8 Steps - Control of Heating Systems

8 STEPS -
CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS
8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

1 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS
Contents
Preface 1 7. Flow limitation 24
8. Energy metering 25
Chapter 1 Definitions 3
District heating 3 Chapter 3 Secondary systems used in Europe 27
Pressure 5 Preface 27
Level pressure 5 Comfort 28
Steam pressure 5 Heat requirement 29
Transmission requirements 29
Chapter 2 District heating systems used in Ventilation 30
Western Europe 7
Wind influence 30
Production 7
Incidental heat gain from heat sources
1. Environmental requirements 7 other than the heating system 31
2. Fuel 8 Domestic hot water 31
3. Exhaust emission control 9 Production 32
4. Water quality 10 1. Control 32
5. Flow and return temperatures 12 2. Control valves 33
6. Expansion systems 13 3. Temperature controller 33
7. Open expansion system 14 4. Periodic set back of the flow temperature 34
8. Closed expansion system 14 5. Expansion systems 34
Distribution 15 6. Closed system 34
1. Pre-insulated pipes 15 7. Open systems 34
2. Construction, material 15 8. High-rise buildings 35
3. Heat losses 16 Distribution 36
4. Linear expansion due to variations 1. Definitions 36
in temperature 16
2. Pipe material 37
5. Design 16
3. Piping 37
6. Flow 17
4. Compensation for the linear
7. Pumps 18 expansion due to temperature variations 38
8. Pressure control 18 5. Insulation 38
Consumption 19 6. Flow 38
1. Heat exchanger 19 7. Pumps 39
2. Connection design 20 8. Pump control 39
3. Electronic temperature controls 21
4. Self-acting controls 21 Consumption 40
5. Control valves 22 1. Radiator and convector systems 40
6. Differential pressure control 23 2. Pressure distribution 42
8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 1

3. Differential pressure controls 43 5. Flow 78
4. Control of the room temperature 44 Differential pressure control 78
5. Correct flow temperature 44 Flow limitation 80
6. Floor heating systems 45 6. Static pressure 82
7. Control 46 The circulation pump in the flow
8. Ventilation 46 or in the return pipe 82
7. Pump 84
Chapter 4 Evaluation of systems and products 47 Principles for pressure control 85
District heating 47 8. Metering 88
Central boiler plant 48
Fuel 49 Chapter 5 Instructions for designing district
heating systems. 89
Combustion 50
Environment 90
Exhaust emission control 51
1. Durability 90
Temperatures 52
2. Production 90
Static pressure 52
3. Fuel 91
Expansion system 53
4. Combustion 91
Distribution - Consumption 54
5. Flue gas purification 91
1. Accumulator 54
6. Handling of ashes 92
2. Temperature 55
7. Handling of coal 92
3. Static pressure 55
8. Water quality 93
4. Pre-insulated pipes 55
Local district heating system 94
5. Flow 56
1. Effect ranges 94
Control valves 56
2. Existing boilers 94
Differential pressure control 58
3. New boilers 95
Flow limitation 59
4. Accumulator 96
6. Heat exchangers 60
5. Expansion systems 97
7. Pump 61
6. Circulation pumps 98
8. Metering 63
Dynamic pressure 98
Heating systems 65
Flow 98
1. One-pipe systems 66
7. Pre-insulated pipes 99
Existing one-pipe systems 67
Material 99
Two or three–way valves 69
Linear expansion due to variations
2. Two-pipe systems 70 in temperature 99
Vertical or horizontal systems 71 Sizing of pipes 100
Gravity 72 8. Heat exchangers 100
3. Thermostatic or manual valve 73
4. Weather compensation 75 Operating conditions 101

Setting of the right flow temperature 76 1. Temperature levels 101
Periodic set back of the flow temperature 77 2. Return temperatures 101

3. Temperature drop in the distribution network 102 4. Horizontal distribution pipe 123
4. Static pressure 102 5. Risers 124
5. Available differential pressure 103 6. High-rise buildings 125
6. Water quality 104 7. Radiator circuit, two-pipes horizontal 126
7. Pressure testing 105 8. Radiators – convectors 128
8. Operating times 105 Operating conditions 130
Local control and supervision 106 1. Temperature levels 130
1. The control of boilers 106 2. Return temperature 130
2. Control of the accumulator 107 3. Temperature drops in the pipe system 131
3. Control of the outgoing temperature 4. Static pressure 131
in the district heating network 107 5. Expansion vessels 131
4. Flow limitation 108 6. Available differential pressure 131
5. Differential pressure control 109 7. Water quality 132
6. Pressure control of pumps 110 8. Heat losses in the sub-station 132
7. Heat metering 111 Control 133
8. Central control and supervision 112 1. Control and supervision 133
2. Control of flow and return temperature 134
Chapter 6 Instructions for designing 3. Control of the room temperature 134
heating systems 113
4. Pressure control of pumps 135
Comfort 114
5. Control of the available differential pressure 136
1. Room temperature 114
6. Flow metering per apartment 136
2. Temperature on the surfaces of the room 114
7. Control of domestic hot water 137
3. Down draught 115
8. Control of domestic water in an apartment 137
4. Ventilation 115
5. Wind influences 116
Chapter 7 How to select size of
6. Distribution of the heat 116 products and components 139
7. Domestic hot water 116 Thermostatic valves 139
8. Hot water circulation 117 Choice of valve size 139
Conditions 118 Existing one-pipe systems 139
1. Heat requirement 118 Two-pipe systems 139
2. Calculation of the transmission losses 118 Flow 139
3. Ventilation 119 Valve size 140
4. Incidental heat gain 119 Pre-setting 141
5. The wind influence on the heat requirements 120 Choice of control unit 141
6. Heat requirement per room 120
7. Control of the actual heat requirement 120
8. Domestic hot water 120
Heating systems 121 Control valves 142
1. Heat exchangers 121 Primary systems 142
2.Expansion system 122 Available differential pressure 142
3. Circulation pump 122 Valve size 143

Secondary systems 144
Available differential pressure 144
Two-way valve 144
Valve sizes 145
Differential pressure controls 146
Primary systems 146
Valve size 147
Setting value 148
Valve size 148
Differential pressure control of risers 150
Setting value 151
Flow limitation 152
Primary systems 152
Control equipment 155
Radiator systems 155
Hot water heating 156
Pipes and heat exchangers 157
Pipes for heating 157
Pipes for domestic water 158
Heat exchangers 158
Heat meters 159
The primary network 159
The secondary network 159
Pressure control of pumps 160
The primary network 160
The secondary network 160
Chapter 8 Technical data, Formulas and charts 161
8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Preface.
Heating a home has always been and still is a basic human requirement.
This requirement. This requirement enables us to live and work in loca-
tions with low temperaure. In the beginning the solutions were simple.
An open fire on the floor of a tent or a simple hut, made it possible to
survive in a hostile environment. As civilisation developed there was
migration from the countryside to the towns and cities and into bigger
and bigger houses, creating a requirement for more elborate heating
systems. This requirement stimulated technical development, but also
created a problem, namely the use of a finite resource (fossil fuels) with
the resulting pollutions from the burned fuels.
The purpose of a good heating system is to create the best environment
possible. The construction of the building with a well designed heating
system, associated with good automatic controls, minimises the heating
requirements and emissions radically.

CHAPTER 1 • DEFINITIONS
Definitions.
District heating
District heating is a system which provides a number of buildings with
heat from a central boiler plant through pre-insulated pipes.
(Pre-insulated pipes are in fact a modern kind of heat culvert or district
heating duct, but since these systems nowadays are pre-manufactured,
they will from here on be referred to as pre-insulated pipes.)
The smallest systems cover 200-300 houses or a block.
The connection to the secondary heating system can be direct or indi-
rect, i.e. with or without a heat exchanger. Domestic hot water is also
produced with the help of district heating. As a result, the heating plants
are also in operation during non-heating seasons.
There is a difference between heating plants, pure heat producers and
combined heat and power plants. The main purpose of the last-named
is to produce electricity through a steam turbine. The connected buil-
dings are used to cool down the condensate to such a low temperature as
possible in order to increase the capacity of the steam turbine.
The efficiency for coal-fired power plants is low, 30-40 %. By combining
the power production with the heat delivery, the efficiency has increased
right up to 90 %, which corresponds to the efficiency of well-kept dis- Combined heating and power plant.
Fig. 1:1
trict heating plants.
A district heating plant, (the primary circuit), can be divided into three
parts:
• Production (central boiler plant)
• Distribution (pre-insulated pipes)
• Consumption (sub-station)
Central boiler plant Distribution Consumption

Fig. 1:2

In the production plant, the water temperature is increased to the re-

quired level. Distribution implies heat transfer to the consumers with as
small a loss as possible. Consumption implies heat transfer from the
water of the primary side to the water of the secondary side, and a large
temperature drop in the primary water. It may also imply directly
connected systems, detached houses for instance, with a differential
pressure control as protection against too high differential pressures.
District heating systems with a large production plant, an efficient dis-
tribution network and a sub-station with heat exchanger and automatic
Direct connection
Fig. 1:3 controls, can be made very effective in respect of consumption as well as
pollution.
The choice of material and operating conditions such as static pressure,
temperature and water quality are important factors concerning the ope-
ration of the system, its maintenance and its durability.
The heating system in a building, (the secondary circuit), can be
divided into three parts:
• Production (heat transfer through the heat exchanger)
• Distribution (the main piping system of the building, including
the circulation pump)
• Consumption (radiators, convectors, or floor heating for the rooms)
Indirect connection
Fig. 1:4
Production Distribution Consumption

Fig. 1:5
In the production plant, the secondary water temperature is increased

to the required level.
Distribution implies heat transfer to the consumers with the smallest
losses possible and small temperature drop.
Consumption implies heat transfer from the water to the rooms and
large temperature drop in the water.

Pressure
In district heating systems and heating systems, you make a distinction
between static and dynamic pressure. In an open system, the static pres-
sure is equal to the weight of the water column. The word static repre-
sents something stationary. The dynamic pressure appears when the
water begins to circulate and a circulating resistance is formed . The word
dynamic means that something is in motion.
Static pressure
The static pressure has two functions in a distric heating system. It has H
to ensure that all parts of the system are filled with water (level pressure)
and that the water does not begin to boil (steam pressure).
M
Level pressure
All the parts of a system are filled with water if the static pressure, cal-
culated in meter water gauge, is equal to the level of the system, at its
meter. 10m WG = 1 bar = 100 kPa, providing the circulation pump is not
in operation. If the circulation pump is placed in the flow line, which is Height in meter is equal to static pressure.
usually the case with the district heating systems of today, the pump will Fig. 1:6
provide a higher total pressure (static + dynamic pressure) in the flow
line, when in operation.
Correspondingly, the total pressure is lower in the return line, and lowest
at the return connection to the pump. By placing the pump in the flow, Dynamic pressure
Differential pressure
you will have an additional guarantee that there is water in all parts of the
system.
If the pump is placed in the return line, the case will be the opposite, and Steam generating
the static pressure must be increased by 60-70 % of the pressure increase pressure
across the pump in order to get all parts filled with water.
Total pressure
Steam pressure System or level pressure

Static pressure
The boiling point of the water is depending on the current pressure. is determined by
A low pressure decreases the boiling point and a high pressure increases difference in altitude
between heating plant
it. At sea level the water boils at 100°C in an open vessel, and already at and highest situated
120°C, an over-pressure (the pressure shown on the pressure gauge) of sub-station
approximately 1 bar, 100 kPa, is required to avoid boiling. An over-pres-
sure of 2 bar, 200 kPa, corresponds to approximately 130°C.
In order to avoid boiling, the over-pressure required must be available in
each unit of the system.
Definition of pressure in district heating systems.
Fig. 1:7


CHAPTER 2 • DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEMS USED IN WESTERN EUROPE
District heating systems

used in Western Europe.
Production
The production takes place in a plant in which the energy of the fuel in
question is converted into heat through combustion and then transferred
to the water of the distribution network.
1. Environmental requirements
The environmental requirements on fuel are made more and more
stringent. The contents of environmentally hazardous substances in coal
and oil have diminished considerably during the past ten years. There are
also requirements on the volume of dust discharges of the ashes after
good combustion. In cases where the requirements made on the fuel
cannot be fulfilled, a penalty tax is imposed, and/or a plant reducing the
environmental influence to the established level is requested.
Smoke gets in your eyes wherevere you are.
The pollutants, set free by the combustion, are spread with the winds Fig. 2:1
covering very large areas. It is not sufficient only to limit the discharges
locally, but the same requirements are necessary all over Europe. Certain
values have been established and a tightening-up of the requirements will Allowed discharges according to IEA Coal
Research air pollutant emission standards for
be carried out, as people in many countries find the values too high. coal-fired plants database, 1991.
Sulphur causes acidification of the ground which kills both plants and Particles mg/m3 SO2 mg/m3 NOx mg/m3
animals. Nitrogen also causes acidification and have negative effects on EC 50 – 100 400 – 2.000 650 – 1.300
the ozone layer. Both these substances travel great distances and measu- Minimum 40 160 - 270 80 - 540
res must be taken right at the source. The values relate to new plants. The first value
is for big plants and the second value for small
Opposite, see tabel, are allowed discharges according to IEA Coal Research
ones.
air pollutant emission standards for coal-fired plants database, 1991.

Hydrocarbons derived from motor-driven vehicles and industrial proces-

ses contribut to the fact that ozone is formed close to the ground and the
fact that the ozone layer is demolished.
Greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane are all
contributing to the so-called greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is
formed by different sorts of combustion, in central heating plants, in car
engines etc.
Heavy alloys, which influence the germ plasm, are stored all the time, and
gradually they end up at the top of the food chain, i.e. in predators and
in human beings.
Oil, gas and coal is transported by ships.
Fig. 2:2 2. Fuel
Oil and coal are the fuels most frequently used. Natural gas is more and
more used as well as biofuel (renewable energy such as forest waste and
straw).
Coal is refined through washing so that the content of pollutants and
ashes will be less than before. The sulphur content is under 0.8 %. By
spraying with surface chemicals or with water only, the dust amount from
transport and handling has been reduced. Pulverized coal is a processing
operation that increases the efficiency of handling and combustion. Effi-
Lorries are used for shorter transportation of
cient purification of the exhaust gases is required, bearing in mind solid
oil and gas. particles, sulphur and nitrogen gas.
Fig. 2:3 Because of the large volumes in connection with district heating, the
transport must be carried out by ship, unless of coal mine is located near
the district heating plant.
Oil for large district heating systems, so called heavy oil, contains a
maximum of 0.8 % sulphur and can be very efficiently burnt with present
techniques, but to reduce the discharges to the accepted level, purifica-
tion of the exhaust gases is required.
The oil is tranported by ship and lorry or by train.
Gas can be purified from possible pollutants before combustion, but
nitrogen remains even after the combustion.
When dealing with large quantities in liquid form, transport is undertaken
by special tankers or through gas pipe-lines.
Biofuel is mostly used in minor plants, up to 10.000 apartments,
700.000 m2. Biofuel is not considered to have negative effects on the
Pipe-lines are often used for transportation of gas. environment, as the carbon dioxide, released by the combustion, is used
Fig.2:4 when the corresponding amount of biofuel is building up.

The resistant ashes are to be brought back to the specific site from where
the fuel has been collected. Purification of the gas fumes is required.
When using biofuel, it is essential from an economic as well as environ-
mental point of view, that the combustion plant is located close to the
area from where the fuel is collected. The biofuel is transported by lorry.
Waste heat or surplus heat from an industrial process, e.g. cooling water
with a high temperature can be used in the district heating network.
Classic examples of such processes are the manufacturing of glass and the
refining of oil.
3. Exhaust emission control

In earlier years chimneys were built higher when the dust quantities were
a nuisance, but experience has shown that this method only shifted the
problem further away from the chimney. Nowadays the exhaust gases are,
as a rule, mostly purified as for as sulphur, nitrogen oxide and particulates.
Particles are separated with the help of cyclones, mechanical filters or
electro-filters.
Sulphur is separated by adding lime, with plaster as the end product.
There are several methods and they are developing all the time. The
separation degree is as high as 95%.
Nitrogen oxide is separated by injecting ammonia. A separation level of
90% can be reached.
Dilution air
Ammonia
Catalytic
reactor
Air pre-
heater
Boiler Primary air Electro-filter SOx reactor Fabric filter
Principle for purifying the exhaust gases.

