourned games is a traIning in
possibility, especially in the matter of his
opponent's sealed move.
difficult position will write off his chances too
soon, instead of making the effort to unearth
methods of salvation. This is wrong if only
because in the toughest of situations you ought
to fight on to the end. You mustn't forget that
your opponent too, being confident of victory,
may relax too soon and fall into a hidden trap.
In practice this happens all the time.
But the main thing of course is to trust in
the wealth of your defensive resources. In chess
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 217

a profound conflict of ideas often lies beneath Here are the main variations discovered in
outward simplicity. For this reason optimism analysis - 41..id4 �dS 42.ie3 a3 43.�xh7!,
is far from being a secondary factor in the and now:
analysis of adjourned games.

Alexey Suetin - David Bronstein

Leningrad 1960

a b c d e f g h

a) 43...b4 44.�a7 �b2

If Black plays 44..J3bl then after 4S.gS llJeS
46.�g2 'it>c4 47.h4 b3, White saves himself
with 48.�a4t! all the same.
4S.gSllJeS
4S...llJxfL 46.�g3! or 4S...�e6 46.'it>g2!.
a b c d e f g h 46.�aSt �e4 47.g6! llJf3t
In this very difficult position the game was 47...llJxg6 48.icS
adjourned. I thought for a long time about which 48.�g3 a2 49.�g4 b3
move to seal. At first I focused on 41.'it>g3, but 49...llJeSt SO.�hS
then, after abundant (though not entirely clear) SO.�a4t �d3 Sl.�xf3
calculations, I settled for 41.id4. And so on.
The first hours of analysis "at home" were
enough to establish that after the simple b) 43...a2 44.�a7 �b2 4S.gS llJeS
41...'it>dS it would be very hard for White to Or 4S...llJxfL 46.ixfL �xfLt 47.�g3 and
save himsel£ The point is that he doesn't succeed White draws.
in keeping his bishop on the al-hS diagonal. 46.h4 b4 47.hS b3 48.g6 �b1
For example, 42.if6 (other moves on the long If Black plays 48...�xfLt!? 49.ixfL b2,
diagonal are no better) 42...llJxfL 43J'hh 7 White still escapes the worst by SO.g7 llJg4t
�xh3t! 44.�xh3 llJxg4t 4S.'it>g2 llJxf6, and Sl.'it>g2 llJh6 S2.�aSt �c4 S3.�xa2 bl=�
White has no defence against the advance of his S4.�a4t �dS SS.�g4!.
opponent's pawns. 49.g7 llJf3t
On the other hand if the bishop departs from 49...llJg4t is no better: SO.�g2! llJf6
the main highway, the black passed pawns will Sl..igS
press forward quickly. SO.�g2 �glt Sl.�xf3 b2
These general considerations are convincing Or S1...�xg7 S2.�aSt! and S3..icl.
of course, but analysis is essential. I had to S2.igS!
spend a great deal of time before finding some White's chances are no worse.
saving chances.
218 Soviet Chess Strategy
Such, more or less, was the substance of my
analysis in that brain-teaser of an adjournment
position. But now the day for resumption
came. Naturally enough, in answer to:
41..id4
Bronstein quickly played:
41...i>d5 42..ie3
But here he played:
42,..h4!
a b c d e f g h
Strange as it may seem, I hadn't analysed
this move at all. I now had to labour with
might and main at the board. Clearly 43.E\xa4
is bad in view of 43...E\a3! 44.E\xa3 bxa3, and
the pawn queens by force.
There was nothing for it but to play:
43J!xh7 �c3
Thus Bronstein was opting for a totally
different plan - he was trying to queen the
b-pawn rather than the a-pawn. The defence
is far from easy. Nonetheless the analysis I had
performed was not in vain: its ideas turned out
to be applicable here too.
44.g5 �c6 45.�a7! b3 46.�a5t!
a b c d e f g h
The only way! White has to conquer the d4-
square, from which his bishop can once again
join in the fight against the black pawns.
46,..'>1ie6
On 46...'>1ic4 White captures the a4-pawn
with check, gaining an important tempo.
47..id4 �c4 48..ih8 b2 49J�a6t i>f5
50..ixb2 �xb2 51.g6 �c8 52.h4
And White was able to draw the game.
Interestingly, after the game Bronstein told
me that he had given most attention to the
position after 41.i>g3, against which he had
found a very delicate forced win!
This example further demonstrates that the
basic aim of any analysis is to penetrate the
depths of the position. Even if not all lines
have been foreseen, it is much easier to cope
with unexpected replies from your opponent if
the fundamental ideas are understood.
The examples we have examined testifY
eloquently to the way in which home analysis
leads to an overall refinement of a player's
concrete thought, imparting the skills of
combinative vision and the technique of
calculating variations.
Yet we should remember that for the practical
player, analysis with the aid of the hands is not
in itself sufficient as a training method - seeing
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 219

that over the board he has to work out the it himself (and incidentally accomplished
variations in his head, and moreover with the the phenomenal leap from first-category
minimum expenditure of time. Young players player to Grandmaster in a year!) , Alexander
should therefore try to make sure that their Kotov indicates that "by gradually perfecting
home preparation is as close as possible to the your calculation you can achieve astonishing
practical game. In this respect, the method of results".
training proposed by Grandmaster Kotov is Here is one of the examples from his creative
very much to the point. laboratory.
Under this training scheme, the player
endeavours to calculate all possible variations Mikhail Chigorin - Siegbert Tarrasch
deeply and accurately without moving
the pieces on the board, while limiting his St Petersburg 1 893
thinking time (that is, artificially creating the
conditions of tournament play). The positions 8
selected for this analysis are full of tactical
conflict. In general, Kotov would take them 7
from games by Chigorin. The "fruits" of the 6
player's labour (the variations calculated) are
5
then carefully checked by playing them on the
board or comparing them with authoritative 4
annotations.
3

This mental analysis requires purposeful 2

direction. Grandmaster Kotov quite rightly 1
points to the following aims that you must try
to achieve. (Essentially they apply just as much a b c d e f g h
to analysis in any form.) Playing White in this extremely sharp
.:. Try to go as deeply as possible into the position, Chigorin committed an inaccuracy
subtleties of the position and examine in the attack. He continued with:
the variations as many moves ahead as
you can. 48.gxf6
•:. Try to be selective in the lines you After:
analyse, and investigate the greatest
possible number that have practical 48 ixf6 49.YlYh3 a3 50.�xf6 YlYxf6 5U�g6
•••

