Animism in Malaysia

The practice of animism in Malaysia is still active and is practiced either openly or covertly
depending on the type of animistic rituals performed. Some forms of animistic belief is not
recognised by the government as a religion for statistical purposes although such practices is not

Overview
There are different types of animism practiced throughout Malaysia. Shamanism is practiced
especially by the Malays in Peninsular Malaysia by people known as bomohs, otherwise also
known as dukun or pawang. Most Orang Aslis (indigenous people) are animists and believe in
spirits residing in certain objects. However, some have recently converted to mainstream
religions due to state-sponsored Islamic da'wah and evangelization by Christian missionaries.

In East Malaysia, animism is also practiced by an ever decreasing number of various Borneo
tribal groups. The Chinese generally practice their folk religion which is also animistic in nature.
The word "bomoh" has been used throughout the country to describe any person with knowledge
or power to perform certain spiritual rituals including traditional healing – and as a substitute for
the word "shaman". Generally speaking, Malaysians have deep superstitious belief, especially
more so in the rural areas.

History
Historically, before the arrival and spread of Islam in the 15th century, and the spread of
Christianity from the 19th century, the inhabitants in the land were either Hindus or animists. In
the Peninsular, widespread Islamification is said to have begun in 1409 after Parameswara
became Sultan of Malacca and converted into Islam after marrying a princess from Pasai. Since
then, other Sultanates in the Malay peninsula have adopted Islam. Also since then, and
continuing after the independence of Malaysia, Islam played a central role in Malaysian society.

Similarly in East Malaysia, animism was widespread prior to the arrival of Christian missionaries
from Europe. The practice of headhunting was quite common in these societies. In Sabah, the
Kadazan-dusuns would worship Kinoingan or rice spirit and celebrate Kaamatan or harvest
festival every year. During Kaamatan, there are certain rituals which has to be carried out by the
high-priestesses known as the bobohizans. Today, most Kadazandusuns have adopted
Christianity but some would still celebrate Kaamatan. However, the number of bobohizans has
tremendously dropped and is in the brink of extinction. In Sarawak, it has been said that the
animism practiced by the Ibans and other related groups is the most developed, elaborated, and
intellectualized in the world. Animism practice in East Malaysia is related to the religion of
Kaharingan in Kalimantan, Indonesia, which has been recognised as an official religion by the
Indonesian government. However, the rituals involved are not entirely similar with variations
depending on the ethnic subgroups which practices it.
Shamanism and traditional healing
The shamanist bomohs or witch doctors still practice their craft in Malaysia. The bomoh practice
by Malays have been integrated into Islam and is not forbidden. They are also known as
traditional healers and sometimes serve as an alternative to conventional modern medicine.
However, the practice has sometimes been viewed negatively by Malaysian society as in some
instances bomohs have the power to cast spells (jampi) and have used them on other people with
ill effects. The number practitioners of bomohs has also dropped.

The bobohizans of Sabah are also shamanistic and are traditional healers. They also act as a
medium to communicate with spirits and play an important role in the rituals involved during
Kaamatan.

Recently there has been suggestions for the need and importance to preserve the practice of
bomohs and other shamans as traditional healers and to complement or substitute conventional
modern medicine.
Philippines
Belief in Supreme God

While there somewhat of a trend going on in the ethnological circles claiming that widespread
monotheistic beliefs found among many tribal peoples were due to the influence of diffusion, or by
forced interpretation by missionaries, the belief in a Supreme God seems to be one of the most natural
and simplest of beliefs. Indeed, very little evidence has been mustered in support of this theory and it
remains simple conjecture.

In the Philippines, the record of the Spanish, and the surviving indigenous traditions leave little
doubt that the Filipinos had a belief in a Supreme Creator God. The name of this god varied
depending on what region is discussed. Among some of the names are: Bathala, Diwata,
Kabunian, Mansilatan, Makaptan, Laon, Lumauig, Mamarsua, Tuhan, etc.
Here is a graph showing the hierarchy of creation generally held in Philippine belief systems:

The Creator God was almost always said to be invisible, or without form, and as such, images of
the deity were not generally made. The name was considered sacred, and very rarely uttered,
usually only in sacred rituals by special initiates. This same phenomenon occurs widely
throughout the Malay Archipelago. Generally, the Supreme God was seen as distant and too
involved in higher matters for direct worship. Instead, a lower class of deities, who, like humans,
were also created, were the principle objects of prayer, supplication and ritual. However,
sacrifices, offerings and rituals aimed at the Supreme God were no unknown, and they were
usually reserved for emergency-type situations as among the Bagobo, or in very special annual
rites.

The lower gods were known by names like diwa, diwata, tuhan and anito. As in many
shamanistic cultures, these deities were divided into benefic and malefic categories. A sort of
cosmic dualism was ever present in which humans and other earthly beings were also involved.
However, the malefic deities were not generally seen as enemies and were often supplicated
themselves. Their role in bringing harm to earthly beings was seen as having a special
significance in the cosmic scheme of things. While a sort of battle between good and evil did
exist, this was primarily between the beings of earth and the lower realms. In this conflict, the
shaman/priest acted as the primary defender in native society. He/she sought the aid of the
benefic deities against the malevolent lower spirits, or the appeasement of the malefic deities. In
special cases, the shaman/priest even appealed to the Supreme Deity.

Philippine Trinity
Among some of the Filipinos, a belief existed that paralleled many ways the idea of the Trinity in
Christianity, the Trimukha in Hinduism and the Trikaya in Buddhism. Filipino historian, Pedro Paterno,
discusses these beliefs in his work, El Cristianismo en la antigua civilization tagalog; contestacion al
M.R.P. Fr. R. Martinez Virgil de la Orden de predicadores, obispo de Oviedo. In another book entitled,
Our Islands, and their People, Paterno states: "When Christianity was being introduced into the islands,
it was found that there were words in the language of the Filipinos capable of expressing all the higher
spiritual phases and doctrines of the Christian religion." In such systems, Bathala, Diwata, Kabunian, etc.,
were not seen as the Supreme Creator, but as the son of that God. Usually, the Supreme God was
associated with langit or the heavens and sky, while Bathala, Diwata, Kabunian et al, were connected
with the Sun, the heir of the sky. The third component in this trinity was a type of pantheistic spirit or
body that was sometimes known as Laon. Many Filipino peoples had a concept of different bodies or
souls for each individual. The highest of these souls was sometimes made part of a collective universal
body that pervaded all things.

While one may be tempted to connect this with Indian influence, which certainly is possible, similar
beliefs exist in Oceania, the system in Hawai'i being particularly well-known.

The interesting thing concerning the ideas of the Supreme God and the son of this God is that
neither is given any form, nor or images usually made of them, and neither are given any
heavenly spouses. The Supreme God is not usually given any sex, and this may be one reason
that investigators often received confusion answers when inquiring on this matter. Bathala,
Diwata, Kabunian et al are generally seen as male, but without spouses. Thus, there was very
little corporal conception of these deities, unlike the lower created gods.

Cosmology

Many of the Philippine peoples viewed the cosmos as consisting of multiple heavens or universes each
without form or boundary. In a way these were similar to modern concepts of dimensions. These
heavens were not stacked one upon the other, although a different stacked heaven concept also
existed. The other heavens or universes existed in different realities and thus there was no thought of
them occupying the same space. Though infinite they did not come into contact with one another.

Among the Igorots there existed the concept of Skyland, of the upstream and downstream
regions. Travel from one region to another by gods and men was a common occurence in Igorot
epics. Among many of the southern tribes, the horizon, particularly the ascendant or descendant,
marked the portals of heaven. Creation myths exist in the Philippines, one of the better known
being the Iloko Demiurge discussed by Calip. Mamarsua, or Namarsua, is the creator who by
thought and action produces Parsua which can refer to humankind, or to the created universe as
a whole. Man, is found to be a microcosm of the universe in the Iloko Demiurge.

Often in the interaction between heaven and earth, there is a ladder, or bridge, or sea that one
uses to pass from one region to another. A common motif found throughout the Philippines is
that of a mixed union between persons from both the skyworld and earth in which the child of
the union is eventually divided creating various heavenly phenomena. Hell in the Philippines
went under a variety of names including Kasanaan. It was the abode of demons and those who
had done evil on earth. Like heaven, it also was the destination of journeys in the native
mythology.

Animism

The ancient Filipinos believed, like many animistic peoples, that all objects had spirits or were
inhabited by such. Even seemingly inanimate objects like rocks, mountains, lakes, etc., and
natural phenomena like wind, thunder and fire were said to be inhabited by particular spirits, or
to be governed by certain gods. Indeed, even in "organized" religions like Hinduism, Taoism,
Confucianism, Jainism and Buddhism such concepts also exist. In India, mountains, rivers and
even oceans are said to be gods like Himavat (Himalayas), Ganga (Ganges River), and Saraswati
(Saraswati River). The concept of spirits like the devas and yakshas inhabiting trees, which is
found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is also widely attested to in the Philippines. In
ancient times, Filipinos made offerings to particular trees that were thought to be the habitation
of benevolent deities, or even certain ancestral spirits. Other trees were thought to house
malevolent spirits, and care was taken to avoid sleeping under these trees.

Not surprisingly, the Filipino belief in animism also supported widespread concept of totemism,
in which humans had certain kindred animal spirits. The snake was an important totem being
used frequently as a symbol, as among the Igorots, as also as a guardian for certain types of
priest like the tauak of the Tagalogs. The crocodile and a variety of omen birds like the balatiti
(Tagalog), batala (Kapampangan), haya (Bikol), salaksak (Ilokano, Sambal), etc., were also
considered sacred in certain regions.

The forces of nature were often addressed respectfully using the term, Apo. . For example, the
Ilokanos addresed the rain as Apo Tudo 'Lord Rain," Apo Init, "Lord Sun," and even Apo Pagay
"Lord Palay (the rice plant)." Of course, Apo was also used to address the Supreme God, as
among the Kapampangan who use Apo Guino "Lord God," or the Ilokano, Apo Langit "Lord
Heaven." As stated early, the Supreme God was often associated with the heavens, while the Son
of Heaven was symbolized by the Sun. In this sense, the Son of Heaven does have a wife, as the
Sun is usually said to be the husband of the wife in Philippine religious belief. This cosmic pair
was apparently very important in the faith of Filipinos throughout the archipelago. The union of
the two celestial bodies at the New Moon, and their opposition at the Full Moon had great
spiritual significance, and it was from this that the Filipinos derived their concepts of cosmic
balance.

