Atomic Structure: Chapter 2:

Electron Configuration:
Atoms of different elements give out light of a distinctive colour when an electric discharge
is passed through a vapour of elements. Similarly, metals can be identified by the colour of
the flame produced when their compounds are heated in a Bunsen burner. Analysis of the
light emitted by different atoms has given us insights into the electron configurations within
the atom.

The electromagnetic spectrum:

Electromagnetic radiation comes in different forms of differeing energy. The vusible light we
need to see the world is only a small part of the full spectrum, which ranges from low-
energy radio waves to high-energy gamma rays. All electromagnetic waves travel at the
same speed but can be distinguished by their different wavelengths. Different colours of
visible light have different wavelengths; red light, for example has a longer wavelength than
blue light.

The number of waves which pass a point in ‘1s’ is called the frequency; the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the frequency. Blue light has a higher frequency than red light.

The wavelength and frequency are related by the equation:

C=V
Where ‘c’ is the speed of light

White light is a mixture of light waves of differing wavelengths or colours. We see this when
sunlight passes through a prism to produce a continuous spectrum or as a rainbow when
light is scattered through water droplets in the air.

As well as visible light, atoms emit infrared radiation, which has a longer wavelength than
red light, and ultraviolet radiation, with a shorter wavelength than violet light.

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Atomic absorption and emission line spectra:

When electromagnetic radiation is passed through a collection of atoms some of the
radiation is absorbed and used to excite the atoms from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level. The spectrometer analyses the transmitted radiation relative to the incident
radiation and an absorption spectrum is produced.

When white light is passed through hydrogen gas, an absorption light spectrum is produced
with some colours of the continuous spectrum missing. If a high voltage is applied to the
gas, a corresponding emission line spectrum is produced.

Evidence for the Bohr model:

How can hydrogen atoms absorb and emit energy? A simple picture of the atom was
considered earlier with the electron orbiting the nucleus in a circular energy level. Niels
Bohr proposed that an electron moves into an orbit or higher level from the nucleus when
an atom absorbs energy. The excited state produced is however, constable and the electron
soon falls back to the lowest level or ground state. The energy the electron gives out when it
falls into lower levels is in the form of electromagnetic radiation. One packet of energy
(quantum) or photon is released for each electron transition. Photon of infrared light. The
energy of the photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation.

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The energy of the photon of light emitted is equal to the energy change in the atom.
E Electron = E Photon
It is also related to the frequency of the radiation by the Planck equation:
E Photon/Electron = hv
This is a very significant equation as it shows that line spectra allow us to glimpse the inside
of the atom. The atoms emit photon of certain energies which give lines of certain
frequencies, because the electron can only occupy certain orbits. The energy levels can be
thought of as a staircase. The electron cannot change its energy in a continuous way, in the
same way you cannot stand between steps; it can only change its energy by discrete
amounts. This energy of the atom is quantized. The line spectrum is crucial evidence for
quantization: if the energy were not quantized, the emission spectrum would be
continuous.

The Hydrogen Spectrum:

The hydrogen atom gives out energy when an electron falls from a higher to a lower energy
level. Hydrogen produces visible light when the electron falls to the second energy level
(n=2). The transitions to the first energy level (n=1) correspond to a higher energy change
and are in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Infrared radiation us produced when an
electron falls to the third or higher energy levels.

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The pattern in the diagram gives us a picture of the energy levels in the atom. The lines
converge at higher energies because the energy levels inside the atom are closer together at
higher energy, When an electron is at the highest energy n=, It is no longer in the artom
and the atom has been ionized. The energy needed to remove an electron from the ground
state of an atom in a mole of gaseous atoms, ions, or molecules is called the ionization
energy.
Wave and particle models:
Although the Bohn model of the atom could explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen
with great success, it failed to predict the spectral lines of atoms with more than one
electron. The model is a simplification. To develop the model of the atom further, we need
to reconsider the nature of light and matter.

Both wave and particle models have traditionally been used to explain scientific phenomena
and you may be tempted to ask which model gives the ‘true’ description of light. We now
realise that neither model gives a complete explanation of light properties.
 Both models are needed
 The diffraction, or spreading out, of light that occurs when light passes through a
small slit can only be explained by a wave model.
 The scattering of electrons that occurs when light is incident on a metal surface is
best explained using a particle model of light.

In a similar way, quantum theory, suggests that it is sometimes preferable to think fo an

electron (or indeed any particle) as having wave properties. The diffraction pattern
produced when a beam of electrons is passed through a thin sheet of graphite
demonstrates the wave properties of electrons. To understand the electron configurations
of atoms it is useful to consider a wave description of the electron.

Ionization energy:
The first ionization energy is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from the
ground state of one mole of the gaseous atom.
H(g)H+(g) + e-
One removed from the atom, the electron is an infinite distance away from the nucleus and
can be in the n= energy level.
 Patterns in successive ionization energies give evidence for the energy levels in the
atom.