worth. a2! 52J'��xf6t gxf6

.:. Work out the variations using as little
time as possible.
An elementary and indispensable condition
of this work is to pursue the analysis of each
variation to its logical culmination, where a
judgement on it can be made.
Undoubtedly such labour is far from easy.
And yet it proves its worth. Having performed
He suffered defeat.
Subsequent analysis showed that the struggle
could have taken a completely different
course if instead of 48.gxf6 White had played
48.YlYh3 at once. Knowing about this basic
idea, Kotov gradually unravelled the "tangle"
and independently worked out the following
variation, 24 moves long:
220 Soviet Chess Strategy
4B.Wlh3 a3 49.WlhB fxg5
The threat was 50.lLlh6.
50.f6! ixf6 51.lLlxg5 a2 52.lLlh7t 'i!ifl
53.lLlhxf6 lLlxf6 54.lLlh6t i>e6 55.E!:xf6t gxf6
56.WlgBt 'i!id7 57.E!:g7t Wle7
On 57...r;!;>c6 5B.WlaBt White forces mate.
5B.Wld5t 'i!icB
If 5B...'i!ieB, then 59.E!:gBt WlfB 60.Wlflt.
59.WlaBt i>d7 60.Wlb7t E!:c7 61.E!:xe7t 'i!ixe7
62.Wlxc7t 'i!ie6 63.WlcBt! 'i!ie7 64.lLlf5t 'i!if7
65.Wld7t 'i!ig6 66.Wlg7t i>h5 67.Wlh6t i>g4
6B.Wlh4t 'i!if3 69.Wlg3t r;!;>e2 70.Wlg2t 'i!ixd3
71.Wlxb2
White wins.
[Editor's Note: Modern computers can
improve on parts of this analysis, but that in
no way detracts from the general point about
learning to improve one's calculation. In fact,
in tactical positions computers can now be used
to provide the "authoritative annotations" that
Suetin suggests we compare our own efforts
with.
For those interested in the specific improve­
ments, after 4B.gxf6 ixf6 Chigorin could
have played the winning 49.E!:al! stopping the
a-pawn and with the idea if 49...E!:xb4 then
50.Wlh3 with the attack he intended during the
game. Also, in Kotov's line, instead of 53.lLlhxf6
White has mate-in-5 with 53.lLlxe5t.J
In working like this on the technique of
calculation, it is most important to learn to fix
the relevant positions in your mind. After every
mental movement of a piece, you must try to
compose a new diagram in your mind's eye. It
is only with this kind of dedicated work that
you can eliminate the optical illusions which
are met with quite frequently in master play.
The following is an instructive example of an
optical illusion.
Peter Romanovsky Genrikh Kasparian
-
Leningrad 1 938
a b c d e f g h
In this position which clearly favours Black,
the Soviet Master Kasparian, wishing to
conclude the fight beautifully, "announced
mate" in three moves with:
52 Wle1t 53.i>h2 gxh3t 54.hl3lLlf3#??
•.•
A terrible hallucination! Black forgot that his
knight was pinned. Carried away by the notion
of a pretty mate, he committed an utterly gross
miscalculation.
The tournament struggle involves high
nervous tension, and in the heat of battle there
is more potential for such oversights than in
a quiet home environment. Yet for this very
reason you must systematically develop the art
of calculation and strengthen your associated
skills.
The solving of studies and exercises from
diagrams (without moving the pieces about)
can be of great use in perfecting your technique
of calculation. This method of training is also
attractive in that it hardly requires any special
material conditions.
Solving endgame studies is particularly useful.
Who, for instance, would not be delighted at
solving the following (far from simple) study
by the self-same Genrikh Kasparian?
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 22 1

Genrikh Kasparian
1958

3
a b c d e f g h
2
4.cJ/h2!!
1 6. A stunning winner, but why is it the only
move? The problem with 4.'it>g2 is 4... cJ/g8!
a b c d e f g h
5.l:l:g7t \t>f8 when 6.lt'lg5 no longer works
1.c!£lxf/! because after 6... l:l:xg7 the knight is pinned.
It seems as though White's pieces are stepping
into trouble with a pin on the way. 4 cJ/g8
•..

Stepping the other way is no better, as after

The obvious 1.lt'lb7 was not good enough due 4... 'it>eS 5.lt'lg5 l:l:xhlt 6.lt'lxh7 cJ/f7 7.cJ/g3
to 1...'it>e7 followed by ... 'it>f6 and the f5-pawn 'it>g6 S.cJ/f4 'it>xh7 the white king arrives just in
drops. Rook and knight versus rook should time to win the pawn ending, with any move
just be a draw. to the fifth rank.

1. 'it>f8 2J:�h7
••
5J��g7t cJ/f8 6.c!£lg5!
The clumsy 2.f6 throws away the final pawn, White escapes with his extra piece and the
and thus the win, after 2 .. Jk6. vital final pawn.

2 J�c7 3.£6!
••
6 J:�xg7 7.c!£le6t cJ/f7 8.fxg7
••

Despite the limited material, a mating theme

appears just in time to save the knight.
3..JM7!
The best try, forcing White to find an "only
move" to win. Rather less testing was 3 .. Jl:xf7
4J:l:h8#.
If you examine diagrammed posltlons from
chess books without using a board, analyse
positions "blindfold", and so on, this can serve
as quite a good method of developing concrete
thought. I would point out that chess masters,
as a rule, are supremely good at reading chess
literature without the aid of a board.
As already indicated, in practical play you
mainly have to contend against your opponent's
tactical designs which take exceedingly varied
forms. The special attention of young players
should be drawn to the fact that many forced
222 Soviet Chess Strategy

operations are associated with so-called "quiet" Carried away by his own active plans, a player
moves or, for instance, intermediate moves. will often fail to notice his opponent's very
Such moves can be wholly unobtrusive in strong intervening moves.
aspect. At first sight they don't fit in with any
tactical idea, but in reality they frequently play Svein Johannessen - Rudolf Teschner
a decisive role.
Riga 1 959
Tigran Petrosian - Mark Taimanov
8 �
Leningrad 1 960
7
� 6

a b c d e f g h
With his last move (I 6.fxe4) , attacking
the knight on d5 and strengthening his
a b c d e f g h
centre with tempo, White would seem to
Black played a move that looks natural and be acquiring excellent prospects. Yet Black's
strong: brilliant intermediate move abruptly alters the
complexion of the fight.
29 �e5
.•.

He now threatens ...llJe5-d3 with the 16 W£6!!

•..

initiative. But he has failed to take account of Although both knights are en prise, neither
the following "quiet" reply which dashes all his can be taken. On 1 7.%Vxa5, Black decides the
hopes. game with 17...%Vf3 18.:gg1 :gc2 19.id2 %VtLt
20.@dl llJe3t! 21.ixe3 %Vxe2#.
30.f3!
It suddenly turns out that Black's active
After 1 7.exd5 he wins by 17...%VtLt 18.@dl
position is collapsing by force, since e4 and
.ia4t.
e5 are indefensible. In view of the threatened
31.fxe4 Black had to play:
In the game, there followed:
30...e3
But after:
17.�f4 �xf4 18.gd4 %Vg6 19.We3 Wg2
20.�gl
31.�xe3 �c6 32.�e4 �m 33.�g5 W£6
34.�xe6!
White won easily.
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 223

He seems to be winning the piece back. But

a deeper study of the position reveals that
White has a very strong intermediate move at
his disposal - 14. b4!, which utterly refutes the
entire variation.

a b c d e f g h
20 J:lxc1t! 2IJ:lxcl Wxa2
••

Black won with his material advantage.

a b c d e f g h
In practice such intermediate moves are
Therefore, instead of 13... .ixc5, Black should
encountered very often; they need to be
find 13 . . . dxc3!, which turns the complications
anticipated in good time to forestall the
into his favour.
unpleasant consequences.

