Radio Wave Propagation

RADIO-WAVE
PROPAGATION
RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION
Was predicted mathematically by James C. Maxwell in 1865 but was first
demonstrated experimentally by Heinrich R. Hertz in 1867.
RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION
Free-space propagation of electromagnetic waves is often
called radio-frequency (RF) propagation or simply radio
propagation.
RADIO WAVES are electromagnetic waves, like light,

propagates through free space in a straight line with a
velocity of approx. same as speed of light.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
is an electrical energy that has escaped into free space.
Electromagnetic radiation, as the name implies, involves the
creation of electric and magnetic fields in free space or in
some physical medium. The waves that propagate are
known as transverse electromagnetic waves (TEM).
Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) waves – this means that
the electric field, the magnetic field and the direction of
propagation of the wave are all mutually perpendicular.
The essential properties of radio waves are frequency,
intensity, direction of travel and plane of polarization.
The polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is simply
the orientation of the electric field vector in respect to the
surface of the earth (looking at the horizon). If the
polarization remains constant, it is described as Linear
Polarization.
The two forms of linear polarization are horizontal and
vertical.
If the electric field is propagating parallel to the Earth’s
surface, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized.
If the electric field is propagating perpendicular to the
Earth’s surface, the wave is said to be vertically polarized.
If the polarization vector rotates 360˚ as the wave moves
one wave length through space and the field strength is
equal at all angles of polarization, the wave is described as
having Circular Polarization.
When the field strength varies with changes in polarization,
this described as Elliptical Polarization.
Properties of Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation Velocity
𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
Permittivity - is the dielectric constant of the material separating the two
conductors. The permittivity of air or free space is approximately 8.85 x
10 -12 F/m.
𝜺
𝜺𝒓 =
𝜺𝒐
Power Density – the rate at which the energy passes through a given
surface area in free space.
𝑷𝑫 = 𝓔 𝓗
ℰ = rms electric field intensity (V/m)
ℋ = rms magnetic field intensity (ampere turns per meter)
Characteristic Impedance of a lossless transmission medium
is equal to the square root of the ration of its magnetic
permeability to its electric permittivity.
Mathematically, characteristic impedance of free space
𝝁
𝒁𝒔 =
𝝐
Where Zs = characteristic impedance
µ = magnetic permeability of free space (1.26 x 10 -6 H/m)
ε = electric permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10 -12 F/m)
Power density (using Ohm’s Law)
𝓔𝟐
𝑷𝑫 = = 𝟑𝟕𝟕𝓗2 W/m2
𝟑𝟕𝟕
𝓔
𝓗= At/m
𝟑𝟕𝟕
Where
𝑃𝐷 = power density
ℰ = rms electric field intensity (V/m)
ℋ = rms magnetic field intensity (ampere turns per meter)
Sample Problem
The dielectric strength of air is about 3MV/m. arcing is likely
to take place at field strengths greater than that. What is
the maximum power density of an electromagnetic wave in
air?
23.9 GW/m2
Spherical Wavefront & Inverse Square Law
A point source that radiates power at a constant rate uniformly
in all directions is called isotropic radiator. An isotropic radiator
produces a spherical wavefront with radius R. All points distance
R from the source lie on the surface of the sphere and have
equal power densities. Therefore the power density at any point
on the sphere is the total radiated power divided by the total
area of the sphere. Mathematically,
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑷𝑫 =
𝟒π𝑹𝟐
Where Prad = total radiated power (watts)
R = radius of the sphere (distance from the source)
Spherical Wavefront & Inverse Square Law
As the wavefront moves further from the source, the smaller the
power density. The relationship of the power density and the
distance from the source is what we call Inverse Square Law.
As the distance from the source doubles the power density
decreases by a factor of _______.
Using inverse square law the source radiate isotropically, although
not necessary but it is necessary that the velocity of propagation in
all directions be uniform.
Sample Problem
For an isotropic antenna radiating 100 W of power, determine:
◦ Power density 1000m from the source
◦ Power density 2000m from the source
7.96 µW/m2 1.99 µW/m2