Fig. 2:5

4. Water quality
The water quality is of great importance and effects the whole system’s
requirements for maintenance and durability.
When installing boilers, complete with equipment, welding and laying of
pre-insulated pipes, and also when installing heat exchangers in the sub-
station, a lot of strange impurities end up in the district heating system.
They can be anything from welding sparks and iron oxides to sand and
gravel. If these impurities remain in the system during operation, they
will damage valves, pumps and other components, and also some block
parts and form layers reducing the heat transfer. To prevent this, all parts
of the system must be carefully flushed before filling it with water, and
strainers installed upstreams of sensitive equipment, such as regulating
valves and flow meters.
Leakage threatens the operation safety, and that is why all welded joints
are X-ray tested.
The temperature, and pressures in the systems are so high that pipes and
components are classified as pressure vessels. After the pressure test of
the plant has been made, it still remains to protect it against corrosion.
Corrosion may occur on the inside or on the outside. External corrosion
can be avoided by securing a dry environment. To prevent internal cor-
rosion, a water quality that does not cause corrosion is required.
Oxygen causes corrosion and ordinary water contains oxygen. Water,
with a temperature of 10 ºC, may contain 11,25 mg oxygen per kg at a
pressure of 0,1 Mpa (1 bar).
Once the water has been heated to 100 ºC, it cannot contain any oxygen.
Each mg oxygen supplied to a district heating system uses about three
times as much iron. Consequently, the water is pretreated by, for instance,
heating it to about 100 ºC before using it in the system.
Standard values applied in Europe for the
water quality in district heating and large Water contains other “pollutants“ which may cause problems in heating
heating systems, are stated below: systems, for example lime, sludge, chloride and sulphate.
Circulating water Water for re-filling When calcareous water is heated in the boiler or in the heat exchanger,
Conductivity <10 µS/cm <10 µS/cm calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or limestone is formed on the heat transfer-
PH-value 9,5 – 10 9,5 – 10 ring surfaces. A layer of 1 mm thickness increases the heat consumption
Hardness 0,1 tHº <0,5 by 10%, a layer of 2 mm thickness increases the heat consumption by
Appearance clear and clear and 18% and a layer of 10 mm increases the heat consumption by 50%.
mud free mud free The problem with limestone is solved by using a wet filter, which
O2 0,0 mg/l 0,02 mgl exchanges the lime and the magnesium salts in the water for sodium
salt.

There may be sludge or mud in the water used for re-filling, but mud can
also be formed in a chemical reaction between the water and the compo-
nents being part of the system. The result could be calcium carbonate,
iron and copper oxides, copper sulphides (providing the water pipes are
made of copper) and calcium phosphate. The sludge sinks and ends up
in places where the water speed is low, for example at the bottom of radi-
ators. Pitting (corrosion), which may rapidly lead to leakage, especially in
radiators of sheet metal, is easily formed under these situations.
A mechanical filter is used to remove mud from the water.
Thermal Feed water

deaeration Return line
Heating
Ion reduction Heat exchanger

Dosage Particle
Water treatment. of chemicals filter
Fig 2:6
Large contents of chloride and sulphate in the water result in high con-
ductivity, which may lead to corrosion. These salts are removed through
reverse osmosis.
The water that is used for re-filling, after the first filling, is treated in the
same way before re-filling. There is no leakage in modern pre-insulated
piping systems. The re-filling of water is to compensate for the water that
has been let out as a result of coupling up of new parts of pre-insulated
pipes or sub-stations. Various chemicals are added to the systems in order
to reduce the risk of corrosion, and checks are made regularily in order to
ensure the quality of the water.

Different temperatures in different units in district heating.

Fig 2:7
5. Flow and return temperatures
The flow temperatures in a district heating system vary a great deal, from
under 100 ºC up to 160-170 ºC. The flow temperatures have one thing
in common, a large temperature drop, and that also applies to pure heat
production. A large temperature drop leads to a reduced flow which
means smaller pipe dimensions and smaller pumps. The operating costs
are lower for the smaller pumps, and the losses from the smaller pipes are
also less.
Heating plants are often built with the boilers, including all the required
equipment, as a system which transfers heat to the distribution network
through a heat exchanger and an accumulator. This is also the only solu-
tion regarding combined power and heating plants, as the boilers are pro-
ducing steam for the steam turbines.
The purpose of the accumulator is to store heat in order to level off the
peaks of the consumption, which also generates more permanent condi-
tions and higher efficiency for the combustion plant.
Consequently, there are usually three temperature levels in a district
heating system with connected sub-heating systems. At each heat
exchanger the temperature drops a few degrees.
Temperatures below 100 ºC are working at a normal air pressure, while
temperatures above 100 ºC require overpressure to avoid boiling and for-
mation of steam. At temperatures above 100 ºC, the systems are classi-
fied as pressure vessels, which put greater demands upon material as well
as the quality of the workmanship.

As the district heating systems are also responsible for the production of Flow temperature ºC
domestic hot water, they have to be in operation throughout the year. A 120
common way to deal with this is to have the flow temperature at a con-
110
stant level during the summer months, 60-70 ºC, which is enough for
producing hot water. When the local heating system requires a higher 100
temperature, in order to keep desired room temperature, the primary 90
flow temperature is raised up to the maximum value, according to the 80
outdoor temperature. 70
The outgoing temperature on domestic water is to be kept as low as pos- 60
-20 -10 0 10 20
sible, preferably below 65 ºC. Higher temperatures cause scalding or skin
Outdoor temperature ºC
burns.
Primary flow temperature when producing
The legionella bacteria, a malicious bacteria that may cause Legionairés domestic hot water.
Disease, sets a lower limit to the temperature on the domestic hot water, Fig 2:8
55-60 ºC.
Larger systems of domestic water are equipped with circulation so that
hot water is available without any uneccesary delay. In these systems,
with the help of an automatic control, there is the facilit to run higher
temperatures at regular intervals through the system in order to prevent
the germ growth.
Primary return temperatures of 60 ºC or lower, are desirable whether it is
a matter of pure heat production or combined power and heat produc-
tion. In the first case there is an exhaust gas condenser; economizer,
which requires low return temperatures to perform well, and in the
second case the condensate has to be cooled down to improve the power
production. A large temperature drop also reduces the amount of water
circulating in the system, and it also reduces the operation costs for the
circulation pump.
Air vent
6. Expansion systems Overflow pipe
The purpose of the expansion system is to manage the volume change of
the system water at varying temperatures and to sustain the static pres-
Expansion
sure level of the system.

volume
Expansion systems can be designed in two ways:

• open or
• closed Expansion tank
Open systems are in direct contact with the environment, while closed Expansion pipe
systems are not. Open expansion system.
Fig 2:9

In precious years, most of the systems were open, but gradually there has
Expansion tank been a change-over to select closed systems. The closed systems can be
Required
more easily adapted to changes in the district heating network. Large
water level differences in the elevation within the networks have made it more
By-pass for difficult to work with open systems, as they require sufficient head of
circulation Reversible
pump water above the production unit.
Boiler or heat 7. Open expansion system

exchanger Normally an open expansion system consists of a tank of the necessary
Expansion
volume
volume with the tank placed higher up than all the other parts of the
system.
Open expansion system.
Fig 2:10 There are also other cases, where the tank is positioned in the boiler
house and a pump fills up or taps off the system as required. The static
pressure is sustained because a pipe has been installed to the necessary
Pressurised gas
level.
Diaphragm Open expansion tanks are mostly situated in cold spaces and have to be
protected against freezing, which is done by insulation or by supplying
System water
heat. A circulation pipe is installed from the boiler up to the expansion
Expansion pipe
tank, and thus the required amount of heat is supplied.
8. Closed expansion system

Closed expansion vessels consist of a tank, in which the required pressure
Closed expansion system. is sustained by air or by nitrogen. Nitrogen is preferable as it eliminates
Fig 2:11 corrosion. A compressor maintains the pressure at the right level.
In smaller systems a diaphragm may be used, dividing the expansion tank
into two parts. The heating system is connected to one side of the
Gas Expansion tank
diaphragm, and on the other side nitrogen is supplied with a suitable
Pressure gauge overpressure. When the system is filled, the gas will be compressed and
while heating, it will be even more compressed. When the water volume
Safety valves
changes, due to temperature fluctuating, the gas is adapting its volume.
Boiler or heat Saftey valves, which opens and lets out exessive pressure if there is any,
exchanger are required for closed expansion system. The safety valves are regularly
tested in order to guarantee this function.
Closed expansion system.

Fig 2:12

Distribution
The distribution part consists of circulation pumps and preinsulated
pipes.
1. Preinsulated pipes.
A preinsulated pipe consists of water-bearing pipes, insulation and a con-
struction preventing the ground water from getting in contact with insu-
lation and pipes.
2. Construction, material.
Heat culvert produced on site.
The water-bearing pipe is, as a rule, made of steel. For smaller dimen- Fig 2:13
sions, used when connecting to small units, detached houses and so on,
copper pipes or pipes made of heat resistant plastic are also used, for
example in direct connected systems with lower temperatures.
The greatest risk, as far as the preinsulated pipes are concerned, is exter-
nal corrotion since there is treated system water in the pipes.
In earlier years the whole heat culvert was built on site. A concrete struc-
ture, open upwards, was built in a well drained excavation. The steel
pipes, insulated after pressure test, were installed in the structure and
then a concrete cover was placed on top. Manholes were placed at regular
intervals. The big problem with this type of heat culvert is making the
concrete structure leakproof.
The heat culverts of today (preinsulated pipes) are manufactured in a
factory with water-bearing pipes of steel, insulation of expanded polyu-
rethane and waterproof pipes of polyethylene. The insulation is foamed
Steelpipes, insulation of expanded polyuret-
between the steelpipe and the polyethylene pipe. hane and waterproof pipes of polyethylene.
The steel pipes are jointed through welding, and the polyethylene pipes Fig 2:14
are equipped with divided muffs of plastic-coated plating, fastened with
bolts. The muffs are filled with polyurethane foam. Branchings are made
in the same way and there is no need for manholes.

3. Heat losses.
100 mm The heat losses from a heat culvert can be considerable if the pipes are
100 °C not well insulated. The pre-insulated pipes with polyurethane foam as
insulation show small losses particularly where there are several insula-
35
45
40
0
23,8 W/m
tion thicknesses.
m
28,4 W/m
10
m
0
°C
45
62,3 W
/m A pre-insulated pipe with a nominal diameter of 100 mm (DN), with an
65
W/
m insulation of 35 mm and a water temperature of 100 ºC emits 28,4 W/m
49
under given circumstances. The same pipe with a thicker insulation of 45
Heat losses from preinsulated pipes. mm, emits 23,8 W/m under the same circumstances. The corresponding
Fig 2:15 values for a pipe with the DN of 400 mm and an insulation thickness of
45 and 65 mm respectively is 62,3 and 49 W/m respectively. The same
pipe without insulation emits 168 and 203 W/m respectively.
The heat losses are as much as 30% in old heat culvert systems. In pre-
insulated pipes the losses are reduced to less than 3%.
4. Linear expansion due to variations in temperature.

The pre-insulated pipes are installed at a temperature way below the
normal operation temperature. The pre-insulated pipes are therefore
inclined to expand when they are in operation, 0,12 mm/m pipe and
10 ºC temperature rise from the installation temperature. The pre-insu-
lated pipes are working as one unit, i.e. the forces caused by the expan-
sion of the steel pipes are transferred through the insulation to the exter-
nal plastic pipe. The plastic pipe, in turn, is held in position by the fric-
Preinsulated pipes with no measure tion against the sand with which it is covered. A linear expansion does
taken for expansion. not occur, but the wall of the steel pipe picks up the expansion by getting
Fig 2:16 a bit thicker.
Installation and re-filling can be done in several way with regard to the
expansive forces, but the final result remains the same:
• no measures taken for expansion pick-up, pre-heating to half of the
temperature difference, thereafter re-filling
• no measures taken for expansion pick-up, thereafter re-filling
5. Design.
To design the pre-insulated pipes means an optimization of the pipe
costs and the operation cost for the circulation pump. A low water rate
gives large pipe dimensions and a low pressure increase across the pump,
a high water rate has the opposite effect.
There should be turbulent flow.

6. Flow.
The adjustment of the heat supply, applied with two-way valves, results
in a varying flow in the pre-insulated piping, which in turn results in a
varying flow resistance. The resistance varies by the square of the flow
change. If the flow is halved, Q = 0,5, the resistance is reduced to a
quarter, 0,52 = 0,25.
m3/h l/s
10 3
7 2
1
5
1,0
3 2 0,7
2 0,5
3
0,3
1,0
0,2
0,7
0,5 0,1
0,3 ,07
0,2 ,05
,03
0,1
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mvp
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar
Reducing the flow 5 m3/h, 1 , to 2,5 m3 /h will reduce the resistance from
60 kPa to 15 kPa, 2 . 0,52 x 60 = 15 kPa.
A reduction to 25%, 3 , gives the new resistance 0,252 x 60 = 3,75 kPa
Fig 2:17

7. Pumps.
Centrifugal pumps are used in the district heating systems. They are run
by electric motors and the sealing around the shaft into the pump
housing is a mechanical sealing, which prevents leakage.
8. Pressure control.
The heat supplier signs a contract to supply a certain amount of heat. To
be able to fulfil this contract, a lowest available pressure of 100-150 kPa
is required at each sub-station.
The available pressure at the sub-station situated farthest away is kept
constant with a pressure control, which controls the rotation speed of the
pump via a pump control, a frequency converter.
The available pressure is, in spite of the pump control, different at full
Pump for district heating. flow, depending on where the sub-station is connected in the system. The
Fig 2:18
closer to the production unit the higher available pressure. At minimum
flow the differences in available pressure are small between the first and
the last connected station. The control valves must be sized for this low
pressure, and therefore, they are too large at full flow in the system, which
may cause problems with a poor control, a high return temperature and
a pendulum effect throughout the whole system.
∆ppump
∆psystem ∆pmin
100
300
Flow %
50
200
150 0
100
Min ∆p = 150 kPa
Pressure control, with the sensor at the end of the system, guarantees a minimum available pressure in the
system. There will still be big differences in available pressure at different flow.
Fig 2:19

Consumption.
The consumption part consists of heat exchangers for heat and domestic
water, with relevant control equipment and heat meters. The coil unit in a jacket and coil heat exchanger.
Fig 2:20
1. Heat exchangers.
There are two kinds of heat exchangers:
• coil units
• plate heat exchangers
Coil units consist of flat or profiled copper pipes, wound to a compact
unit and is surrounded by a jacket through which the primary medium
flows. The secondary medium is connected to the copper pipes.
The plate heat exchanger consists of profiled plates, which are placed
against each other so that a space is formed, in which the water is able to
flow. Every second space contains primary water and every second one
contains secondary water.
Plate heat exchanger.
The heat exchangers are externally insulated. Fig 2:21
The pollutants in the primary and secondary water are deposited in
layers in the heat exchangers, due to the rather large temperature diffe-
rences on the surfaces. Even a very thin layer reduces the heat transfer
considerably. Pure water and a high water rate neutralizes the deposit.
Plate heat exchanger.

Fig 2:22

2. Connection design
There are many different ways for connecting the various systems to
buildings. In principle there are three types:
Primary circuit
• direct connection
• one heat exchanger and with a secondary division to the various
systems
• a separate heat exchanger for each part of the system
Secondary circuit
From a safety point of view, direct connection is used only when the flow
Direct connection.
Fig 2:23 temperature to the radiators is well below 100 ºC.
One heat exchanger for all the systems in the building provides great
flexibility and excellent possibilities for low return temperatures. Shunt
groups with circulation pumps are then installed for radiator-, floor
heating- and ventilating circuits. The domestic water is heated in a sepa-
rate heat exchanger
When using a separate heat exchanger for each system part, the exchang-
ers can be connected in parallel or the domestic hot water can be heated
in two stages. At first the domestic water is heated by the return water
from the radiator circuit, and if that is not sufficient, a re-heating takes
place by supplying the re-heater with primary system water.
One heat exchanger with two separated circuits.

Fig 2:24
Indirect parallel connection. Indirect semi-parallel connection.

Fig 2:25 Fig 2:26

3. Electronic temperature controls.

In heating systems, the secondary flow temperature is controlled accor-
ding to the outdoor temperature via an electronic control station com-
plete with a sensor a weather compensator. As a rule the control valve is
placed on the primary side. The temperature on outgoing domestic hot
water is controlled in the same way. The weather compensator has a
special control function for this purpose.
The control stations and other electronic temperature controls are often
connected to a computer so that monitoring and adjustments may be
made from a central location.
4. Self-acting controls.
Self-acting controls have a sensor filled with a substance which changes
its volume as the temperature changes. The volume change is transmit-
ted through a capillary tube to an adjusting device placed on a control
valve. The adjusting device contains a bellows, and when the bellows Self-acting control.
changes in volume - expands or contracts - this motion is transferred to Fig 2:27
the cone in the valve. Self-acting controls can only keep the set tempe-
rature constant, and they are therefore not suitable for the control of the
variable flow temperature to a radiator system. They are, however, well
suited to keep the flow temperature of the domestic hot water or the ven-
tilating air at a constant level.
Self-acting regulator controlling domestic

hot water temperature.
Fig 2:28
Shut-off valve Control unit
Pump
∆p-control Sensor
Primary
∆p-valve
pump Shunt pipe
Self-acting regulator controlling air temperature in a ventilation unit.

