IPTC 14563

Hybrid Power Generation for Offshore Wellhead Platform: A Starting Point

for Offshore Green Energy
Roongwit Rongsopa, PTT Explor and Prod PLC.

Copyright 2011, International Petroleum Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the International Petroleum Technology Conference held in Bangkok, Thailand, 7–9 February 2012.

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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to present the DC power supply for unmanned remote wellhead platforms (WHP). In several
recent WHP projects, there are a number of difference aspects in Bongkot and Arthit Fields in the PTTEP’s Gulf of Thailand
and one of them is the DC power supply. PTTEP by Wellhead platform department intends to standardize the design of DC
power generation for Generic Wellhead Platforms (Generic WHP) for either Bongkot or Arthit fields.
Offshore wellhead platforms have been powered by various power generation technologies such as Gas engine generator,
Diesel engine generator, Closed cycle vapor turbogenerator (CCVT), Thermoelectric generator (TEG) including renewable
energy technologies such as Solar power system and Wind turbine generator. Both Solar power system and TEG are widely
used as DC power generation for offshore remote wellhead platforms to power platform DC loads such as PLC, SCADA, and
Radio system.
Technical evaluation for various DC power supply will be presented. The scope of this paper is to discuss and recommend the
most suitable DC power generation configuration for the Generic Wellhead Platforms focus on techno-economic with
consideration of optimum point of reliability, economy, and environment.
In addition, all calculations of system equipment sizing for the selected DC power generation configuration for generic WHP
will be detailed in this paper.

1. Introduction

The existing wellhead platforms (WHPs) of PTTEP in Bongkot and Arthit field are equipped with various types and
configurations of DC power generation system. The Bongkot WHPs in old phase (e.g. phase 3E, 3F and 3G) are
equipped with Closed Cycle Vapour Turbogenerator (CCVT) as main DC power generation, while the recent
development Bongkot WHPs phase 4A are equipped with Thermoelectric Generator (TEG). The TEG system has
been also installed in Arthit WHPs phase 1A (i.e. AWP 2-6). During design development for Arthit WHPs phase 1B
(i.e. AWP 7-10), the Solar & TEG hybrid DC power system was first introduced and implemented as main DC power
generation system for PTTEP WHPs in order to improve platform power availability and reliability. The Solar &
TEG hybrid DC power system has been continuously used for recent Arthit WHP development project such as Arthit
North project.
Due to various DC power generation technologies used on Bongkot and Arthit WHPs, PTTEP by wellhead platform
department intends to standardize the design of platform power generation for future development wellhead platform
projects of PTTEP as part of Generic Wellhead Platform (Generic WHP) project to be installed for Bongkot or Arthit
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fields in the PTTEP’s Gulf of Thailand operations. The new current design of the hybrid power generation is moving
to increase platform power system reliability as well as cost reduction of the platform to meet optimum point that also
helps environment by reduce number of fossil power generation system (TEG) replaced with natural energy such as
solar energy. The Environment consideration (CO2 emission rate) is considered as one of key driven for the new
standardize the design ‘Hybrid Power Generation System’ for Generic Wellhead Platforms (Generic WHP) for either
Bongkot or Arthit fields in the PTTEP’s Gulf of Thailand operations.

2. Review of Existing Design for WHP Power Generation

2.1 Bongkot WHPs

Each Bongkot WHP in old phase, such as phase 3E, 3F, 3G, is powered by one (1) Close Cycle Vapour Turbo
generator (CCVT) unit, rating of 2000 Watts, 24VDC, with battery back up for 12 hours autonomy times. Due to
CCVT’s height of 6,620 mm, the CCVT was installed on the extended platform cellar deck. The CCVT could not be
installed on platform upper deck due to requirement of helideck obstacle free areas as per CAP 437 “Offshore
Helicopter Landing Area – Guidance on Standards” and obstruction to crane boom operation. Figure 1 is a simplified
configuration showing the portions of the DC power supply for Bongkot 3G relevant to this article.

Figure1: Original configuration of DC Power Supply for Bongkot 3G WHP

The CCVT was designed and installed without any sparing unit (N+1 philosophy), therefore platform power system
is relied on single unit of single source with backup power from the battery bank. Since the battery bank was
designed to provide 12 hours (TBC) autonomy time, it will require operation / maintenance team to access the
platform to rectify faults or failure of the CCVT unit in short time.