Wave Attenuation and Absorption
Free space is a vacuum, so no loss of energy as a wave
propagates through it. As waves propagates through free
space, however, they spread out, resulting in a reduction in
power density. This is what we called attenuation and also
occurs in free space as well as the Earth’s atmosphere. Since
Earth’s atmosphere is not a vacuum, it contains particles
that can absorb electromagnetic energy. This type of
reduction of power is called absorption loss.
ATTENUATION
The inverse square law for radiation mathematically describes the
reduction in power density with distance from the source. The
reduction in power density with distance is equivalent to a power
loss and is commonly called wave attenuation. Because the
attenuation is due to the spherical spreading of the wave, it is
sometimes called space attenuation. Wave attenuation is generally
expressed in terms of the common logarithm of the power density
ratio.
𝑷𝑫𝟏
𝜰 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑷𝑫𝟐
ABSORPTION
As an electromagnetic wave passes through the
atmosphere, it interchanges energy with free electrons and
ions. If the ions do not collide with gas molecules or other
ions, all the energy is converted back into electromagnetic
energy, and the wave continues propagating with no loss of
intensity.
ABSORPTION
However, if the ions collide with other particles, they
dissipate the energy that they have acquired from the
electromagnetic wave, resulting in absorption of the energy.
Since the absorption of energy is dependent on the collision
of particles, the greater the particle density, the greater the
possibility of collisions and the greater the absorption
ABSORPTION
The electromagnetic energy is absorbed and scattered by
the raindrops and this effect becomes more pronounced
when the length of the wave approaches the size of the rain
drop.
The reduction in power density due to inverse square law
presumes free-space propagation is called wave
attenuation. The reduction in power density due to non
free-space propagation is called absorption.
Optical Properties of Radio Waves
In Earth’s atmosphere, ray-wavefront propagation may be
altered from free-space behavior by optical effects such as
refraction, reflection, diffraction and interference. Using
rather unscientific terminology, refraction can be thought of
as bending, reflection as bouncing, diffraction as scattering
and interference as colliding. These are called optical
properties because they were first observed in the science
of optic, which is the behavior of light.
REFRACTION
It is sometimes referred to as the bending of the radio-wave
path. However, the ray does not actually bend.
Electromagnetic refraction is actually the changing of
direction of an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely
from one medium into another with different velocities of
propagation.
REFRACTION
The velocity of propagation at which an electromagnetic
wave propagates is inversely proportional to the density of
the medium in which it is propagating.
REFRACTION
Refraction of electromagnetic waves can be expressed in
terms of refractive index of the atmosphere it is passing
through. Mathematically, it is the square root of the
dielectric constant.
𝒏= 𝒌
REFRACTION
The amount of bending or refraction that occurs at the
interface of the two materials of different densities depends
on the refractive index of the two materials. The refractive
index is simply the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a
light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a
light ray in a given material. Mathematically,
where n = the refractive index (unitless)
𝒄 c = speed of light in the free space
𝒏= v = speed of light in a given material
𝒗
REFRACTION
An electromagnetic wave reacts when it meets the interface
of two transmissive materials that have different indexes of
refraction and can be explain using Snell’s Law.
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟐 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟐 𝒏𝟏
where n1 = the refractive index of material 1 𝜣1 = angel of incidence

n2 = the refractive index of material 2 𝜣2 = angel of refraction
REFRACTION
And because the refractive index of a material is equal to
the square root of its dielectric constant
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟏 ε𝒓𝟏
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜣𝟐 ε𝒓𝟐
where ε r1 = dielectric constant of medium 1