Fig 2:29

5. Control valves
The valve capacity is stated as a kvs –value, fully open valve.
The kv –value states the actual flow, Q, in m3/h at a pressure drop across
the valve, ∆pv, at 1 bar (100 kPa).
Two-way valves are always used in district heating system to prevent
more water than necessary from circulating. This means that the flow
and the available pressure will vary considerably under varying operating
conditions. The variations become more significant the closer the sub-
station is to the circulation pump, even if the pump is pressure control-
led.
Cut away of a two way valve. The valve must be sized for the lowest available pressure existing, 100-
Fig 2:30 150 kPa, minus the resistance across the heat exchanger. If there is too
great a difference between the lowest and the highest available pressure,
the valve could start to hunt. The valve is too big when the available pres-
sure is higher than the one for which it has been sized.
m3 /h Lowest available ∆p in sub-station Valves kvs - value l/s

6,3 3
3
10
2
2
7 4,0
5 2,5 1 1,0
3 1,6 0,7
2 0,5
1,0
1,0 ,63 0,3
0,7 0,2
,4
0,5
0,1
0,3
,07
7
0,2 ,05
4
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 400 600 1000 kPa
2
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 30 40 60 100 mWG

∆pv
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 3 4 56 10 Bar
Flow chart for sizing control valves.

Fig 2:31

6. Differential pressure control

A differential pressure controller senses the differential pressure between
two points in a piping system and can, via two impulse tubes, keep a con-
∆p controlled
differential
stant differential pressure by activating a diaphragm and a cone in the
Necessary
Available
Controlled
pressure
valve housing. circuit
circuit
∆p
If a differential pressure valve is placed in the flow direction after the
control valve, with one impulse tube connected before and one after the
control valve, the differential pressure across the control valve will be
constant, independent of the volume of the flow. Variations in the avai- Built-in impulse
lable pressure, that may occur, will not influence the control valve, even Impulse tube
tube
if they are substantial.
A differential pressure controller can serve several control valves, but only ∆p control and controlled circuits.
one of the valves can then reach optimum conditions. Fig 2:32
Fig 2:33 Controlled circuits
Available differential Differential pressure

pressure. across controlled circuit.
4
3
2
1
0
4
3
2
1
0
A differential pressure control can reduce the
available pressure to an acceptable level
or equalize big variations in available pressure.
Fig 2:34

7. Flow limitation
When a house owner buys heat, he is also contracting for a maximum
effect. The heat supplier too wants to make sure that the client cannot
consume more. This limitation of the flow is important to the supplier,
bearing in mind that he has to be able to deliver to all his clients at the
same time.
Q
Flow control
∆p control
Flow limiter. ΣQ
Fig 2:35 Q Q
Fig 2:38
A constant differential pressure across a fixed resistance causes a limited

flow. This can be obtained in several ways. A constant differential pres-
sure is obtained by a differential pressure control valve, and a fixed resis-
tance, which could be a throttle orifice, an adjustment valve or a fully
open control valve. A differential pressure control valve with a built-in
setting device is also a solution.
If the resistance is fixed - pressure adjusting orifice or fully open control
valve – the limitation is done by adjusting the differential pressure. When
the resistance as well as the adjustment valve and the differential pressure
can be adjusted, the limitation can be done with the help of both the
Flow limiter and differential pressure control. adjustment valve and the differential pressure control. At a fixed diffe-
Fig 2:36 rential pressure, (a combined differential pressure controller and an
adjustment valve), the limitation must be done with the adjustment
valve.
60 80 Max flow
40 100 nce
sista
Constant ∆p
Re
20 120
0 140
Flow limitation Flow limitation is

Differential pressure control and fully to a sub-station simple when you have
open control valve. a constant ∆p
Fig 2:37 Fig 2:39

8. Energy metering.
The energy supplied to a building is measured by metering the flow and
by registering the temperature difference across the heat exchanger.
The flow meters can be mechanical or electronic, working with ultra-
sound. Flow and temperature drop readings are accumulated in a comp-
uterized unit where the consumption can be read straight away or by
using a small computer. The information can also be transmitted through
a cable or a modem to a central unit.
Tests have to be made on how to read the consumption in smaller units,
in each apartment of a larger building for instance, but this is difficult
because heat is transferred between the apartments. (An apartment,
located in the centre of the building, with the heat completely turned off,
only recieves about 2 ºC lower room temperature than the surrounding Ultrasonic flowmeter.
apartments.) Fig 2:40
In order to keep down the costs for the metering equipment, flow meters
are used for the distribution of the total consumption between the diffe-
rent apartments, provided that all the apartments have access to water,
holding the same temperature.


CHAPTER 3 • SECONDARY SYSTEMS USED IN EUROPE
Secondary systems used

in Europe.
Preface
Secondary systems are the parts of the heating systems with a lower
pressure and temperature level, installed in buildings. A lower pressure
and a lower temperature can be obtained with a shunt connection and a
differential pressure control, (direct connected systems). The most com-
monly used system is, however, the connection through a heat exchanger,
completely separating the two systems from each other, (indirect con-
nected systems).
The secondary systems consist of three parts:
• production, boiler or heat exchanger
• distribution
• consumption
When speaking of district heating, the production unit is in fact only a
transformation from one temperature- and pressure level to another, but
regarding function, it is a production unit.

Comfort
18 The purpose of the heating system is to create environmental conditions
in the building, comfortable for people to live in.
Generally an air temperature of 20-23 ºC is considered acceptable, but
15 17 20 there are also other factors influencing the comfort:
• the temperature of surrounding surfaces
• air movements, convection
40
• activity level
17
• clothing
Heat radiates to surfaces with lower temperatures.
Fig. 3:1 The heat transfers which we can influence, towards and from a person in
a room, are from radiation, convection and/or conduction. A minor share
comes from breathing.
Air velocity m/s Heat transfer by radiation has the biggest influence. We are receiving
40%
0,5 heat from surfaces with a higher temperature than our skin, and we are
30 emitting heat to surfaces with a lower temperature. The greater diffe-
0,4
20 rence the larger the heat transfer.
0,3
15 Air with a lower temperature that flows over a surface removes heat from
0,2 the surface. The higher velocity of the air-flow the more heat is removed.
10
0,1 5 The greater the temperature difference the larger the heat flow.
0
0 Heat conduction requires direct contact, for instance when you are sitting
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 on a cold chair, but it is normally short-lived as the chair is quickly
Percent of unsatisfied persons as result of air tempe- warmed up by your body heat.
rature and air velocity. The result of the factors mentioned above and the temperature of the
Fig. 3:2
room air at a given point in a room, can be calculated. It is thus possible
to determine in advance if a heating system will provide an acceptable
comfort in a given room. Surface temperatures close to 20 ºC on all sur-
faces in a room and air-flow velocities lower than 20 cm/s provides very
good comfort.
Our activity level is also of great importance for how we are experiencing
comfort. The temperature can be kept several degrees lower in a sports
centre than in a living room.
We adapt to present conditions with our clothing.
Different people react differently at the same tem-

perature depending on age, activity, clothing etc.
Fig. 3:3

Heat requirements.
The heat requirements in a building consist of:
Actual value
• transmission requirements
• ventilation Drying period
• domestic water Calculated value
Transmission requirements. Required heat

When designing a house, we can influence the transmission require-
There are big differences between calculated and
ments, heat loss through walls, floors, roofs, windows and doors, based required heat.
on differences between the outdoor and the indoor temperature. Fig. 3:4
In northern Europe, with long and cold winters, the standard requires
20-30 cm of high-quality insulation in the external walls and sealed triple
glazing in the window units. Transmission requirements of 20 W/m2
floor area are normal.
The calculations made to determine the transmisison requirements are
based on data containing large safety margins. The real requirements
therefore are far below the theoretically calculated ones. This is very
obvious when you look at the flow temperature required and the tempe-
rature difference obtained when the heating plant is taken into operation.
During the first year, the heat requirements will be about 30% more due
to the drying out of the dampness of the building. Here therefore, part
of the surplus will be needed.
400 mm mineral wool
Outdoor temperature
-200C - -300C
Indoor temperature
+200C
200 mm mineral wool
Standard insulation thicknesses in northern Europe.

Fig. 3:5

Ventilation.
The purpose of ventilation is to remove pollutants (water vapour, odour,
+2
dust etc.). The air removed from a building must be replaced by cold
outdoor air, heated to room temperature. Ventilation also requires heat
and the colder the outdoor temperature, the more heat is required. In
order to lower the heat consumption, the buildings are constructed as
+ +18 tightly sealed as possible in cold areas, and the ventilation is carried out
-18
so that the lowest air change is maintained, 0,5 change per hour. The
+20 °C
warm air which is exhausted from a building contains much heat. Diffe-
rent devices are used to recover this heat, for example heat pumps and
heat exchangers. It has turned out that a too few air change and too
tightly sealed houses are causing problems with damp, condensation and
Ventilation system mould.
Fig. 3:6
Wind influence.
The wind has a great influence on the air changes and thus the heat con-
-12 oC +22 oC
sumption, in very tightly sealed houses. In many parts of Europe the
5 +o C
+22 oC
wind is blowing more and stronger in the temperature range around 0 ºC
than at other temperatures when heat is required. Even moderate wind
VVX o
-12 C
velocities of 10 m/s can double or treble the air changes, depending on
oC
+8 how tightly sealed the house is built. As regards the heating system, the
flow temperature must be raised considerably in order to keep the room
+5 oC +8 oC
temperature at the desired level.
Systems for recovering heat
Fig. 3:7
Wind has a big influence on the air change in houses

Fig. 3:8

Incidental heat gain from heat sources other than the heating system.
The irregular incidental heat gain from, people, the sun, cooking and
electrical appliances is so great that ,it will cause over temperatures if no
measures are taken. This is to much so that it is definitely profitable to
equip, for example radiators with thermostatic valves in order to adjust
the heat supply to present requirements. Furthermore the comfort level will
increase owing to the more even temperature from the thermostatic
valves.
New buildings Old buildings

kWh/m2 year kWh/m2 year
Heating and ventilation 40 - 80 100 - 200*

Hot water 20 - 30 20 - 30
Common electricity 5 - 10 5
Electricity in dwelling 20 - 40 20 - 40
Energy consumption in dwellings.

* The lower values are for single houses and the higher for
There are lot of heat soarces multi-story buildings.
in an apartment.
Fig. 3:9
Domestic hot water.

It was evident early on that it was not enough to just supply heat to the
radiators. When in addition hot water could be offered to each apart-
ment, the leakage was reduced and corrosion damage ceased in the
heating system.
The consumption of domestic hot water forms a rather substantial part
of the total heat requirements in a building, and that part becomes more
substantial the better the house is insulated. After the discovery of the
legionella bacteria and legionairés Desease, the control of domestic hot
water temperature has become important. Stationary hot potable water
should hold a temperature of at least 60 ºC.
The pipes for domestic hot water are made of copper or of heat resistant
plastic, for example PEX. The domestic water system in large buildings
is equipped with a circulation pipe and a circulation pump so that domes-
tic hot water always is available at all taps, without long delay s in deli-
very.

Production.
The production unit is the part of the system in which energy is trans-
formed into heat (separate houses), or in which heat is transferred to the
system (buildings connected to district heating)
There exist a lot of heat sources, for example:
• oil
• gas
• coal
• biodynamic fuels, wood, straw etc.
• solar heat
• heat pumps
• district heating
The three first-mentioned are the prevailing sources, while biodynamic
fuels and heat pumps are continually increasing. Solar heat is marginal.
From now on we are going to deal only with systems connected
to district heating, in which the four first mentioned heat sources are
prevailing.
1. Control
The control is to guarantee that the required heat volume is available in
the building and that the return temperature does not become too high.

2. Control valves
Only two-way valves are used on the primary side, and this generally
applies to the secondary side as well. Three-way valves may be used if
they are connected in a way that the flow towards the exchanger varies.
Control valves are sized according to the current flow and to the avail-
able pressure, independent of the pipe dimension in question.
115 °C 115 85
85 65 60
115 °C 85
65 60
Use two-way valves in district heating systems. In secondary systems use three-way
valves only when there is no pump in the circuit from the heat exchanger.
Fig 3:10
3. Temperature controller
The flow temperature to the radiators is controlled by a temperature con-
troller according to the outdoor temperature. There is also a control pos-
sibility in the return temperature of the domestic hot water in most of the
weather compensators.
Should the domestic hot water be produced in a secondary connected
water heater, the control of the temperature coming from the main heat
exchanger will be made at the secondary connected water heater, at least
when domestic hot water is produced.
Self-acting controls.
There are also self-acting controls for the control of the domestic water
temperature.
Weather compensator controlling flow and return

temperature according to outdoor temperature and
domestic hot water temperature and return tempe-
rature.
Fig 3:11

4. Periodic set back of the flow temperature

∆t room Setting back the flow temperature during the night is to a great extent
0 applied in order to reduce the heat consumption through a lowering of
τb100
,5 the room temperature. This despite the fact that it has been proved that
τb50
1 on the whole there is no actual saving. Much longer set back periods are
τb25 required than the normal 8 hours, minimum 3-4 days. After a tempera-
1,5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ture set back period, a great available effect is required in the production
Hours
unit of the heating plant to raise the temperature to a normal level again.
Night set back does not pay. In a system with thermostatic valves, a reduced room temperature means
Time constant, τb,100 = good apartment building.
Fig. 3:12
that the heat authority disappears, the thermostatic valves open
completely and the hydraulic balance disappears. To prevent this, the
flow to each heater, radiator, is roughly pre-set so that a fair hydraulic
balance is maintained even during these circumstances.
5. Expansion systems
Secondary systems, directly connected to a district heating network, do
not need to be equipped with their own expansion system, if there is one
in the network.
Other secondary systems are equipped with expansion systems. The con-
ditions are the same as for the primary circuit.
6. Closed systems
Closed systems are for practical reasons the most commonly used.
The pump is mounted in the flow pipe, and the static pressure has to
Closed expansion system correspond to the height of the pipe system.
Fig. 3:13
7. Open systems
Open systems are less and less used even in smaller systems. The reason
for this is problems with corrosion at the connection to the expansion
tank, and to some extent the risk of freezing.

8. High-rise buildings
The heating system is divided vertically in high-rise buildings in order to
prevent the static pressure from becoming higher than the maximum
working pressure of any of the components, usually of the radiators. Note
that this is working pressure, not test pressure.
In order to avoid the exposure of heat exchangers, expansion tanks,
pumps, control valves etc. to high static pressures, a sub-station is placed
on ground level for, let us say, the first 15 floors.
The sub-station for the floors 16-30 is placed on the 16th floor.
In high-rise buildings the heating system will

be separated into high and low systems
depending on the actual work load for the
used components.
Fig. 3:14

Distribution
The distribution unit consists of circulation pumps, horizontal distribu-
tion pipes and risers.
1. Definitions
Horizontal distribution pipes distribute the water from the sub-station
to other buildings and/or risers. Distribution pipes can be pre-insulated
pipes or steel pipes lying in a passage in the cellar of the building.
The risers are vertical distribution pipes, distributing the water to the
Shut-off and differential pressure radiators on each floor.
valves.
A radiator circuit consists of pipes distributing the water from the riser
Drain valve
to each radiator. The radiator circuit can be made for one or two-pipe
systems.
Horizontal distribution pipe from ceiling in passage
and branchings with valves.
Fig. 3:15
Centrally
placed
riser
Visibly
placed Radiator
riser circuit
Horizontal dis-
tribution pipes
Cut away of a building Cut away of a building with duct
Fig. 3:15

2. Pipe material
Standard steel pipes are used for larger pipe dimensions, joined together
through welding.
The connection to bigger valves and devices are made with flanges.
Smaller pipes are of threaded steel pipes with its dimensions adapted to
standardized pipe threads.
Soft pipes delivered in coils of steel, copper or heat resisting plastic with
a diffusion barrier, are used for the connection between riser and radia-
tors. The joint is made with compression fittings of various types.
3. Piping
The distribution pipes can be laid as pre-insulated pipes, in the ground
or under a building, or be hung from the ceiling in the cellar of the
building.
Soft pipes of steel, copper or plastic are, of smaller
The risers are placed centrally, in shafts in the building, or at an outer dimensions, used in heating systems.
wall, exposed or in shafts. Fig. 3:17
Soft pipes are laid insulated on the load-bearing system of joists and are
covered with a layer of concrete.
Insulated pipes which will be embedded in concrete.