Afterlife

Practically all the early Filipinos had a belief in the afterlife. Generally, it was believed the good went to
heaven, or its Philippine equivalent, while the evil went to hell. The very widespread belief that heaven
and hell were divided into different levels was also found in the Philippines. Which region one goes to
depends on different factors. Among the Bagobo, for example, those who die accidental deaths all go to
a particular heaven, or hell. Usually, whether ones goes to heaven or hell, the individual is able to work
up to higher levels and is not condemned for eternity to stay in one place. Merit, or self-improvement is
the usual way of rising to the next level, although in some cases something like purgatory exists.

However, in many cases, there was a belief that each individual had more than one soul. Among
the Bagobo, each person had a right-hand soul and a left-hand soul. The right-hand soul was the
good side of the individual and went to heaven after death. The left-hand soul was the evil in
each person and at death it went either to the underworld, or stayed on earth to vex the living.
The Ilokanos believed in three sould in the body. The eternal soul that continued after death was
known as Kararwa according to Calip, while Alingaas the soul that is found at places one has
been previously; and Karma the soul that inhabits the living body. Sometimes, Karma is seen as
a vapor that leaves the body either as an invisible vapor or in the form of an insect travelling to
far places. Sometimes, the karma even left the body while the individual was awake. For
example, those returning from the forest would make recitation Intayon, Intayon, or Intayon
kaddua, while striking the chest with the palm, invoking the Karma to return from the forest to
the body.

Sometimes, the good soul, rather than ascending to heaven, would take residence in a local tree
or similar spot to watch over their loved ones, or take care of unfinished business. There also
existed an idea of dying persons leaving a "portion" of themselves with other family members,
followers or students. For example, if a person is born near the time of the death of relative, and
that person happens to have some characteristics of the deceased relative, then the child is said to
have received a portion of the deceased's spirit. Likewise, if a child is so sick that appears that it
will not survive, but then it happens that someone in the family, or close to the family, dies while
the baby survives, the child is said to have been saved by part of the deceased's spirit. The
Filipinos, or some of the Igorot peoples, at least, seem to have had some belief in a type of
resurrection. The Benguet Igorots, for example, have long practiced a form of mummification.
These ancient mummies with tatoos still visible were placed in wooden coffins after a process of
smoking on a papag and treatment with special herbs. The common theme in Philippine belief
systems is that not only are God and the diwa immortal, but all souls are also immortal. They all
eventually work their way up to the highest heaven, which usually is the one right below that
inhabited by the Supreme God.

Philosophy

We will not go into the vast storehouse of Filipino indigenous wisdom and proverbs here. That may be
the subject of a future link, and you can also check out Ken Ilio's Tribung Pinoy Page for possible links in
this area. A brief description will be given here of just one quite common view of the purpose of life
found in the Philippines.

The ancient Filipino saw life as a struggle. Forces were in place to make life difficult, and
temptations to do evil were ever present. Humans must struggle to conquer sickness and poverty,
but at the same time must live good lives in order to avoid going to lower worlds after death.
While there exist evil forces to put obstacles in our way, we are also assisted by the spirits of our
ancestors, and the diwata or anito. These spirits were said to assist God and to be in charge of
different activity and phenomena. Thus, seafarers had their own special anito as did farmers. In
extreme cases, an individual, and particularly a community would even call upon the Supreme
God to help them in times of need. However, this was only done sparingly as not to offend the
Deity.

Sometimes, though, God takes a more active role in human affairs. Among the Livunganen-
Arumanens, for example, Kerenen, the Highest Diwata, is not only creator, sustainer and ruler of
the world, but as Memintaran he inspires the people to right action and speech. For the righteous,
he created the paradise, Suruga, while the wicked were banished to Nereka, although after
sometime they also would find their place in Suruga. In some cases, as in the epic, Ulahingan,
mortals were able to enter Suruga without first having undergone death.

God was seen as the great judge. Kabunian, in particular, was seen as the all-seeing Judge, and
thus, his association with the Sun is understable. And as judge, God was thus also the redeemer
for those who had been wronged.

Ritual and Practice

A brief sketch of some indigenous Filipino religious practice will now be given. The spiritual side of life
pervaded every facet of daily living. Rituals were often performed for even the most mundane tasks like
cleaning the pig pen. Omens were constantly watched for, especially before long journeys or the start of
important enterprises. The stars to were consulted for auspicious times. Among certain Igorot tribes,
certain stars would have to come in line with the Moon before important events like hunting
expeditions, battles, sacrifices, etc.

While many Filipino tribes practiced blood sacrifice, more common were bloodless offerings
like the betel quid, or palm leaf books with prayers, supplication, praises, etc., written down by
the worshipper over a period of time. The vegetal offerings were usually allowed to perish
naturally, while the prayer books were offered by fire on a special sacred stones or stone altars
(batong buhay). Other types of altars made of split bamboo posts, coconut husks, wooden tables,
jars, split canes and hanging plates were also used for offerings. Sometimes small boats were
made on which feasts were prepared for the deity, and the boat sent out to sea towards the
horizon.

The Filipino "temple" was known as the simbahan among the Tagalogs, tenin among the Tirurai,
buis among the Bagobo, etc., etc. These structures were often temporary in nature and usually
small, although when they were attached to chief's houses, they could be large enough for great
feasts involving the whole barangay. These may have been similar to the long houses used for
worship from Indonesia to Polynesia. Among the Igorots there still remain megalithic communal
stone platforms known as ato that are sometimes used for religious ceremonies. The paved
platforms are usually surrounded by a wall of upright stones a few feet high, with stone backrests
known as handagan, stone seats arranged to form either a square, triangle or circle, large upright
stones that may be phallic symbols, and very large flat stones. There are also stone circles with
low walls known as dap-ays that are now mostly as used as meeting-places for the elders. Even
more interesting are the remains of an ancient pyramid near Mt. Tenongchol, with only the base
remaining intact. What makes this find even more fascinating are the hundreds of mummies of
the Benguet Igorots in the surrounding caves. Shades of ancient Egypt!

There existed a belief that amulets known as anting-anting gave the possessor unique powers, or
made them invincible. One of the commonest powers of the anting-anting is to protect one from
iron weapons. Such beliefs are found in Indonesia also, and in special ceremonies individuals
will allow themselves to attacked with knifes, or even shot with firearms! We will not delve into
the authenticity of these rituals, but they demonstrate the type of belief that surrounds the anting-
anting. In some cases, special operations were formed in which the anting-anting were implanted
under the skin.

For the Filipino, every facet life was considered sacred. The jars used for fermenting liquor or
foods, the tatoos of the Bisayans and Igorots, the weapons of war, everything. Even sex had
special spiritual significance. Peculiar phallic devices, also found among other Malays, and
known among the Kapampangans as curicung were widespread among the Filipinos. According
to the Boxer Codex, there were at least 30 different types of these devices, each with name
sacred in the native language. The Spanish also mentioned a type of "circumcision" that was
practiced for the purpose of enhancing sexuality. This rite, though, was also considered sacred
and it was not associated with immorality.
The Filipinos often resorted to divination to ascertain the will of the gods, or the winds of fate.
Mediums and oracles were consulted, women usually playing this role. Male priests conducted
divination by casting lots, observing omens, and similar devices. The Dado dice of the Ayta now
used largely for gambling are examples of Filipino lots. The Dado have representations of four
constellations: Kalawan, Bayi, Peho and Dem on four of its six sides. Such divination often took
place during the many festivals and rituals practiced by the ancients. These festivals could range
from festivity rites, in which offerings were made and dances were performed in the fields; to
rituals for good health, in which the community went for a sacred bath in the river were they
would often sprinkle themselves with bundles of sacred herbs dipped in the river. The
possibilities for such festivals were endless, and this feature of Filipino society carried on even
after the arrival of the Spanish.

Folk Christianity
Introduction

The Philippines is known as the only Christian country in East Asia. About 66 percent of the
population are nominal or committed Roman Catholics and about seven percent of the
population are Protestant. However, much of the Christianity is mixed with animism, creating
Folk Christianity.

Indigenous religions

The first Filipinos practised animistic religions. Since there are over 7000 islands there was a
great diversity of animistic belief and practice, just as there are many tribal groups and
languages. Successive waves of immigrants introduced Hinduism and Islam, and later
Christianity.
Records made by Spanish settlers and missionaries, and existing tribal religion, show that the
indigenous Filipinos believed in a supreme sky god, or creator god. This god was invisible, his
name was sacred and only spoken during rituals, and no images of him were made. He was
believed to be so far from humanity that contact was often made via lower deities, in the form of
prayers and rituals. These lower deities were divided into benign and malign, and both were
petitioned or appeased.
There was also belief in a kind of ‘trinity’ of gods. Beneath the sky-god was his son, who was
usually associated with the sun. There was also another god who was a kind of inherent spirit.
(Although this belief bears some similarity to Christian ideas, it also has parallels in Hinduism
and Pacific religions.) Generally no images were made of any of these gods.

Primitive animism

The ancient beliefs also included animism. Spirits were thought to dwell in all objects,
particularly natural features such as trees, rocks, water, weather conditions. Offerings were made
to these spirits, and places where malign spirits were believed to dwell were avoided. Animals
were also believed to house spirits, and humans were believed to have kindred animal spirits.
Thus some animals were considered sacred or symbolic.
Life after death

Most Filipino tribes believed in life after death, and the widespread belief was in a heaven for the
good and a hell for the bad. Heaven and hell were generally thought to be divided into different
levels, through which the soul could move by gaining merit. Some tribes believed that souls went
to different places according to how they died. In many regions of the Philippines, it was thought
that people had more than one soul; sometimes three souls, sometimes two. Of the two, the good
soul went to heaven and the bad one went to hell or remained on earth. Some tribes still believe
that if a child is born close to the death of a family member, the child will receive a part of the
dead person’s soul. Ancestor worship was also practised, with the spirits of the ancestors
remaining on earth or visiting the living.
Many of these beliefs are still held by tribal groups, and many have been mixed with
Christianity.