In training, attention should be paid to such

As an example I will give the following complex
ploys, which raise the level of tactical skill. To
position arising from Alekhine's Defence:
this end it is useful to draw systematically on
both your own experience and notable examples
1.e4 'Of6 2.e5 'Od5 3.d4 d6 4.c4 'Ob6 5.£4
from master practice (that is, to compile a
dxe5 6.fxe5 'Oc6 7 .ie3 .if5 8.'Oc3 'OM
•

kind of album of diagrams) . After that, each

9J�'kl c5 lO.d5 e6 11.33
position must be thoroughly examined, and
the appropriate conclusions drawn.
8 'Y
Of course you should not dwell excessively
7 on the study of tactics. Young players wishing
to improve should try to develop their abilities
6 harmoniously, giving due attention to the
5 strategy of chess.
Methods of work on the strategic elements
4
are a little different from the work on tactics
3 that we have been conSidering. The main thing
here is to enhance your feel for the position.
2
Some young players adopt a formalistic
1 attitude to such work. They think it wholly
a b c d e f g h adequate to memorize various strategic
principles such as "the player with the advantage
The continuation 11...exd5 12. axb4 d4 is obliged to attack," or "avoid unnecessary
13.bxc5 ixc5 looks very tempting for Black. pawn moves" and so forth.
224 Soviet Chess Strategy
Similar pieces of advice, which have
become truisms, can easily be picked up
from any chess book or magazine, and of
course they stick vividly in the memory. I
know quite a few first-category players who
have copious extracts from teaching manuals
at their expert fingertips, and apply them
assiduously in practice. In fact, however, they
quite often get everything mixed up; such
memorization merely leads to stereotyped
thinking.
I cannot help recalling the following
amusing case. One young player, who had
conscientiously studied Alekhine's books,
would endeavour to take the offensive in
keeping with the latter's favourite strategy -
attacking on both wings. In one of his crucial
games he managed to obtain a splendid
position for attacking his opponent's king.
By concentrating everything against the king,
he could virtually have won the game by
force. Yet instead of this straightforward and
natural plan, he persisted in trying to strike
on both wings at once, "a la Alekhine". Not
surprisingly, as a result of this blind imitation,
he eventually lost not only his advantage but
the game.
To master the strategic elements, it is not
enough to know basic patterns and devices.
This falls a long way short of genuine
positional thinking.
Let's just take the case of the attacking
strategy on both wings. This was indeed one
of Alekhine's favourite strategic precepts,
and it constituted his contribution to the
further development of middlegame theory.
But of course such attacks were by no
means fortuitous; they conformed above all
to an objective assessment of the position.
Alekhine at no time "tried to be clever";
he took the demands of the position as
his starting point, although his strategic
conceptions were extremely original and
profound.
A very useful way of developing a player's
positional flair is (for instance) the "sensation"
method, which Nimwwitsch recommended
in his day. In this respect, the assessment
of the following position - for example - is
characteristic.
Milan Vidmar Aron Nimzowitsch
-
New York 1927
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
At first sight, White seems to be in quite
good shape. His rooks have secured possession
of the d-file. In time, Black's weakening of his
own kingside by pawn advances may make
itself felt.
In actual fact, White's position is virtually
lost. Essentially it is not White but Black
who dominates the centre, keeping all the key
squares firmly under control. This enables him
to work up a winning attack on his opponent's
king in no time. White proves to be helpless
against this direct assault.
22...e4! 23.J.e1
Alas, there is nothing better.
23 ... exf3 24.J.c3 flYe7! 25J::� 6d3 fxg2 26.J.xg2
J.xg2 27.J.xf6
 From the Book "The Middlegame in Chess" 225

a b c d e f g h
27 :Be4! 28J:Ud2 .ih3 29..ic3 Wg4t
. .

White resigned.

There is no doubt that systematic exercises in

evaluating such unconventional positions are
very useful for chess players whose positional
flair leaves something to be desired.
In Place of a Postscript

Dynamics should be Dynamic

Is this not so, my friends?

Is this not so, my friends?
Though hard to live with in this world,
There is no life without her.
Bulat Okudzhava

The book is finished, the final page is turned over. But let us not be in a hurry to shut it. Let us
take a look at how Suetin's ideas work in our own day.

l .d4 d5 2.c4 c6 3.�f3 �f6 4.�c3 e6 5.e3 �bd7 6. .id3 dxc4 7 . .ixc4 b5 8. .id3 a6 9.e4 c5
10.e5 cxd4 11.�xb5 axb5 12.exf6 gd6 13.0-0 �b6 14.�e2 .ib7 15 ..ixb5

