Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Manager’s Guide
to Cyanotoxins
A Water Utility Manager’s Guide to Cyanotoxins
Copyright ©2015 American Water Works Association and Water Research Foundation.
This publication was jointly funded by the Water Industry Technical Action Fund managed
by AWWA (Project #270) and the Water Research Foundation (Project #4548).
Contents
Introduction to Cyanotoxin Issues, 3
1. What are cyanotoxins and where do they come from? What does a
cyanotoxin-producing bloom look like?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Why are cyanotoxins a human health concern?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Are cyanobacteria blooms a new problem?
Where have cyanotoxins been observed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Are cyanotoxins regulated in drinking water and what levels of toxins
are of concern?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. What are the most important conditions leading to cyanobacteria blooms? . . . . . . . . . 6
6. If the surface water supply has cyanobacteria blooms, does that mean my utility
has a cyanotoxin problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7. If the water surface water supply has taste and odor problems, does that mean
cyanotoxins are also in the water? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8. Does my utility need to conduct a more thorough assessment to determine if
cyanotoxins are a problem in the surface water supply? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9. Can cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria blooms be predicted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
10. How are cyanotoxins detected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11. What are effective ways to treat drinking water for cyanotoxins? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
12. How can cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins monitoring be incorporated into
a utility’s management plan?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Additional Resources, 13
Quick Self-Assessment, 14
References and Bibliography, 17
Photo Credits, 18
Introduction to Cyanotoxin Issues
Toxin-producing cyanobacteria are a growing Cyanotoxins may impact drinking water
concern for water utilities that use surface water utility operations and customers. In order to
supplies across the country. To make informed take an informed approach to both managing
decisions about how to limit exposure to cyano- cyanotoxins and communicating with custom-
toxins, water utilities need to understand: ers, utilities need accurate information. Utilities
How, when, and why cyanotoxins occur need to understand the conditions under which
cyanotoxins can be found, as well as effective
How to determine if they occur in a given monitoring and treatment approaches for man-
water source
aging cyanotoxin events if they do occur.
What management strategies are available Finally, many utilities may benefit from dis-
to reduce cyanotoxin production in source pelling some misconceptions about cyanotoxins,
waters their indicators, and the effectiveness of differ-
What treatment can prevent cyanotoxins ent treatment methods. A short self-assessment
near the end of this guide is a resource for utility
from reaching customers
This guide was created in a partnership managers to evaluate whether their water sys-
between the American Water Works Association tems may be at risk and, if so, where they can go
(AWWA) and the Water Research Foundation for additional information and guidance. A more
(WRF). The guide provides a brief overview of detailed technical guide (which will be available
current knowledge surrounding these ques- soon) will serve as a companion to this overview
tions so water utilities can gain a better sense of by presenting detailed information about cya-
whether cyanotoxins are a water quality issue notoxin occurrence, measurement, and manage-
they should be preparing for and where to find ment. Like this overview, the technical guide is
relevant resources and knowledge when cyano- intended to benefit water utility managers, cus-
toxins do cause water quality problems. tomer service and public relations staff, opera-
tors, and consultants. It will be organized to help
readers navigate the issues and make informed
decisions about making sound evaluations and
taking appropriate mitigation measures.
1. What are cyanotoxins and where do they come from? What does a
cyanotoxin-producing bloom look like?
Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, depending on many factors. Sometimes blooms
are photosynthetic bacteria that can live in are mistaken for materials such as spilled paint
many types of water. They are important pri- because they can have a similar appearance.
mary producers (organisms that make energy Cyanobacteria can cause problems for water
directly from the sun) in aquatic ecosystems. utilities such as:
While critical to water and soil resources, exces- Producing unpleasant tastes and odors,
sive cyanobacteria growth can cause ecological especially earthy and musty ones
and public health concerns. Rapid, excessive
cyanobacteria growth is commonly referred to Interfering with water treatment plant
performance
as a “bloom.”
