Pneumatic controllers use the force-balance principle.

One or
more input signals (in the form of pneumatic pressures)
exert a force on a beam by acting through diaphragms,
bellows, and/or bourdon tubes, which is then counter-acted
by the force exerted on the same beam by an output air
pressure acting through a diaphragm, bellows, or bourdon
tube. The self-balancing mechanical system “tries” to keep
the beam motionless through an exact balancing of forces,
the beam’s position precisely detected by a nozzle/baffle
mechanism.
Throughout this section i will make reference to a pneumatic
controller mechanism of my own design. This mechanism
does not directly correspond to any particular manufacturer
or model of pneumatic controller, but shares characteristics
common to many. This design is shown here for the purpose
of illustrating the development of p, i, and d control actions
in as simple a context as possible:

The action of this particular controller is direct, since an

increase in process variable signal (pressure) results in an
increase in output signal (pressure). Increasing process
variable (PV) pressure attempts to push the right-hand end
of the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the nozzle.
This blockage of the nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic
backpressure to increase, thus increasing the amount of
force applied by the output feedback bellows on the left-hand
end of the beam and returning the flapper (very nearly) to its
original position. If we wished to reverse the controller’s
action, all we would need to do is swap the pneumatic signal
connections between the input bellows, so that the PV
pressure was applied to the upper bellows and the SP
pressure to the lower bellows. Any factor influencing the ratio
of input pressure(s) to output pressure may be exploited as a
gain (proportional band) adjustment in this mechanism.
Changing bellows area (either both the PV and SP bellows
equally, or the output bellows by itself) would influence this
ratio, as would a change in output bellows position (such that
it pressed against the beam at some difference distance from
the fulcrum point). Moving the fulcrum left or right is also an
option for gain control, and in fact is usually the most
convenient to engineer.
Automatic and manual modes
A more practical pneumatic proportional controller
mechanism is shown in the next illustration, complete with
setpoint and bias adjustments, and a manual control mode:
“Bumpless” transfer between automatic and manual modes is
accomplished by the human operator paying attention to
the balance indicator revealing any air pressure difference
between the output bellows and the output adjust pressure
regulator. When in automatic mode, a switch to manual
mode involves adjusting the regulator until the balance
indicator registers zero pressure difference, then switching
the transfer valve to the “manual” position. The controller
output is then at the direct command of the output adjust
pressure regulator, and will not respond to changes in either
PV or SP. “Bumplessly” switching back to automatic mode
requires that either the output or the setpoint pressure
regulators be adjusted until the balance indicator once again
registers zero pressure difference, then switching the transfer
valve to the “auto” position. The controller output will once
again respond to changes in PV and SP.
Derivative and integral actions
Interestingly enough, derivative (rate) and integral (reset)
control modes are relatively easy to add to this pneumatic
controller mechanism. To add derivative control action, all we
need to do is place a restrictor valve between the nozzle tube
and the output feedback bellows, causing the bellows to
delay filling or emptying its air pressure over time:

If any sudden change occurs in PV or SP, the output pressure

will saturate before the output bellows has the opportunity to
equalize in pressure with the output signal tube. Thus, the
output pressure “spikes” with any sudden “step change” in
input: exactly what we would expect with derivative control
action.
If either the PV or the SP ramps over time, the output signal
will ramp in direct proportion (proportional action), but there
will also be an added offset of pressure at the output signal
in order to keep air flowing either in or out of the output
bellows at a constant rate to generate the force necessary to
balance the changing input signal. Thus, derivative action
causes the output pressure to shift either up or down
(depending on the direction of input change) more than it
would with just proportional action alone in response to a
ramping input: exactly what we would expect from a
controller with both proportional and derivative control
actions.
Integral action requires the addition of a second bellows (a
“reset” bellows, positioned opposite the output feedback
bellows) and another restrictor valve to the mechanism1:

This second bellows takes air pressure from the output line
and translates it into force that opposes the original feedback
bellows. At first, this may seem counter-productive, for it
nullifies the ability of this mechanism to continuously balance
the force generated by the PV and SP bellows. Indeed, it
would render the force-balance system completely ineffectual
if this new “reset” bellows were allowed to inflate and deflate
with no time lag. However, with a time lag provided by the
restriction of the integral adjustment valve and the volume of
the bellows (a sort of pneumatic “RC time constant”), the
nullifying force of this bellows becomes delayed over time. As
this bellows slowly fills (or empties) with pressurized air
from the nozzle, the change in force on the beam causes the
regular output bellows to have to “stay ahead” of the reset
bellows action by constantly filling (or emptying) at some
rate over time.
To better understand this integrating action, let us examine a
simplified version of the controller. The following mechanism
has been stripped of all unnecessary complexity so that we
may focus on just the proportional and integral actions. Here,
the PV and SP air pressure signals differ by 3 PSI, causing
the force-balance mechanism to instantly respond with a 3
PSI output pressure to the feedback bellows (assuming a
central fulcrum location, giving a controller gain of 1). The
reset (integral) valve has been completely shut off to begin
our analysis:
With 0 PSI of air pressure in the reset bellows, it is as though
the reset bellows does not exist at all. The mechanism is a
simple proportional-only pneumatic controller.
Now, imagine opening up the reset valve just a little bit, so
that the output air pressure of 3 PSI begins to slowly fill the
reset bellows. As the reset bellows fills with pressurized air, it
begins to push down on the left-hand end of the force beam.
This forces the baffle closer to the nozzle, causing the output
pressure to rise. The regular output bellows has no restrictor
valve to impede its filling, and so it immediately applies more
upward force on the beam with the rising output pressure.
With this greater output pressure, the reset bellows has an
even greater “final” pressure to achieve, and so its rate of
filling continues.
The result of these two bellows’ opposing forces (one
instantaneous, one time-delayed) is that the lower bellows
must always stay 3 PSI ahead of the upper bellows in order
to maintain a force-balanced condition with the two input
bellows whose pressures differ by 3 PSI. This creates a
constant 3 PSI differential pressure across the reset
restriction valve, resulting in a constant flow of air into the
reset bellows at a rate determined by that pressure drop and
the opening of the restrictor valve. Eventually this will cause
the output pressure to saturate at maximum, but until then
the practical importance of this rising pressure action is that
the mechanism now exhibits integral control response to the
constant error between PV and SP:

The greater the difference in pressures between PV and SP

(i.e. the greater the error), the more pressure drop will
develop across the reset restriction valve, causing the reset
bellows to fill (or empty, depending on the sign of the error)
with compressed air at a faster rate2, causing the output
pressure to change at a faster rate. Thus, we see in this
mechanism the defining nature of integral control action: that
the magnitude of the error determines the velocity of the
output signal (its rate of change over time, or dmdt ). The
rate of integration may be finely adjusted by changing the
opening of the restrictor valve, or adjusted in large steps by
connecting capacity tanks to the reset bellows to greatly
increase its effective volume.

The action of this particular controller is direct, since an

increase in process variable signal (pressure) results in an
increase in output signal (pressure). Increasing process
variable (PV) pressure attempts to push the right-hand end
of the beam up, causing the baffle to approach the nozzle.
This blockage of the nozzle causes the nozzle’s pneumatic
backpressure to increase, thus increasing the amount of
force applied by the output feedback bellows on the left-hand
end of the beam and returning the flapper (very nearly) to its
original position. If we wished to reverse the controller’s
action, all we would need to do is swap the pneumatic signal
connections between the input bellows, so that the PV
pressure was applied to the upper bellows and the SP
pressure to the lower bellows. Any factor influencing the ratio
of input pressure(s) to output pressure may be exploited as a
gain (proportional band) adjustment in this mechanism.
Changing bellows area (either both the PV and SP bellows
equally, or the output bellows by itself) would influence this
ratio, as would a change in output bellows position (such that
it pressed against the beam at some difference distance from
the fulcrum point). Moving the fulcrum left or right is also an
option for gain control, and in fact is usually the most
convenient to engineer.