8 T

a b c d e f g h
This position occurred twice in the World Championship match between Vladimir Kramnik
and Viswanathan Anand (Bonn 2008) . Let us try to make sense of it, basing ourselves first on the
static characteristics, then on the dynamic ones.
There is equal material on the board. What about the position of the kings? It is hard to say
anything definite. The white king is castled, the black one is more or less stuck in the centre.
But this hardly means that the white king is more secure. Let us picture how Black intends
228 Soviet Chess Strategy
to conduct the attack. His bishop is already
on b7, and a rook on g8 will shortly connect
with it: together they will exert strong pressure
on the g2-point. If White barricades the
dangerous file with a bishop on g3, Black's
f-pawn will advance like a battering ram; . . . f6-
f5 will probably be followed by ... if8-d6 and
... f5-f4. The bishop on g3 will be unstable, but
there will be nothing else to shield the king. It
follows that being castled does not guarantee
the king's safety - which in turn means it does
not necessarily bring any advantage.
But then, the black king feels uncomfortable
too. Its hopes are all vested in the e6-point,
but this may be exploded by some sacrifice,
whereupon prospects of mate may become a
reality.
What about the general development of
the pieces? White is close to connecting his
rooks - a sure sign that his development will
be completed presently. To connect his rooks,
Black will need to expend more tempos, and
moreover he will probably have to leave his
king on e7. Does this mean that White is (or
will be) better developed? Again the answer is
no. The rook on a8 has yet to make a single
move, but it has already come into play. On
the other hand White's rook on a I , even when
united with his other one, is not participating
in the game - and there is no telling when it
wifl be.
And the pawn structure? Here too, things
are by no means unambiguous. The position
of the white pawns is pleasing to the eye,
whereas Black's "coiffure" on the kingside has
been spoilt by the g7-pawn shifting to f6. Yet
it is this very defect which - paradoxically!
- enables Black to start an attack with his
pieces against g2. If the attack is successful,
the ugliness of Black's pawn structure will
be counted as a plus for him. If the attack
founders, it is perfectly possible that the
shortcomings of the pawn structure will tell.
And now, a further nuance. In the diagram
position, White has passed pawns on the
queenside, Black in the centre. In an endgame,
the passed pawns on the wing are considered
more dangerous than central ones. But as the
saying goes, there is still the need to survive
until the endgame.
We could take these general considerations
further, but only with the same amount of
"success". This position obviously cannot be
solved in terms of statics. It is by dynamics
that all will be resolved.
Suetin's book abounds in theoretical antith­
eses. The author sets statics against dynamics,
the positional struggle against the tactical, the
stable factors of a position against the transi­
tional ones - and also, in a global sense, ste­
reotyped dogmatic thinking against thought
which is unconventional and innovative. To
this list of antitheses I would like to add one
more item: the objectivity and subjectivity of
the tasks confronting the players.
A game of chess is not played in a vacuum.
The players look for the best move - but not
in friendly conversation, rather in conditions
of fierce competitive struggle. They have to
solve problems "here and now" , which means
that to add to the objective difficulties there
will inevitably be subjective ones: shortage of
time; discomfort at being less well acquainted
with the position than your opponent; physi­
cal fatigue towards the end of the game; and
so on.
Let us come back to the diagram position.
The variation occurring in the game had been
prepared by Anand at home. What does that
mean, if we are talking about a match for the
World Championship? Obviously a brigade of
distinguished grandmasters and highly profes­
sional theorists will have been at work. Their
analytical calculations will have been checked
by computer and delivered to Anand's "desk".
There will then have been a concerted effort of
polishing, of painstakingly working out every
detail. Finally the variation was ready for use.
 Dynamics should be Dynamic
The variation is on the board. At Anand's
back, there are many hours of preparation. In
front of Kramnik there are serious problems.
Vladimir reacts creditably to his opponent's
innovation, he conducts the game on the very
highest level. But he uses up a vast amount of
time and exhausts his strength. By about move
30 he has neither strength nor time left. Then
his game tumbles downhill.
15....1d6 16.l'�dl �g8 17.g3 �g4 18..1f4
.ixf4 19.lthd4!?
White shows he does not intend to surrender
the initiative. The restrained capture on d4
with the rook would lead to simplification and
a probable draw.
19...h5 20.tLlxe6 fxe6 21.�xd7 <.i?f8 22.�d3
a b c d e f g h
Just as we predicted, White has sacrificed a
piece on e6 and opened up the enemy king.
He now threatens to swing his queen across
to h7. Mate is on the horizon. However, we
ought not to over-dramatize the situation.
Black has a combination at his disposal to "calm
things down" - after 22...�xg3 23.hxg3 h4 the
pawn on f2 is pinned, and there is the threat of
a deadly capture on g3. In reply White would
no doubt have to exchange queens on d6, with
a draw.
229
22...�g7!
Anand takes the courageous decision to
continue the game while keeping as much
material as possible on the board. There are
not that many pieces left, and White does have
two extra pawns. Objectively, in some "ideal"
analytical environment, this decision might be
contested, but here and now, in the concrete
situation of the game, it proves subjectively to
be most unpleasant for White.
23.�xg7 <.i?xg7 24.gxf4 �d8 25.�e2
A barely conspicuous but significant
inaccuracy. The white king is going to have to
flee to save itself, but the queen is depriving it
of a square. A better move was 25.�b3.
25... �h6 26.<.i?f1 �g8 27.a4 .1g2t 28.<.i?el
.1h3
a b c d e f g h
29.�a3?
A highly significant moment. From the static
point of view, this move looks splendid. After
being idle for ages, the rook finally comes into
play. On a3 it supports a passed pawn, attacks
the black bishop, covers all the points on the
third rank.... It seems impossible to demand
more of a single move!
Yet the concrete variations show this
move to be weak. The rook is ineffective on
a3 and should have gone to d1. Why, then,
230 Soviet Chess Strategy

did Kramnik play this way? For one of
two reasons - he had either no time, or no
strength. In any event, the decision Anand
took on move 22 has justified itself. He had a
serious attack, and now it grows into a decisive
one.
the scenes. General considerations seemed like
empty patter; the outcome of the game hinged
entirely on concrete variations. Yet all of a sud­
den, at the decisive moment of the game, what
seemed to be a secondary static factor emerges
into the foreground.

29... E:gl t 30.�d2 YMd4t 31.�c2 .ig4 Unfortunately, by now Kramnik had com­
An over-refinement, an unnecessary pletely lost control of the position:
zwischenzug. Checking on f5 at once would
have been better. 32.f3? .ifSt 33..id3 .ih3 34.a5 E:g2 35.a6
E:xe2t 36.he2 .ifSt 37.�b3 YMe3t 38.�a2
YMxe2 39.a7 YMe4t 40.�al YMfl t 41.'if;1a2
8
.ib l t
7 White resigned.
6
A few days later, when Kramnik had White
5 again, the players continued their theoretical
4 duel.