Roman Catholicism in the Philippines

Spanish settlers arrived in the Philippines in the early 1500s. They named the archipelago after
their king, Philip II, in 1542, and in 1565 the islands were conquered by Spain. Roman Catholic
missionaries were among the early settlers. They began teaching and converting almost
immediately, but allowed existing Filipino culture to coexist with Christian belief and church
teachings.
This understanding produced the Folk Catholicism which prevails in the Philippines. That is, the
coexistence of animism and Catholicism. Filipinos believing in this do not perceive
inconsistencies between the two.
The mix of Folk Catholicism is evident in daily Filipino life. In Catholic areas, the local spirits of
animist belief have been largely replaced with local patron saints. A crucifix or cross is believed
to ward off evil spirits in the same way as an amulet. In buses and taxis there is often a shrine or
statue of the Virgin Mary or baby Jesus, believed to protect those who travel. There are also
Christian slogans and pictures in public places.
Shrines are visited, particularly around the times of Christian festivals, such as Easter. Some
shrines are ostensibly Christian but are built on the site of pagan shrines and still used for
animistic or psychic purposes.
It is also common to attend church (usually Mass) regularly or hold Christian beliefs but also to
follow animistic practices. Some people visit a spirit doctor if they are ill or have a problem with
another person. They might make sacrifices or offerings to spirits for appeasement or when
asking for good health or good crops. This would include people in rural and urban areas, the
well educated and the uneducated. Tribal animistic practises range from low-key rituals
(performed by some Christians as well as non-Christians) such as burning something bad-
smelling when ill, in order to ward off evil spirits (who are believed to hate bad smells), to the
possession of a familiar spirit and sacrifices to appease it.

Filipino view of Christ

The Filipino view of Christ also differs from the Western Protestant view of Christ, not just
because it is complicated with existing Filipino culture, but because it has been based on the
traditional Spanish view of Christ. Spanish Catholicism has been characterised by a deep sense
of tragedy, a dread of or obsession with death, and religious contemplation of the wounds and
death of Christ. The occupation of Spain by North Africans is said to have influenced the
development of their faith, perhaps in particular the identification with suffering and oppression.
Rather than the triumphant risen Christ or the pre-crucifixion, teaching Christ, the popular image
is of the tragic, crucified Christ, or of the Christ child with his mother. In the Philippines, these
two images of Christ are also the most popular. He is commonly known as the Santo Niño (Holy
Child) or the Santo Entierro (Interred Christ). These serve to illustrate that common knowledge
of Christ centres on his birth and death, not on his years of teaching, nor on his role as Messiah,
or on his resurrection and ascension.

Ancestor veneration

Ancestor veneration is also practised in some areas and on All Souls Day (31 October) many
people, including those with Christian beliefs, visit graveyards to tend the graves of deceased
relatives and to offer food. These activities have grown out of ancient beliefs surrounding death,
the afterlife and the spirits of ancestors. The spirits of the dead were appeased in order to prevent
them from harming the living, or worse, taking the living with them to the realm of the dead.
Death was feared because of the spirits. Many animistic tribal communities still believe in
ancestral spirits and base their lives around appeasement or avoidance. In other areas the fear of
death has been absorbed into Catholicism.

Cults in the Philippines

Around 18 percent of the population are involved in cults, many of which are quasi-Christian
splinter groups.

Iglesia Ni Kristo

One of the strongest religious groups in the Philippines is the Iglesia Ni Kristo (the church of
Christ). From their modern centre in Quezon City this religious group who deny the cardinal
tenets of the Christian faith have expanded throughout the Philippines and the world.
They have grown mostly amongst the lower middle class and working people with a centrally
defined approach to ministry. The leadership provide the content for the weekly sermons and
giving to the church is closely monitored. At election time the leadership is able to deliver a
block vote to a favoured candidate. Consequently they are a powerful force in Philippine society.

Definition

Folk Christianity refers, in this factsheet, to a mix of animism and Christian beliefs (Roman
Catholic, Protestant or both). Folk Catholicism is the more common version, since the Spanish
occupation meant that Roman Catholicism was widespread, and the majority of the population
now call themselves Catholic.
Animism
Definition

The word ‘animism’ derives from the Latin word anima, meaning soul or breath. It is usually
applied to any religious beliefs which recognise spirits or a spirit world inherent and controlling
within the physical world.

Distribution

Animism can be found in many tribal or primal religions. Primal religions are those which are
ancient, in existence before the advent of world religions such as Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism. There are many such religions in East Asia, particularly in rural or undeveloped areas,
island communities and among tribal groups or minority nationalities. Animism is also found
within most of the world religions in East Asia, in the form of folk religion.

Context

Many people following primal religions live in isolated rural areas. Their lives are built around
the forces of nature. Birth, death, illness and disaster are not hidden or sanitised as they are in
many developed societies. Outside forces such as foreigners or neighbouring peoples may be
feared. Some tribal groups are nomadic. It is easier to be aware of a spiritual dimension to life,
and when human strengths and frailties are exposed by such environments, there is a need for
spiritual support.
Primal animistic religions share essential similarities with world religions: a belief in a powerful
spiritual realm which coexists with the physical world; usually prayer, sacrifice or offering as a
means to communicate with the spiritual world; shrines, temples or sacred places; priests,
shamans or mediums who can help the people to hear from the spirits or gods, and sometimes a
belief in a ‘sky god’ who is creator and above all other gods/spirits.
Animistic folk religions usually grow out of primal religions mixed with one or more world
religions. This happens when a world religion is introduced to the area where animistic religions
are already practised. The world religion may seem to predominate, but often its tenets and
practices will be less important than, or followed alongside, folk customs based on spirit belief.

Beliefs and practices

The spiritual force and the spirit world

The basis of animism is that the spirit world is stronger than humans. The power of the spirit
world infuses everything. Spirits are often believed to dwell in particular objects, such as a tree,
or places, such as an area of forest, or a village. Sometimes the spirits move around, even
following people if they move.
Origin of the spirits

Some spirits are the souls of deceased ancestors. Others are beings inherent in nature and the
spirit realm. For some people the spirits are intermediaries between humans and a higher god.
This is often the case in a folk religion, or a primal religion recognising a supreme god. In other
primal religions, the spirits are the primary beings of the spirit realm. As such their help is
sought. Sometimes the help of particular spirits is sought for particular occasions, eg during
illness or war, for marriage or childbirth, or for work and study. Help is also sought for
amelioration of weather conditions or a good harvest.

Relationship with the spirits

Relationship between the spirit world and the human world is ongoing and requires human
effort. Some spirits are seen as friendly and helpful, and gratitude is shown by the human effort
of prayer or offerings. Other spirits may be evil or troublesome, and need to be avoided or
appeased. Human effort is required to ensure the goodwill of the spirits, and to ensure that they
are not offended or neglected.

Contact with the spirits

For contact with the spirits special methods and/or trained, gifted individuals are usually
required. Some tribal groups have a shaman. Shamans enter the spirit world by way of an ecstatic
trance. They return to the earthly world with messages from the spirits. Other communities make
contact through a medium or through divination. Methods of divination include astrology (eg in
China), fortune telling (eg by selection of a written ‘fortune’ in folk Buddhism) and rituals (in
many tribal communities). In many areas, including those where a world religion is established,
there are local healers who prescribe rituals to seek healing from the spirits. In rural areas they
will also use natural methods (plants and herbs).

Case studies

The Karen people of north Thailand

‘Animists believe everything is animated by spirits. The Karen believe spirits live in houses,
fields, water, rice, buffalo, and trees. They all must be given sacrifices of food and kept happy
lest they become angry and cause calamity to fall on the people. Often we saw offerings to spirits
put out along the paths with bits of tobacco, thread and betel nut placed on a piece of old cloth.
Besides spirits, Karen believe in taboos that cause calamities when broken, and curses that will
kill other people…
‘Karen believe they have 33 souls — one for various parts of the body with the main one behind
the ear. These must all be appeased with an offering and tied in with strings around the wrists. If
one of these souls leaves, the person becomes sick and must make another sacrifice to call back
his soul. If someone dreams, his soul is actually doing the things he dreams about. If someone
wakes him up from a deep sleep too quickly, the souls may not have had a chance to get back to
the body in time, so they must be called back and tied in.’ — from Stronger than the Strong by
Louise Morris (OMF Books 1998)
The Naxi people of southwest China

The Naxi live mostly in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces. They have a long history and
traditionally are a matriarchal society. There is no traditional marriage; in the past, no-one left
the family home, and children were brought up by their mother, taking her surname. There is no
word for ‘father’ in the Naxi language.
Their rich culture has been heavily influenced by the Dongba religion. Dongba is polytheistic,
animistic and contains elements of Taoism and Buddhism. The Naxi believe that all forces of
nature contain spirits. They also venerate ancestors and try to make contact with ancestors in the
spirit realm. Their gods include Sanduo, a ‘protection god’ and Yama, a feared ‘death god’.
There are over 20,000 Dongba scriptures, recorded in hieroglyphs. The Naxi creation myth
recorded in the scriptures tells that their ancestor, Tabu, helped them to hatch from magic eggs.
The religious leaders are shamans. They perform rituals, contact spirits and are usually healers,
artists and scholars.

