Finite Element Course

1 Introduction

Prof. Raul Durand

 Finite The finite element method
Elements

The finite element method

The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical tech-

nique for finding approximate solutions to boundary
value problems.
A boundary value problem is given by a partial differ-
ential equation and a set of constraints called boundary
conditions. Problem domain

Boundary value problems arise in several branches of

physics: solid mechanics, heat conduction, potential
flows, electrostatics, etc.
The finite element method subdivides a problem do-
main into smaller, simpler sub-regions called finite el-
ements. FEM can be formulated using several ap- Meshing
proaches such as: the direct stiffness method, integral
formulations, variational calculus, etc.
Most engineering problems do not yield to an analytical
approach, thus a numerical approach such as the FEM is
required. The application of the FEM usually requires
the use of computational methods.
σy stress field

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 Finite The finite element method
Elements

The analysis of physical problems using FEM moves along three main stages: idealization,
discretization and solution.
Idealization passes from the physical system to a mathematical model. A mathematical
model is an abstraction of the physical reality and is used to simulate and predict aspects of
behavior of a system.
Engineering problems are usually studied using discrete and continuous models. A continuous
model has an infinite number of degrees of freedom (DOFs). To make numerical simulations
practical it is necessary to reduce the DOFs to a finite number. The reduction is achieved
by domain discretization which generates sub-regions called finite elements.
Over each finite element, algebraic equations are developed using the governing equations
of the problem. Later, the relationship from all elements are assembled using interelement
relationships and lead to a linear system of equations.
There are some levels of approximations while using the FEM (source of errors). For exam-
ple, the division of the whole domain into finite elements may not be exact thus the model
geometry does not match the original shape. Also, the unknowns of the problem are approx-
imated using continuous functions so governing equations are satisfied only in the average
sense. Errors are also introduced while solving the assembled system of equations.

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 Finite The finite element method
Elements

The process of finite element analysis (Bathe, 2006)

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 Finite The finite element method
Elements

The figure illustrates discrepancies in the domain approximation and the solution approxi-
mation:

Solution approximation using FEM (Reddy, 2006)

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 Finite Brief history
Elements

Brief history
1943: R. Courant utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of varia-
tional calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration systems.
1950-1962: M.J. Turner at Boeing generalized the Direct Stiffness Method in the aerospace
industry.
1950s and 1960s: Argyris and Clough spread and improved the Direct Stiffness Method.
1956: Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp (TCMT) published a paper that is recognized as
the beginning of the current FEM technology.
1960: Clough coined the term finite element
1962-1972: Variational generation. Melosh showed that conforming displacement models are
a form of Rayleigh-Ritz based on the min-imum potential energy principle.
1967: Zienkiewicz and Chung published the first book on the FEM.
1960s: FEM begins to expand into Civil Engineering.
As used today, FEM represents the confluence of three ingredients: Matrix Structural Anal-
ysis, variational approximation theory, and the digital computer
Summary based on notes from Prof. Carlos Felippa and other authors.

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 Finite Main features of FEM
Elements

Main features of FEM

Can deal with complex geometry: Due to the discretization process, FEM can readily
handle complex geometries.
It is applicable to a variety of problems: By applying variational principles, FEM can
handle a wide variety of engineering problems: solid mechanics, dynamics, heat conduction,
potential flows, electrostatics, mag-netism, etc.
Stability: FEM models usually lead to well-posed problems where solution exists and is
unique
Convergence: Due to stability, it is possible to reach convergence in FEM analyses.
Simple application of boundary conditions: FEM allows easy application of boundary
conditions.

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 Finite Terminology
Elements

Terminology
FEA: Acronym for finite element analysis:
Discrete model: Representation of a material as a set of parts. Useful in numerical
methods.
Continuum model: Representation of a material as a set of infinite points.
Domain: Geometric region over which equations are solved.
Element: A sub-region of the domain.
Node: Control points in the domain and used to define the geometry of elements.
Degree of freedom: A direction in which independent motion can occur.
Boundary condition: A constraint for a differential equation on the boundary boundary
of the domain.
Essential Boundary condition: Also called Dirichlet boundary condition, specifies the
values that the solution needs to take on along the boundary of the domain.
Natural Boundary condition: Also called Neumann boundary condition, specifies the
values that the derivative of a solution is to take on the boundary of the domain.
Initial condition: Frequently used in time-dependent problems. It specifies the values of
the solution at the initial time.
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 Finite Mesh example
Elements

Mesh example

Temperature field in a pump casing obtained by solving the steady-state heat equation.
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 Finite Discrete models
Elements

Discrete models
In the analysis of engineering systems, there are mainly two categories of mathematical
models: lumped-parameter models and continuum-mechanics-based models. They are called
as discrete systems and continuous systems, respectively.
A discrete system simplifies the description of the behaviour of spatially distributed physical
systems into a topology consisting of discrete entities that approximate the behaviour of the
real system under a set of hypothesis

Example of discrete system.