Fig. 3:18

4. Compensation for the linear expansion due to temperature

variations
The linear expansion for steel pipes is about 0,12 mm/m pipe at 10 ºC
temperature change. Measures should be taken when it is a question of
long exposed piping of steel or copper pipes.
The linear expansion is absorbed in special compensators, for example
Fixing point Fixing point bellows which can expand or contract. An easier way would be to make
an expansion loop on the pipeline or to move the pipeline sideways to
obtain an expansion loop. It is important that the pipes can move
towards the expansion unit, and that the branches are not blocked.
The pipes must be fastened so that they will not touch walls or other
parts of the building, otherwise, any pipe movement may cause
disturbing noises.
Expansion loop
5. Insulation
All the pipes including those within a building are insulated to make the
heat losses to the consumers radiators as small as possible. The radiators
are to emit heat and the emitted heat volume is controlled by the ther-
Fixing point
mostatic valves.
Expansion of pipes can easily be picked up by 6. Flow

intelligent mounting of the pipes.
Fig. 3:19 The flow in the distribution unit is going to vary in systems with ther-
mostatic valves, in spite of the fact that the flow temperature is adjusted
to the outdoor temperature. The reason for this is that the conditions
vary from room to room in the building and the flow temperature must
be adjusted to be able to hold the room temperature in the room which
doesn´t receive any incidental heat. Less heat is required in rooms with
incidental heat gain from various sources. In those cases the radiator
thermostats reduce the heat transfer, i.e. the flow.
Incidental heat gain comes from people, the sun, cooking and electrical
appliances and it is very unevenly spread throughout the building.
Furthermore, the thermal mass in the building has to be considered.
Insulated pipe.
Fig. 3:20

7. Pumps
The pumps on the secondary side are of two kinds:
• pumps with a dry motor
• pumps with a wet motor
In a pump with a dry motor, the motor and pump housing situated some
distance from each other. The shaft connecting the motor and impeller
is visible, and there is a sealing joint where the shaft enters the pump
housing. The sealings, mechanical flat sealings, are nowadays very safe
and tight, requiring practically no maintenance.
In a pump with a wet motor, the pump housing and motor are built
together as one unit. The rotor of the motor is located in the system
Pumps with dry motors.
water, and a thin wall made of non metallic material separates the stator Fig. 3:21
from the system water.
8. Pump control
The varying flow in the secondary system makes it beneficial to control
the pump according to its pressure and varying flows.
The control can be made in accordance to several principles of function:
• constant pressure at the pump
• constant pressure at the last valve at the end of the system
• proportional pressure Pump with wet motor
• pressure control parallel to the pipe resistance Fig. 3:22
Constant pressure means that the pressure is not increasing when the % ∆p, P
flow is decreasing. 100
Proportional pressure means that the pressure decreases at decreasing
flow along a straight line which, at the flow 0, is equal to half of the
pressure at calculated flow.
Q
Pressure control parallel to the pipe resistance means that the pump
pressure follows in accordance with the graph for the pipe resistance at 50
2
decreasing flow, but only down to half of the calculated pressure. ∆pn=∆Q x∆p0
The differential pressure controls can be integrated in to the wet pumps,

and it is the pressure increase across the pump that is controlled. 3
Pn=∆Q 0xP0
Frequency converters and separate pressure sensors can be used for all
sizes of pumps. 0
0 50 100%
The resistance varies by the square and the effect

for the pump by the cubic of the flow change
Fig. 3:23

Consumption
The units emitting heat to the rooms are the heat consumers. They may
be called heaters from the aspect of the rooms.
The most commonly used type of heaters are the radiators of pressed and
welded steel. There are also radiators of cast iron, but they are seldom
used, and finally there are convectors and convection radiators in
different models.
Floor heating based on heat resistant plastic pipes has been used to a
great extent during the past twenty years.
1. Radiator and convector systems

The connection of heaters can be made according to two principles:
• one-pipe systems
• two-pipe systems
60°C 52 °C 47°C
60 52 47
40
One-pipe system with temperature drop.
Fig. 3:25
The one-pipe systems can for instance comprise one apartment. The
heaters are equipped with special valves in which the distribution of the
flow between heater and heating coil takes place. According to the
requirement the flow to the heater is controlled with a thermostatic
valve. The flow in the circuit is always constant and the circuit must be
Unit with thermostatic valve for connecting radiator thoroughly insulated to prevent heat from being supplied to the room
to a one-pipe system. when there is no need. Soft copper pipes are the most commonly used
Fig. 3:24 pipe material, but soft thin-walled steel pipes and pipes of heat resisting
plastic with a diffusion barrier are also being used. As a rule the pipes are
fixed directly onto the insulation and embedded in concrete. The
requirements for controlled reduced heat consumption have resulted in a

reduced use of one-pipe systems, from about 15% five years ago to about
12% today.
60 60
40 40
Two-pipe system with temperature drop.

Fig. 3:26
Two-pipe systems offer greater flexibility and more options regarding Unit with thermostatic valve for connecting radiator
to a two-pipe system.
piping layout and efficient control of the room temperature. The heaters Fig.3:27
are equipped with special valves for the connection to flow and return
with a thermostatic valve in the flow. From a centrally placed riser, the
pipes can be laid parallel with T-branchings to each radiator or as a
Tichelmann-coil (very seldom used in Europe), in order to provide the
same available pressure for each heater.
The piping can also be made with a separate flow and return pipe to each
heater. The riser can be laid exposed on a wall with visible connecting
pipes to a heater on each side of the riser, but this solution can cause
disturbing noises between the floors.
Tichelmann-coil.
Fig. 3:28
Risers on the outside walls. Separate flow and return pipe to each radiator.
Fig. 3:30 Fig. 3:29

2. Pressure distribution
Two-pipe systems cause different available pressures in various units of
the system. The risers and the distribution pipes to which horizontal
one-pipe systems are connected are also two-pipe systems and each one-
pipe circuit has its own available pressure.
One-pipe systems have a constant flow, and a distribution of pressure and
flow can therefore be made with manually adjustable valves, and a
Required pressure hydraulic balance can be obtained.
Excessive pressure In two-pipe systems, with a control of the temperature in each room, the
flow will vary and thereby also the available pressure, which in turn
Pressure distribution in a two-pipe radiator circuit.
Fig. 3:31 means that a pre-set adjustment will only function at full flow. At a
decreasing flow the resistance reduces by the square of the flow change
across the adjustment, and the exceeding differential pressure must be
handled by the thermostatic valve or by the floor heating valve. Imbalance
and disturbing noises may arise. Thermostatic valves should not have a
higher differential pressure than 25 kPa.
Excessive ∆p for the radiators
∆p for pipes
Available ∆p ∆p for risers
Excessive ∆p for risers Required ∆p for horizontal pipes
Required ∆p for risers
Pressure distribution in a two-pipe system.

Fig. 3:32

3. Differential pressure controls

In order to accommedate varying flows and pressures in a heating
system, there are automatic adjusting valves differential pressure controls.
Via impulse tubes they sense the pressure in the flow and return of the
riser, and possible pressure changes are transferred via a diaphragm to
a cone in the valve housing, and thus the differential pressure remains
constant.
Thermostatic valves connected to a riser with differential pressure control
will be exposed to virtually insignificant changes of the differential pressure,
and above all they will never be exposed to a higher differential pressure
than the one set on the differential pressure control. Differential pressure control.
Fig. 3:33
Thermostatic valves are generally used in most

installations.
Fig. 3:34
Differential pressure control on every riser.
Fig. 3:35

troom0C Recommended Closed valve 4. Control of the room temperature

22 0
In order to reduce the heat consumption, but nevertheless offer comfort,
21 1 there are requirements or recommendations in most countries to use
thermostatic valves on radiators and convectors as well as the corresponding
p-band 0C
20 2
control equipment for floor heating.
19 3
Thermostatic valves have to be mounted on each heater to give a good
18 4 result. They are to have a heat authority larger than 1,0, which means
that they are to have at least that heat amount available at the valve which
75 80 85 90 is required to keep the temperature set on the thermostat. The thermo-
tflow0C static valves must also be able to sense the present room temperature.
The thermostat is working within the
recommended area.
Fig. 3:36 5. Correct flow temperature
It is important that the room control has the right pre-conditions in
troom0C Recommended Closed valve order to work with a control of the temperature in each room:
22 0
• available pressure should be equal to or higher than required
21 1
• available heat amount should be equal to or larger than required
p-band 0C
20 2
The mounting of differential pressure controls at the bottom of each riser
19 Correct 3 and a control, if necessary an adjustment, of the available pressure at the
flow tem- riser located farthest away can manage the first item.
18 perature 4
The available heat volume is adjusted by the flow temperature. If the flow
75 80 85 90 temperature is raised, more heat is emitted from the heater, the room
tflow0C temperature increases a little, the thermostat reduces the flow and there
The flow temperature is important for the will be a larger temperature difference and a larger amount of heat is
functioning of the thermostat
Fig. 3:37 available. The room control should have heat authority.
A higher flow temperature reduces the p-band for a thermostatic valve.
troom0C Recommended Closed valve The p-band is the temperature increase by the sensor, required to make
22 0 the thermostatic valve pass from a nominal position to a closed valve.
21 1 Thermostatic valves are tested at 2ºC p-band, but in practice the p-band
is less than 1ºC and the thermostatic valve therefore reacts efficiently
p-band 0C
20 2
even to small temperature changes in the room.
19 3 At a too low flow temperature, the heater does not emit sufficient
18 4 amount of heat. In these cases the thermostat opens the valve completely
and the whole system gets unbalanced, unless a rough pre setting of the
75 80 85 90 flow has been made.
tflow0C
No heat authority Good heat authority
Good heat authority gives a small p-band and good

use of the incidential heat gain.
Fig. 3:38

6. Floor heating systems

Floor heating provides a very high comfort level. The whole floor area is
warm and all the surrounding surfaces will obtain radiant heat which
increases their temperature.
Modern floor heating systems are based upon light pipes of plastic,
which can be manufactured and handled in substantial lengths. The most
common pipe material is cross linked polyethylene, PEX, with an exter-
nal diffusional barrier, which on the whole eliminates any penetration of
oxygen through the pipe wall.
HD PEX
The coils emanate from centrally placed distributors. They can be laid
Glue
according to three different methods:
Oxygen barrage
• single laying, which is the easiest way of laying
PEX-pipes for floor heating.
• double laying Fig. 3:39
• helical laying
The coils are cast into concrete, and there must always be an insulation
under the coils in order to reduce the heat emission downwards. Each
room should have its own coil to make it possible to control the heat
supply to the room.
Floor heating emits, at a room temperature of 20ºC, about 11 W/m2
floor area and per ºC temperature difference between the floor surface
and the room air. The temperature of the floor surface should not exceed
27ºC if you are going to stay on the floor for a long time. The required
Single Double Helical laying
flow temperature is low, often not more than 40ºC, and the temperature
drop across the coils is calculated to be between 5 and 10ºC. Different kinds of laying.
Fig. 3:40
Pipes Pipes
Concrete Concrete
Insulation
Insulation
Concrete
Floor heating in different floor constructions.

Fig. 3:41

Transformer 7. Control
Actuator
The control of the room temperature is made with an electric thermostat,
opening and closing a control valve via a thermo-hydraulic motor. The
electric thermostat contains an electric resistance, which is activated
Manifold
when the thermostat opens the control valve. The resistance emits heat
in the thermostat, which after a while, believes that the room tempera-
ture has increased and closes the control valve. This type of on-off
Room thermostat
control has proved to be very efficient in the use with floor heating. The
type of circuit layout chosen is of little or no significance.
Room temperature will be controlled for every room.
Fig. 3:42 8. Ventilation
In the colder parts of Europe, mechanical exhaust air systems (a fan
Ventilation unit
constant temperature
exhausting air out of the building), is the most common in dwellings. In

the southern parts, natural ventilation is applied. Offices and industrial
Constant buildings have other requirements, and in these buildings both supply
Variable flow
flow
and exhaust air are mechanized. The supply air volumes in these systems
Control valve are also considerably larger and require a pre-heating of the supply air to
∆p-control.
obtain an acceptable comfort.
Shunt for ventilation unit with ∆p-control. The supply air is treated in special units before being distributed to the
Fig 3:43 different rooms through a ducted system. Special inlet terminal devices
are used to diffuse the supply air into the rooms without creating draught
Ventilation unit
or noise.
constant temperature
The supply air devices consist of a filter unit for cleaning the air. There-
Constant
flow after the air is heated to a little below the room air temperature and then
Variable flow
it passes the exhaust fan of the unit. Beside these functions, the devices
Control valve
can be used to cool or humidify the air.
The control of the temperature of the supply air is made by a shunt
∆p-control. Sensor circuit, containing a control valve and a circulation pump. The control
valve supplies the required heat and a control station with a sensor in the
Shunt for ventilation unit with ∆p-control and self-
acting control valves supply air duct ensures that the correct temperature is obtained. The
Fig. 3:44 control can also be made by self-acting controls.
Air has a low heat capacity. You can change its temperature rapidly, and
Air damper
that is why the control must be stable. Oscillations in the control systems
Filter are devastating. The distance between battery and shunt circuit should be
Heat exchanger the shortest possible. A change of the temperature in the air supply duct
Heater must result in a changed temperature of the radiator as quickly as possible.
For the same reasons, differential pressure controls are mounted to keep
Fan a constant pressure across the control valves.
The flow in the battery circuit should be constant, which can be accom-
Principle for supply air unit. plished by adjustment of a valve or with a pressure controlled circulation
Fig. 3:45 pump.

CHAPTER 4 • EVALUATION OF SYSTEMS AND PRODUCTS
Evaluation of systems
and products.
The evaluation is based on experiences from systems used in Europe and
the systems currently used in China.The results are described in the
chapters ”Design instructions” as proposals for ready systems. However,
a rapid development continues within all fields and new evaluations
ought to be made at regular, not too long, intervals
Combined heating and power plant Local central boiler plant Sub-station
Fig. 4:1
District heating
District heating means that the combustion, the central boiler plant,
including all the required transports, are located at one site, serving a
large area. This location should be chosen so that the disturbances of the
residents is kept at a minimum, as regards noise, pollutants and trans-
ports. District heating systems can be designed for direct or indirect con-
nection. Direct connection is cheaper in the construction process of the Direct connection.
system, but in the long run, the whole system becomes more sensitive. A Fig. 4:2
leakage in an installation can even empty the pre-insulated pipes and the
central boiler plant of water. The static pressure for the central boiler
plant also prevails in the radiators of the apartments.Indirect connection
means that the installations of the building form a system completely
separated from the pre-insulated piping network by a heat exchanger. In
the same way, the pre-insulated piping network is separated from the
boiler by a heat exchanger. Each part of the system can therefore work at
its own temperature and its own static pressure.
Recommendation: District heating with indirect connection should be
used. Indirect connection.
Fig. 4:3

Central boiler plant

Efficient operation of a central boiler plant requires automatic control
and supervision. On the whole, the cost of the automatic controls are the
same regardless of the size of the central boiler plant. Automatic control
does not become profitable until the produced effect exceeds 50 MW.
The efficiency of new boilers of this size is about 88 – 90%. The
production of electricity by steam turbines becomes profitable if it is
combined with district heating in so-called combined heating and power
plants. The boiler effect in the combined heating and power plant should
be at least 200 MW. About 40% of the production is electricity and 60%
heat. A combined heating and power plant should be in operation all year
round. During the winter months, the combined heating and power
plant delivers heat to the local district heating networks and uses the
return water for cooling the condensate from the steam turbine. Cooling
towers are used for condensing of the steam in cases when the district
heating network is not sufficient for cooling. During the summer, the
heat can also be used to run cooling cycles. The efficiency of combined
heating and power plant is about 90 – 92%.
Recommendation: Local central boiler plants should be larger than 50
MW, and they should eventually be connected to a combined heating
and power plant of at least 200 MW. Local central boiler plants consi-
dered to have a long remaining life, should be equipped with flue gas
cooling in order to improve their efficiency.
Local central boiler plants connected to a combined heating and power plant.
Fig. 4:4

Fuel.
With modern techniques, it does not matter what sort of fuel you are
using since the exhaust gases can always be purified. But a fuel containing
less pollutants also emits less pollutants and therefore requires less
purification of the flue gases. Coal is a domestic fuel and will therefore
be used for the a foreseeable future. The local heating plants should be
using as pure coal as possible even before renovation or rebuilding. After
rebuilding of boilers with a fluidized bed, coal of the best quality should
still be used. Coal of a lower quality can be used in the combined district
heating and power plants, which have been provided with large scale
purification equipment. The quality of the coal should be improved as
much as possible before delivery. A reduction of the ash content can be
made by washing the coal. This in turn has a great influence on combus-
tion, efficiency and discharges.
Recommendations: All the coal for local heating plants should be of a
high quality with low content of sulphur and ash.
Open coal mine.

Fig. 4:5

Combustion.
Presently, the most efficient method for combustion of coal is the fluidized
bed. Combustion can occur at atmospheric pressure or at overpressure.
Coal, ground to pieces 6 mm or smaller, is mixed with water or air and
then sprayed into the fire, where a glowing and whirling mass is formed,
emitting heat to the tubes of the boiler. The temperature in the fire is
kept at a constant and relatively low level, about 850 – 870ºC by
controlling the supplied fuel amount and the percolation through the
tubes. The low combustion temperature results in a decrease of the
discharges of SOx to about 400 mg/nm3, about 75% purification. The
discharges of NOx are less than 500 mg/nm3.
Recommendations: Small central boiler plants, up to about 40 MW,
should be removed, and the pre-insulated pipes should be connected to a
larger local district heating network. The boilers in local heating plants
requiring a thorough renovation, should instead be replaced by modern
boilers with a fluidized bed or gas boilers. New plants are only built with
these modern boilers. Smallest size 50 MW.
Coal
Air and lime Coal
Air and lime
Atmospheric Circulating Pressurised

Fluidized Fluidized Fluidized
Bed Bed Bed
Combustion Combustion Combustion
System for fluidized bed combustion.

Fig. 4:6

Exhaust emission control.