Cyanobacteria blooms can be inches thick, Increasing disinfection by-product
especially those located near the shorelines of precursors
lakes and reservoirs, and they commonly occur
during warm weather. They can appear foamy
Producing cyanotoxins (AWWA 2010)
Cyanobacteria blooms that produce cya-
or accumulate as mats or scum covering the notoxins are one subset of blooms sometimes
water surface. Some cyanobacteria sink and rise called harmful algal blooms (HABs). However, the
through the water column, depending on the HAB terminology can be misleading because
time of day. Cyanobacteria blooms may appear cyanobacteria that are capable of producing cya-
blue, blue-green, brown, and other colors, notoxins do not always do so. Also, while some
Oregon 1 3 1 3
Minnesota 0.04*
WHO 1
* The Minnesota level for microcystin is intended to be protective of a short-term exposure for bottle-fed infants.
Note: Health Canada and WHO data include information from other sources that was not provided through the ASDWA
survey.
depths where there is vertical circulation in can occur without additional nutrient input
the water column. from any of these other sources.
Thermal stratification: Cyanobacteria can Predicting and managing cyanobacteria
blooms effectively require an understanding of
regulate their buoyancy, giving them a
competitive edge when the water column is a water utility’s surface supply. The conditions
stratified. Stratification can also affect nutri- likely to trigger blooms are ultimately site-spe-
ent availability to favor cyanobacteria. cific (e.g., presence of cyanobacteria, nutrient
levels, hydraulic conditions). Some utilities
Rainfall: Rain events can increase the experience blooms in surface water supplies in
amount of runoff carrying nutrients into a early summer when the water reaches a warm
water body and result in a cyanobacteria enough temperature. Other utilities witness
bloom. blooms when the thermocline begins to destrat-
Cyanobacteria blooms usually develop in ify in late summer or early fall (i.e., when turn-
waters rich in nutrients, especially phosphorus. over begins). Blooms may take place after a rain
Nutrients originate from point and nonpoint event, or they may occur after a series of sunny
sources. Municipal wastewater and stormwa- days. Algae and zooplankton as well as cyano-
ter, as well as agricultural runoff, are common bacteria can flourish under particular source
sources of nutrients. Some water bodies already water conditions and can have implications for
contain enough nutrients in their sediments and drinking water treatment.
aquatic ecosystem that cyanobacteria blooms
Site inspection Transparency, discol- Secchi disc, regular site inspection by Operators,
for indicators of oration, scum forma- trained staff; basic skill requirement, train- practitioners
cyanobacteria in tion, detached mat ing easily provided
water body accumulation
Potential for cya- Total phosphorus, nitrate Boat, depth sampler, Secchi disc, submers- Limnologist
notoxin problems and ammonia, flow ible temperature/oxygen probe; fluorom-
in water body regime, thermal strati- eter; spectrophotometer; basic skills but
fication, transparency, requires specific training and supervision
phycocyanin
In water body Dominant taxa (quan- Microscope, photometer is useful; specific Phycolo-
and drinking tity): determination to training and supervision are required, but gist or a
water genus level is often suf- skills required can be readily mastered technician
ficient; quantify only as trained by a
precisely as needed for phycologist
management
In water body and Microcystin, anatoxin-a, Enzyme-linked immune assay (ELISA) Chemist
drinking water cylindrospermopsin kits (moderate); liquid chromatography
photo-diode array (LC/PDA, moderately
high); liquid chromatography mass spec-
trometry (LC/MS, high) specific training
and supervision are required, but skills
required can be readily mastered
Microstysis bloom
Selectivity Minimum
(Does it measure only the targeted Detection
Test Use compound?) Level
ELISA Screening test (generally Based on antibody/antigen interactions.
requires confirmation with Less selective because of cross reactiv- 0.16 ppb
another test type) ity with other similar molecules, includ-
ing other microcystins, and nonspecific
binding.
11. What are effective ways to treat drinking water for cyanotoxins?
Identifying which cyanobacteria and cyano- Extracellular toxins are generally more difficult
toxins are present helps utilities know they are to remove. Sometimes water treatment itself can
using the appropriate treatment processes. Key release toxins from cyanobacteria.
factors to consider are the type of cyanotoxin Table 5 provides a summary of the effective-
and whether it is contained within the cyano- ness of different water treatment technologies
bacteria cells (intracellular) or dissolved in the for removing cyanotoxins (Lopez at al. 2008;
water (extracellular). Intracellular toxins can be Westrick et al. 2010; USEPA 2012a). Treatment
eliminated by removing the cyanobacteria cells. selection is context-specific and depends on the
Treatment
Process Relative Effectiveness
Intracellular Cyanotoxins Removal (intact cells)
Conventional coagula- Effective for the removal of intracellular/particulate toxins by removing intact
tion, sedimentation, cells. Generally more cost effective than chemical inactivation/degradation,
filtration removes a higher fraction of intracellular taste and odor compounds, and easier
to monitor.