3 l.d4 d5 2.e4 e6 3.�f3 �f6 4.�c3 e6 5.e3

2 �bd7 6..id3 de 7.he4 b5 8..id3 a6 9.e4
e5 10.e5 cxd4 11.�xb5 nb5 12.exf6 gxf6
1
13.0-0 YMb6 14.YMe2 .ib7 15.hb5
a b c d e f g h At this point the earlier game saw 15...�d6.
Obviously Kramnik and his team will have
You recall that right at the start of our
been working to refute this very line. But
discussion we noted that the queenside
Anand is the first to deviate.
passed pawns could become a real force in
the endgame. At that stage this circumstance
seemed of secondary importance - the
15...E:g8 16..if4 .id6 17..ig3 f5
endgame was such a long way away. Now,
however, the passed pawn factor could have 8
taken full effect if White had played 32.i'!d3!,
7
and if 32...�f5 then 33.<tf;>b3 �xd3 34.YMxd3.
Black is the exchange up, but the pawns are 6
very dangerous. The outcome of the fight 5
would remain unclear.
What does this tell us? It tells us that the 4
static and dynamic characteristics of a posi­ 3
tion are not in confrontation but are con­
stantly linked in a certain complex and elusive 2
unity. In the present game, over a long stretch 1 6.
of moves, the static characteristics, or "sterile
a b c d e f g h
positional" ones, remained somewhere behind
 Dynamics should be Dynamic
Black's attack develops according to the
scenario we foresaw. The f5-pawn is used
as a battering ram: its job is to dislodge the
bishop from g3 and thus clear the path to
g2.
Here again I would like to return to the
main body of this book. Suetin uses the phrase
"harmonious co-ordination of the forces" as
the chief term to explain the ascendancy of
dynamics over statics. The position on the
diagram could serve as a good illustration of
the author's theoretical argument.
In terms of statics, White's position looks very
attractive. Black's, on the contrary, is "ugly".
But in dynamic terms, the black pieces and
pawns are in harmony whereas White's are not.
The black pieces are attacking, and in a very
natural manner too, with major forces. The
two bishops, the rook on g8 and the pawn on
f5 are the vanguard of this attack; the queen,
the knight and the rook on a8 are a very close
line of reserves, and the impression is that the
attacking forces are about to unite. Black's next
few moves are easy to predict: ... f5-f4, ...'it>e8-
e7, perhaps the rooks will double on the g-file
(the rook on a8 might also be transferred along
the fifth rank) , and the knight will be brought
over towards the kingside. What White is to
do is none too clear, for all the "beauty" of his
position.
The initiative belongs to Black. But does
this mean that the advantage is on his
side? Of course not. Between initiative and
advantage there is not by any means an equals
sign. White may beat off the attack, and
then the defects of Black's pawn formation,
coupled with his insecure king position, may
tell.
Let us once more give attention to that most
important antithesis in modern chess: the
objectivity and subjectivity of the problems
to be solved. Perhaps those who follow in
23 1
Kramnik's footsteps will be able to demonstrate
an advantage for White in the diagram position.
For them it will be easier! They know how the
theoretical duel between Kramnik and Anand
turned out; they know what problems lie in
wait for White in this variation. Furthermore
the work of their analytical laboratories is not
restricted by anything. Go ahead - analyse,
consult with your computer, involve your
colleagues in your work, check and re-check;
the clock is not ticking!
Kramnik on the other hand was forced to
work it all out at the board. His opponent
had excellent preparation, his opponent was
playing his prepared line - while Kramnik had
to find everything himself, here and now. And
even if he found an acceptable solution, there
would still be plenty of play in the position,
and the effort and time expended could not
be recovered.
1 8JUel f4 19 .ih4 .ie7 20.a4 .ixh4 21.�xh4
•
'it>e7 22J��a3 gac8 23.gxc8 gxc8 24J��al 'ilYc5
25.'ilYg4 'ilYe5 26.�f3 'ilYf6 27.gel gc5 28.b4
gc3
A fair number of moves have been played, and
neither side has achieved a clear advantage. The
position is in a state of unstable equilibrium,
except that the Black side, as before, is a little
easier to handle.
For Kramnik, time shortage was making
itself felt. He decided to force events, and
began an exchanging combination. Alas, his
combination met with an uncomplicated
refutation.
29.�xd4?
White could have maintained the tension
with 29.%Vg8.
29 'ilYxd4 30.gdl �f6 31.gxd4 �xg4
•••
32.gd7t 'it>f6 33.gxb7 gel t 34 .ifl
•
232 Soviet Chess Strategy
a b c d e f g h
Here is one more excellent example of the
link between statics and dynamics - and of the
evident contrast between them. In static terms
White is very well placed. He has two "self­
propelled" passed pawns (while Black has no
passed pawns at all) , as well as the advantage of
bishop against knight in an open position, and
a rook on the seventh (the "glutton's rank") .
But s o much for statics. I n dynamic terms
White loses in elementary fashion, literally in
two moves.
34 tOe3! 35.fxe3 fxe3
••.
There is no defence against 36... e2, so
Kramnik resigned.
Let us leave the Anand - Kramnik match for a
moment, to illustrate the "objective/subjective"
antithesis by a different example.
Veselin Topalov - Gata Kamsky
Sofia 2009
a b c d e f g h
28J�ed
How are we to evaluate this move?
Objectively it is weak, taking White's game to
the brink of defeat. Subjectively it is brilliant,
but to arrive at this verdict, the overall picture
has to be precisely visualized.
This was the seventh and penultimate game
of the Candidates Match. The results from the
preceding six were 3Y2- 2Y2 in Topalov's favour.
But in the eighth and final game Kamsky
would have the white pieces, and he would
be striving to level the score. To Topalov, this
meant it would be a good thing to finish off
the contest straight away, by going two points
up, that is out of his opponent's reach.
That is one fact. Here is a second: during
the events we are describing, Kamsky was
in severe time trouble. And a point of some
importance in contemporary chess is that the
time control for this match did not allow for a
30-second increment after each move played.
And now another fact: in the preceding phase
of the struggle in this game, there were some
occasions when Kamsky could have played
more strongly. Instead he miscalculated some
variations, used up a large amount of time and
eventually made inferior choices. Topalov of
 Dynamics should be Dynamic
course will have sensed this insecurity on his
opponent's part.
One fact, a second, a third... And then
again it must be borne in mind that a match
is a chess contest of a special sort. During the
time spent at the board - as has repeatedly
been stressed - the opponents will so to speak
penetrate each other's psyche and acquire the
most refined mutual empathy. They will prove
able to anticipate not only each other's moves
but also each other's thoughts. There is no
kind of mysticism here. If two chess players are
sitting at a board, in other words practically in
contact, for a long stretch of time day after day,
then clearly at some moment they will develop
a unified system of behaviour with a common
"rhythm". One of them starts to play worse,
the other at once starts to play better. One
permits himself some laxity - the other, like
a beast of prey, senses this straight away and
strives to exploit it, relying less on the objective
criteria of the position than on his opponent's
psychological state.
Incidentally after the game, when asked how
he rated White's 28th move, Topalov candidly
stated that against Anand he would never have
played that way. Anand doesn't get into time
trouble, Anand calculates variations superbly
and fast.... In short, Anand would have been
almost certain to punish Topalov for this bluff.
Yet against Kamsky the risk paid off, bringing
victory in the game and the match.
Objectively, White should have played for a
draw with 28.�xa3.
Even then, as it happens, Black could
still have gone wrong with 28... ,ic6? After
29.,if6! White threatens mate from all sides -
29 .. J'he6 30J'ha8t, or 29... �xa3 30.%Vxe8t,
or 29... ixd5 3o.ixg7t! c;t>xg7 31.�g3t.
However, the simple 28... ,ib3 forces a draw:
29J'%xa8 �xa8 30.%Vxf5 %Vxd5 etc.
233
28...ie2! 29.Wd7 a2 30.d6 b5
So far Kamsky's play has been faultless.
The connected passed pawns, supported by
the queen and bishop, constitute a terrible
force. But the fight is still far from over, and
Black is going to need to play some accurate
moves.
31.Wb7 geb8
The first mistake. The straightforward
3l... b4! 32.d7 �eb8 33.d8=%Vt �xd8 34.i.xd8
�xd8 would have done the trick. But when the
seconds before your flag drops are numbered,
your hands choose a move that you would
never make in normal circumstances.
32.We7
The moment of truth arrives.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
Black can no longer push his b-pawn, as he
could have done a move earlier - his queen is
under attack. However, the draw has not yet
slipped away. After 32... ,id3!! 33.�xc4 bxc4,
even with his extra queen, White is forced to
"bail out" with 34.%Vxb8t �xb8 35.h4 �blt
36.i>h2 �xal 37.d7 �hlt! 38.i>g3! (but not
38.i>xhl al=%Vt 39.i>h2 %Ve5t and 40... %Vxe7)
38... h6 39.d8=%Vt i>h7 40. .if6! gxf6 41.%Ve7t
and perpetual check. Needless to say, finding
such a complicated line in time trouble would
be inconceivable.
234 Soviet Chess Strategy