The combined heating and power plants which are in operation all year
round, should be provided with equipment for thorough purification of
the exhaust gases, above all SOx and NOx and particles, but also heavy
metals. Equipment for sulphur purification normally removes more than
90 % and when it comes to nitrogen oxides, the discharges are lower than
200 mg/nm3. The local heating plants must concentrate on better coal Boiler
qualities in order to reduce the discharges and also on bag filters to
collect the particles. Discharges lower than 5 mg/nm3 are common. Bag filter
When the local heating plants are connected to a combined heating and
power plant, the operation time will be considerably reduced and hope-
fully to under 20%. Under these circumstances the total discharges
during one year may be accepted at the present. The local heating plants
are thereafter equipped with boilers with a fluidized bed and only used
when the production capacity of the combined heating and power plant
is not sufficient.
Recommendations: All boilers in local heating plants should, as soon as
possible, be equipped with filters to remove the particles from the flue A simple but effective purification of the exhaust
gases, and exhaust gas coolers to increase the efficiency as well as to gases can be done by using bag filters.
reduce the discharges of SOx. Fig. 4:7

Temperatures.
The flow temperature of the water, through which heat exchangers trans-
fer heat to the local pre-insulated piping network, should be 130ºC, and
the return temperature about 70ºC. These temperatures are chosen so
that existing systems can be operated under these circumstances.
Recommendations: The flow temperature of the boiler circuit should be
130ºC and the return temperature 70ºC.
130 0C
Static pressure.
The constant pressure of the boiler circuit is determined by the present
steam pressure and the highest point of the boiler circuit. The steam pres-
sure must be available also at the highest point in the system. At 130ºC,
at maximum boiler temperature, the steam pressure is 200 kPa (2 bar)
and to that must be added the height of the system converted into kPa.
Recommendations: The static pressure should not be higher than that
which is technically justified.
Boiler
0 30
20 0
130 °C
400
100
15 m
0 0 0
kPa 5
Static pressure for boiler.

Fig.4:9

Expansion systems.
An open expansion system requires that the tank be placed with its lower
edge 20 meters over the highest point of the boiler circuit. Such a
placement is difficult to accomplish without having to take expensive Boiler
20 m
measures. In any case, there will be difficulties in accomplishing service
and maintenance. A closed expansion system can be placed at any level 130 °C
within the central boiler plant. The only disadvantage is the required
15 m
supervision and control of the safety valves, and that there is qualified
personnel in the central boiler plant, capable of handling the safety kPa
valves.
Recommendations: Closed expansion systems should be used where A closed expansion system is most preferable.
technically qualified personnel are available for supervision and Fig. 4:10
maintenance.

Distribution Consumption
Distribution-Consumption.
Safety valve 1. Accumulator.

Expansion volume
The main purpose of the accumulator is to even out differences between
the heat delivered from the boilers and the consumption in the buildings.
The heat requirement in a building can vary rapidly when, for instance,
Primary Secondary the sun shines on a whole wall face, or lights are turned on in the whole
side side building at nightfall. When the local systems are connected, the accu-
mulator can be used to manage a short period with a larger heat require-
ment, without having to start up another boiler. When the combined
Accumulator heating and power plant is in operation, the accumulator may allow the
Expansion volume in the accumulator. plant to manage the variations during a twenty-four hour period without
Fig. 4:11 the assistance of other boilers. An accumulator is a large tank of water
and it must be made for the working pressure of the system. By
increasing the volume of the accumulator with the expansion volume
required by the system plus 20% for the gas, the accumulator also
functions as a closed expansion tank.
Recommendations: An accumulator should be part of every local
district heating network, which eventually should be connected to a
combined heating and power plant or to other local district heating
networks. The accumulator is charged via heat exchangers from the local
boiler and from the combined heating and power plant. The accumulator
is also used as an expansion system.

2. Temperature.
The flow and return temperatures in the local district heating network
Safety valve Expansion volume
should be at 120ºC and 65ºC respectively. The temperatures are based
upon current values for existing systems. The flow temperature can be
adjusted according to the outdoor temperature, down to about 70ºC
when producing domestic hot water, otherwise down to 30 – 40ºC,
which leads to reduced losses from the pre-insulated pipes.
120-70 °C
Recommendations: Flow temperature of 120ºC, return temperature of
65ºC. The flow temperature should be adjusted according to the outdoor Accumulator
temperature, but all the sub-stations must have access to at least the Temperatures for the primary system.
required heat amount. Fig. 4:12
3. Static pressure.
The temperature of 120ºC requires a steam pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar)
in the highest located part of the system. The static pressure makes the
level difference, converted into kPa, from the pressure gauge to the
highest point plus the steam pressure 100 kPa. The same problem applies
with the placing of an open expansion tank as for the local boiler. The
accumulator functions well as a closed expansion tank.
Recommendations: The static pressure should not be higher than that
which is technically justified. A closed expansion tank should be used. An elevated sub-station influences the
static pressure.
Fig. 4:13
4. Pre-insulated pipes.
For systems with working temperatures over 100ºC, there are today only
pre-insulated pipes available, consisting of steel pipe, polyurethane foam
and a mantle of HD polyethylene.The systems are highly developed and
there are pipes in all required dimensions. Laying and mounting is safe
and relatively straightforward. The heat losses in the pre-insulated piping
network should be as small as possible.
Recommendations: Pre-insulated pipes should be used. Check all the
welding with X-rays, they are pressure vessels. All the systems should be
pressure tested with a pressure of 1,3 times the maximum working pres- Pre-insulated pipe.
sure. A leakage alarm should be installed. Fig. 4:14

5. Flow.
The type of flow in the pre-insulated piping network, varying or
constant, is determined by the way the joint is made where the heat
exchangers are connected. A well functioning district heating system
implies low return temperatures, which can only be obtained with a
varying flow. A two-way valve, increasing or decreasing the flow through
the heat exchanger according to needs, provides a low return temperature
and varying flow.
Control valves.
There are two and three-way seat valves. The seat valves have a cone
working towards a seat. The cone is shaped differently depending on the
field of application. We usually speak of the characteristics of the cone,
which describes the ratio between the lift height of the cone and the flow
change which is the result thereof. In order to obtain a satisfactory func-
Two and three-way valves. tioning in a radiator system, it is a good thing if a certain change of the
Fig. 4:15 lift height of the cone in the primary control valve results in the corres-
ponding change of the heat emission from the radiators. For this purpose
a cone with a logarithmic characteristic is required. Other characteristics
are linear ones, for instance in thermostatic valves, and also exponential
ones.
s% Valve authority.
100 The valve authority or the pressure authority of the valve states the valves
share of the resistance in the circuit where it is placed, 30% for three-way
valves and 50% or more for two-way valves. These values are only appli-
cable to the sizing circuit. With regard to other valves the available dif-
ferential pressure has to be calculated, and the valve should preferably use
1 2 3 the whole pressure available to the valve.
50
0
0 50 100
Linear 1 , quadratical 2 , and logarithmic 3 ,
characteristics for valves. The lift range for the cone,
s, shown in %.
Fig. 4:16

Two-way valves.
A two-way valve has one inlet and one outlet, and the cone and the seat
are placed in between, making it possible to control the flow through the
valve.
Connection.
The design of the connection determines its function.
The simplest connection design is when a pump is feeding water to the
valve which increases or decreases the flow as required. When the water
has passed the consumer unit, a heat exchanger for example, it returns to
the pump. The flow in the circuit will vary. Two circuits are obtained if a More or less flow in the primary circuit controls the
shunt is placed after the control valve, between flow and return, and after temperature in the secondary circuit.
that a circulation pump. The circuit before the shunt will give a varying Fig. 4:17
flow, when the control valve is adjusting the flow as required, and the
circuit after the shunt will have a constant flow with varying temperatures.
Whether the control valve is placed in the flow or in the return pipe is of
no significance as far as control is concerned, but if the shunt is placed
high up in the system, the best situation is to have the valve in the return
pipe, which will reduce the risk of air entering the consumer units. A
shunt for a ventilation device should be placed as close to the radiator as
possible to avoid temperature oscillations. A two-way valve may be used
to provide a constant flow in the supply circuit, but in that case a shunt
is required before the control valve, in which the resistance is as large as
the resistance through the control valve in nominal position. (Since
three-way valves already have an automatic shunt in the control valve, Shunt for control of the temperature in secondary
they would be the natural choice). circuit.
Fig. 4:18
The above shunts with three or two-way valves with no pump in the main circuit
give the same result. A pre-setting valve in the by-pass is required when using two-
way valve. The resistance in the by-pass should be equal to that of the two-way
valve.
Fig. 4:19

Differential pressure control.

∆p In systems with varying flows, large variations arise in the available
9 differential pressure, which means that the control valves, sized for the
8 lowest available differential pressure, are forced to work with a many
7 times larger pressure. At these high pressures the valves become too large
1 and this could easily result in oscillations which, except for unnecessary
6
3
wear, causes higher return temperatures and affects the other valves in
5
the system. The differential pressure controls keep a constant pressure at
4
varying flows.
3
2 Construction.
1 2
A differential pressure control consists of:
0 • valve body
0 5 10 • control unit
The figure above illustrates the pump head at
various flows. The area 2 represents the necessary The valve body contains a cone and a seat.
pump head for the circuit apart from the valve. The control unit consists of a diaphragm, a setting unit with a spring
Area 3 represents the differential pressure the valve pack and a connection for impulse tubes on each side of the diaphragm,
has to handle.
Fig. 4:20 and also the impulse tubes. An impulse tube can be built into the valve
body.
Fucntion.
The differential pressure control can be mounted before or after the part
of the system over which it is to control, the controlled circuit. One
impulse tube is connected before the controlled circuit and on the posi-
tive side of the diaphragm. The other one is connected after the control-
led circuit and on the negative side of the diaphragm. Differential pres-
sure controls with a built-in impulse tube are made to be mounted either
before or after the controlled circuit.
Setting handle
Connection for the

+ impulse tube
Impulse tube
Diaphragm house
Valve
This combination provides the control
valve with the same available pressure
Differential pressure control. when the flow fluctuates.
Fig. 4:21 Fig. 4:22

Flow limitation.
In large systems, there may be requirements for limiting the flow to the
connected units, so that none of them can take any flow away from the
others.
Principle.
The principle is: The flow is limited by keeping a constant differential
pressure over a resistance.
Solutions.
The differential pressure is kept constant with a differential pressure Flow control
control. The resistance can be a throttle orifice, a fully open control valve
or an adjusting valve. There are also complete flow controllers, in which
a differential pressure valve and an adjusting valve are built together as
one unit.
Constant ∆p
Max flow
ce
sistan
Re
Constant ∆p
∆p control
Flow control can be arranged with a flow controller
with built in resistance or with a ∆p controller and
the fully open control valve as resistance.
Resistance
Fig. 4:24
Limitation of flow requires constant ∆p and some kind of resistance.
Fig. 4:23
Recommendations: The flow in the pre-insulated piping network

should be varying. Two-way valves should be used for controlling the
heat supply to the heat exchangers. Differential pressure controls should
be mounted at the control valves and they should also be used for the
maximum limitation of the flow, along with the control valve.

6. Heat exchangers.
Modern district heating systems, with requirements of low return
temperatures, work well together with heat exchangers with a small
water content.
There are in principle two kinds of heat exchangers:
• plate heat exchangers
• coil units
Both types provide a comparatively small resistance in spite of a high
water rate. High water rate is good, because it leaves less depositions in
the exchanger.
Recommendations: Plate heat exchangers or coil units should be used.
Plate heat exchanger Coil heat exchanger
Heat exchangers.
Fig. 4:25

7. Pump.
Circulation pumps used in district heating systems give a larger pressure
increase at lower flows. At the same time, the requirement for pressure is
less as the resistance decreases by the square of the flow change. The high
differential pressure causes problems at the control valves in the form of
noise, poor control and hunting, but it also involves unnecessary electric
consumption for operation of the pumps. While the resistance alters by
the square of the flow change, the electric consumption alters by the cube
of the flow change. Consequently here is money to be saved.
∆ppump
∆psystem ∆pmin
∆p
100
300
Flow %
50
200
150 0
100
Min ∆p = 150kPa
Pressure control, with the sensor at the end of the system, guarantees a minimum available pressure in the system.
There will still be big differences in available pressure at different flows.
Fig. 4:26

Principles for pressure control.

There are several principles for controlling the differential pressure pro-
vided by a pump:
• constant differential pressure at the last consumer
• constant differential pressure at the pump
• proportional differential pressure
• parallel to the resistance in the pipe system
A constant differential pressure at the last consumer guarantees that all
the sub-stations have the required pressure, which gives a lower differen-
tial pressure by decreasing consumption, and at the flow of almost zero,
the low differential pressure is predominant throughout the whole
system. The available differential pressure for valves is determined at a
minimum flow. Valves close to the pump will at a maximum flow, have a
Frequency converter.
Fig. 4:27 considerably higher differential pressure than that they are sized for.
Principles for the control of electric motors.

There is one type of control for the electric motors in question:
• a frequency converter
A frequency converter converts the alternating current into direct
current and then into alternating current for the moment required
frequency. Frequency converters are used together with standard
induction motors and are available in sizes from 1,1 – 200 kW shaft
effect. The efficiency is high, about 96%, and installation and use are
simple.
Recommendations: Pumps on the primary side should be equipped
with frequency converters for pressure control. The pumps should be
placed in the flow pipe to ensure the water level in sub-stations located
Even with a pressure controlled pump the available high up. The lowest available pressure at the last consumer should be
pressure will fluctuate so a differential pressure kept constant. The control valves should be sized for this lowest pressure.
control is required. The problems with large variations remain, though somewhat smaller,
Fig. 4:28 considering the available differential pressure at the control valves.
Differential pressure control is always a requirement for reliable, safe
function.

8. Metering.
Heat meters are used in district heating networks to distribute the costs
according to consumption, which is an efficient way of lowering the heat
consumption.
Metering can be made centrally for the whole building, and then the
costs are distributed according to apartment area.
Heat meter
Heat meter
Heat meter
Heat meters register consumption and heat losses from the pipe network.
Fig. 4:29
Principles.
Heat meters for district heating consist of:
• flow meter
• temperature sensor
• counter
Counter
Flow meter
Temperature sensor
Heat meter.
Fig. 4:30

There are several kinds of flow meters:

• impeller indicator
Counter • ultrasonic meters
00135
The impeller indicators are the oldest ones, and they consist of an impel-
ler set in motion by the water flow. At small flows, the impeller indica-
tors have great margins for error, and they are sensitive to larger flows
than those which they have been sized for. The impeller, its shaft and its
Turbine wheel bearings are exposed to hard wear by impurities in the water. Regular
services are therefore required. Servicing every second year is standard for
Housing a district heating network.
Ultrasonic meters have no moving parts, and they work with a sound
signal, transmitted to a receiver from where it is transmitted back. The
Mechanical flow meter, principle.
Fig. 4:31 difference in frequency between the two signals is a measure of the flow
rate, which multiplied by the pipe area gives the flow. The ultrasonic meters
are insensible to impurities and have a large accuracy of metering within
the whole metering range, which is considerably larger than the one for
Transmitter, receiver the corresponding impeller indicator.
Temperature sensors should be placed in the flow and in the return to
meter the temperature drop across the plant.
In the counter, in this case a computer, the temperature drop is multi-
plied by the flow, and the result is the consumed heat amount. The
consumption can be read from the meter, via a modem or a cable, laid in
Reflector
connection with the pre-insulated pipes.
Reflector
Recommendations: Metering of the outgoing heat amount from the
Ultrasound flow meter, principle. central boiler plant, as well as of the heat deliveries to the various
Fig. 4:32 buildings, is to be made in order to check the efficiency of the production
and distribution. This metering makes it possible to study the effect of
different measures taken, but it also gives a signal if something is wrong.
For this purpose, ultrasonic meters are presently the only alternative.

Heating systems.
Heating systems is the comprehensive term for all the installations for
the heating in a building i.e. the production, the distribution and the
consumption unit.
One or two-pipe systems.

The great difference between one and two-pipe systems is the flow
temperature to the radiators connected to the circuits respectively, and
consequently the resulting return temperature. In the one-pipe systems,
the flow temperature becomes lower for each connected radiator, and in
the two-pipe systems, the flow temperature is the same for all the
radiators, irrespective of the heat losses from the pipes between them.
The temperature drop across a one-pipe coil, 20 - 25ºC, is the same as
the one across each radiator in a two-pipe system, but at an incidental
heat gain, the thermostatic valves are closing, and the return temperature
then decreases in a two-pipe system, while it increases in one-pipe
systems. The flow is constant in one-pipe systems and varying in two-
pipe systems. The differential pressure controlling of the pump in two-
pipe systems may cut the operation costs for the pump between 70 to
80%. You cannot make that kind of saving in a one-pipe system.
Q=n% Q=P/∆t
Q=100%
Q=100-n% ∆t 250C
The flow is the same to all radiators in a one-pipe circuit. In two-

pipe systems the flow will be determined from required heat and
temperature drop across the radiator
Fig. 4:33

1. One-pipe systems.
The gradually lower flow temperature in one-pipe systems is compensa-
ted by the increase of the radiator surface. The surface increases the lower
the flow temperature becomes. If the flow temperature decreases below
the required value, i.e the available heat amount is too small, it becomes
impossible to compensate by an increased flow.
The heat emission from the pipes in a one-pipe circuit cannot be con-
trolled, and the emission can be substantial especially from uninsulated
pipes. If one or several thermostatic valves have closed the flow to respec-
tive radiators, the flow in the circuit continues with a higher temperature
and the heat emission from the pipes increases. The gravity forces,
especially in high-rise buildings, increase the circulation in the circuit
considerably. The flow in the one-pipe systems is constant and has to be
adjusted for each circuit.
W/m pipe Pipe size
80/89 65/76
400
25
ca 3 m
ca 1,5 m
50/60
300
40
ca 0,6 m
32
25 200 25
There are roughly 6 meters of uninsulated pipes

in each room 20
15
Room temperature: 20 0C
Flow temperature: 90 0C 10
100 1
Vertical pipe DN 25
Heat losses : 105 W/m x 0,8 = 84 x 3 = 252 W
Horizontal pipe DN 25
Heat losses : 105 x 3 = 315 W
Sum: 567 W 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Fig. 4:34 Temperature above room temperature 0C

Heat losses from uninsulated horizontal pipe.
For vertical pipe reduce by 20 %
One pipe above another reduce by 12 %
Three pipes above each other reduce by 20 %
Fig. 4:35

Existing one-pipe systems.