The new Bongkot WHPs for Phase 4A have been changed in design for DC power generation system from utilizing
of CCVT as main DC power generation to Thermoelectric Generator (TEG), rating of 500W, 24VDC, with one (1)
sparing unit as shown in simplified configuration in Fig 2. The battery bank design remains the same autonomy time
of 12 hours to the existing Bongkot WHP projects.
IPTC 14563 3

Figure2: Basic configuration of DC Power Supply for Bongkot 4A WHP

2.2 Arthit WHPs

Each Arthit WHP of phase 1A project (AWP 2-6) is powered by five (5) Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) units,
rating of 100 Watts, 24VDC, with battery backup for 72 hours autonomy times as shown in Fig 3. The TEG system is
installed on platform cellar deck. Although the TEG system of Arthit WHP phase 1A was designed to provide one (1)
sparing unit, the platform power system is still relied on single source (i.e. TEG which requires natural gas as fuel
source) and provided battery backup power.

Figure3: Original configuration of DC Power Supply for Arthit 1A WHP

The design of hybrid power system was introduced and proposed for Arthit WHP phase 1B project (AWP 7-10) in
order to improve platform power reliability and back-up capability as major objectives. Figure 4 provides the basic
configuration of the DC hybrid power supply for Arthit 1B. The technical evaluation and comparison for each
technology (i.e. TEG, Solar power and Solar & TEG hybrid system) including numbers of the study options were
carried out. Finally, the Solar & TEG hybrid system was first implemented for Arthit WHP phase 1B and become
standard design for Arthit WHP projects phase 1N, 2N, 3N and 1C.
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Figure4: Basic Configuration of the DC hybrid power supply for Arthit 1B WHP

3. Hybrid DC Power Generation System

The criteria for Hybrid DC power generation system are as follows.

• Assess and compare the use of Solar-TEG hybrid DC power generation technology with stand alone
Thermoelectric generator (TEG) system that are currently utilise on existing remote unmanned wellhead
platforms of Arthit and Bongkot fields.
• Improve reliability of DC power generation.
• Reduce OPEX cost, using Solar panel is lower maintenance than other generator.
• Optimize power consumption requirement for both Arthit and Bongkot design.
• Identify and recommend the most feasible and practical DC power generation system, which will optimize
“Generic wellhead platforms”.
• Environment consideration, to focus on reduction of CO2 emission generate by TEG and CCVT.

4. Basis and assumptions

1) Electrical load consumption for DC supply loads is based on wellhead platform standardization project which
the electrical load consumption for DC supply loads of Bongkot 3G was reduced from 1,423.8 watts to
standardize design (same as Arthit) of 395 watts or 72% reduction.
2) DC power generation will be designed to cater peak loads of WHP with 15% contingency for future spare
loads / load growth.
3) Design life of electrical equipment on platform is based on 15 years.
4) Number of TEG shall be based on “N+1” philosophy.
5) Thermoelectric generator (TEG) is based on Global Thermoelectric model 1120, 93.68 Watts at site
temperature conditions (32°C).
6) Solar module is based on BP Solar model BP3165 (Rating of 165 W, 24 VDC), which is capable of producing
an average of 16.83 Ah/day.
IPTC 14563 5

7) The Solar modules for Hybrid power system are proposed to be installed along Vent boom walkway. The
installation of Solar panels on the Vent boom walkway will consider requirements of "Helideck Obstacle Free
Zone" as mentioned in "CAP 437 Offshore helicopter landing areas - Guidance on standards, Aug 2005
edition".
8) Type of battery used for generic WHP is Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA).
9) Battery autonomy times are based on 3 days (72 hours) autonomy.
10) Derating factor of 25% and Aging factor of 10% are included in battery sizing.
11) Efficiency of DC/DC converter is based on 85%.

5. Technical evaluation for various DC power generation systems

The comparison between TEG, Solar system and Hybrid power system can be summarized as table below.
No Description TEG System (100%)
1 Power High reliability. The
system system can provide
Reliability constant power in all
weather conditions.
However, the system is
dependant on fuel gas
quality.
Hybrid System (TEG &
Solar System (100%)
Solar)
Low reliability. The system Highest reliability. The
is very dependant on Solar system has 2 alternative
radiation and weather power generation sources
conditions. from both TEG and Solar
panels.
Salt spray, dust and bird
droppings on Solar panels
reduces efficiency to
produce power resulting in
periodical visit to site for
maintenance.