Comparisons

Similarities shared by animistic primal religions and Christianity:

Closeness to nature
Recognition of human frailty
Understanding of human need for a stronger power
Awareness of the spiritual realm
Life after death
Contrasts
Elements of animistic primal religions not shared by Christianity:
Many gods or spirits
Often no scriptures
Some use magic as well as religious practice
The sky god is not close to his people and does not lead by moral example or rule
Relationships are restored by sacrifice and appeasement, rather than repentance and forgiveness
Some spirits are volatile and capricious
Spirits are local rather than universal

Other points

Many people in East Asia may belong to a major religion such as Islam but actually follow a
mixture of that religion and animism.
Tribal animism is part of a deeply religious way of life in which the spiritual and physical are
inextricably linked.
Animistic religions often involve a strong element of fear.
Christianity often seems to fail beside animism because it does not seem to ‘work’ as effectively
in terms of healing.
Many people are content within animistic religions and their ancient beliefs are integral to their
culture.
Animists in East Asia

Mongolia - pop 3m, 50% animist

Vietnam - pop 70m, 3% animist
Cambodia - pop 9m, 3% animist
China - pop 1200m, 3% animist
Malaysia - pop 20m, 2% animist
Philippines - pop 75m, 2% animist
Indonesia - pop 202m, 1% animist
Myanmar - pop 70m, 1% animist
Indigenous African Religions: Explore

While it is true that Africans do not have a word equivalent to the term "religion" there are a
number of terms in African languages that describe activities, practices, and a system of
thought that corresponds to closely to what most Westerners mean by religion. African
religions are often closely associated with African peoples' concepts of ethnic identity,
language and culture. They are not limited to beliefs in supernatural beings [God and
spirits] or to ritual acts of worship, but effect all aspects of life, from farming to hunting,
from travel to courtship. Like most religious systems [including Christianity, Islam,
Judaism] African religions focus on the eternal questions of what it means to be human:
what is the meaning of life, and what are the correct relations among humans, between
humans and spiritual powers, and with the natural world? African religious
systems [also] seek to explain the persistence of evil and suffering, and they seek to
portray the world as operating with some degree of order and predictability. They uphold
certain types of ethical behavior. . . These ideas are expressed in sacred oral [and
written]traditions, handed down from generation to generation through the performance of
ritual [dance and music] and through intensive periods of education, including rites of
passage.
Robert Baum in Africana: The Encyclopedia of African and African American Experience,
1999

This long quote is from a person who has studied African religions for many years. It
summarizes some important issues related to indigenous African religions.

First, it is important to remember that while there are similarities between African religions,
there are also differences. Just as there are differences in religious practice in the United
States-not just between Christians, Moslems, Jews, Hindus, and others, but even within
Christianity (Roman Catholics and many Protestant groups), Islam (Sunni, Sh'ite, Nation of
Islam) and Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform)-so too there are differences in
religious belief and practice among African religions.

Secondly, although the supernatural-God and spirit world-are important in African religions
(as you will learn in the next section), religious belief and practice are central to all aspects
of life in Africa. That is, religious beliefs impact the way people live their everyday lives,
from what they eat (or cannot eat), the way they farm, do everyday chores, hunt, make
tools and clothes, arrange themselves in families, marry, divide work among family
members, educate their children, treat illness, and bury the dead. Among indigenous African
religions, religious belief and practice are not restricted to one holy day each week, be it
Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, but are present in the most common daily activities as well as
in special ritual ceremonies.

Thirdly, African religions provide people with what some scholars call aworld-view. A world-
view can be thought of as a system of values, attitudes, and beliefs, which provide people
with a mechanism to understand the world in which they live and everyday events and
occurrences. Maybe we can think of a world-view as being like a language. Can you imagine
how hard it would be explain or understand everyday events and occurrences if we did not
have language-words? Words are essential tools that help us explain and understand events
and occurrences. But words come with their own meanings, we cannot simply change the
meanings of words when we use them to explain or to understand events or why we live the
way we do. Words and their meanings help shape the way we see, and therefore how we
explain, events. Similarly, the world-view (values, attitudes, beliefs) that an individual
learns from the time s/he is a baby provides a mechanism that influences how s/he
understands all that happens to her/him, her/his community and the world in which s/he
lives.

Fourth, African indigenous religions provide a system of morality that establishes right from
wrong, good and appropriate from bad or inappropriate behavior. Just as with Islam,
Judaism, and Christianity, children growing up in African religions learn right from wrong,
and what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior in every situation that they face.

Fifth, like all world religions, rituals are important to African indigenous religions. Rituals are
cultural or religious ceremonies that celebrate or commemorate specific events that have
deep religious significance. Rituals serve to reinforce important religious beliefs through
meaningful activities that bring comfort or joy and thus strengthen the unity of the followers
of the religious tradition. Rituals are often associated with important human events: birth,
marriage, death, planting, and harvest.

The Supernatural in Indigenous African Religions

Scholars who study religion in Africa tell us that all African societies have a belief in God.
Some African religions believe in one supreme God who created the world and all that is in
the world. Other African religions believe that there is more than one God; however even in
these religions, usually one of the Gods is claimed to be the supreme God who was
responsible for creating the world. Since there are many different language groups in Africa,
there are many different names for God. Even within a single country there are often a
number of different names for God.

Whether or not a particular African religion believes in one or several Gods, the way God is
viewed in most African religions is both similar and different than the way
the monotheistic religions characterize God. Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are the main
monotheistic religions. These religions teach that there is only one God and that that God
not only created the universe, God has complete control over that universe. Moreover
throughout history, the one supreme God communicates directly with humans, and God is
directly involved in the lives of humans.

Similarities between Monotheistic and African religions' Conception of God

According to Professor John Mbiti, a leading expert on African religions, many African
religions share the following concept of God. These concepts are quite similar to the way
God is viewed in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, the three main monotheistic religions.

 God is creator of all things.

 God sustains creation
 God provides for and protects creation
 God rules over the universe
 God is all powerful (omnipotent)
 God is all-knowing (omniscient-knows everything that happens in the world)
 God is viewed as parent (sometimes as a father and sometimes as a mother)
 God supports justice
 Human-beings cannot directly know God.

Given these similarities it should not be surprising that Africans from all over the continent
often accepted the introduction of Islam and Christianity into their communities.
Differences between Monotheistic and African religions' Concept of God

In spite of these similarities there are important differences in the way God and the
supernatural are viewed in African religions in comparison to Islam, Judaism, and
Christianity. In most African religious systems, God (or the Gods) after creation was not
directly involved in the human society or the individual lives of people. Remember how in
the creation stories the Gods were engaged in the creation of people, but after creation, the
Gods usually withdrew from direct contact with human-beings?

The idea of an isolated God does not make the supernatural un-important in Africa religions.
Indeed, the supernatural, or spiritual realm, is most important to African religious belief.
Between an all-powerful God and humans is a pantheon of spirits. These spirits are directly
engaged in the lives of human beings, and can act as intermediaries between God and
humans.

Spirits in African religious traditions share some of the same characteristics of angels in the
Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. Good spirits help to protect against illness and
misfortune and assist humans by providing rain needed for crops, as well as, fish and game
animals used for food. However, not all spirits are good, some spirits are viewed as evil and
are believed to be responsible for illness, premature death, and other forms of suffering and
misfortune.

Types of Spirits:

The spiritual world, or world of spirits, is central in almost all African religions. Spirits (like
Angels and demons in the Jewish, Islamic, and Christian traditions) directly communicate
with and impact the lives of human beings, as individuals and as communities.

Good spirits provide protection against harm, misfortune, and disease, heal illness, provide
children, rain for crops, fish, and wild game, and protection for livestock. The realization of
these blessings are dependent on the appropriate behavior on the part of individuals. Good
behavior, according African religious beliefs, includes following and practicing values and
behavior established by society and culture, participation in religious rituals and practices,
and proper respect for family, neighbors, and community. Failure to follow these behavioral
guidelines often results in the good spirits withdrawing their blessing and protection. The
result? Illness, death, draught, and other misfortune.

Good spirits can be divided into the following categories:

Human Spirits: Most African religions firmly believe that people continue to live, through
their spirits, after death. These spirits are often referred to as ancestral spirits. It is
believed that spirits of the ancestors remain very interested in what happens in their
families and communities. Most African religions divide ancestral spirits into two groups:

 The Recent Dead Ancestors: After an elder dies her or his spirit remains actively
interested and engaged in the life of their family and community for many years. The
ancestral spirits are most concerned about the prosperity and security of their
families and communities. They intercede with God on the behalf of their
communities. However, if individual members of their families or communities as a
group engage in inappropriate behavior, the ancestors show their displeasure by
withdrawing their protection-their willingness to seek God's blessing on their
 descendants. Although this results in illness and misfortune, it is not the desire of the
ancestors that their families and communities be destroyed. Rather, the ancestors
hope that illness and misfortune will be seen as warning and result in people and
communities stopping the inappropriate and offensive behaviors. Remember that
African religions hold that following social and cultural norms and values is the only
way to guarantee security and prosperity. No wonder the ancestral spirits want their
descendents to behave appropriately!
 The Spirits of the Long Dead: As time passes, the spirits of the recently dead
gradually withdraw from the lives of their descendents and communities. It is
believed that these spirits live with God. However, some ancestral spirits remain
actively engaged for many generations. This is particularly true of the spirits of
important individuals. For example, it is believed that the spirits of great rulers or
founders of nations maintain their interest and power for a long time, perhaps
centuries after their deaths. These ancestors are most interested in promoting the
longevity of their kingdoms, nations, and communities. As with the regular ancestral
spirits, these spirits intervene to protect their communities. Given the importance of
spirits of the ancestors, most African religions taught great respect for the ancestors.
In addition to living appropriately, special shrines were often built to commemorate
the ancestors. These shrines, while different in style, have a similar function to
grave-stones in the Christian and Jewish traditions.

In addition, respect is shown by giving libations to the ancestors. That is, at least once a
day, symbolic drink and food is presented to the ancestors. When Europeans first
encountered these practices, they wrongfully thought that the people were worshiping the
ancestors. In African religions, ancestors are not gods and they are not worshiped, but just
as living elders are given great respect, even more so the spirits of the ancestors are
remembered and respected. Moreover, ancestral spirits are not feared. Although their
blessings are important to personal and community well-being, appropriate behavior is all
that is required to maintain social harmony, longevity, and the ancestral contentment.

Nature Spirits

All African religions believe in the existence and importance of human spirits, however, not
all African religions believe in nature spirits. Nature spirits are spirits that inhabit or live in
nature. For example, several African religions teach that there are spirits that live in the
skies. These spirits are important since they are believed to control the rain that is so
important to the raising of crops and animals.

Other African religions hold that spirits live in and control rivers, lakes and oceans.
These water spirits are also very important since they are believed to control the fish that
live in the waters. Still other religious traditions believe that important ancestral spirits
inhabit rocks, mountains, and trees.