Existing one-pipe systems usually have problems with the distribution of
heat between various one-pipe circuits and between the separate rooms.
The distribution between one-pipe circuts.

The distribution between the one-pipe circuits can be adjusted with
adjusting valves, providing the available differential pressure is constant.
In high-rise buildings, the gravity forces will cause a varying available
1,5 m
pressure, depending on the current flow temperature, and then an auto-
3m
matic flow control is required on each one-pipe circuit in order to distri-
bute the flow properly.
54 m
Heat emission from radiators.
The heat supply to a radiator is controlled by the flow temperature, the
temperature drop and the flow amount.
The heat emission from a radiator is controlled by the difference in tem-
perature between the radiator surface and the air temperature of the
room.
If we increase the flow through a radiator from zero, at a constant flow
70 °C
95 °C
temperature, the heat emission will increase considerably up to a certain

temperature drop across the radiator. A further increase of the flow will
above this level give a very small increase of the heat emission. Vertical one-pipe system.
Fig. 4:36
Φ Heat emission Φ Heat emission tflow 90 0C

Φ0 Tflow 90 0C Φ0
∆ t °C 40 30 25 20 16 13
∆t °C 40 30 25 20 16 13 12 10 8 6 5 1
1 12
4
10
8
,5 6
,5 5
4
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 50 100
Q% Q%
Heat emission from radiator with 900C flow temperature at 30% to radiator. Heat emission from radiator with 900C flow
Small temperature drop means that the flow must be reduced with some temperature at 10% to radiator. Small changes
70-80% before there will be a significant change in heat emission from the in flow will have a larger influence on the heat
radiator. emission from the radiator.
Fig. 4:37 Fig. 4:38

The reason for this is that when the surface temperature of the radiator
is almost the same across the whole surface, the heat emission cannot
become any larger. It is the difference in temperature between the surface
of the radiator and the room air which determines the heat emission. The
heat emission will not change if the difference in temperature isn’t
altered.
A small flow through a radiator provides a large temperature drop. A
A by-pass is required when using thermostatic large flow results in the opposite. It is first at a temperature drop of 15-
two-way valves.
Fig 20ºC that a flow change really affects the heat emission.
The temperature drop has to be relatively large, more than 15ºC if you
want to be able to control the heat emission from the radiators in a one-
RTD-G 15, 20 and 25 pipe system.
l/h l/s
1000 ,3
700 ,2 Flow distribution to the radiators
500
300
1 ,1 A flow distribution to the radiators requires a by-pass pipe through
,07
200 25 20 ,05 where the remaining flow can pass.
2 15 ,03
100 It is the difference in resistance between the radiators that determines the
70 ,02
50 flow distribution. A large flow through a radiator requires a large
,01 resistance in the by-pass. In cases where the radiators and the by-pass
30
0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 2 3 kPa
pipes are serially connected in a one-pipe system, the resistance in all the
0,01 ,02 ,03 ,05 ,07 ,1 ,2 ,3 mWG
,001 ,002 ,004,006 0,01 ,02 ,03 Bar
radiators and by-pass pipes are added to the resistance in the one-pipe
A comparison of the resistance in the by-pass and circuit. The available differential pressure is the same for both radiator
the radiator circuit at 30 and 10% flow respectively circuit as well as by-pass, so the difference in resistance across the circuits
through the radiator circuit shows that the 10% respectively is determined by the ratio between the two different flows.
flow is preferable. This means that the resistance in the by-pass pipes should, at a 30% flow
The resistance through a thermostatic valve and a
radiator is only slightly larger than the resistance through the radiator circuit, be 0,3/0,7=0,45 of the resistance in the
through the valve only. A flow chart for thermostatic radiator circuit.
valves can therefor be used to illustrate the
difference in increased resistance at 30 and 10% At a 10% flow through the radiator, the resistance in the by-pass pipes
respectively through the radiator circuit. The resis- should be 0,11 of the resistance in the radiator circuit.
tance in the radiator circuit is at 30% three times
as large as the square of the change in flow, 32= 9. How does the temperature drop across the radiator affect the
Example: temperature drop across the circuit?
1 Q = 300, ∆p = 1,7 kPa. Ten equally large radia-
tors in a one-pipe circuit requires 10 x 1,7 = 17 kPa The temperature drop across the radiator does not affect the temperature
in Higher ∆p. drop across the circuit. The emitted heat amount however, affects the
2 Q = 100, ∆p = 0,19 Kpa ( 1,7/9 = 0,19 ). Ten temperature drop across the circuit.
equally large radiators in a one-pipe circuit only
requires 10 x 0,19 = 1,9 kPa in higher ∆p. If a thermostatic valve should reduce the flow through the radiator, to
reduce the heat emission, the result would be a larger temperature drop
across the radiator. But the water temperature in the circuit after the
radiator will have a somewhat higher temperature because less heat has
been taken from the water.

Two or three-way valves.

The heat emission from a radiator in a one-pipe circuit can be controlled by
influencing the flow through the radiator. The largest heat requirement,
at a design outdoor temperature, is adjusted with the flow temperature
and a full flow in the one-pipe circuit and the calculated distribution to
each radiator. The flow temperature is then adapted according to the
present outdoor temperature. A control valve on the radiator can only
decrease the heat supply from the level in question.
The two-way valve in a one-pipe system is to have a low resistance with
a size equal to the pipe having a resistance which provides a desired
distribution to the thermostatic valve and radiator in question.There are
specially made inserts which are pressed down into the by-pass providing
a suitable distribution for the valve sizes respectively. The heat emission
from the radiators is then determined by the flow temperature and there
is no reason for changing the distribution. Thermostatic three and two-way valves.
Fig. 4:41
Two-way valves are cheap, easy to install and do not require any special
settings to function.
A three-way valve in these systems requires an adjustment of the distri-
bution to the radiators, and there must be the same distribution to all the
radiators of the circuit in question. When the required adjustments have
been made, the functioning is the same for the three-way valve as for the
two-way valve with its by-pass pipe. Three-way valves are more expen-
sive, the adjustments are difficult to make in a proper way, and there is
always the possibility of changing these adjustments afterwards.
Recommendations: Install two-way high capacity thermostatic valves
on all the radiators, with the same dimension as the one of the circuit.
Install a by-pass pipe of the same size and equip the by-pass with a by-
pass insert which provides the required resistance corresponding to the
control valve in question. Equip all one-pipe circuits with flow limiters.

2. Two-pipe systems.
troom oC Closed valve
For two-pipe systems, nominal size is applicable as well as the same tem-
22 0 perature drop for all the radiators. The thermostatic valves are chosen
21 1 according to the current flow and the flow temperature determines how
large the p-band will be. The resistance across a two-pipe valve and a
20 2
p-band oC
radiator is normally so large, 5 kPa, that the gravity forces are insignifi-
cant.
19 3
An increased flow temperature in a two-pipe system means that the ther-
18 4 mostatic valves will decrease the flow through the radiators, and the
temperature drop becomes larger throughout the whole system. At the
75 80 85 90 same time, the p-band of the valves decreases, which makes the thermo-
tflow 0C
static valves more efficient. They are, in other words, saving more heat.
A higher tflow 86 instead of 820C, gives a reduction The thermostatic valves are maintaining the hydraulic balance in the
of the p-band from 1,5 to 0,40C. That means the
thermostat will use more of the incidental heat gain,
two-pipe systems as long as they have good heat authority. The available
it will be more effective. heat amount should be sufficient to keep at least the set temperature. If
Fig. 4:42 the flow temperature is decreasing during a twenty-four hour period or
more, so that the heat authority becomes less than 1,0, the room tempe-
rature will decrease after a while and the thermostatic valves open com-
troom oC Closed valve
pletely. An adjustment of the flow to each radiator is under these cir-
22 0
cumstances required to maintain the hydraulic balance.
21 1 Two-pipe systems are superior to one-pipe systems. Some advantages are:
Good heat authority
20 2 • the same nominal radiator size for all the radiators

No heat authority
p-band oC
• a better use of the incidental heat gain

19 3 • the p-band is set by the flow temperature
18 4 • the return temperature is set by the flow temperature
• a lower return temperature at incidental heat gain
• pre-setting of the flow to each radiator
75 80 90 85 • easier to adjust at changed operation conditions
tflow oC
• considerably lower operation costs for a pressure controlled circulation
Night set back of the tflow to any point under the
temperature for good heat authority, takes the pump
thermostat out of order.
Fig. 4:43

Vertical or horizontal systems.

Vertical radiator systems imply that the riser is laid at an outer wall, and
that one, maximum two radiators per floor are connected to the riser.
There are two important disadvantages with this system. For one thing,
there are many risers conducting noise between the apartments.
Secondly, when using one-pipe systems there are problems in how to
limit the number of radiators per one-pipe circuit. One as well as two-
pipe systems can be used. There are also difficulties insulating the risers
placed visually in the rooms.
Horizontal radiator systems imply that several apartments on the same
floor share a riser, how many depending on the planning. The riser can,
in this case, be laid centrally in the house and be insulated so that all
floors obtain the same flow temperature. The piping to the radiators is
installed horizontally on a wall or embedded in the floor and can be
installed separately for each apartment as well as for multiples.
When using two-pipe systems, there is the possibility of metering the
flow to the radiators in each apartment and also keeping the available
differential pressure constant on each floor. The disadvantage is the
laying of the pipes to the radiators. Horizontally laid pipes on a wall by
the floor or by the ceiling are neither pretty to look at nor hygienic, and
near the floor cause problems if doors are to be passed. The casting of
pipes into floors requires that the floor construction is made in two steps,
one bearing construction, upon which the pipes are laid and one screed
laid after having pressure tested the pipes. Noice is transferred adjoining apartments through
raiser.
Embedded pipes ought to be insulated and require such conditions that Fig. 4:44
they do not need to be exchanged until the building has served its time.
One- as well as two-pipe systems can be used.
Centrally placed risers and horizontal laying to the radiators are
advantageous, above all when constructing a new building, but this can
also be made in existing buildings. Some advantages are:
• a smaller number of risers
• no noise transfer between the apartments
• the possibility of flow metering per apartment
• differential pressure control for each floor
• small radiator circuits reducing the requirement of adjusting
Pipes embedded in floor.

Fig. 4:45

One-pipe system Circuits resistance: Gravity.

Fig. 4:46 ca 0,1 kPa/m, incl. The forces arising due to the differences in water density at various tem-
single resistance. peratures, gravity forces, become large in high-rise buildings and at high
54 × 2+ 18 × 3 = 162 m
162 × 0,1 = 16,2 kPa temperatures. There are also great variations due to the current flow tem-
Gravity forces:
perature, if the flow temperature is controlled according to the outdoor
density kg/m3 temperature.
95oC = 962,2 In an 18-storey building, the gravity forces are 8,3 kPa at 95ºC flow
70oC = 977,8
1,5 m
∆ρ = 15,6 kg/m3 temperature and at 25ºC temperature drop. At a heat requirement of
3m
∆p = 54 × 15,6 x 9,81 50%, the temperature drop is 12,5ºC and the flow temperature 55ºC,
= 8.264 Pa = 8,3 kPa. which gives gravity forces of 3,1 kPa (approximate values).
Total ∆p at 95 oC
54 m
= 16,2 + 8,3 = 24,5 kPa The pressure conditions in the systems are affected equally, whether it is
Flow at 95oC: a question of one or two-pipe systems, or vertical or horizontal ones.
The resistance varies by the Regarding the one-pipe systems with thermostatic valves, the flow will
square of the flow change.
∆Q2 × ∆p1 = ∆p2; increase in the one-pipe circuits. The thermostatic valves close a little to
∆Q2 × 16,2 = 24,5; preserve the set room temperature, but the flow in the circuit increases
24,5 ; and the return temperature becomes higher. The solution to this problem
∆Q =
16,2 is to install a flow limiter on each one-pipe circuit. Then the flow will
∆Q = 1,23; remain the same, independent of the variation of the gravity forces in
70 °C
95 °C
The flow will increase with flow temperature and temperature drop. Note that a stationary adjust-
23% ment does not work because of the varying available differential pressure.
Flow limiter
Two-pipe system
Two-pipe systems with thermostatic valves on all the radiators will also
Fig. 4:47 Circuit resistance: adapt themselves to the new pressure conditions so that the heat supply
2 × 54=111 m is preserved. The size of the flow will be the same, as well as the return
111 × 0,1 = 11,1 kPa temperature. You may have a problem with noise disturbance, if the total
Thermostatic valve incl available differential pressure at the thermostatic valves becomes too
radiators = 5 kPa
Total ∆p = 16,1 kPa
high, more than 25 kPa. Thermostatic valves for two-pipe systems can
manage a differential pressure of 80 kPa, as far as controlling is
Gravity forces: 8,3 kPa
Total ∆p at 95oC = 16,1 + concerned. The same conditions are guaranteed, independent of the size
8,3 = 24,4 kPa of the gravity forces, if differential pressure controls, with a stationary
value of 10 kPa, are installed at the bottom of the risers up to the 6th
The increase in flow will floor, or for the apartments of each floor.
be very small due to the
thermostatic valves. Recommendations: Centrally placed risers, differential pressure control
and horizontal two-pipe radiator circuits provide the best conditions to
obtain a well functioning system with good possibilities of metering and
reducing the heat consumption, as well as cutting operational costs for a
pressure controlled circulation pump. This solution can also manage large
∆p control on each riser gravity forces as well as other variations of the differential pressure.
will secure the same ∆p
even when the gravity
∆p control
forces are large.

3. Thermostatic or manual valve. Heat emission %

Radiator valves are intended to be used when controlling the heat
emission from radiators. There are in principle two types: 100
• manually controlled
• thermostatically controlled
Manually controlled valves are adjusted by hand when someone finds it
too hot or too cold. The flow temperature must be adapted to the 50
outdoor temperature at the building in question with great accuracy.
Incidental heat gains from heat sources other than the heating system
cause over-temperatures and over-consumption.
Manual valves have very steep characteristics, which make it difficult to
adjust to intermediate values. They are either closed or fully open. 0
0 50 100
Thermostatically controlled valves, thermostatic valves.
Lift range %
The thermostatic valve holds the set temperature, i.e. it detects the room Heat characteristics for radiator with manual valve.
temperature in question and adjusts the heat supply to the radiator Fig. 4:48
according to the current requirement. With the correct setting of the
system, (the flow temperature and the constant differential pressure) the
Heat emission %
thermostatic valve uses incidental gains from other heat sources and
100
overtemperatures are avoided.
A thermostatic valve consists of two parts:
• valve body
50
• control unit (a thermostat built-in to a construction mounted on the
valve body)
0
0 50 100
Lift range %
Heat characteristics for radiator with

thermostatic valve.
Fig. 4:50
Thermostatic valve
Fig. 4:49

Valve body.
There are several kinds of valve bodies, straight and elbow and also
different sizes. The sealing around the spindle affecting the cone, is
constructed as one unit making it, easy to exchange during operation.
Control unit.
There are several kinds of control units. The most common ones are:
• control unit with a built-in thermostat sensor
• control unit with a separate sensor, connected with a capillary tube
Principle for a thermostat.

Control unit with separate sensor. The principle for the thermostat is simple. A substance, liquid, wax or
Fig. 4:51 gas, is enclosed in a body, and when the substance changes its tempera-
ture, it also changes its volume. The body, often a bellows, then expands
or contracts, and this change in form is transferred to the valve cone so
that the flow to the radiator increases or decreases. Experience has shown
that a gas/liquid filled bellows gives the best result and the best safety of
operation.
Thermostatic valves are proportional controls, regulating the heat supply
in relation to the difference between the temperature set on the
thermostat and the temperature detected by the thermostat. If the
thermostat detects a much lower temperature than the one set on the
thermostat, the valve opens more than if the difference is smaller.
The thermostatic valves should be set at the desired room temperature,
and the flow temperature at the valve should be at least so high that the
set room temperature can be obtained.
Recommendations: Thermostatic valves with the right valve size, the
right control unit, with the possibility to set a maximum temperature and
the correct setting of the system (pressure, flow and flow temperature)
Control units with built in sensor, wax cartridge and provide an improved comfort and a reduced heat consumption. A well
gas/liqued filled bellows constructed system can save more than 20%, in one as well as two-pipe
Fig. 4:52 systems.