2 Space Less footprint and weight
requirement is required for TEG units.
Additional space is
required for fuel
conditioning system skid.
Largest footprint is required
for solar panels and battery
bank. Huge battery capacity
is required for longer
autonomy time due to
cloudy days.
Larger footprint will be
required for the hybrid
system (for additional solar
array).

3 Maintenance Proactive annual Maintenance is environment Annual maintenance for

cost maintenance
recommendation is required.
Approximately 2-6 hours
every years for
maintenance/cleaning of
TEG regulator filter and fuel
inlet orifice.
dependent. TEG is required for once a
year (2-6 hours).
Solar panels must keep clean
from dust, salt spray, bird Less number of Solar panels
droppings and etc. required less maintenance.
Frequent visit to remote site
for maintenance.

4 Spares part TEG will require spare No spare parts. Spare parts are applicable
parts such as fuel filter, only to TEG. No spare parts
orifice, and thermocouple. is required for solar panels
in the Hybrid System.

5 Common Highest as depending on Highest as monsoon season,
mode failure quality of Fuel gas only. salt spray, bird droppings on
panels reduce system
efficiency.
Care must be taken not to
damage the Solar panel due
Lower as Fuel gas supply
disruption for the TEGs can
be overcome by the support
of Solar panel in the Hybrid
System.
Damage on small portion of
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Hybrid System (TEG &

No Description TEG System (100%) Solar System (100%)
to dropped object from the
Crane or Rig operation.
Solar)
solar panel is limited
because panels are installed/
distributed over a wide
range area.

6 Complexity Low. Low. High, the system consist of 2

of system power source and requires
more equipment to be
installed.

7 Operational TEG system relies on fuel Low, depending on weather Higher, due to alternative
effectiveness conditioning system. condition and clean air. power sources (i.e. TEG and
Reliability will be Solar power) availability.
depending on only one unit
of fuel gas conditioning
system.

Therefore, to increase
reliability, redundant units
of fuel gas conditioning
system would be required.

8 Battery Small size of battery Require large battery backup
autonomy system is required. for 7 to 21 days, depending
site access, weather
conditions and solar
radiation.
Small sizing of battery
system, due to less
autonomy time is required
(e.g. 3 days), due to
availability of constant
power supply from TEG.

9 Type of fuel Natural gas (with 50%
max. CO2 & 120 ppm
max. H2S)
10 Battery Battery required during
Operation TEG start-up, maintenance
or unit failure.
Sun light.
Battery is charged when
there is sun light availability.
Require large number of
batteries for long autonomy
time.
Natural gas and sun light.
Battery required when all
TEG units fail and night
time when no power from
Solar to cater the load
requirement.

11 Design life 20+ years for TEG 20+ years for Solar panels 20+ years for TEG and Solar
span panels
10+ years for battery bank. 10+ years for battery bank. 10+ years for battery bank.

It is evident that the Solar power system a depending upon the weather condition which is uncontrolled. It also
requires a large area for solar array panels installation, high level of maintenance to clean up and a large battery
backup capacity to generate sufficient power to cater all platform loads.

Although, the TEG has an advantage of requiring less installation space, low maintenance and complexity of system
but it has the disadvantage of low reliability dependant on single fuel gas conditioning skid.

The preferred/recommended power generation should be selected base on the criteria that the power generation
scheme allows parallel operation in order to achieve maximum operational flexibility and capable to cater the loads
and provide sufficient backup time for maximum platform availability.
IPTC 14563 7

Based on the comparison and the selection criteria listed above, the TEG & Solar Hybrid DC power system is
recommended as preferred DC power generation system for the Generic Wellhead platforms due to the following
reasons :-

¾ The Hybrid power system is proven system technology and has been implemented in many unmanned
offshore platforms.
¾ The combination of Thermoelectric Generator (TEG) and the Solar power system will improve the DC
power system availability and minimize down times.
¾ A good fuel conditioning fuel system combined with a correctly sized battery system makes the Hybrid
power system much more efficient in power output.
Hence, the Hybrid power system is more reliable and provides better back-up capability than single system of the
Solar power system or Thermoelectric Generators (TEG).