As is the case with ancestral spirits, nature sprits are held to be good since they help to
protect people and to provide people with essential items like water and food. In order to
guarantee the good will of these spirits, African religions practice rituals and ceremonies
that honor these spirits.

Just as the early European missionaries misunderstood the role of ancestral spirits in African
religions, so too they often misunderstood the beliefs regarding nature spirits. These outside
observers thought that African religions held that God inhabits all of nature-trees, rocks,
water, land-a religious system scholars call animism. African religions do not worship
rocks, trees, the sky or rivers, as is the case in animism. Rather, important spirits who
control the forces of nature are believed to live in the sky, rocks, trees and rivers.

Bad Spirits

African religious traditions, as with Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and other major world
religions, hold that just as there is good in the world, there is also evil. Goodness is the
result of the blessings of God and the spiritual world in response to good behavior on the
part of individuals and communities. Suffering and misfortune to individuals and
communities, in all of these traditions, are believed to be the result of either:

 Inappropriate behavior on the part of individuals or communities, OR

 The intervention of bad or disruptive spirits.

Just as there are good spirits these religious traditions hold that there are bad spirits
(referred to as the devil or Satan in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism). In African religious
traditions, bad spirits are responsible for causing much of the misfortune that individuals
and communities suffer.

Most African societies have specially trained spiritual professionals who through special
medicines and communication with the ancestral spirits can provide protection against the
wiles of evil spirits.

Religious Leaders

Every religious tradition have individuals who perform specific religious tasks and duties.
Each religious tradition has special titles for religious officials-rabbi, imman, minister, pastor
or priest. In African religious traditions, there are different religious roles, these include
priests, rain-makers, and healers (diviners, herbalists) In some African traditions, these
various roles may be served by the same individual, in other traditions different persons
may serve each position.

We should consider religious leaders to be professionals in that each position requires a long
period of training. Moreover, these positions are often full-time leaving little time for
activities beyond the fulfillment of their duties. We should also note that in most African
religious traditions women and men serve as priests and healers.

Priests

The role of priests varies between religious traditions. One of the most important functions
of priests in many traditions is to officiate at religious ceremonies and rituals. Religious
ceremonies and rituals are very important to maintaining religious and cultural traditions.
Ritual ceremonies celebrating birth, transition to adulthood, marriage, death, planting and
harvest, or commemorating the life of a deceased ancestor are vital to maintaining a close-
knit community. Such rituals also help to reinforce values and appropriate behavior within
the community. Priests, who officiate at these rituals and ceremonies, play a central rule in
promoting a strong and united community.

In some religious traditions, priests will be affiliated with a particular spirit or group of
spirits. In this situation, priests will be in charge of a special shrine dedicated to the spirit,
and she or he officiates at special ceremonies commemorating that spirit. For example in
many African religious traditions, there are special shrines to commemorate the founding
ancestor of the community. In addition to officiating at special ceremonies celebrating the
ancestor, the shrine priest(s) serves as the voice of the ancestor spirit, communicating
advice and admonition to the community.

How do the ancestral spirits communicate to their priests? As part of her or his religious
practice, a priest will enter a trance-like condition during which time it is believed that the
spirit of the ancestor enters or "possesses" the body of the priest. During the possession,
the ancestor directly communicates with the priest, passing on information to the people.

Rain-Makers

With the exception of the area of tropical rain forests in West and Central Africa, much of
Africa is either arid or semi-arid and suffers from fairly regular cycles of drought. In vast
areas of East, West, Central, and Southern Africa, farmers are dependent on rain for their
very survival. Throughout these regions, rain is an important focus of religious practice. As
you learned, many religious traditions in Africa view misfortunes such as drought to be a
result of inappropriate behavior on the part of community members, or of the disruptive
influence of bad spirits. Rain-makers are special priests who are responsible for finding out
the cause of a drought and to devise a remedy to the problem that has caused the drought.

Rain-makers through possession communicate with ancestral spirits to find the cause of the
draught. Once the cause of the draught has been identified, the ancestral spirits will provide
the rain-maker with a remedy. The remedy usually involves changing an inappropriate
behavior that is believed to have caused the drought and offering special librations to the
offended spirits.

Healers

Healers, often referred to as traditional doctors, are important in all African societies. Given
what we know about African religious traditions, including healers as religious leaders
should not be surprising. Good health is the believed to be the result of appropriate
behavior, that is living in accordance to the values, norms of traditions of the society. One
of the primary causes of illness, then, comes from inappropriate behavior. In addition,
illness can be the result of the work of bad spirits.

In either case, illnesses have a spiritual basis, that in turn, requires a spiritual remedy. In
most African religious traditions, there are two methods of healing. In some traditions,
these two methods are practiced by the same healer; in other traditions, there are separate
practitioners. To be a practitioner of either type of healing takes experience and great skill
developed over many years of training. Training to be a healer in Africa takes time and
effort just as does training to be medical doctor in North America.

 Herbalists: Extracts from plants-fruits, berries, roots, leaves, bark-provide the basis
of the medicines used by traditional healers in Africa. Herbalist healers go through a
rigorous training through which they learn about the healing properties of a wide
variety of plants. When they finish their training, herbalist healers will be able to
prescribe herbal remedies for many different illnesses. On occasion, a healer will be
confronted with a new and strange disease. In these situations, the herbalist will
seek assistance from the spiritual world. As described above, the healer will enter a
trance in which she or he is possessed by a spirit. The spirit will lead the healer to an
appropriate remedy.
  Spiritualists/Diviners: Diviners treat illness primarily through facilitating the direct
intervention of the spiritual world. If an illness is believed to be caused by
inappropriate behavior on the part of the patient, a remedy or cure for the illness can
only come through spiritual intervention. While a herbal healer uses plants to treat
diseases, a diviner seeks input from the spiritual world to understand the cause of
the illness and prescribe a cure. Usually a diviner is possessed by the same ancestral
spirit with whom she or he has developed a special relationship.

In addition to treating specific illnesses, African healers-herbalist and diviners- also practice
preventative medicine. Patients may come to the healer seeking protection from misfortune.
Or a person undertaking a long journey may want a remedy that will provide safety on her
trip. Another patient may want a remedy that will provide wisdom and clarity in making an
important decision.

When Europeans were first observed African medicine and healing practices, they often had
a negative reaction. They viewed these practices as being based on magic and not on
science. These judgments were based on a misunderstanding of African views on disease
and healing. Indeed, like "western" medicine, African healing is based on close observation
of the patient and his or her disease and on the use of remedies-medicines-that have a
track record for successfully treating a particular ailment.

During the past thirty years, Western trained doctors have gained a greater appreciation for
African healing techniques and practices. Indeed, throughout Africa it is now fairly common
to have Western trained doctors working with traditional healers in the treatment of
patients.

Global Impact of African Religions

Indigenous African religions continue to be very important in many African societies.

However, African religious beliefs and practices have not remained unchanged. The spread
of Islam and Christianity has influenced the practice of indigenous religious practice. But
just as importantly, as will be demonstrated in the next two sections, African religious belief
and practice has influenced the way Islam and Christianity are practiced in Africa.

African religious belief and practice have also had an impact outside of Africa. Just as trade
from Asia and Europe helped to facilitate the spread of Islam and Christianity in Africa, so
too travel and trade facilitated the spread of African religious traditions into Europe and the
Americas (See Module 15: Africa and the World). The Atlantic slave trade and more recently
the new wave of immigration of African to Europe and North America assisted the transfer
of religious practice to these areas.

Two of the most important examples of African religious expression in the Americas are the
religions of Santeria in Cuba, and Brazil, and Vodou in Haiti. Both of these religious
traditions have a growing following in the United States.
Chinese Religion
Chinese folk religion
Today most of the Chinese population in Malaysia are Buddhists, while the rest are
Confucianists, Taoists, Christians, and a small number of Muslims and Hindus. Most Chinese
still adhere to the Chinese folk belief system or ancestor worship in tandem with their
(mainstream) religion. However, some have stopped practising this religion after adopting a
mainstream religion which prohibits animism or idolatry. As is the case in China, the practice of
this religion is not documented by the government for statistics purpose. Thus the number of
followers in Malaysia can only be estimated.

The three main religions in China are Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. Animistic religions
are followed by minority nationalities and in rural areas. These can involve Buddhism, Taoism,
worship of nature, spirits, ancestors, animals or parts of the body.

Confucianism

Confucius (Kong fu zi) lived from 551-479 BC, at the same time as Buddha (c560-481 BC). He
was born in a feudal state in Shangdong province. His father was a warrior. Confucius showed
great skill as a student. At the age of 22 he opened a school. Many people came in search of his
learning and wisdom. He was made minister of justice for the state, and during his administration
brought moral order and prosperity.

Teaching of Confucius

Concern for others (the fundamental moral virtue)

Honouring one’s parents
Right behaviour
Treating others as you would wish to be treated
Ruling with moral standing and benevolence
The Chinese feudal society of Confucius’s time was unstable. Moral order had declined.
Thieving and robbery had increased in the countryside and murder in the cities. There was a gulf
between the rich and poor, and many of the poor were hungry though there was enough food.
Many rulers and governors were corrupt and hated by their subjects.

Later Confucian teachers

Be amiable to everything in the universe, to help maintain universal harmony

Live a simple life uncluttered by extravagant ambition or dreams
Be modest rather than assertive and dominant
Such ideas have influenced the development of certain Chinese characteristics: A person is afraid
to be famous; a pig is afraid to be fat and strong. (Chinese saying). That is, a healthy pig will be
killed and eaten; a successful person will be a target. Many Chinese people keep their work and
thoughts to themselves. Parents sometimes tell their children that if they are good at something,
they should be modest even to the point of hiding it.

Taoism also rejects competition, rank, luxury, vulgarity and boasting. Laozi said that the highest
level was the least secure. Everyone wants to be at the top of the tree, but were we to achieve
that, the tree would break. Instead, we should be like water, always seeking the lowest level.
Spirits, gods, immortals

In Chinese tradition, there are many deities and spirits. For the Taoist these spirits are all
manifestations of the one unknowable Tao. A Taoist pantheon developed in which gods formed a
hierarchy. Heavenly gods mirrored earthly officials, while demons mirrored social outcasts and
criminals. People sought happiness, prosperity and good health by worshipping and appeasing
the spirits.