ε r2 = dielectric constant of medium 2
REFRACTION
Refraction also occurs when a wavefront propagates in a
medium that has a density gradient that is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
Sample Problem
A radio wave moves from air to glass. Its angle of
incidence is 30˚. What is the angel of refraction? The
relative permittivity of air is 1 and the glass is 7.8.
10.3 degrees
REFRACTION
In extreme cases, where the angle of incidence is large the
wave travels into a region of considerably lower dielectric
constant, the angle of refraction can be greater that 90˚, so
that the wave comes out of the second medium and back
into first. For these, refraction becomes a form of reflection
called total internal reflection.
REFRACTION
The angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction
exactly 90˚ is known as critical angle and it is given by
−𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝜣𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒏𝟏
REFLECTION
Reflect means to cast or turn back and reflection is the act
of reflecting. Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an
incident wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or
all of the incident power does not enter the second
material. The waves that do not penetrate the second
medium are reflected.
REFLECTION
Saying all the reflected waves remain in medium 1, the
velocity of the reflected and incident waves are equal.
Consequently, the angle of reflection equals to the angle of
incidence. However, the reflected voltage intensities is less
than the incident voltage field intensity. The ratio of the
reflected to the incident voltage intensities is called
reflection coefficient.
𝑬𝒓 𝒋(𝜣 −𝜣 )
𝜞= 𝒆 𝒓 𝒊
𝑬𝒊
REFLECTION
The ratio of the reflected and incident power densities is Γ.
The portion of the total incident power that is not reflected
is called the power transmission coefficient (T). For a perfect
conductor, T = 0. The fraction of power that penetrates
medium 2 is called absorption coefficient. The absorbed
waves set up currents in the resistance of the material and
the energy is converted to heat.
REFLECTION
Reflection also occurs when the reflective surface in
irregular or rough. When an incident wavefront strikes an
irregular surface, it is randomly scattered in many
directions. Such condition is called diffused reflection,
whereas reflection from a perfectly smooth surface is called
specular (mirrorlike) reflection. Surface that fall between
smooth and irregular is called semi-rough surfaces.
REFLECTION
Rayleigh criterion states that a semi-rough surface will
reflect as if it were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of
angle of incidence is greater than 𝛌/8d, where d is the
depth of irregularity.
𝝀
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜣𝒊 >
𝟖𝒅
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of
energy within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of
an opaque object.
Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio
waves to propagate (peek) around corners.
DIFFRACTION
Huygen’s principle states that every point on a given
spherical wavefront can be considered as a secondary point
source of electromagnetic waves from which the other
secondary waves are radiated outward. Diffraction occurs
around the edge of the obstacle, which allows the
secondary waves to sneak around the corner of the obstacle
into what is called shadow zone.
INTERFERENCE
Interfere means to come into opposition, and interference is
the act of interfering. Radio wave interference occurs when
two or more electromagnetic waves combine in such a way
that system performance is degraded.
TERRESTRIAL PROPAGATION
Electromagnetic waves traveling within Earth’s atmosphere
are called terrestrial waves and communications between
two or more points on Earth is called terrestrial radio
communications.
THREE WAYS OF PROPAGATING EM WAVES WITHIN EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE:
◦ Ground Wave Propagation
◦ Sky Wave Propagation
◦ Space Wave Propagation
Each of the three propagation modes exists in every radio
system; however, some are negligible in certain frequency
ranges or over a particular type of terrain. At frequencies
below approx. 2MHz, ground waves provide the best
coverage because ground losses increases rapidly with
frequency. Sky waves are used for high-frequency
applications and space waves are used for very high
frequencies and above.
GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
A ground-wave or surface wave is an Earth-guided
electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of Earth.
At frequencies up to approximately 2 MHz, the most
important method of propagation is by ground waves.
Ground waves are vertically polarized waves that follow the
ground and can therefore follow the curvature of the earth
to propagate beyond the horizon.
Earth’s surface also has dielectric losses. Therefore, surface
waves are attenuated as they propagate. Because energy is
absorbed from the surface wave, the portion of the wave in
contact Earth’s surface is continuously wipe out. This
phenomenon produces a slight forward tilt toward the
horizontal increasing losses as the distance from the
transmitter increase.
Surface wave propagation is commonly used for ship-to-ship
and ship-to-shore communications, for radio navigation and
for maritime mobile communications. Surface waves are
used at frequencies as low as 15 kHz. The international
navigation system called LORAN-C operates at 100 kHz and
of course the standard AM broadcast band relies mainly on
ground wave propagation.
ADVANTAGES OF GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
◦Given enough transmit power, ground waves can be used
to communicate between any two locations in the world
◦Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing
atmospheric conditions
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION
◦Ground waves requires relatively high transmission power
◦Ground waves are limited to very low, low and medium
frequencies requiring large antennas
◦Ground losses vary considerably with surface material and
composition
SKY WAVE PROPAGATION
Electromagnetic waves that are directed above the horizon
level are called sky wave. Sky waves are radiated toward the
sky where they are either reflected or refracted back to
Earth by the ionosphere. Because of this, sky wave
propagation is sometimes called ionospheric propagation.
The ionosphere is the region of space located approximately
50 km to 400 km (30 mi to 250 mi) above Earth’s surface.
The ionosphere is the upper portion of Earth’s atmosphere.
Therefore it absorbs large quantities of the sun’s radiant
energy, which ionizes the air molecules, creating free
electrons.
Insert photo here…
The higher the ion density, the more refraction.