A key factor in selection of the power system is the time required to rectify faults or failure which for remote
unmanned wellhead platforms may be several days due to weather conditions or availability of operating staff. The
Hybrid power system provides improved reliability for these cases.

6. Proposed SOLAR – TEG hybrid power system

6.1 System operation

The TEGs are designed to produce continuous power as long as fuel gas is supplied to the units. The solar panels are
designed to generate power using solar radiation from the sun, which is normally available during day light period.

The Hybrid DC power system will be designed on the concept that both TEGs and Solar modules provide continuous
power supply during “sunlight” day while simultaneously maintaining the battery charge in the float charge mode.

When the solar panels are not capable of generating power e.g. at night time, cloudy day, etc., the platform DC power
will be supplied by TEGs and complemented by the available power from the battery bank. The batteries will provide
DC power with calculated autonomy time of 3 days (72 hours) for platform 24VDC electrical loads i.e.
PLC/SCADA/Radio system.

6.2 System configuration

Three (3) options of Solar – TEG hybrid DC power generation and one (1) base case of 100% TEG power generation
scheme are studied in this paper as follows:
a) Base case – 100% TEG power generation scheme
b) Option 1 – Power sharing of 50% TEG and 50% Solar System
c) Option 2 – Power sharing of 60% TEG and 40% Solar System
d) Option 3 – Power sharing of 70% TEG and 30% Solar System
8 IPTC 14563

Required number of TEG units for all system configurations shall be based on “N+1” philosophy, where “N” is the
number of unit required to fullfill the loads requirements. During normal operation, all TEG units will be running at
their rated capacity.

7. System equipment sizing

7.1 Total Required Power

Total required power for 24VDC electrical load schedule for Generic Wellhead Platform PLC/SCADA/Radio system
can be summarised as follows.

Description Required DC power (W)

Total peak Load 395

Contingency factor (15%) 59

Total Required power 454

7.2 Hybrid Power System Equipment Sizing Summary

Sizing of the Hybrid power system (for 3 options) and the TEG system (base case). The required hybrid power
system equipment sizing can be summarised as following table:

TEG system Solar system Total power

Options Required No. Required No. of generation
Power Sharing of TEG Power Sharing Solar panel
Base case 100% 7 - - 100%
Option 1 50% 4 50% 16 100%
Option 2 60% 5 40% 13 100%
Option 3 70% 5 30% 10 100%

8. Comparison of TEG and hybrid power system options

Based on the TEG & Solar vendors information and preliminary equipment sizing calculation, the following table are
summarized the assessment results of the power generation options.

Base Option 1 - Option 2 - Option 3 -

Case Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
DESCRIPTIONS UNIT
TEGs (TEGs 50%/ (TEGs 60%/ (TEGs 70%/
(100%) Solar 50%) Solar 40%) Solar 30%)

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTIC AT 1.15 x PEAK LOAD

TOTAL REQUIRED POWER (2) W 454 454 454 454
TEG SUPPLY LOADS W 454 227 272 318
TEG SUPPLY LOADS + LOSSES(*) W 534 267 321 374
IPTC 14563 9

Base Option 1 - Option 2 - Option 3 -

Case Hybrid Hybrid Hybrid
DESCRIPTIONS UNIT
TEGs (TEGs 50%/ (TEGs 60%/ (TEGs 70%/
(100%) Solar 50%) Solar 40%) Solar 30%)