Taoism today

Under Communism, Taoism was denounced as fatalistic, superstitious and passive. It was not
progressive nor moral enough to be of use. However, the many influences of Taoism are still
evident (medicine, qi gong etc). Most people in China will encounter these things in their daily
lives.

Ancestor veneration

Ancient belief included the veneration of ancestors. Souls reached happiness according to the
conduct of their living descendants. Therefore one’s duty was to live a good and virtuous life.
Ancestor worship is still practised. For many people it is simply superstition — something that is
done ‘just in case’. For others it is more important. In many houses a small ‘shrine’ can be found,
usually photos of grandparents to which food and cigarettes are offered. The yearly qing ming
festival celebrates ancestors with grave cleaning and firecrackers. Christians are told not to
venerate ancestors but this can be a source of family tension, even a barrier to belief.

Taiwan: predominantly Taoist.

Chinese Religions (CR) in East Asia
Taiwan* - pop 23m, 70% CR
Hong Kong - pop 6m, 66% CR
Singapore - pop 3m, 53% CR
Macau * - pop 0.4m, 44% CR
China - pop 1200m, 27% CR
Malaysia - pop 20m, 18% CR
Thailand - pop 61m, 2% CR

* Figures in these countries represent Chinese religions mixed with Buddhism.

Mencius (4th century BC)

Mencius (Meng zi) added a mystical and intuitive approach to the ethics and morals: the Way of
Heaven. He placed Confucius’s concern for humanity in relation to divine cosmic power.
In Confucian writings the interdependence of human nature and divine power is discussed in
terms of balance. The ideal is for a person to achieve harmony within themselves, balancing their
emotions, and with the cosmic powers of life and creativity.

Xun zi (3rd century BC)

Confucius focused on concern for humanity and Mencius on humanity and the divine. Xun zi
focused on a doctrine of ritual action. He created a pattern of ritual to support the spiritual and
ethical ideals on a daily basis.

Heaven and the divine

Early Chinese writings refer to a supreme or highest god, with many names, eg Heaven,
Heavenly Emperor. Confucius shared this belief, saying: ‘He who offends against Heaven has no
one to whom he can pray.’ Heaven presided with moral law. Later followers regarded heaven as
the divine moral power of the cosmos, expressed perfectly in harmony with humanity.

Confucianism today

Confucianism was repressed during the cultural revolution (1966-76). However, it has become
more fashionable in the late 20th century. In fact, the Asian economic boom has been partly
attributed to Confucian ethics such as valuing community above the individual. Many ‘Chinese’
values may have roots in Confucianism (eg family loyalty). Similarly, many values which are
attributed to Confucianism may be cultural traits with various influences (eg authoritarian
government). Confucianism is now seem as a positive and inherently Chinese alternative to
Western influences which threaten the old ways.

Taoism

Confucianism looks for perfect humanity within the world. Taoism looks for universal unity.

The first Taoist writings unite ancient pantheistic beliefs to create a formally recognised
tradition. They were written in the 5th century BC by Laozi. Like Confucius, Laozi lived in a
time of social disturbance. He turned to nature for peace, unity and tradition.
Laozi and later, Zhuangzi (3rd century BC) developed the concept of the Dao (anglicised as
Tao). Meaning ‘the way’, or ‘the correct road’, it is seen as the force behind the natural world. It
is the model for humanity, the sum total of all things which are and which change.
The Tao is the way of the universe. The world moves in endless cycles of change and variation,
perpetually becoming and then fading away, expanding then contracting. Within these universal
cycles are differences and opposites.
The yin-yang symbol expresses the dualistic but balanced principles of the Tao. The yin is the
dark side, the breath which formed the earth. The yang is the light side, the breath which formed
the heavens. The interaction of the two is visible throughout the universe: masculine and
feminine, hot and cold, rich and poor, light and dark, good and evil. This principle is explained
by Laozi as follows: ‘The Tao [non-being] produced the One [being], the One produced the two.’
The Tao is essentially unknowable. However, it is evident in the natural world and Taoists have
modelled their lives on the patterns of the universe. They aim to live in accord with the Tao. This
means achieving harmony within oneself and within the universe. Natural order and balance can
be mirrored in society.
Many things now recognised as inherently Chinese were inspired and consolidated by Taoism.
These include a love of nature, herbal medicine, Chinese cooking, martial arts and gymnastics.
Some are based on the idea of qi (‘chi’), the body’s intrinsic energy. Tai qi and qi gong are
believed to help the flow of this energy through the body, while traditional medicine works on
the principle that illness is caused by blocked qi.
Flow also relates to the concept of wu wei. The art of wu wei is to achieve action through ‘not
doing’. Minimal action will produce the required results because this avoids force, thus allowing
one to work with the natural flow. Working forcefully against it might result in blockage, and
therefore, no action.
Shinto
History and origins

Shinto is a mix of ancient religions and religious rites which have been followed in Japan since
prehistoric times. The first Shinto writings date from the early 8th century AD and describe
myths, prayers and religious rites. However, it is not known how accurately these descriptions
record early religious practices and beliefs.
It appears that the ancient religions of Japan were animistic, focused on a supernatural force
inherent in nature. The agricultural year and phases of the moon were important, as was clan
loyalty. Local shamans represented the gods (kami) and averted evil spirits. The roots of
contemporary Japanese dance, art, literature and music can be found in the ancient shamanistic
rites.
Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism came to Japan in the 6th century AD. In consequence the
ancient Japanese religions gradually became more sophisticated and defined. The many local
gods became a pantheon of gods and official shrines diluted the importance of local customs and
shamans.

Buddhism and Shinto

Buddhism became the national religion around AD 593, helping to bring unity to Japan after
years of clan warfare. However, clans still followed the ancient Shinto ideas and upheld their
importance. In the late 7th century unity was attempted by several emperors who stressed the
equal standing of both Shinto and Buddhist rites. At the same time, Shinto was elevated and
given stronger national identity by connections with the imperial family. The imperial ancestry
was traced back through real and legendary emperors and empresses to Amatersau, the sun-
goddess and great grandmother of the first emperor.

The imperial court had the first Shinto histories written as part of their claim to ancestry. The
Kojiki (myths) was written in 712 and the Nihongi (rituals, prayers) in 720.

From the 8th to 17th century, Buddhism and Shinto interacted significantly. To the Japanese, the
Heian Period of 794-1185 was the flowering of classical culture. At this time, Japanese
Buddhists introduced the doctrine of honji suijaku, meaning true nature, trace manifestation. This
doctrine aligned all buddhas and bodhisattvas (see definitions below) with Shinto gods. The
Shinto gods were believed to be expressions of Buddhas, or guardians. Buddhism was the true
nature, of which the Shinto gods were manifest traces.

In response to this unification, a school of ‘purified Shinto’ developed in the late 13th century.
For followers, Buddhist influences were dropped, and the importance of the shrine system
stressed. Deep awareness of Japan’s spiritual uniqueness and the divine nature of its imperial
family gave this school of Shinto a strong identity.

The same school then adopted the honji suijaku doctrine in reverse, considering buddhas and
bodhisattvas as manifest traces of the true Shinto go0ds.
Nationalism and Shinto

During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, Shinto became increasingly involved in nationalist
ideologies as a military government brought unity and peace. Francis Xavier introduced
Christianity to Japan and began the ‘Christian century’ (1549-1649) in which about 10 per cent
of the population are thought to have been Christian (Roman Catholic). However, Christianity
was then banned by the government as part of a crackdown on foreign influences. Buddhism was
declared a state religion and Confucian ideals were promoted in order to gain loyalty to the state
and a sense of moral duty. As the period progressed, Shinto was promoted by followers as
historically and intrinsically Japanese. Its claim to the sanctity of national traditions and the
legendary divinity of the imperial family helped to engender a dislike and distrust of foreign
practices.
In 1868 the military government was overthrown and the feudal system consequently crumbled.
A new parliamentary system was implemented in 1889, influenced by western democracy. A
‘non-religious’ Shinto was promoted, again stressing the divinity of the emperor and the
uniqueness of Japan. Confucian ideals such as loyalty and respect for parents and elders were
also promoted by the government.

Shinto in the 20th century

This blend of ancient traditions and moral ideals was used by nationalists to support involvement
in the second world war. After 1945 the emperor’s aspect of divinity was officially denied and
Shinto was disestablished. Shinto teaching in schools was discontinued and visits to shrines
became voluntary.

Shinto today

Today most Japanese do not regard themselves as religious, but to be Japanese usually means to
follow customs and cultural practices of Shinto and Buddhism. Generally, weddings are Shinto
or western and funerals are Buddhist. Cults and new religions are followed by approx 24 per cent
of the population. About one percent are Christian. Secularism and materialism merged with old
religious traditions is the norm.

Beliefs

Shrines

Shinto is based around individual shrines. Shrines have been built for reasons that include
geography (eg mountain shrines) and history (a significant, perhaps auspicious local event). Each
shrine usually has a god, which may be a topographical feature, a god mentioned in Shinto
writings or a historical figure.
All shrines are approached through one or several large gates (torii) built of two large uprights
and two crossbars. A large trough of clean water stands inside the gates, under a roof. This is
used for ritual purification (washing of hands and face). There are usually several shrine
buildings: a worship hall, a main hall and sometimes other sub-shrines. Individuals stand outside
the worship hall, put a coin in an offering box, pull a bell rope (to bring their presence to the
notice of the gods), clap their hands, pray, clap their hands, then leave. Groups of visitors may
enter the worship hall to pray. No-one enters the main hall because this is the earthly location of
the shrine gods.
Japanese people visit shrines for many reasons, perhaps seeking good luck in exams, success in
business, a safe journey or good health for a new baby. Many people visit shrines on the first
three days of the new year. Protective charms can be bought at the shrine, which are kept
(sometimes on a god shelf or high place) until the next new year, when they are burned at the
shrine. At some Buddhist temples there is a similar new year event.
Islam
Origins and history

Islam was founded by Muhammad around 610 AD. Muhammad was born in Mecca, Arabia
(now Saudi Arabia) in 570. The local religion was an ancient form of Semitic animism that
recognised many gods, goddesses and angels and a supreme god known as Allah. A strong sense
of fatalism also prevailed. As most of the Semitic peoples were nomads, there were also Jewish
and Christian communities in western Arabia. Muhammad was thus surrounded by a dense
mixture of religious beliefs that influenced the development of Islam.