32..J'k8 33.Wxc4 �c4 34.d7 .ib l 35J;dl
c1>g8 36.d8=Wt gxd8 37..ixd8 .ic2 38J;dcl
b4 39.gxa2 b3 4O.gaS c1>f7 41.gb8
Black has come out of the time-scramble
a rook down and without any compensation
for it. After making a few more moves out of
inertia, Kamsky acknowledged defeat in the
game and match.
Thus when we speak of the problems to be
solved at the board in contemporary chess,
the category of their objectivity or subjectivity
comes into the foreground. Objectively weak or
at least risky moves may nonetheless confront
the opponent with such subjectively complex
problems that solving them "here and now"
will prove beyond him. Even if subsequent
analysis casts doubt on an incorrect plan, the
loser, as they say, has "missed the boat", so that
the risk has been fully justified.
But let us return to our basic theme - the
opposition and interaction between statics and
dynamics, the variable and the stable factors in
a position. Again we will look at an example
from the Anand-Kramnik match for the World
Championship.
The Russian Grandmaster has the white
pieces. A fashionable modern opening line
has been played, but one that has a classical,
even somewhat antiquated appearance. White
has the advantage of the two bishops. There
are pawn weaknesses on a7 and c6. The b and
d-files are formally open (that is, completely
clear of pawns) , but it is still too early to call
the position an open one. Black is successfully
maintaining a piece blockade on the b-file -
and as for the d-file, it is wholly unclear which
player it will belong to. If the black bishop
goes to e2, White will be forced to move off
the file.
But these are details. Overall, the impression
is that we are going to see a heavy positional
contest with a minimum of tactics. Statics will
prevail over dynamics.
Is this really the case? Yes and no. It would
of course be a blatant exaggeration to say that
this position contains as much in the way of
dynamics as the sharp Meran Variation of
the Slav Defence which we looked at before.
The dynamic factor here is under cover. Yet it
continues to play an important and ultimately
crucial role.
Kramnik played:

8
18.gel
7 This was a novelty; previously only 18.ie3
and 18. .1f4 had been seen. Let us ask ourselves
6
what the point of this move is. In what way is it
5 stronger than the continuations tested earlier?
4 We will then see clearly that this question
cannot be answered within the framework
3 of a general discussion operating solely with
2 common notions about the position.
I happened to read one expert's explanation,
1 6.
which stated something along the following
a b c d e f g h lines: it is not yet certain whether the white
bishop will be best placed on e3 or f4, whereas
In the examples we have examined so
after the almost inevitable ... ic4-e2 the rook
far, dynamics undoubtedly predominated.
will have to move aside to e1 anyway. Kramnik
This time it seems that the struggle will be
therefore moves his rook in advance and
conducted in a different key.
 Dynamics should be D ynamic 235

will afterwards decide what to do with his 18 c5 19.YlYa5 �Uc8

•••

dark-squared bishop, depending on how his
opponent continues.
Such a fancy explanation will hardly satisfy
the reader. It would be far more logical to make
a different assumption, namely that as a result
of deep analysis (which entails the calculation
of concrete variations) Kramnik and his team
Later, 19....ie2 20.if4 eS was tried. After
21..ixeS lLlc4 22.Wla6 WlxeS 23J�xe2 YlYxc3
24.!!eel, it became obvious that Black had
not equalized, Ivanchuk - Grischuk, Linares
2009.
20 .ie3 .ie2 21..if4 e5 22 .ie3 .ig4 23.YlYa6
• •

had concluded that in terms of dynamics the f6 24.a4 YlYf7 25..ifl .ie6 26J:�ab l
rook move was stronger than a bishop move.
What that analysis amounted to, only future
8
publications and new games will reveal.
Now another question. What does Black's 7
counterplay consist of? He is not actually going 6
to stand around in apathy, confining himself to
prophylactic moves. Of course not. What ac­ 5
tion does he have in mind, then? 4
The key piece in the position is the black
3
knight on b6. If White succeeds in shackling it,
his advantage will increase and make itself felt. 2
This means the knight must be given suitable
1
"employment". The natural blockading square
for it is c4, but a knight manoeuvre to d3 (via a b c d e f g h
d7 or a4, then cS) , though less probable, is not
Without making a single noticeable mistake,
entirely fanciful either.
Black has driven himself into a difficult,
How, then, will Black manoeuvre? And
perhaps already hopeless, position. The knight
against any of the plausible lines, how will White
is unable to move in view of White's threat to
react - how will he counter his opponent's
penetrate to b7 with his rook.
plans? Well, the answers to these questions lie
in dynamics!
Black cannot initiate exchanges with 26 ...ic4
This inevitably calls to mind a paradoxical
27.ixc4 Wlxc4, on account of 28.!!xb6! -
thought of Efim Geller's. He maintained that
again we recall Geller, and we see that he was
positional play was nothing other than a chain
perfectly right. Finally, on 26 ...!!ab8 White
of short variations with an obligatory tactical
increases the pressure with 27.!!bS.
"filling". In other words, it would be a gross
error to think that positional play was confined
In an effort to escape White's grip, Anand
to a deep form of "reasoning" and constituted
makes an impulsive move and thereby only
a large-scale rigid structure - something
hastens his own defeat.
like a filing cabinet, the drawers of which
are crammed with sets of rules and laws for
26 c4 27.a5 �a4 28.gb7 YlYe8 29.YlYd6
•••

compulsory memorization.
With full material equality, Black resigned.
Dynamics are always close to hand, and if the
On 29 ...1L1xc3 White wins with 30.!!e7, while
static factors in a position can be compared to a
29 ...gd8 is met by 30.Wlb4 and the black
compass, the variable ones are like the needle.
pawns start falling one by one.
236 Soviet Chess Strategy
So by the example of three extracts from the
Anand - Kramnik match, we have seen what
complex, fluctuating interactions take place
between statics and dynamics. It is a shame
that this brings us no closer to an algorithm for
seeking the best move in this or that situation
on the board. We only acquaint ourselves with
chess as a game and an art, we learn to see the
underlying logic and beauty in it. But as another
classic figure edifyingly said, "It isn't enough to
be a good player - you also have to be able to
play well!"
Incidentally, on reading all sorts of verbiage
concerning this "interaction" and such matters,
lovers of chess start asking, "Which chess style
is best?" The answer is, none at all. Or any style.
For if chess is art, then - as everyone knows -
all genres are good except a boring one. And
if chess is sport, the best style is the one that
brings victory.
The obvious question then arises, what style is
best for bringing victory? What is a champion's
style?
In Soviet times, the most widely accepted
theory was that of a cyclic process. The great
masters of positional play are gradually ousted
and replaced by great masters of combinative
play. Later on, the cycle concludes and another
one begins. The same thing happens on the
summit of the chess Olympus. Tal, shall we
say, is a champion playing in the combinative
"key". Petrosian is an adherent of the positional
playing style. Karpov is a "staticist". Kasparov
is a "dynamist" - even, as Suetin might say, an
"ultra-dynamist". And so on.
In its most complete formulation, this
hypothesis seems to echo the doctrine of Hegel,
except that the triad "thesis, antithesis, synthesis"
is replaced by the triad "positional player,
combinative player, universal player" . After
Tal and Petrosian (let us say) , the "universal"
player Spassky ascends the chess throne. The
combinative genius, Kasparov, supplants the
titan of positional play, Karpov - and the triad
is completed by Kramnik, a player whose style
approximates to the universal.
As hypotheses go, this one is not at all worse
than any comparable ones. The important
thing, though, is not to set up these theoretical
constructs as absolutes, but to understand that
the life of the living is always more complex and
multifaceted than any theoretical doctrine. In
Soviet times too, by the way, this was perfectly
well understood.
Let us recall Tal's game with Smyslov (Moscow
1964) which made frequent appearances in chess
lectures of the classical type, and afterwards in
books of that era. In the opening of the game,
White played just a little carelessly. Black put
him under pressure and seized the initiative,
which led ultimately to a bishop-versus-knight
endgame with pawns on both wings. What then
commenced was an astounding and intricate
labour of exploiting Black's minimal plus.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
32... �fB 33.�d2 �e7 34.�e1 a6 35.a4
a5 36.�c2 .ie8 37.�b3 .ic6 38.�a3 �f6
39.�b3 �g6 40.�a3 �h5 41.h3 �g6
42.�b3 �g7 43.�a3 �f6 44.�b3 .ie8
45.�g2 .ih5 46.�c2 .ie2 47.�el .ifl 48.�a
.ixh3 49.�g5 .ig2 50.�xh7t �g7 51.�g5
�g6 52.�d2 .ic6 53.�cl .ig2 54.�d2 �h5
55.�e6 .ic6 56.�c7 �g4 57.�d5 �xg3
58.�e7 .id7 59.�d5 .ixa4 60.�xb6 .ie8
61.�d5 �a 62.�c7 .ic6 63.�e6 a4 64.�xc5
 Dynamics should be Dynamic 237