TEG RATING @32 Deg. C W 93.7 93.7 93.7 93.7

No. of TEG REQUIRED Unit 5.7 2.9 3.4 4.0
No. of TEG INSTALLED (N+1) Unit 7 4 5 5
TEG LOADING % 95 95 86 100
SURPLUS POWER (N) (**) W 28 14 54 1
SURPLUS POWER (N+1 scheme) W 122 108 148 94
SOLAR SUPPLY LOAD W N/A 227 182 136
SOLAR SUPPLY LOAD + LOSSES (*) W N/A 267 214 160
No. of SOLAR INSTALLED (#) Pnls N/A 16 13 10
BATTERY SIZE @ 3 DAYS (##) Ah 2300 2300 2300 2300
TEG & SOLAR OPERATING AT MAXIMUM LOADS
TOTAL MAX. LOADS W 385 192 231 269
TOTAL MAX. LOADS + LOSSES(*) W 453 226 272 317
Minimum No. of TEG in Operation Unit 5 3 3 4
- TEG LOADING % 97 81 97 85
- SURPLUS POWER W 16 55 9 58
All TEG IN OPERATION Unit 7 4 5 5
- TEG LOADING % 69 60 58 68
- SURPLUS POWER W 203 148 197 151
SOLAR SUPPLY LOAD W N/A 192 154 115
SOLAR SUPPLY LOAD + LOSSES (*) W N/A 226 181 136
DIMENSIONS
TEG foot print (0.8 m² per unit) m² 5.6 3.2 4.0 4.0
Solar foot print (1.26 m² per panel) m² N/A 20.16 16.38 12.60
TEG weight (200 kg per unit) kg 1400 800 1000 1000
Solar weight (15.4 kg per panel) kg N/A 246.4 200.2 154.0
COSTS
CAPEX (***) USD 276,528 285,347 291,597 280,540
2
( ) Size to handle 15% spare capacity above total peak loads.
(*) Efficiency of DC/DC converter is assumed 85%
(**) N is the number of main TEG sets required to supply the 115% of peak load. Surplus power is not included
standby capacity of one TEG. (+1 philosophy)
(***) The costs are based on vendor quotation in year 2007 with in-house estimation.
(#) Rating of each solar panel is based on BP 3165, 165W, 24VDC, 16.83 Ah/day.
Note :
1. CAPEX is considered ±10% contingency.
2. Cost for installation, commissioning and start-up are excluded.
3. CAPEX includes estimated cost for support structure for TEG and solar panels installation.
10 IPTC 14563

9. Discussion

9.1 TEG system (base case)

The TEG system, consisting of 7 TEG units, has the lowest CAPEX compared to all Hybrid system options. During
maximum load operating condition, all TEG units will be 69% loading, with surplus TEG power of 203 Watt. No
battery power will be required during this period. The TEG system will require the supplemental power from battery
bank only when TEG units fail or are shutdown for maintenance. TEG operation will be dependent on the availability
and quality of fuel gas on the platform. The TEG units require periodic maintenance once a year. More maintenance
will be required when TEG’s thermopile is damaged, as experienced in some PTTEP wellhead platforms due to
variation of fuel gas composition and higher fuel gas pressure supply to the TEGs. The TEG system availability and
reliability can be improved by adopting Hybrid DC power system, which will make the system independent of a
single power source. Compared to the Hybrid system, the TEG system requires the least footprint area. Provision of
solar panels support structure and walkway on the vent boom (as required for all Hybrid system options) is not
required for the TEG system.

9.2 Hybrid power system (option 1, 2, 3)

The Hybrid power system provides higher reliability than the TEG system due to the availability of two power
sources i.e. from the TEG units and Solar power system. The TEG units for the Hybrid power system will be designed
to have N+1 philosophy similar to the Base Case – TEG system. The battery bank system for Hybrid power system
will be designed to have autonomy time of 3 days (72 hrs.), as required for PLC/SCADA/Radio system. This means
the TEG units of the Hybrid power system will capable to supply platform DC load with supplement from battery
power, if the Solar power is not available e.g. during night time and long cloudy days (approx. 3 days).

• Hybrid Power System – Option 1 (50% TEG + 50% Solar) 

The Hybrid power system option 1, consisting of 4 TEG units and 16 solar panels, has second highest CAPEX among
all Hybrid system options; However, it provides the least TEG surplus power among all Hybrid power system
options. All TEG units are loading at 60%, during daytime maximum load operating condition, with surplus power of
148 Watt. Solar panels of 16 modules are required to supply power of 226 Watt during daytime.
• Hybrid Power System – Option 2 (60% TEG + 40% Solar) 

The Hybrid power system option 2, consisting of 5 TEG units and 13 solar panels, has highest CAPEX among the
Hybrid options and provide the most TEG surplus power when compared with all other Hybrid options. All TEG
units are loading at 58%, during daytime maximum load operating condition, with surplus power of 197 Watt. Solar
panels of 13 modules are required to supply power of 181 Watt during daytime.