Flotation (e.g., dissolved Effective for removal of intracellular cyanotoxins because many toxin-forming
air flotation) cyanobacteria are buoyant.
Pretreatment oxidation Overall, can either assist or make treatment more difficult, depending on the
(oxidant addition prior situation. Pre-oxidation processes may lyse (cause dissolution or destruction
to rapid mix) of) cells, causing the cyanotoxins contained within to release the toxins. Ozone
may be an exception (see “Ozone” row) because it both lyses cells and oxidizes
the cyanotoxins.
Potassium Effective for oxidizing microcystins and anatoxins. Not effective for cylindros-
permanganate permopsin and saxitoxins.
Chlorine dioxide Not effective with doses typically used in drinking water treatment
Activated carbon (pow- Most types generally effective for removal of microcystin, anatoxin-a, saxitox-
dered activated carbon ins, and cylindrospermopsin. Because adsorption varies by carbon type and
and granular activated source water chemistry, each application is unique; activated carbons must be
carbon) tested to determine effectiveness.
UV radiation Degrades toxins when used at high doses, but not adequate to destroy cyano-
toxins at doses used for disinfection.
Additional Resources
Several helpful guides are available for water Chorus, Ingrid and Jamie Bartram, eds.
utility staff who want to learn more about man- 1999. Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide
aging cyanotoxins and their impacts. AWWA to their public health consequences, monitoring
and the WRF are preparing a technical guide and management. New York: CRC Press and
to accompany this introduction to cyanotoxins. WHO.
The technical guide will be available for mem-
bers and subscribers on AWWA’s and the WRF’s
Association of State Drinking Water
Administrators Harmful Algal Blooms
websites. (HABs) resource page includes links to state
Additional publications include, but are not web pages addressing cyanobacteria blooms
limited to: and cyanotoxins: www.asdwa.org/habs.
USEPA’s Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal The references and bibliography listed at the
Blooms resource page at http://www2.epa. end of this document provide a more thorough
gov/nutrient-policy-data/cyanobacteri- overview of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins
al-harmful-algal-blooms-cyanohabs research. Additionally, many states have helpful
International Guidance Manual for the resources available on their websites.
Management of Toxic Cyanobacteria (2009)
from the Global Water Research Coalition at
www.waterra.com.au/cyanobacteria-man-
ual/PDF/GWRCGuidanceManualLevel1.pdf
Newcombe, G. et al. 2010. Management Strat-
egies for Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae):
A Guide for Water Utilities: Research Report
No. 74
Does the source Yes, strong ther- Yes, stratifies Stratifies some No
water stratify mocline and but no notice- during the day but
thermally in the turnover in late able changes in mixes at night
summer? summer/fall with water quality with
noticeable water turnover
quality changes
Does the utility Yes, frequent com- Yes, periodic Once every few No
have taste and plaints during the complaints years
odor problems? summer
Are the basins reg- No, never Maybe once every At least once a More than once a
ularly cleaned? few years year year
Algae skimmer
removes biomass
in a dissolved air
flotation plant in
Waco, Texas
Microsystis
Photo Credits
Cover, left to right: Algae bloom, Nixx Photography, Page 12: Photo courtesy of Paul Dorrington, Energy
Shutterstock; Pseudanabaena, M57, Algae: Source and Extracts
to Treatment; Algae bloom, Alexander Kazantsev, Page 13: Photo courtesy of Ecosystem Consulting Ser-
Shutterstock vice, Inc., Coventry, Conn.
Page 6: M57, Algae: Source to Treatment Page 15: M57, Algae: Source to Treatment (microscope
Page 8: Photo courtesy of Ecosystem Consulting Ser- shots); Photo of skimmer courtesy of Catherine R.
vice, Inc., Coventry, Conn. Dunlap, The Cadmus Group
Page 9: Photo courtesy of Dr. David Szlag, Oakland Page 18: Photo courtesy of Ecosystem Consulting Ser-
University Dept. of Chemistry, Rochester, Mich. vice, Inc., Coventry, Conn.