4. Weather compensation.
In a heating system with manually controlled valves, it is obvious that the
flow temperature must be adjusted according to the outdoor tempera-
ture, (the requirement) so that the approximate desired room tempera-
ture is obtained.
Function.
A weather compensator consists of:
• control unit
• control motor, control valve
• sensor for outdoor temperature Weather compensator.
Fig. 4:53
• sensor for flow temperature
• sensor for return temperature, optional
• timer, optional
The centrally placed control station adjusts the flow temperature

according to the outdoor temperature. A sensor placed outdoors on the
north side of the building detects the temperature and sends this infor-
mation to the control station. A curve can be set in the control station,
which governs the desired flow temperature at different outdoor tempe-
ratures. The control station compares the desired value with the real value
via a sensor in the flow pipe. If the two values does not correspond, the
position of the cone is altered in the control valve via a control motor.
The controls can also check that the return temperature does not become
too high, via a special sensor mounted in the return pipe.
Timers are used to decrease and to increase the flow temperature at
certain times.
It is difficult to reach a good result without

automatic control.
Fig. 4:54

tflow oC Why is weather compensation necessary?

100 It is important that the flow temperature does not become too high for
90 one-pipe systems, as the whole flow in a circuit always passes through the
pipe circuit emitting heat to the rooms, even if the heat requirement is
80
zero or very small. The lowest required flow temperature must first and
70
foremost always be available, so that the desired room temperature can
60 be maintained.
50
The same thing applies to the two-pipe systems , i.e the lowest required
40
flow temperature must always be available at all the radiators to maintain
30 the desired room temperature. A too high flow temperature causes either
20 losses from pipes passing through rooms which are not supposed to be
-15 -10 -5 ±0 5 10 15 20
warm, or over-temperatures in rooms where the thermostatic valves have
toutdoor oC
closed the supply to the radiators.
The flow temperature will be controlled by the
weather compensator according to the outdoor Setting of the right flow temperature.
temperature.
Fig. 4:55 The flow temperature providing the worst located room with desired
room temperature is the right one. The curve set in the control station
troomoC Closed valve gives the required flow temperature at various outdoor temperatures, but
22 0 there are different ways of setting it. The curve can be parallel displaced
upwards or downwards, and it can be made steeper or more flat accor-
21 1
Good heat authority
ding to requirements.
No heat authority
p-band oC
20 2
The setting of the curve in the control station can be made quite
19 3 theoretically, but it is better to set it at some degrees below zero and to
base the flow temperature upon the actual requirement.
18 4
Read the flow temperature, the temperature drop and the room tempe-
75 80 85 90
rature at the worst located radiator. Has the desired room temperature
0ne-pipe system been obtained and is the temperature drop sufficiently large?
tflow oC
Two-pipe system
The flow temperature for one-pipe systems must be

very close to the minimum temperature for good
heat authority. For two-pipe systems the range of
flow temperatures that gives good control is wider.
Fig. 4:56

Periodic setting-back of the flow temperature. troom oC with night set back
A setting-back of the flow temperature during a shorter or a longer troom oC Mean temperature
period of time is made to reduce the heat consumption. A condition for 20
making a saving is a decrease of the room temperature and that it doesn’t 19
take as much heat consumption when resetting the room temperature 18
after a set-back period as it would have, had the system been run without 17
the set-back period.
16
Buildings accumulate much heat, heavy buildings more than light ones. 15
The accumulation means that it takes a long time before the room tem- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
perature drops when the heat has been completely or partly turned off. If Time
a decreased room temperature is obtained, it also means that the tempe- Night set back with no time constant gives a small
rature of the building body has dropped and that the same heat amount reduction of heat comsumption:
must also be supplied before the room temperature comes up to normal 1,3°C × 5 %=6,5 %.
Fig. 4:57
again.
A simple calculation shows that there is almost no saving to be made in
a short temperature set back period over one night. We could for instance troom oC with night set back
assume a building with no accumulation, where the room temperature troom oC
Mean temperature
can be lowered from 20ºC to 16ºC and raised from 16ºC to 20ºC
without any time consumption. If this set back is made for one night, 20
eight hours in such a building, the mean temperature over twenty-four
hours will be: 19,5
(20×16+16×8)/24=18,7ºC; The temperature decrease during twenty-four

hours is 1,3ºC and each degree with a lower temperature is calculated to 19
give a saving of 5%, 5×1,3=6,5%. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
If we make the same calculation with a reasonably heavy building; a Time
decrease of the room temperature with 0,4ºC takes four hours and the Night set back with a normal time constant gives in
re-heating takes just as long a time, we will receive the following values: practice no reduction of heat comsumption:
0,1°C × 5 %=0,5 %.
the mean temperature during the eight hours will be about 0,2ºC lower, Fig. 4:57
20-0,2 =19,8ºC (20×16+19,8×8)/24=19,9ºC; The temperature decrease
during twenty-four hours will be 0,1ºC and the saving 5×0,1=0,5%.
Recommendations: Weather compensation has a function in the
heating systems with thermostatic valves. It is essential that the heat
authority is always kept over 1,0 for the worst located radiator.
A periodical set-back of the flow temperature gives no saving for only
one night, but longer set-back periods may be profitable, several days for
example. Note that the re-heating period must start in good time, when
a decrease of the room temperature has been obtained, and that a higher
flow temperature than the outdoor temperature requires is required
during the re-heating period.

5. Flow.
3 1 2 Thermostatic valves in two-pipe systems give a varying flow, provided
Tflow oC
∆t °C
emission
40 30 25 20 16 that they have heat authority. It is true that the weather compensator
adjusts the temperature according to the requirements, but the inciden-
Heat
12
100
1,2 95 tal heat gains from people, electricity, cooking and the sun are substan-
1,1 90 10
1,0
tial. Besides, there is a certain decrease of the flow temperature between
0,9 80 8 the first and the last connected radiator, despite well insulated pipes. As
0,8
0,7 70 6 the last radiator is supposed to have access to the required heat amount,
0,6 5 this means that the first radiator has access to much more heat, which is
0,5 60 4
0,4 50 throttled by the thermostatic valve. The thermostatic valve keeps the set
0,3
0,2 temperature, and this fact in addition to all the incidental heat gains gives
0,1
0 variations in the flow, in spite of the set flow temperature.
0 1,0 2,0 Q
tflow for the last radiator in a circuit is 90 oC Differential pressure control.
1 ∆t is 25oC. There are large variations in the available differential pressure in systems
o
2 tflow for the first radiator is 95 C which will with varying flows, which means that thermostatic valves sized according
give 5% more heat.
to the lowest available differential pressure, are forced to work with many
The thermostatic valve will reduce the flow by times greater pressure. The valves are too large at these high pressures,
3 9% to give the same room temperature and
∆t will be 28oC. and oscillations easily arise, a fact which, except for unnecessary wear,
gives higher return temperatures and affects the other valves in the
Fig. 4:59
system. The differential pressure controls keep the pressure constant even
at varying flows.
∆p
5 kPa
∆p radiator circuit ∆p radiator
Available ∆p on 18th floor

Available ∆p on
∆p riser
1st floor
Available differential pressure in a high-rise building.

Fig. 4:60

Construction.
There are specially designed differential pressure controls for heating
systems. One type with a constant differential pressure of 10 kPa and one
type with an adjustable differential pressure of between 5 and 25 kPa.
A differential pressure control consists of:
• valve body
• control unit ∆p controls with fixed and adjustable
The valve body contains a cone and a seat. differential pressure respectively.
The control unit consists of a diaphragm, a setting unit with a spring

pack and a connection for an impulse tube. An impulse tube is built-in Connection for
impulse tube
to the valve body.
Drain valve
Valve body
Function. Shut off
The differential pressure control can be mounted in the flow or in the screw
Adjustment handle
return of the riser or the branch, across which it is to control the
differential pressure, the controlled circuit. Usually the mounting is made
Connection for setting handle.
in the return pipe. An impulse tube is then connected between the flow
Fig. 4:61
pipe and the plus side of the diaphragm. The second impulse tube is
built-in to the valve body.
∆p 10 kPa
Available ∆p on the 1 floor Reduced by the ∆p controller

∆p radiator circuit
∆p radiator
Differental pressure controls provide every floor with the same available pressure
on every floor
Fig. 4:62

Flow limitation.
The thermostatic valves in two-pipe systems are responsible for the flow
limitation as long as they have heat authority. It is, should the available
heat amount become too small, sufficient to make a rough pre-setting to
manage the flow distribution, thanks to the constant differential pressure
kept by the differential pressure control.
One-pipe systems have, as a rule, a constant flow and the current flow
must be set separately for each circuit which theoretically can be made
with a pre-set adjustment valve. As shown above, the gravity forces are
large in high-rise buildings and they also vary with the flow temperature
and the temperature drop. A manually adjusted valve will therefore in
these cases not work, but an automatic flow limiter is required here.
m3/h l/s
10 3
7 2
5
1,0
3 0,7
2 0,5
1,0 0,3
2
0,7 0,2
0,5 1
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar
The flow through a fixed adjustment will vary when the differential pressure
fluctuates.
1 ∆p 16 kPa, Q 600 l/h 2 ∆p 25 kPa, Q 740 l/h
Fig. 4:63
Shut off screw
Principle.
The principle is: The flow is limited by keeping a constant differential
pressure over a resistance.
Drain valve Flow limiters for heating systems consists of:
• valve body
Setting • control and setting unit
handle Valve body
The valve body contains a cone, a seat and a drain valve.
Flow control valve The control and setting unit consists of a diaphragm, a spring pack and
Fig. 4:64 a handle for the setting.

Function.
The flow limiter is mounted in the return pipe and the built-in dia-
phragm keeps the differential pressure constant at 15 kPa across the cone
and the seat. The setting of the flow is made by altering the resistance
over the cone and the seat. The valve also has a shut-off function.
m3/h l/s
10 3
7 1 2
5 2
1,0
3 2 0,7
2 0,5
2
1,0 0,3
2
0,7 0,2
0,5 2
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar
Constant ∆p, 1 over an adjustable restriction, 2 creates a flow limitation.

Fig. 4:65
Recommendations: The flow will vary in the two-pipe systems with

thermostatic valves. Pre-set adjustments are therefore only functioning
when the thermostatic valves have no heat authority. A rough pre-setting
can be made to manage the distribution at longer set-back periods of the
flow temperature.
Differential pressure controls with a pre-set differential pressure of 10
kPa should, in buildings of a maximum six floors, be mounted at the
bottom of the risers and in the branches on each floor in taller buildings.
The available differential pressure for the riser or for the radiator circuits
on each floor will then always be the same, independent of the gravity
forces.
Theoretically speaking, the flow in one-pipe systems is constant, but in
high-rise buildings, the gravity forces will give a flow, varying with the
flow temperature and the temperature drop. Each one-pipe circuit,
vertical or horizontal, must therefore be equipped with an automatic flow
limiter.

6. Static pressure.
At maximum temperatures below 100ºC, there is no requirement for a
steam pressure. Only the height of the building/system determines the
static pressure.
Expansion systems.
Closed expansion systems with safety valves require regular supervision
and control.
They are therefore not suitable since you cannot have qualified person-
nel available in all the buildings all the time.
Open expansion systems do not require as much supervision and
no service, providing they are made of the proper materials. All the
expansion systems must always be in open connection with the part of
the system from where the heat is supplied.
The circulation pump in the flow or in the return pipe?

A heating system with an open expanison tank is a communicating vessel
and the location of the circulation pump, in the flow or in the return, is
of great importance.
The open expansion tank has two functions. It is to:
• pick up the volume change of the system caused by temperature varia-
tions
• see to it that all parts are filled with water, whether the pump is in ope-
ration or not
Static pressure. If the pump is placed in the return pipe, the available pressure, i.e the
Fig. 4:66 static and dynamic pressure put together (the pressure which can be read
from the water guage) will increase at the connection of the expansion
pipe to the system. The present total pressure for the expansion system,
pE, can be calculated. Then, from the water guage after the pump, read
pressure, p1, reduced by the resistance in the pipe, appliances if there are
any, and the level difference up to the connection of the expansion pipe
gives pE. pE converted to meter is equal to the difference in level between
pE and the highest point of the expansion pipe, i.e. at the bottom of the
expansion tank. Experience shows that the static pressure should be equal
to the highest point in the system plus 65% of the pump head converted
into meters. The bottom of the expansion tank should be located at this
height.
If the pump is placed in the flow, the available pressure will be lower at
the beginning of the expansion pipe, i.e. the water level in the expansion
pipe sinks when the pump is in operation.

Minimum level The expansion system and

Expansion Radiator
for filled system the heating circuit are com-
tank
municating vessels. The
water level in the expan-
sion system, or the pressure
Communicating in closed systems, are equal
vessels Heating circuit to the level in the circuit
when there are no circula-
Boiler tion.
Necessary static pressure depending on whether the circulation pump is in the return or the flow pipe.
pE
pE pE
ppump =p1 - p2 p1 p2 p1
Plevel
pE = pp1 - pp1-pE - plevel

What you read on the pressure guage is the The total pressure where the expansion pipe is equal to the difference in level between
total pressure, i.e. the static and the dynamic is connected to the system, pE, is equal to the pE and the highest point of the expansion
pressure. The pump in the return pipe will, pressure after the pump, p1, minus the resis- pipe, i.e. at the bottom of the expansion
when activated, raise the water level in the tance in the pipes and the difference in level tank.
expansion pipe and lower it in the heating between the pump and the connection of the Experience shows approx. 0,65× ppump.
circuit. expansion pipe. pE converted to meters.
pE p2 p1 p2
pE The pump in the flow
pipe will give the oppo-
pE site result to the pump in
the return pipe and there
ppump =p1 - p2 is no risk of air entering
the heating circuit.
pE = pp2 + pp2-pE + plevel

Yet, the whole system should be filled with water even when the pump is
not in operation to avoid corrosion, and the bottom of the expansion
tank should be placed about 0,5 – 1 m higher up than the highest point
of the system.
Recommendations: The pump should be placed in the flow. An open
expansion tank is placed in a warm area, with its bottom 0,5 – 1 m over
the highest point in the system.

7. Pump.
Pressure control of pumps.

Circulation pumps used in heating systems, give a larger pressure
increase at lower flows. At the same time, the requirement for pressure is
less as the resistance reduces by the square of the flow change. The high
differential pressure causes problems at the thermostatic valves in the
form of noise, worse control and oscillation, but it involves an unneces-
sary electric consumption for operating the pumps. While the resistance
alters by the square of the flow change, the electric consumption alters by
the cube of the flow change. Consequently money is to be saved here.
Principles for pressure control.

There are several principles for controlling the differential pressure
provided by a pump:
· constant differential pressure at the pump
· constant differential pressure at the last consumer
· proportional differential pressure
· parallel to the resistance in the pipe system
A constant differential pressure at the pump gives a higher available
differential pressure at a decreasing flow, and at a flow of almost zero the
differential pressure will be the same throughout the whole system. The
available differential pressure for valves and branches is determined at a
full flow. At a decreasing flow the differential pressure will increase more
and more the farther out in the system you go and valves and branches
receive a higher available differential pressure.
A constant differential pressure at the last consumer gives a lower available
differential pressure at a decreasing consumption and at a flow of almost
zero the low differential pressure prevails throughout the whole system.
The available differential pressure for valves and branches is determined
at a maximum flow. At a maximum flow the valves and the branches
close to the pump will have a considerably higher differential pressure
than which they are sized for.

Flow chart showing pump head and resistance

in the heating circuit. The diagram to the right
shows available pressure for each riser at 50
∆pnec =20 kPa

and 100% flow.
∆pdim shows the lowest pressure available for
each ∆p control and risers.
Fig. 4:70
∆pnec =40 kPa
∆p kPa ∆p kPa
100 100
90 ∆pp
90
um p
80 80 Q 50
70 70
60 60
∆pnec
50 50 Q 10
0 ∆p
40 e 40 d
al pip im
30 rizont 30
ho
20 ∆p 20
10 10
0 0
Q 0 50 100 % ∆p available for each riser at 50 and 100% flow.
Fig. 4:71 Without pressure control.
∆p kPa ∆p kPa
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 ∆ppump 70
Q 50
60 60
∆pnec
50 50 Q 10
0 ∆p
40 40 d im
ipe
30 ntal p 30
izo
20 p hor 20
∆
10 10
0 0
Fig. 4:72 Constant pressure control.

Flow chart showing pump head and resistance in

the heating circuit. The diagram to the right shows
available pressure for each riser at 50 and 100%
flow.
∆pnec =20 kPa

∆pdim shows the lowest pressure available for each
∆p control and risers.
Fig. 4:73
∆pnec =40 kPa
∆p kPa ∆p kPa
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60 Q 10
∆p pum
p 0
∆pnec
50 50 Q 50
40 ipe 40
ntal p ∆pdim
30 izo 30
p hor
20 ∆ 20
10 10
0 0
Fig. 4:74 Proportional pressure control.
∆p kPa ∆p kPa
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
60 60
∆pnec
50 50 Q 10
0
40 ∆ppump pe 40 Q 50
tal pi ∆pdim
30 n 30
izo
20 p hor 20
∆
10 10
0 0
Fig 4:75 Parallel pressure control.