Sky Wave Propagation
Essentially, three layers make up the ionosphere (the D, E
and F layer). It can be seen that all three layers of the
ionosphere vary in location and in ionization density with
the time of day. They also fluctuate in a cyclic pattern
throughout the year and according to the 11 year cycle
known as sunspot cycle. The ionosphere is most dense
during times of maximum sunlight (during daylight and in
summer).
D Layer
It is the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located
approximately between 30 mi and 60 mi (50 km to 100 km)
above Earth’s surface. Because it is the layer farthest from
the sun, there is little ionization. The amount of ionization in
the D layer depends on the altitude of the sun above
horizon, therefore, it disappears at night. The D layer
reflects VLF and LF and absorbs MF and HF waves.
E Layer
 The E layer is located approximately between 60 mi to 85
mi (100 km to 140 km) above Earth’s surface.
 The E layer sometimes called the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer
after the two scientist who discovered it.
E Layer
 Its maximum density at approx. 70 mi at noon, when the
sun is at its highest point. As with the D layer, the E layer
almost disappears at night.
The E layer aids MF surface wave propagation and reflects
HF waves somewhat during daytime.
E Layer
 The upper portion of E layer is sometimes considered
separately and is called sporadic E layer because it seems to
come and go rather unpredictably.
The sporadic E layer is caused by solar flares and sunspot
activity. The sporadic E layer is a thin layer with a very high
ionization density.
F Layer
 The F layer is actually made up of two layers, the F1 and F2
layers. During daytime the F1 layer is located between 85 mi
and 155 mi (140 km to 250 km) above Earth’s surface; F2
layer is located 85 mi to 185 mi (140 to 300 km) above
Earth’s surface during winter and 155 mi to 220 mi (250 km
to 350 km) in the summer.
F Layer
 During the night, F1 layer combines with the F2 layer to
form a single layer. The F1 absorbs and attenuates some HF
waves, although most of the waves pass through to the F2
layer, where they are refracted back to Earth.
CRITICAL FREQUENCY
Critical frequency (fc) is defined as the highest frequency
that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned
to Earth by the ionosphere. The critical frequency depends
on the ionization density and, therefore, varies with the
time of day and season.
 However, every frequency has a maximum vertical angle
at which it can be propagated and still be refracted back by
the ionosphere. This angle is called the critical angle.
Ionospheric sounding is sometimes used to determine the
critical frequency. A signal is propagated straight up from
the Earth’s surface and gradually increased in frequency.
VIRTUAL HEIGHT
Virtual height is the height above Earth’s surface from which
a refracted wave appears to been reflected. The maximum
height that is hypothetical reflected wave would have
reached.
MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY
Maximum usable frequency is the highest frequency that
can be used for sky wave propagation between two specific
points on Earth’s surface.
𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇𝒄 )
𝑴𝑼𝑭 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜣𝒊
MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY
MUF, as with the critical frequency, is a limiting frequency
for sky wave propagation. However, the maximum usable
frequency is for a specific angle of incidence. Because of the
general instability of the ionosphere, the highest frequency
between two points is often selected lower than MUF. It has
been proven that operating at a frequency 85% of the MUF
provides more reliable communications. This frequency is
sometimes called optimum working frequency.
SKIP DISTANCE
Skip distance (ds) is defined as the minimum distance from a
transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will
be returned to Earth. The area between where the surface
waves are completely dissipated and the point where the
first sky wave returns to Earth is called the quiet or skip zone
because in this area there is no reception.
Sample Problem
The critical frequency at a particular time is 11.6 MHz. What
is the MUF for a transmitting station if the required angle of
incidence for propagation to a desired destination is 70˚?
33.9 MHz
Space Wave Propagation
Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy includes
radiated energy that travels in the lower few miles of Earth’s
atmosphere. Space waves include both direct and ground-
reflected waves.
Direct waves travel essentially in a straight line between the
transmit and receive antenna.
Ground-reflected waves are waves reflected by Earth’s
surface as they propagate between the transmit and receive
antennas.