Melting points:
Comparisons between melting points different elements are more complex as they depend
on both the type of bonding and the structure.

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 Melting points decrease down group 1. The elements have metallic structures which
are held together by attractive forces between delocalized outer electrons and the
positively charged ions.
 Melting points increase down group 17. The elements have molecular structures
which are held together by London (dispersion) forces

Chemical properties:
The chemical properties of an element are determined by the electron configuration of its
atoms. Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties as they have the same
number of valence electrons in their outer energy level.
Group 1: The alkali metals:
All the elements are silverly metals and are two reactive to be found in nature. They are
usually stored in oil to prevent contact with air and water. Properties of the first 3 elements.

Physical Properties: Chemical properties:

 They are good conductors of
electricity and heat
 They have low densities
 They have grey shiny surfaces when
freshly cut with a knife
 They are very reactive metals
 They form ionic compounds with
non-metals.

Periodic Table:
Periods and groups:
Elements whose valence electrons occupy an ‘s’ sub level make up the S block, elements
with valence electrons in P orbitals make up the P block, and the D block and F block are
similarly made up of elements with outer electrons in the d and f orbitals. The element
sodium, for example, is in period 3 as it has three occupied principle energy levels, and as in
group 1 of the S block, as there is one electron in the valence energy level [NE] 3s 1.

Metals and non-metals:

One of the ley features of the Periodic Table is that the metals, metalloids, and non-metals
occupy different regions.

Physical properties:
The elements in the periodic table are arranged to show how the properties of the elements
repeat periodically. This periodicity of the elements is reflected in their physical properties.

Effective nuclear charge:

The nuclear charge of the atom is given by the atomic number and so increases by one
between successive elements in the table, as a proton is added to the nucleus. The outer
electrons which determine many of the physical and chemical properties of the atom do
not, however, experience the full attraction of this charge as they are shielded from the
nucleus and repelled by the inner electrons.

As the period is crossed from left to right, one proton is added to the nucleus and one
electron is added to the valence electron energy level. The effective charge increases with
the nuclear charge as there is no change in the number of inner electrons, as all the atoms
have a noble gas structure of 10 electrons ([NE]= 1s2 2s2 2p6)

Atomic Radius:
The atomic radius ‘r’ is measured as half the distance between neighbouring nuclei. For
many purposes, however, it can be considered as the distance from the nucleus to the
outermost electrons of the Bohn atom.

The atomic radii increase down a group, as the number of occupied electron shells (given by
the period number) increases.
The decrease in radii increases across a period is quite significant; a chlorine atom, for
example has a radius that is about half that of a sodium atom.

Ionic Radius:
Five trends can be identified:
1. Positive ions are smaller than their parent atoms. The formation of positive ions
involves the loss of the outer shell.
2. Negative ions are larger than their parent atoms. The formation of negative ions
involves the addition of electrons in to the outer shell.
3. The ionic radii decrease from groups 1-14 for the positive ions. The ions Na+, Mg2+,
Al3+, and Si4+ all have the same electron configuration.
4. The ionic radii decrease from group 14-17 for the negative ions. The ions Si4-, P3-, S2-,
and Cl- have the same electron configuration.
5. The ionic radii increase down a group as the number of electron energy levels
increases

Ionization energies:
First ionization energies are a measure of the attraction between the nucleus and the outer
electrons.

Electron affinity:
The first electron affinity of an element is the energy change when one mole of electrons is
added to one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions.
X(g) + e-  X-(g)
The Nobel gases do not generally form negatively charged ions so electron affinity values
are not available for these elements. As the added electron is attracted to the positively
charged nucleus the process is generally exothermic. The second and third electron
affinities are defined similarly. The second electron affinity for oxygen, for example,
corresponds to the change:
O-(g) + e-  O2-(g)
This process is endothermic as the added electron is repelled by the negatively charged
oxide (O-) ion, and energy needs to be available for this to occur.

Electron affinities can be thought of as the negative of first ionization energy of the ion.
 The group 17 elements have incomplete outer energy levels and a high effective
nuclear charge of approximately +7 and so attract electrons the most
 The group 1 metals have the lowest effective nuclear charge of approximately +1
and so attract the extra electron the least.

Electronegativity:
The electronegativity of an element is a measure of the ability of its atoms to attract
electrons in a covalent bond.

An element with a high electronegativity has strong electron pulling power and an element
with a low electronegativity has weak pulling power. The general trends are the same as
those for ionization energy.
 Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period owning to the increase
in nuclear charge, resulting in an increased attraction between the nucleus and the
bond electrons.
 Electronegativity decreases down a group. The bonding electrons are furthest from
the nucleus and so there is reduced attraction.