a3 6S.�b3 a2 66.ciflc2 ciflxf4 67.ciflb2 cifle3
6S.�aS ies 69.eS £4 70.00 .hoo 71.�xOO a
72.�eS fl
White resigned.
1 3.exdS!? £XeS 14.bxc4 exd4 I S.dxe6 ie6
16.cxbS d3 17.e7 Wd4 IS.Wa4 �d7 19.ie3
Wd6 20 ..ixa8 gnS 21.i£4 Wf8 22.b6
�eS 23 .heS wa 24.Wdl We4 2S.b7 gf8
•

26.eS=W idS 27.a

A wonderful ending, but we should avoid any Black resigned.
exaggerated rapture. Smyslov was famed at
all times for his exemplary technique, and a I suspect that a detailed analysis of this game
good many endings like this are featured in his would fill all the space in the present book,
collected games. But this is where the lecturer with a contents table and reference aids for
(or book author) would pull a master trump good measure. But the general impression
from up his sleeve: the truth is that Tal was the from merely playing through the moves is
one playing Black.... unshakable: a tense struggle, abounding in
In contemporary practice too, there are tactics and extreme unconventionality - which
plenty of such curiosities, such games with is no surprise when the name of Morozevich
mixed-up roles. A great master must be able to appears at the head of the game score; a game
do everything in chess - never mind that there certain to be less than faultless, but culminating
are always certain preferences, certain types of in a Blitzkrieg. Mentally you start appending
position that one player is none too fond of, a conclusion at the bottom of the fairly short
whereas another, who is ranked no higher, plays column of moves: Kramnik just couldn't cope
them with virtuosity. These are nuances. The with this "unconventional" play, he couldn't
main thing, I repeat, is that the great master work out the variations. That's why he lost so
needs to have the ability - not the wish or quickly.
preference, but the ability when needed - to But the whole point is that it was Kramnik
"play any tune" on the chessboard, in either a playing White.... How can this be? After all,
static or a dynamic key. the man-in-the-street of the chess world views
In this connection, Morozevich's game with the Kramnik of the 21st century - since his
Kramnik from the World Championship Match­ match with Kasparov, that is - as the "dri­
Tournament (Mexico 2007) comes to mind. est of the dry", as a player who in principle
shuns the labour of calculation and endeavours
l.�a �f6 2.e4 e6 3.g3 dS 4.d4 de S.ig2 a6 to decide the game by exclusively technical
6.�eS ib4t 7.�c3 �dS s.o-o 0-0 9.We2 bS means.
10.�xdS exdS l 1.b3 00 12.e4 f6 But this is how it was: when Kramnik, as
they say, was up against it, he managed to fetch
8 out the tactical devices and skills from the
back room of his arsenal. They had not rusted,
7
they had just collected a little dust. It turned
6 out that he had not yet forgotten how it was
5 done: sacrificing a piece intuitively, calculating
the most complex tactical lines at every
4 move, keeping up the initiative. "Your hands
3 remember things, your hands remember!" - as
was said by Yuri Nikulin's character in the film
2
When the Trees were Big.
1 6.
a b c d e f g h
238 Soviet Chess Strategy
Life is more complex than any philosophizing,
richer than the most cunningly concocted
theoretical hypotheses. There are no such
things as winning styles, and the living process
of cognition cannot be squeezed into the
procrustean bed of cyclic development and
schematics.
Viswanathan Anand - Lev Aroman
Linares 2009
8 for some time Black seems to be walking in his
7
6 2S.Wc3 geS 29.ti'g3 ti'h5 30.Wh4 ti'f3
5
4 the path intended for him!
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
Black has a wretched position. His rook has
gone astray on g6, his bishop is languishing on
b7, there is nothing to cover the key square 5 .
White has two beautiful bishops; he has the
upper hand in the centre and on both wings.
His position overall is a pleasure to behold. Its
harmony is evident already, and when his rook
on al and his bishop on c2 come fully into
play, White's superiority will be total.
Black does have an extra pawn, but this
is small comfort. His pieces are disunited;
some are idle, some are stymied by the white
forces. In terms of statics, Black has lost the
fight irredeemably. There remains the factor of
dynamics!
25 ltlxg4!? 26.fxg4 ti'h4 27.ltl£5 ti'xg4!
•••
In such positions Boris Spassky liked to recall
the saying, ''A beggar fears no robbery." To the
minor piece sacrificed, Black is prepared to
add a rook - 2B.ltJ e7t cj{hB 29.ltJxg6t fxg6 -
just so that the dynamic factors (in this case
the activation of the other rook, on £8) should
predominate.
Anand refuses the new gift. He may quite
possibly have been aiming for the variation
2B.Wc3 l'!eB 29.Wg3 Wh5 30.Wh4 Wf3
31.l'!d3 Wg2t 32.cj{e2 l'!g4 33.l'!g3!, at the end
of which the dynamics are extinguished by the
exchange of the main active pieces. And indeed,
opponent's leading strings...
31.gd3 ti'glt 32.cj{e2 exd4
At the last moment, however, he turns off
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a b c d e f g h
33.gg3?
Anand is a great champion, one of the
strongest of all chess players living on our
planet. And yet he is human, which means he
is not free from errors and certain weaknesses.
In this particular instance his sangfroid has let
him down. He has not been able to readjust
and continue the fight on the same level.
White had to play 33.l'!xd4, although after
33... ltJ e5 Black could still fish for some
 Dynamics should be Dynamic 239

chances. Now the situation swings through

180 degrees.

33 gxg3 34.Wxg3 gxe4t! 35.<ifid2

•••

35.i.xe4 does not save White either after

35...�xe4t 36.<ifid2 �xf5.

35 gg4 36.�xg2 gxg2 37.me2 c5

•••

White resigned.

Chess as a game is finite. There is no doubt

of that. But the process of gaining knowledge
of chess is a process of systematically opening
a large number of doors. There were quite
enough such doors in Suetin's century.

And there are enough in our century too.