Space wave propagation with direct waves is commonly
called line-of-sight LOS transmission.
The curvature of the Earth presents a horizon to space wave
propagation commonly called the radio horizon. Because of
atmospheric refraction, the radio horizon is approx. four-
thirds that of the optical horizon for the common standard
atmosphere.
The radio horizon can be lengthened simply by elevating the
transmitter or receiver high radio.
𝒅 = 𝟐𝒉
𝒅 = 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒅𝒓
𝒅= 𝟐𝒉𝒕 + 𝟐𝒉𝒓
Where
d = total distance
d1 = radio horizon for transmit antenna ht = transmit antenna height (ft)
d2 = radio horizon for receiver antenna (miles) hr = receive antenna height (ft)
The maximum distance between a transmitter and receiver
over average terrain can be approximated in metric units.
𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒕 + 𝟏𝟕𝒉𝒓
Where
dmax = max distance between transmitter and receiver (kilometers)
ht = height of transmit antenna above sea level (meters)
hr = height of receiver antenna above sea level (meters)
Because the condition in Earth’s lower atmosphere are
subject to change, the degree of refraction can vary with
time. A special condition called duct propagating occurs
when the density of the lower atmosphere is such that
electromagnetic waves are trapped between it and Earth’s
surface.
Sample Problem
A taxi company uses a central dispatcher, with an antenna at
the top of a 15 m tower to communicate with taxicabs. The
taxi antennas are on the roofs of the car, approximately 1.5
m above the ground. Calculate the maximum
communication distance
◦ (a) between the dispatcher and a taxi
◦ (b) between two taxis
21.0 km 10.1 km
Although line-of-sight propagation uses direct path from
transmitter to receiver, the receiver can also pick up signals
that have been reflected or diffracted. For instance, the
signal can be reflected from the ground.
If the ground is rough, the reflected signal will be scattered
and its intensity will be low in any given direction.
If the reflecting surface is relatively smooth – a body of
water – the reflected signal at the receiver can have a
strength comparable to that of the incident wave and the
two signal will interfere.
Whether the interference is constructive or destructive
depends on the phase relationship between the signals: if
they are in-phase, the resulting signal strength will
increased, but if they are 180˚ out-of-phase, there will be
partial cancellation.
The exact phase relationship depends on the difference,
expressed in wavelength, between the lengths of
transmission paths for the direct and reflected signals. This
effect is called fading.
When the surface is highly reflective, the reduction in signal
strength can be 20 dB or more. In addition, there is usually a
phase shift of 180˚ at the point of reflection.
In a practical situation where transmitter and receiver
locations are fixed, the effect of reflections can often be
reduced by carefully surveying the proposed route and
adjusting the transmitter and receiver antenna heights so
that any reflection takes place in a wooded areas or rough
terrain: the reflection will then be diffuse and weak. If most
of the path is over a reflective surface such as dessert or
water, fading can be reduced by using either frequency
diversity or spatial diversity.
Other Propagation Modes
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER
The basic idea behind tropospheric scatter also know as
troposcatter is that the antenna is aimed in the direction of
the receiver, but the receiver is over the horizon. Most of
the transmitted energy simply continues into space, but
small portion of it is scattered, and small fraction of the
scattered energy reaches the receiver.
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER
Troposcatter can give reliable communication over distances
of about 80 to 800 km at frequencies from about 250 MHz
to 5 GHz. It is inefficient system, requiring larger transmitter
power, antennas with higher gain and more sensitive
receivers than light-of-sight system.
On the other hand, troposcatter can operate a much greater
range than light-of-sight communication, thus reducing the
requirement for repeater stations. This is a great benefit
when the communications path is over the water or over
difficult terrain such as mountains or when foreign, possibly
unfriendly government controls the territory between end
of the link.

Radio Wave Propagation

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Radio Wave Propagation

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RADIO-WAVE

RADIO WAVES are electromagnetic waves, like light,

7.96 µW/m2 1.99 µW/m2

where n1 = the refractive index of material 1 𝜣1 = angel of incidence

where ε r1 = dielectric constant of medium 1

The higher the ion density, the more refraction.

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