• Hybrid Power System – Option 3 (70% TEG + 30% Solar) 

The Hybrid power system option 3, consisting of 5 TEG units and 10 solar panels, has lowest CAPEX among the
Hybrid system options and provide second highest TEG surplus power among all Hybrid system options. All TEG
IPTC 14563 11

units are loading at 68%, during daytime maximum load operating condition, with surplus power of 151 Watt. Solar
panels of 10 modules are required to supply power of 136 Watt during daytime. This option provides highest
efficiency of TEG loading and requires smallest footprints among Hybrid system options.

10. Environment consideration (based on platform design life of 15 years in operation)
• TEG (100 watts, one unit)
Gas consumption = 0.305 MMBTU/day
CO2 emission = 8.02 ton/year, approximate 120.3 ton for 15 years.

• CCVT (2,000 watts, one unit)

Gas consumption = 6.1 MMBTU/day
CO2 emission = 160.4 ton/year, approximate 2,406 ton for 15 years.
Replaced with 4 TEG, 4 TEG generate 120.3 ton x 4 = 481.2 ton for 15 years
CO2 emission reduction after changed from CCVT to TEG is 2,406 - 481.2 = 1,924.8 ton for 15 years.

Total CO2 emission reduction (per wellhead platform) is 120.3 + 1,924.8 = 2,045.1 ton for 15 years.

Total CO2 emission reduction (for 45 WHP) is (14 x 120.3) + (1,924.8 x 31) = 61,353 ton for 15 years operation.

(Base on assumption number wellhead platform construction Arthit 14 platform, Bongkot 31 platform)

Reduce number of TEG or replace CCVT 2,000 watts usage either by optimize load or increase number of Solar
panel to replace TEG will help environment base on above CO2 emission data.

Figure 5: Thermoelectric generator (TEG) gas emissions data

12 IPTC 14563

Figure 6: Countries by carbon dioxide emissions world map deobfuscated (2008)

IPTC 14563 13

11. Conclusion

Table below provides summary of all options based on the discussion above:

OPTION SUMMARY
Base Case This option has lowest CAPEX cost and provides less
(TEGs 100%) reliability than other options i.e. no power source
flexibility with high common mode failure.
Option 1 This option has second highest CAPEX cost and surplus
(Sharing TEG 50% /Solar 50%) power among the Hybrid system options.
This option requires largest footprints for solar panels.
There will be difficulty for maintenance (i.e. cleaning,
replacement) of the installed Solar panels on along the
Vent boom walkway.
Option 2 This option has highest CAPEX cost and surplus power
(Sharing TEG 60% /Solar 40%) among the Hybrid system options.
This option rank the second largest footprint for solar
panels. The maintenance difficulty of the installed Solar
panels is approximately the same to the Option 1.
Option 3 This option has lowest CAPEX cost and give suitable
(Sharing TEG 70% /Solar 30%) surplus power among all options and base case.
The option requires less number of Solar panels (i.e. 10
panels), which can be installed along the Vent boom
walkway, and meets requirement of access to maintenance
the Solar panels and Helideck obstacle free zone.

The Hybrid power supply system provides higher system reliability (compared to the TEG system) and is considered
as the recommended DC power generation system for the remote generic wellhead platform.

Consideration among all Hybrid system options, the DC Hybrid system with Power sharing of 70% TEG & 30%
Solar panels has the lowest CAPEX and provides better optimization in DC power generation, considering required
number of TEG’s and solar panels, TEG loading and surplus power. The Solar panel installation requires fewer
footprints and also allows ease of access for maintenance the Solar panels when compared with the other Hybrid
system options, which required more Solar panels to be installed.

Therefore, the Hybrid Power System with power sharing of 70% TEG and 30% Solar is recommended as DC
power generation system for new Generic Wellhead Platform.
14 IPTC 14563

Figure 7: Single line diagram of hybrid DC power generation from standardization project
IPTC 14563 15

References

[1] Power generation study report of PTTEP WHP detail engineering design Arthit 1B project
[2] Power generation study report of PTTEP generic WHP detail engineering design standardization project
[3] Equipment sizing calculations of Bongkot filed development project 3G
[4] Thermoelectric generator (TEG) gas emissions data from GLOBAL THERMOELECTRIC
[5] Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_world_map_deobfuscated.png)