In a lumped-paremeter model, the system response is described by the solution of a finite

number of state variables (e.g. displacements). This type of model can be used in problems
such as steade-state problems, propagation, electrical systems, etc.
The main characteristic of a steady-state problem is that the response of the system does
not change with time. Thus, the governing equations do not include time as a variable.
As for a continuum-mechanics-based model, differential equations and boundary conditions
govern the response. The exact solution of the boundary value problem is possible only for
simple models and numerical tools are usually employed.
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 Finite Discrete models
Elements

Springs system
As an example, consider the example below that is composed by three rigid carts inter-
conected by linear elastic springs.

In the figure, k1 to k3 are the stiffness for each spring, U1 and U2 are the carts displacements
(state variables) and R1 and R2 are applied forces. The unknowns are the displacements of
the carts (U1 and U2 ) and the forces in the springs (F1 to F3 ).
The force equilibrium equations for each spring are:

" #" # " (2) # " #" # " (3) #

(1) 1 −1 U1 F 1 −1 U1 F
k1 U1 = F1 k2 = 1(2) k3 = 1(3)
−1 1 U2 F2 −1 1 U2 F2

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 Finite Discrete models
Elements

Due to the interconection betweeen springs, we have:

(1) (2) (3)

F1 + F1 + F1 = R1
(2) (3)
F2 + F2 = R2

Using the superposition principle, a global system of equations can be mounted:

" #" # " #

k1 + k2 + k3 −(k2 + k3 ) U1 R1
=
−(k2 + k3 ) k2 + k3 U2 R2

This system can be written in condensed form as KU = R. The systems solution directly
provides the displacements of carts 1 and 2. K is known as the stiffness matrix, U as the
displacements vector and F as the forces vector.
By solving the system, the internal forces (F (2) and F (3) ) can be found:

F (1) = k1 U1
F (2) = k2 (U2 − U1 )
F (3) = k3 (U2 − U1 )

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 Finite Discrete models
Elements

Heat transfer
As another example consider a wall constructed of two homogeneous slabs as shown below. In
steady-state conditions the temperatures in the wall are given by the external temperatures θ1
and θ3 and the interface temperature θ2 . In this problem it is required to find the temperature
governing equations in terms of these temperatures when ambient temperatures θ0 and θ4
are known.

The conductance per unit area for each slab and the surface coefficients are given in the
figure. The heat conduction law is q/A = κ∆θ/∆L, where q is the total heat flow, A is the
area, ∆θ/L is the temperature gradient and κ is the conductance. The conductance is given
by k = κA/L
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 Finite Discrete models
Elements

Using the heat conduction law, the equilibrium equations are:

q1 = 3k(θ0 − θ1 )

q2 = 2k(θ1 − θ2 )
q3 = 3k(θ2 − θ3 )
q4 = 2k(θ3 − θ4 )

To obtain the governing equations for the state variables (θ1 to θ3 ), we use the equilibrium
condition q1 = q2 = q3 = q4 . Thus:

3k(θ0 − θ1 ) = 2k(θ1 − θ2 )

2k(θ1 − θ2 ) = 3k(θ2 − θ3 )
3k(θ2 − θ3 ) = 2k(θ3 − θ4 )

Which in matrix form is:

    
5k −2k 0 θ1 3kθ0
−2k 5k −3k  θ2  =  0 
    
0 −3k 5k θ3 2kθ4

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 Finite Exercises
Elements

Exercises
1. Determine the governing equations for the system of springs placed in series:

2. Determine the governing equations for the system of springs:

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 Finite Continuous models
Elements

Continuous models
Instead of dealing with discrete elements, a continuous model deals with differential elements.
The aim of a continuous model is to find differential equations that express the element
equilibrium requirements, constitutive relations and element interconectivity.
The differential equation must be valid for the whole system domain. Boundary conditions
should be provided in order to find a solution. In time-dependent problems, initial conditions
should also be supplied.
Differential formulation
In a differential formulation, the equilibrium and constitutive requirements are established
in differential elements in terms of state variables. This lead to one or more differential
equations. To complete the formulation of the problem, all boundary conditions need to be
given. For the case of time-dependent problems, initial conditions are also required.
Most common engineering problems fit into the general form of the second-order general
partial differential equation:
2 2 2
∂ u
A(x, y) ∂∂xu2 + B(x, y) ∂x∂y + C(x, y) ∂∂yu2 = φ(x, y, ∂u ∂u
∂x , ∂y )

where x and u are coordinate variables and u is the unknown state variable. Depending on
the coefficients of this equation, the differential equation is classified as:

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 Finite Continuous models
Elements

B 2 − 4AC < 0 : elliptic (e.g. Laplace equation)

B 2 − 4AC = 0 : parabolic (e.g. heat conduction equation)
B 2 − 4AC > 0 : hyperbolic (e.g. wave equation)

Steady-state seepage
The figure at right shows a seepage problem where water
flows through the soil. In the following, the differential
equation and boundary conditions for this problem are
derived so φ(x, y) can be estimated.
For a typical element of with lengths dx and dy, the
total flow into the element must be equal to the total
flow out of the element. Thus we have:

(q|y − q|y+dy )dx + (q|x − q|x+dx )dy = 0

or
∂qy ∂qx
∂y dydx + ∂x dxdy =0

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 Finite Continuous models
Elements

Using Darcy’s law, the flow is given in terms of the total potential φ:

qx = −k ∂φ
∂x ; qy = −k ∂φ
∂y

where k is the soil permeability. Substituting into the differential element equilibrium equa-
tion, we have:  2 2

k ∂∂xφ2 + ∂∂yφ2 = 0

It is important to note that the same equation arises in other field problems such as heat
transfer and electrostatic potential.
∂φ ∂φ
According to the figure, the boundary conditions are given for φ(x, y), ∂x and ∂y :
∂φ
At the left and right sides: ∂x =0 for x = −∞ and for x = +∞
∂φ
At the rock-soil interface: ∂y =0 for y = 0
∂φ
At the dam-soil interface: ∂y (x, L) = 0 for − h/2 ≤ x ≤= h/2
At the water-soil interface:
φ(x, L) = h1 for x < −h/2; φ(x, L) = h2 for x > h/2

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 Finite Continuous models
Elements

Transient heat-conduction
Consdier a very long slab with constant initial temperature
θi . Then the surface at x = 0 is suddenly subject to a
constant uniform het flow input (q0 (t)). The surface at x =
L is kept at temperature θi and the surfaces parallel to the xz
plane are insulated. The governing differential equation will
be found assuming one-dimensional heat flow conditions.
The differential element equilibrium requires that the neat
flow input must be equal to the rate of heat stored in the
element. Thus
 
∂q 
dx = ρAc ∂θ
 
qA|x − qA|x + A ∂x x ∂t x dx


The constitutive law is given by Fourier’s law of heat con-

∂θ
duction q = −k ∂x where k is the material thermal conduc-
tivity. Substituting this relationship into the last equation
we obtain:
∂2θ ∂θ
k ∂x2 = ρc ∂t

For the stated problem, the boundary conditions are:

∂θ q0 (t)
∂x (0, t) = − k and θ(L, t) = θi for t > 0;
and the initial condition is θ(x, 0) = θi
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 Finite Continuous models
Elements

Dynamic response of a rod

The rod shown is initially at rest when an axial load
R(t) is suddenly applied at the free end. The defini-
tion of the corresponding boundary value problem is
required in order estimate u(x, t).
Using the d’Alembert’s principle, the force equilibrium
of a differential element is stated as:
2
σA|x + A ∂σ ∂ u
 
∂x x dx − σA|x = ρA ∂t2 x dx


For a rod, the constitutive relation is given by σ = E ∂u

∂x .
Substituting it in the last equation we have:
q
∂2u 1 ∂2u E
∂x2
= c2 ∂t2
with c = ρ

Finally, the boundary conditions are:

u(0, t) = 0 and EA ∂u
∂x (L, t) = R0

and the initial condition are:

∂u
u(x, 0) = 0 and ∂t (x, 0) =0
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 Finite Exercises
Elements

Exercises

1. Find the differential equation and

boundary conditions for the displacement
of a rod subject to an axial load P and a
distributed load q(x).

2. Find the differential equation and

boundary conditions for the deflection in
the cantilever beam subject to a vertical
distributed load q(x).

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 Finite Exercises
Elements

3. Find the differential equation and

boundary conditions for the buckling
problem in an elastic column.

4. Find the partial differential equation

and boundary conditions for the steady-
state heat transfer through a cylindrical
bar of nonuniform cross section. The bar
is subject to a known temperature T0 (◦ C)
at the left end and exposed, both on the
surface and at the right end, to a medium
at temperature T∞ .

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 Finite Bibliography
Elements

Bibliography
1. J.N. Reddy, An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, Third edition, McGraw
Hill, 2005.
2. K. J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures, Pearson, 2006.

Thinking is to man what flying is to birds.

Don’t follow the example of a chicken
when you could be a lark.
Albert Einstein

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