1M Ilya Odessky, Winter 2009

 Index of Games
A1atortsev, V. 29 Kolarov, Atanas 1 1 2 Schmidt, Wlodzimien 1 4 3
A1ekhine, Alexander I I , 12, 1 5 , 23, 36, 50, Konstantinopolsky, Alexander 82 Shamkovich, Leonid 2 0 5
l OS, 1 08, 1 54, 1 62, 1 7 1 Korchnoi, Viktor 1 3 , 34, 39, 1 26, 1 27, Shartner 20 1
Anand, Viswanathan 227, 230, 234, 238 1 84 , 1 96, 205 Shishkin, Vladimir 1 1 3
Aronian, Lev 238 Kotov, Alexander 8 , 2 5 , 4 1 , 70, 1 1 0, 1 34 , Simagin, Vladimir 1 46, 200
Aronin, Lev 32, 95, 1 86, 1 93, 2 1 4 1 98 , 202 Sliwa, Bogdan 1 84
Averbakh, Yuri 32, 72, 1 40 Kottnauer, Cenek 3 1 Smyslov, Vassily 9 , 3 1 , 40, 60, 7 5 , 8 8 , 1 00,
Bagirov, Vladimir 1 68 Kramnik, Vladimir 227, 230, 234, 237 \ 07, 1 1 0, 1 1 5 , 1 33, 1 62, 1 87, 1 89, 1 9 1 ,
Batuyev, Andrey 9 1 Kukharev 1 6 2 1 4, 236
Bernstein, Ossip 1 4 Lasker, Emanuel 1 32 Sokolsky, A. 2 1 , 23
Blackburne, Joseph 22 Lebedev, B. 1 97 Sorokin, N. 1 2
Bogoljubow, Efim 12, 1 1 9 Letelier, Rene 1 1 5 Spassky, Boris 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 60, 1 76, 1 93
Boleslavsky, Isaak 9 , 46, 56, 63, 64, 70, 78, Levenfish, Gregory 29 Spielmann, Rudolf 1 29, 1 3 1 , 1 8 1
89, 1 02, 1 04, 1 1 0, 1 4 5 , 1 70, 202 Liberzon, Vladimir 1 2 8 Stahlberg, Gideon 89
Bondarevsky, Igor 85, 1 47 Lilienthal, Andor 83, 86 Steinitz, Wilhelm 90
Znosko-Borovsky, Eugene 1 08 Lipnitsky, Isaac 1 07, 2 1 6 Suetin, A1exey 2 1 , 28, 56, 9 5 , 1 1 0, 1 28,
Botvinnik, Mikhail 1 2, 1 4 , 27, 36, 56, 7 5 , Lisitsin, Georgy 27 1 6 1 , 1 64 , 1 82 , 1 96, 200, 209, 2 1 6, 2 1 7
8 1 , 86, 9 1 , 92, 94, 1 04, 1 1 7, 1 23, 1 56, Liublinsky, Viktor 1 33 , 1 40 Sveshnikov, Evgeny 93
162, 1 9 1 , 206, 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 Lutikov, Anatoly 1 25 Szabo, Laszlo 1 50
Bronstein, David \ 06, 1 22, 1 2 5 , 1 5 5 , 2 1 7 Ljubojevic, Lj ubomir 1 28 Szabo, Stefan 39
Capablanca, Jose Raul 1 4 , 50, 1 1 9, 1 57, Mackenzie, George 60 Tal, Mikhail 24, 42, 78, 1 00 , 1 03 , 1 1 0,
1 62, 1 9 1 Makogonov, Vladimir 1 4 5 1 1 2, 1 39, 1 90, 1 93, 1 99 , 203, 206, 236
Chigorin, Mikhail 60, 2 1 9 Matanovic, A1eksandar 1 49 Taimanov, Mark 8 1 , \ 03, 1 24, 1 30, 1 73,
Dementey 23 Minic, Dragoljub 1 74 1 86, 222
Duras, Oldrich 1 3 1 Mikenas, Vladas 1 97 Tarrasch, Siegbert 1 1 , 2 1 9
Euwe, Max 49, 1 7 1 , 2 1 1 Morozevich, Alexander 237 Teschner, Rudolf 222
Faibisovich, Vadim 1 6 1 Najdorf, Miguel 1 24, 1 3 5 Timman, Jan 1 28
Farago, Ivan 1 74 Neergaard, Holger 1 46 Tolush, Alexander 26, 27, 27, 1 4 5
Fine, Reuben 49, 65, 83, 1 54, 1 56 Nezmetdinov, Rashid 8 1 Topalov, Veselin 232
Fischer, Robert James 43, 74, 79, 1 60, 1 63, Nikitin, Alexander 1 9 5 Torre, Carlos 1 32
1 69 Nimwwitsch, Aron 1 3 , 1 57, 224 Tseshkovsky, Vitaly 1 64
Frieman, S. 1 5 Novotelnov, N. 8 Tukmakov, Vladimir 1 72
Furman, Semyon 82, 1 1 4 , 1 82, 1 87, 1 9 5 , Pachman, Ludek 1 24 Unzicker, Wolfgang 4 1
209 Padevsky, Nikola 1 24 Vasiukov, Evgeny 56, 1 93
Geller, Efim 1 3 , 33, 63, 1 30, 1 4 5 , 1 47, Panno, Oscar 72, 203 Vatnikov, I. 33
1 53, 1 69, 1 90, 1 98 Peresypkin, Vladimir 93 Velimirovic, Dragoljub 1 7
Gipslis, Aivars 42 Petrosian, Tigran 20, 63, 1 20, 1 34, I SO, Veresov 1 6
Gligoric, Svetozar 24, 74, 1 43, I SO, 1 63 1 67, 1 76, 1 89, 222 Vidmar, Milan 92, 224
Goldenov, Boris 1 1 0 Pilnik, Hermann 1 5 3 Vistanetskis, I. 28
Grigorian, Karen 1 72 Planinec, Albin 1 74 Wolf, Heinrich 1 0 5
Griinfeld, Ernst 1 8 1 Polugaevsky, Lev 1 03, 1 20, 1 68 Yates, Frederick 2 3 , 1 9 1
Gurgenidze, Bukhuty 1 03 Portisch, Lajos 60, 1 06, 1 48 , 1 49, 1 78 Zhuravlev 20 1
Hug, Werner 1 4 8 Poulsson, Eivind 1 74 Zita, Frantisek 1 22
Ivkov, Boris 4 0 , 1 27 Ragozin, Viacheslav 46, 8 5 , 1 1 7, 1 3 5 , 2 1 3 Zukertort, Johann 22, 90
Janowski, David 1 29 Rauzer, Vsevolod 77
Johannessen, Svein 222 Ravinsky, Grigory 1 02
John, W 39 Reshevsky, Samuel 43, 1 67
Kamsky, Gata 232 Reti, Richard 1 4 1
Kan, lIya 94 Riumin, Nikolai 77
Karpov, Anatoly 1 7 , 1 78 Romanovsky, Peter 220
Kasparian, Gentikh 220 Rubinstein , Akiba 1 3, 1 1 7, 1 4 1
Keres, Paul 1 4 , 20, 2 5 , 26, 6 5 , 8 1 , 8 8 , 1 23, Sakharov, Yuri 34, 1 26, 1 50
1 39, 1 5 5 Salwe, Georg 1 1 7
Khasin, Abram 1 99 Schlechter, Carl 39
Kholmov, Ratmir 79, 1 73 Schmid, Lothar 1 70