Muhammad was notably religious, often fasting, dreaming and meditating. He devoutly believed
that there was only one true god, and became disillusioned with the local polytheistic religions.
When he was 40, still living in Mecca, he began to experience revelations (messages from God).
At first, Muhammad was unsure of the origin of the revelations, whether they were divine or
demonic. However, he became convinced of their divinity and continued to receive them until he
died. Sometimes the revelations were spoken by an angel. They were later written to form the
Qur’an (Islamic holy book). Muhammad had a good reputation and soon gained a small
following but was opposed by polytheists.

Persecution eventually forced Muhammad and his followers to move to Medina in 622.
Medina was split between two hostile communities but most believed that Muhammad was a
prophet and formed a new community with the immigrants from Mecca. This was effectively the
beginning of the Islamic world. It has been suggested that the Jewish expectation of the Messiah
may have influenced their acceptance of Muhammad as prophet. Islam began to take on a form
recognisable today, including the rituals of prayer, fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimage to Mecca.

The new religion was not accepted by the local Jewish and Christian communities. Several
Jewish clans rejected the Qur’an and opposed Muhammad. This led to the banishment of two
Jewish clans and bloodshed, and Muhammad turned from his view of Jerusalem as the
worship/pilgrimage centre for Islam, back to Mecca. He returned with troops and conquered
Mecca. Muhammad treated the Meccans well and most became Muslim. Many tribes across
Arabia also converted. Muhammad had become the religious and political leader.

When Muhammad died in 632, he had appointed no successor. However, the people elected Abu
Bakr, one of the first followers. He ruled for around two years and was followed by three more
caliphs (Muhammad’s successors). However, questions of succession, tradition and rule split
Islam into two traditions which exist today: Sunni and Shi’a.

Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam recognised Muhammad’s successor as the caliph or ruler of the believers. The caliph
was elected by the community from the tribe to which Muhammad had belonged. Caliphs were
not prophets, since Muhammad was ‘the Seal of the Prophets’, but were protectors of the
tradition, leaders and administrators. The Sunnis developed a law system called the Shari’a,
which is central to the practices and beliefs of Islam. The caliph system was discontinued in
1924 as leadership transferred to the governments of Muslim states, on the basis that they would
observe the Shari’a. Today 90 percent of Muslims are Sunni.
The Shari’a is currently the source of debate in the Islamic world. Some scholars believe that a
reinterpretation of the legal system is needed in order to allow for political, social and economic
development.

Shi’a Islam

Ten percent of Mulisms follow Shi’a Islam. They recognise the imam as the principal authority
figure and successor of Muhammad. The imam, it is believed, was appointed by Muhammad and
possesses the infallible and inherent ability to interpret the Qur’an. The first imam, Ali, was
Muhammad’s cousin and was supposed to have inherited his spiritual qualities.
Today most Shi’a live in Iran. They believe that each imam is divinely appointed, being part of a
cycle of inheritance of Muhammad’s spirituality. The highest spiritual leaders in Iran are
ayatollahs.

Sufism

Sufism is a third tradition within Islam. It is not a division or sect like Sunni and Shi’a, but a
spiritual tradition which can be followed by any Muslim. Sufism is mystical doctrine and
practice, based on the love of God and the search for intimacy with him. Since Islam regards
God as concerned with justice above love, this is a significant discipline. Sufis regard themselves
as seekers, and an individual refers to him or herself as ‘one who tries to be a Sufi’. Their path
involves spiritual purification through self-mortification, prayer and striving. One passes through
several stages including repentance, conversion, poverty and love. However, human effort is not
enough. Sufis also seek a grace from God, which is received without effort. This grace is
recognised in states such as intimacy, separation and knowledge. Sufism is strong in East Asia,
and has contributed to the development of Folk Islam.

East Asia

Islam began in the Arab world. It spread into Egypt, Syria and Iraq after Muhammad died and
then into Iran. Over the next century it spread into what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, North
Africa, Spain and southern France. From central Asia it spread to northeast China. Later it
moved into India, then Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
Southeast Asia forms the largest geographical block of Muslims in the world. One quarter of the
world’s Islamic population live in East Asia and 40 percent of the combined populations of
Southeast Asia is Muslim. There are Muslims in all East Asian countries, from over 100 ethnic
groups.
East Asian Islam differs from that of the Arab world. East and Southeast Asian culture is more
relaxed than Middle Eastern culture, and because of religious plurality in most countries, Islam
does not dominate in the same way. In many areas, the form of Islam followed is Folk Islam, that
is, a mixture of Islam and animistic beliefs. The tenets of Islam are observed, but there are also
many non-Islamic rituals and customs.
In Indonesia, over 80 percent of the population are Muslim. However it is not an Islamic state.
Freedom of religion is promised constitutionally, and the founding fathers of the nation were
Christian. An ‘Islamisation’ of institutions such as government and military has been noted.
To be Malay usually means to be Muslim. In Malaysia, Islam is followed by 55 percent of the
population, and in Brunei by 71 percent. Islam is the state religion of Brunei and Sunni Islam is
the official religion of Peninsula Malaysia.
In China, several minority nationalities are Islamic, or partly Islamic, particularly in the north
west. Before the 14th century, some of these minorities were Christian but within the context of
developing Chinese religions, Christian groups mixed with Islamic groups.

The five pillars of Islam

Testimony of faith (Shahada): This is the first pillar of Islam: ‘I bear witness that there is no god
but God; I bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of God.’ These words are the first
whispered into a Muslim child’s ear at birth, and the last words of many Muslims. When spoken
sincerely with commitment, they signify acceptance of the Islamic faith.
Prayer (Salat): all Muslims are required to pray five times a day at set times, individually or with
others. All are expected to attend a service at the mosque on Friday at noon.
Almsgiving (Zakat): alms are given to the poor, needy, debtors, prisoners or wayfarers. Usually 2
or 2.5 percent of annual income is given in total, but the Qur’an is less concerned with the
amount and more with the manner of giving.
Fasting (Sawm): during the month of Ramadan (the ninth lunar month), all Muslims are expected
to fast during daylight hours. They must eschew food, drink, smoking and sexual relations. After
sundown these are permitted.
Pilgrimage (Hajj): every Muslim is expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in
his/her lifetime. Proxy pilgrimages for the housebound ill or elderly are permitted. Pilgrimages to
Mecca are significant at any time, but the season of ‘Great Pilgrimage’ or Hajj occurs during the
twelfth month. All pilgrims wear white garments representing the state of ritual purification.
During the pilgrimage, rituals are performed and several sites visited.

Beliefs

Islam teaches that Jesus was not the son of God and was not crucified. He is believed to have
been a prophet whose work was superseded by Muhammad, the last of the prophets.
Other prophets include Adam, Noah, Abraham and John the Baptist.
The Qur’an is only regarded as authentic in Arabic. Some people in East Asia may read it
without understanding.
Some Muslims believe that the early Bible texts were originally the same as their books of the
prophets, but were altered by Jews and Christians and are therefore not credible.
The Islamic view of God (Allah) shares some similarities with the Christian view, and
historically can be said to be derived from Christian and Jewish views. However it differs in that
it does not accept the Trinity, and does not see God is as a father or a God in eternal relationship.
Hinduism
Introduction

Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest and most influential religions. It is extremely diverse.
Different practices and beliefs occur in different countries, regions, and villages.
Hinduism was at one time widespread in Southeast Asia. From around 600 BC it extended from
India into Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. In most of East Asia it
was later obscured by Buddhism and Islam. However, it still prevails in Bali and parts of East
Java, and since the late 19th century has been reintroduced to peninsular Malaysia.

History and origins

The roots of Hinduism can be traced to around 1500 BC, but it was very different to the
Hinduism of today. It was polytheistic and ritualistic and originally the rituals were generally
performed at home. They gradually became more complex and a priestly class was created and
trained in order to carry out the rituals. The priests thus became the means of access to the gods.
In 600 BC the people revolted against the priests, who had become controlling. A new form of
Hinduism gradually developed, with more of an emphasis on personal meditation. Theistic cults
began to develop, forming the basis of much of Hindu practice today.

As part of Hindu worship today, people use domestic shrines and rituals, local shrines and
famous temples and pilgrimage sites.

Beliefs

Traditionally, Hindus viewed the cosmos as a sphere, enclosing several concentric layers of seas,
continents, heavens and hells.
Brahman is the ultimate reality; the ultimate source of all being. It is an impersonal, universal
force that cannot be defined. The cosmos is an expression of Brahman. Most Hindus believe that
they also are expressions of Brahman.
Atman is the soul or self, an inherent, eternal part of all living things. There are very many
Hindu theories and definitions of Atman and its relation to Brahman.
Maya is a central Hindu concept. Some Hindus follow the teaching that the physical world is
illusory, or maya, and that Brahman alone is real. Others follow the concept that both are real
and that the universe is an extension of Brahman. Another strand of belief teaches that Brahman
and the universe are two distinct realities.

Time is cyclic rather than chronological, and also degenerative, moving from a golden age
through two ages of lesser goodness to the present, degenerate age. At the end of every fourth
age, a fire or flood destroys the universe and a new golden age follows, thus continuing the
cycle.
Human life is also cyclic. Hindus believe in reincarnation: the soul is reborn after physical death
into the body of another human or animal. The continuous reincarnation process is called
samsara.
Karma determines each new birth. We reap what we sow, in the present and future lives. Some
Hindu teaching suggests that ignorance keeps us locked in karma, and that we can be released by
knowledge or enlightenment.

Moksha is release from karma, death, decay, anger, lusts and maya. This release is attained
though understanding and detachment from worldly pleasures. It is a liberation from the wheel of
life, death and rebirth, and moving towards enlightenment.

This enlightenment can be reached in three ways:

the way of action and ritual

the way of knowledge and meditation
the way of devotion
Devotion is generally interpreted as commitment to God, who is approachable, offering salvation
as a gift, not reward for effort. It is also sometimes interpreted as devotion to a deity. With
devotion to God, we must also then be devoted to parents and elders.

The sacred cow

From ancient times, the cow has symbolised the universe and its gifts to humanity. Cows are
givers of life, food, sacrifice and worship. They are not eaten and some Hindus are vegetarian.
However, even where Hindus are vegetarian, the milk, urine and dung are generally used for
food, fuel and ritual. In art, Krishna is often depicted as a cowherd.

Scriptures

Vedas: These are the oldest Hindu scriptures. Some people suggest that they record the religion
of the Aryan peoples who settled in India around 1500 BC. They were nomads, probably from
central Asia or the Baltic. Their religion included sacrifice to gods representing the forces of
nature.
Veda means ‘knowledge’. There are four Vedas, of which the oldest is the Rig Veda. Each is
divided into four parts: mantras (verses or hymns sung during rituals, also called samhitas),
brahmanas (explanations of the mantras), aranyakas (reflection on the meaning of the mantras)
and upanishads. Upanishads are philosophical, poetic, mystic meditations on the nature of
existence, atman, Brahman and the universe. Some people prefer a three-fold division of the
vedas, with aranyakas and Upanishads counted as one.

Two epic tales

Ramayana
This is 24,000 couplets on the life of Rama, a good king and an incarnation of the god Vishnu. In
the Ramayana he is depicted as an Odysseus figure. A Ramayana dance is still performed in
Cambodia and Indonesia.
The Mahabharata
The story of the Aryan clans, told in 100,000 verses composed over 800 years. This includes the
devotional Bhagavad Gita or ‘Song of the Blessed Lord’, the most popular Hindu scripture.
Gods and goddesses

There are thousands of Hindu deities, but worship varies regionally. Some Hindus believe in a
divine triad; manifestations of Brahman: Brahma (creator), Shiva (destroyer) and Vishnu
(preserver). However, some believe only in one god, some believe in many gods, some in no god
and some in several manifestations of one god.

Hinduism in Indonesia

Hinduism spread to Indonesia in the first century AD. Islam superseded it in the 13th century,
except in Bali, which is now the largest Hindu region outside India. Hinduism is also still
practised in much of Islamic East Java, and most Indonesian art is Hindu rather than Islamic.
Balinese Hinduism is characterised by pantheism and includes elements of Polynesian religions.
Most gods are identified with nature. Brahma is associated with fire and volcanoes, as well as
creation as in Indian Hinduism. The most powerful gods are those identified with mountains,
lakes and the sea.

Other gods include:

Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa: the supreme unknowable god.
Ancestors: these are the most approachable. The rites of the living enable the souls of the
ancestors to reach heaven. The ritual is repaid by blessing from the ancestors and sometimes
guidance via a medium.
Ancient kings: also revered as important deities.
Dewi Sri: the rice goddess. Shrines can be seen in rice fields, and daily food offerings are left to
her.
Saraswati: a female consort of Brahma and the goddess of wisdom, knowledge and the arts.

Hinduism in Malaysia

Around nine percent of the population of Malaysia are Tamil Indians, of whom nearly 90 percent
are practising Hindus.
Hinduism spread to Malaysia very early, and was important until Islam arrived in the 15th
century. Traces remain in the Malay language, literature and art.
Indian settlers came to Malaysia from Tamil Nadu in the late 19th and early 20th centuries:
labourers to work on rubber plantations and a few English-educated Indians, forerunners of
today’s professional middle class. There is also a minority from Northern India.
Malaysian Hinduism is diverse, with large urban temples dedicated to specific deities, and
smaller temples on estates. The estate temples generally follow the tradition of the Indian region
from which the workers originate. Many people follow the Shaivite, or Saivite, tradition
(worship of Shiva), of Southern India.
Shaivism is a devotionalist grace-based concept and emphasises love for the deity, rather than
fear.
Folk Hinduism is most common, including spiritualism, animal sacrifice and worship of local
gods.
Since the Second World War a revival of Hinduism has occurred among Indian Malaysians, with
the foundation of organisations and councils to bring unity or to promote reform.
Buddhism
History and origins

Buddhism was founded in the sixth century BC, by Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the
Buddha (the Enlightened One). He was born in former north-eastern India (now Nepal) around
560 BC. At this time Hinduism had been in India for 1000 years, introduced by Aryan tribes
whose cultures had influenced the whole subcontinent.
The son of a rajah, Gautama had a wealthy upbringing. According to tradition, his father had
been given a prophecy: Gautama would either be a great ruler or a homeless wanderer. In order
to prevent the second from happening, his father sheltered him from all influences outside the
palace. He was well educated and privileged. But Guatama left the palace one day and saw four
kinds of suffering. He became dissatisfied and left his family to discover the source of suffering
and the way to eliminate it.
He first tried to search for knowledge through traditional Hindu methods (eg yoga). Then he
travelled to northern India and for six years lived an extremely ascetic life. Realising that
asceticism did not bring freedom from suffering, he turned to meditation. At a city called Bodh
Gaya, he sat under a fig tree resolving not to leave until he had attained enlightenment (the
highest knowledge). After some time he reached enlightenment and became the Buddha.
Enlightenment had three stages: first, he saw his previous lives pass before him; second, he saw
the cycle of birth, death and rebirth and the law which governs the cycle (reincarnation); third,
the four holy truths were revealed to him: the knowledge of suffering, the source of suffering, the
removal of suffering and the way to the removal of suffering.
Despite doubts that people were ready for new teaching, Buddha began preaching and gathering
followers. He called his path to enlightenment the Middle Way, because it avoided the extremes
of affluence and asceticism.
Buddhism grew out of the Hindu world. Gautama struggled with questions of wealth and
suffering, and sought to find freedom and truth. Hence Buddhism inherited some Hindu ideas (eg
reincarnation, karma) and rejected others. Many teachings and ideas were later absorbed which
were not part of Buddha’s original teaching. Some of these teachings are based on Hindu
traditions.
Buddhism spread into many parts of east, south east and central Asia, to be superseded by Islam
in some areas.

Beliefs

The four noble truths

The first: suffering is the basic human condition—the mental, emotional and physical suffering
we endure is a result of past karma.
The second: the cause of our suffering is our desire for transient things. We value people and
material things too highly, but ultimately cannot depend upon them.
The third: suffering can be eliminated—if we stop desiring the temporary.
The fourth: the way to eliminate our desire is to follow the eight-fold path.
Right knowledge or understanding
Right attitude/thought
Ethical conduct/morality
Right speech
Right action
Right way of living
Mental discipline
Right effort
Right awareness
Right composure/meditation
Keeping to the eight-fold path is difficult and requires determination and commitment.

Nirvana: the goal

Nirvana is not a Buddhist ‘heaven’, nor self-annihilation. It is the end of suffering. The word
nirvana is derived from a verb meaning ‘to waft away.’ Buddha described nirvana as unlike the
earth or anything of the earth, nor like consciousness, nothingness, the sun or the moon. It is
sometimes called a transformed consciousness, but is not like the Christian idea of the soul, as
Buddha did not believe that the inner person existed. Nirvana can be partially experienced before
death, through meditation.
Personality and the soul
In western thought, personality is a consistent unit determining the behaviour and choices of a
human being. Buddhism views the human as part of the universe, an arrangement of elements
which are always changing. The soul, self or individual does not exist as such.

Reincarnation

As the universe constantly changes and decays, human beings also change, decay and reform.
Karma
Karma is the moral law of cause and effect. We reap what we sow, in the present life and
afterwards. We are bound by the consequences of karma.

Types of Buddhism

Theravada
teaching of the ancients
A division within Buddhism occurred around the beginning of the third century BC, primarily
over the issue of enlightenment. Followers split into two traditions: Theravada and Mahayana.
Theravadins believe that enlightenment is only accessible by a few true believers. The individual
moves toward enlightenment alone, with no help from rituals or even statues of Buddha, since
Buddha and others who have died are believed to have entered nirvana. Theravada is the
tradition which most closely follows Buddha’s teaching. It spread from India into south east
Asia.
Mahayana
the greater vehicle
Mahayana is the ‘greater vehicle’ because there is room within it for all—salvation or
enlightenment is for all people. Followers of Mahayana refer to the earliest Buddhist writings
used by Theravadins, but also use many other writings.
Vajrayana
the diamond vehicle
Vajrayana is similar to Mahayana, but also includes mystical and occultic elements from
Tantrism, an ancient Indian tradition. The name derives from vajra, meaning something bright,
transparent, indestructible, like a diamond, and referring to the purity of tantric spiritual power.
Vajrayana uses mantra (chant), mudra (physical gesture) and mandala (meditation circle). It
began in India in the first century AD, then spread to Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan.
Lamaism
Lamaism is the form of Buddhism widely followed in Tibet. Lama was originally a word applied
to a high spiritual leader but later came to mean a monk. Lamaistic Buddhism developed at the
end of the seventh century AD, as a blend of Vajrayana and the ancient Tibetan Bon religion.
The Dalai Lama (‘lama great as the ocean’) is the wordly leader while the Panchen Lama (‘jewel
of the scholars’) is the spiritual leader.
Zen
Zen Buddhism is popular and influential in Japan. Originally based on Mahayana, it was known
as Ch’an and was introduced to China in the 6th century AD, from where it spread into Japan in
the 12th century. Little importance is placed on concern with teaching, and greater importance on
meditation, through which one is believed to reach enlightenment. Zen has left its mark on
Japanese society, culture and customs.
Folk Buddhism
This is the dominant form of Buddhism in many parts of East Asia, particularly rural areas.
Elements of Buddhism are mixed with local religions, usually animistic. This produces a spirit-
based world-view and lifestyle based around rituals and superstition. In some areas there are
beliefs in other deity figures such as Buddha’s mother, with temples dedicated to them. Folk
Buddhists are often not aware of the difference between their beliefs and the dominant Buddhist
traditions.

Other points

Buddhists generally believe that there are many paths to one God.
Buddhism denies that we have a soul or personality, so a personal understanding of God is an
alien idea.
Buddhists in East Asia will largely follow a mixture of one or more dominant Buddhist
traditions, animism and ancestor worship.
Jesus is understood to be a spiritual master similar to Buddha.
Most Buddhists have either not heard the gospel or have not understood it.