A proportional differential pressure means that the differential pressure,

available after the pump at maximum flow will be reduced to half at a
minimum flow. The available differential pressure for valves and branches
is determined at a minimum flow. At a maximum flow, the valves and the
branches close to the pump will have a considerably higher differential
pressure than that which they are sized for.
A differential pressure controlled parallel to the resistance in the pipe
system means that the pump curve will run parallel to the system curve,
but only down to half of the differential pressure at a maximum flow. The
available differential pressure for valves and branches is determined at a
minimum flow. At a maximum flow the valves and the branches close to
the pump will have a considerably higher differential pressure than that
which they are sized for.
Principles for the control of electric motors.

There are different types of control for the electric motors in circulation
pumps:
• A frequency converter is the most flexible solution.
A frequency converter is used together with standard induction motors
and is available in sizes from 1,1 – 200 kW shaft effect. The efficiency is
high, about 95%. Installation and use are simple.
Recommendations: Pressure controlling of pumps should be used in
larger systems. A constant differential pressure at the last branch provides
the best possibility for the largest cut in operational cost for the pump.
The pressure sensor is placed at the last branch and is set at the lowest
required differential pressure. The resistance of a riser is equal to the
resistances across a thermostatic valve with a radiator, the pipes in the Pressure controlled pump with a frequency
riser and the resistance across a differential pressure valve, 8 kPa for converter.
Danfoss ASV-P or PV. The lowest required differential pressure at a Fig. 4:76
shunt is equal to the resistances across the control valve, the differential
pressure valve and also in the pipes between the pressure sensor and the
shunt, should there be any. A frequency convertor controls standard
induction motors. Considering available differential pressure at risers and
branches, the problems with large variations remain even though
somewhat smaller. Controlling the differential pressure is a requirement
for good and safe functioning.

8. Metering.
Metering of the heat volume per apartment implies a more personal
responsibility for the heat costs but is not as accurate. Someone living in
the centre of the building may turn off the heat completely without
receiving much lower temperature than his neighbours, while someone
having a gable apartment, highest up in the building, will get considerably
higher heat costs for the same apartment area. A conversion factor can be
calculated, based upon the theoretical heat requirement for apartments
with a gable wall and/or roof surfaces, compared to the corresponding
apartments without these surfaces.
A gable apartment on the top floor requires more Flow metering per apartment.
heat than an equally large apartment in the centre In buildings with insulated, centrally placed risers, and a two-pipe
of the building. radiator circuit per apartment, the heat consumption can be metered for
Fig. 4:77
each apartment with a flow meter, preferably an ultrasonic one, bearing
service and precision in mind. The flow meter is placed in an easily
accessible position, in the stairwell. It can be equipped with a remote
control for metering. An adjustment of the consumption for gable
apartments and apartments with a roof should be made.
Heat metering per radiator.

Heat meters, installed on each radiator and providing a measure of the
consumption through evaporation, seem to be a simple solution, even for
existing buildings. For vertical one-pipe systems however, much heat is
supplied from the pipes and can not be metered by using this method.
Flow meters are used to measure the heat amount
The tenants also have the possibility meter manipulating of the meters
for each apartment.
Fig. 4:78
and meter reading is also time-consuming.
Recommendations: A heat meter per apartment is the most efficient
and safest way of metering the consumption. This method requires two-
pipe systems, a separate connection for each apartment.
It is (not) advisable to meter the heat consumption of one-pipe systems
with an evaporation meter for each radiator, however there is no other
method.
To be consistent the consumption of domestic hot water should also be
metered per apartment. A flow meter placed in the stairwell has proved
to be the best solution.
To be consistent the consumption of domestic hot water should also be
metered per apartment. A flow meter placed in the stairwell is the best
Evaporational heat meter on radiator. solution.
Fig 4:79

Chapter 5 • Instructions for designing district heating systems
Instructions for designing

district heating systems.
The methods and systems chosen at new systems and restoration of

existing systems should be subject to a long-term planning. At the same
time, we have to consider future development. The solutions listed below
are those which seem to be the most suitable for this purpose during the
next few years.
District heating is considered the long-term solution, but it has to be
made more efficient. Small production plants are hard to manage from
an environmental- and an efficiency point of view. Smaller systems
should be removed, the load should be connected to larger production
plants. When the local district heating networks have reached a suffici-
ent number, they should be connected to a combined heating and power
plant. Distances of 14-15 km or more between district heating networks
creates no problem with the modern preinsulated pipes. The combined
heating and power plants produces electricity and heat all year round.
The local heating plant are on “Stand-by”. They are started when the
combined heating and power plants cannot meet the total heat require-
ment.
Large plants in operation day and night. They are required to achieve the
most efficient combustion with the smallest possible discharges. When
all the local district heating networks share the same operation
conditions, it will, in the long run, be possible to connect them to a large
Production Distribution Consumption.
combined heating and power plant. Fig. 5:1
The primary system/ the district heating can be divided into:
• production, central boiler plant
• distribution, preinsulated pipes
• consumption, sub-station

Environment.
Most of what we are doing in our ordinary lives affects the environment
in one way or the other. Some things are clear to the naked eye: the
smoke and the soot when we are lighting a fire, for instance. Other things
can be more difficult to detect: as how much more smoke and soot that
is formed if we do not efficiently utilize the heat we are producing. Or: a
unit in a central boiler plant must be exchanged after five years instead
of 20 years, due to inefficient operation.
The consumption of coal has negative effects on the environment in the
central boiler plant and its closest surroundings, but the area from where
the coal is collected is also indirectly affected. The transport to and from
the central boiler plant also has negative effects on the environment
through its consumption of energy. The most efficient way of reducing
the negative effects on the environment is to reduce the consumption of
Efficient systems reduce the negativ effects on the coal through a more effective use.
enviroment.
Fig. 5:2 1. Durability.
There are two reasons for exchanging components in a district heating
system:
• the component is worn out, for example a bearing in a pump
• a new product provides a better efficiency
Components with no moving parts do not wear out, and their technical
life is calculated to 50 years. Boilers of a good quality can last for about
30 years with a proper maintainance.
2. Production.
In the production plant the temperatures are high and the wear is
extreme. An efficient operation process, a reduced consumption of fuel,
a large reduction of discharges and an increased durability of the
components are measures that have to be considered. Small central boiler
Worn out components should be exchanged. plants, up to 30 MW, should be replaced by connection to district
Fig. 5:3
heating networks, with larger boilers combusting more efficiently with
fluidised beds.

3. Fuel.
The fuel in the district heating Main Power Stations will in general
during a foreseeable future be coal and gas (only within certain areas).
Irrespective of fuel type, impurities in the fuel has to be kept as low as
possible. International standards apply.
A decrease of the ash content in coal causes an immediate increase of the
efficiency and reduces the discharges radically. This decrease can be
accomplished by washing the coal, and this should be made without
delay, even for existing boilers.
Crushing and washing of coal should not be made at the district heating
Power Station but rather in connection with the mining process. Particles mg/m3 SOx mg/m3 NOx mg/m3
EC 50-100 400 - 2.000 650 - 1.300
By choosing coal containing small quantities of sulphur, the discharge of Mininmum 40 160 - 270 80 - 540
sulphur decreases in the combustion process. Internationally there is only Allowed discharges according to IEA Coal Rese-
coal with less than 1% sulphur for sale. arch air pollutant emission standards for coal-
fired plants database, 1991.
The use of better coal in all the boilers results immediately in smaller The values regard new plants. The first value is for
discharges and ought to be used as soon as possible. Coal of high quality large plants and the second value for small ones.
should, in the long run, be used in the local heating plants, while coal
with a lower quality is to be used in the combined heating and power
plants where an efficient purification of the flue gases takes place.
4. Combustion.
The combustion has to be efficient, as it reduces the impurities in the flue
gases and utilizes the heat contents of the coal.
Combustion of coal, based upon pulverised coal and burned with a
fluidised bed, has proved to be the best combustion technique at present.
The impurity content in the flue gases is already low without the Boilers with fluidised bed combustion are very effec-
tive even from the environmental point of view.
purification. This combustion technique should be used in new plant and
when replacing old boilers, both local and in combined heating and
power plants. Combustion that is efficient and durable for a long time, Air
requires automatic operation and sound operating conditions.
5. Flue gas purification.

All the discharges coming from the flue gases should be reduced to the
lowest possible level.
No distinction is made between small and large plants, regarding
discharge of particles. The best result in 1998 is, up till now, 40 mg/m3. Coal and lime
The local heating plants, with effects of more than 40 MW,
Boiler with fluidised bed combustion.

Fig. 5:4

should be equipped with bag filters. Electric filters may be more efficient
when it comes to combined heating and power plants.
The discharges of SOx and NOx should be reduced to international
levels, in the CHP plant 1998 =25 mg/MJ, but it is not possible to
introduce such an efficient reduction of SOx and NOx into the local
heating plants for economic reasons as they are only allowed to be used
at peak load. Boilers with a fluidised bed emits small quantities of SOx
and NOx. Local heating plants do not, for that reason, have to be
equipped with further purification of the flue gases, as they are only in
operation for a short time, after having been connected to combined
heating and power plants.
The combined heating and power plants should be equipped with puri-
fication of SOx and NOx.
6. Handling of ashes.
The ash quantity is dependent on the quality of the coal. The washing of
coal reduces the ash contents and the better washing the less ashes.
The handling of ashes is important regarding the environment and
should be carried in closed vehicles. The large volume of ash also involves
consideration for it’s long term use.
The transport of ashes should be made in tight vehicles or containers so
that the surrounding environment is not affected.
7. Handling of coal.
Coal which is stored or moved openly should be handled in a way that
the wind cannot carry away dust. Spraying with water or chemicals are
tested methods.
Transport of coal and ashes can effect the environ- Unloading, tipping, crushing or grinding of coal should be made in such
ment in more than one way. a way that the surroundings are not disturbed by noise, or dust.
Fig. 5:5

8. Water quality.
The water in the primary system should be of such a quality that there is
no risk of corrosion or coatings. All the water brought to the system
should be within the following requirements:
Conductivity max 10 µS/cm
pH-value 9-10
Hardness 0,1 tHº
Appearance clear and sediment free
O2 0,02 mg/litre
Leakage is not acceptable. The material and the construction of shaft-
and spindle inlets should be made so there can be no leakage.
The water for refilling should be treated in the same way.
The systems should not be emptied of water, even though they are not in
operation.
Flushing of the systems.

During the whole installation process of a production plant, all impuri-
ties, such as scales, sand, gravel etc., should be removed from the system,
and the connections should be flushed before the system is finally filled.
The requirements for flushing and water quality applies to the produc-
tion- as well as to the distribution unit.
Thermal deairiation Feed water Return line
Heating
Heat exchanger
Ion reduction
Dosage of Particle
Water treatment chemicals filter
Fig. 5:6

Local district heating system.

1. Effect ranges.
Local district heating systems should lie within the range of 40-60 MW.
The effect refers to the actual heat requirement in the buildings.
The combined heating and power plant should deliver about 60% of the
total connected heat requirement, at optimum distribution between
electricity (40%) and heat production (60%). Minimum output, electri-
city and heat, is to be 200 MW.
The local heating plants should be connection to a combined heating and
power plant only be used at peak loads and at operational break down
and maintainance the combined heating and power plant.
2. Existing boilers.
Existing boilers, of 40-60 MW, in good condition that do not need to be
exchanged within a reasonable time, should use coal with a low content
of ashes, the combustion should be made with a high efficiency. Flue gas
coolers should be installed to raise the effictively and then the
condensate, SOx must be taken care of effectivly. The boilers should be
in operation night and day and turned off only for cleaning.
Boiler
A simple but effective
purification of the Flue gas
exhaust gases can be cooler
done with bag filters Bag filter
and cooling the gases
will raise the
effeciency
Purification of the exhaust gases

Fig. 5:7

Flue gas purification with bag filter should be installed, and as mainte-
nance work is required, other measures should be taken for a change-over
to the supply from a combined heating and power plant.
In principle, the same procedure applies on both smaller and larger
boilers, but the smaller ones should be removed as soon as possible, and
their system is to be connected to larger plants with flue gas purification.
3. New boilers.
When new boilers are installed, either in new or existing district heating
networks, the out put should be of about 40-60 MW, the combustion
should be made with a fluidised bed.
The coal quality has to be good, i.e. low contents of sulphur and ashes,
and the combustion should be done continuously as long as there is any
need of it.
Two or more local heating plants of this size can at an early stage be
connected to preinsulated pipes. It is better to have one heating plant
with a capacity of 100% in operation, than to have three with a capacity
of 33% each.
The discharges of SOx and NOx stays at an acceptable level with this Connecting two or more district heating networks
combustion technique, even without purification. When the local will rise the efficiency and the reliability.
Fig.5:8
heating plants are later connected to the combined heating and power
plant, the operation times will be reduced to perhaps 15-20% per year,
the SOx -and NOx levels are then acceptable. The discharges of particles
must be limited. This is done by using bag filters.
Heat losses in the production units.

There are many surfaces with high temperatures emitting a lot of heat in
the production units.
All warm surfaces should be well insulated in order to increase the effi-
ciency of the plant.
A high room temperature which is a result of a bad insulation or none, is
shortening the life of the devices required in an advanced plant of this
type, not to mention the electronic equipment. Furthermore, people have
to be able to work efficiently within the plant.

4. Accumulator.
The accumulator has two purposes:
• to level off the differences between production and consumption
• to be an expansion system for the distribution unit
The accumulator should have volume enough to manage a heat require-
ment of 12 hours.
Waterproof
coating The accumulator is made of steel with the same pressure class as the rest
Rustproof steel of the distribution network. It is anti-corrosively treated on the outside
as well as on the inside and is equipped with outside insulation, for
Insulation example extruded polyurethane, and a tight surface layer.
In order to be able to pick up the water volume change, the required
expansion volume plus 20 % is added to the volume of the system. The
expansion volume is filled with nitrogen gas and the pressure is raised to
An accumulator must be protected from corrosion
both on the outside as well as on the inside and the required level.
also be well insulated.
Fig. 5:9 Safety valves with the required capacity, opening at a maximum working
pressure, should be installed. They have to be easily accessible for service
and testing.
Heat exchangers.
Heat exchangers for transfer of heat from the local boiler as well as from
combined heating and power plant are connected to the accumulator.
The exchangers are installed outside the accumulator, a charging pump,
transfers the heat into the accumulator. An additional pump or valve
system is required, to allow the stored heat in the accumulator to be used
in the district heating on demand.
The local boilers are detached from the distribution network with a heat
exchanger before installing the accumulator. The boiler circuit can be run
with the optimum conditions for the fuel consumption, temperatures and
pressures.

5. Expansion systems.
Closed expansion systems should be used. It is easier to adjust them to
possible changes in systems or in operating conditions. It is also easy to
increase the static pressure, should, for example, a cavitation arise.
Closed expansion vessel with inert gas for the keeping pressure.
Closed expansion vessels are exposed to the same pressure as the rest of
the system and must therefore be constructed as pressure vessels.
Closed systems must be equipped with safety valves, opening and
letting excessive pressure out if boiling should occur. The opening pres-
sure is equal to the maximum working pressure of the plant. The safety
valves require a permanent control.
Expansion systems for the boiler circuit.

A pressure vessel with a volume corresponding to the expansion of the Safety valve.
system plus approximately 10%, as a margin, is installed in a suitable Fig. 5:10
location in the production plant.
The expansion circuit of the boiler is connected at the bottom of the
vessel. The pressure is maintained by assistance of a compressor or with
nitrogen straight from gas bottles. A gas pillow lies above the water
surface at a constant pressure. Nitrogen is used because it prevents
corrosion.
Expansion systems for the distribution unit.

Before installing the accumulator, the same type of closed vessel is used
as for the boiler circuit.
The accumulator is sized for an extra volume (for the gas), which is 20%
larger than the expansion volume required for the distribution unit. The
pressure maintenance is effected in the same way as for the closed expan-
sion vessels.
Expansion volume
Safety valve
Primary Secondary
side side
Accumulator
Expansion volume in the accumulator.

Fig. 5:11

6. Circulation pumps.
When considering the required static pressure, the circulation pumps
should be placed in the flow.
The pumps in the boiler circuit and the charging pumps for the accu-
mulator should be sized to be able to manage the resistance in the current
circuits, including heat exchanger and control valves, if there should be
any.
Dynamic pressure.
With regard to the local distribution systems, the lowest obtainable
differential pressure of 150 kPa has to be available in all the sub-stations,
and the stated maximum water rates should be strived for in the pre-
insulated piping network.
The same conditions also apply to the central distribution network.
The minimum ∆p, 150 kPa, ∆p pump

should always be available
in all sub-stations.
∆p system ∆p min
∆p
600 Flow and return pipe 100
500 Min ∆p = 150 kPa
Flow %
400 50
300
Dynamic pressure 200
0
100
Fig. 5:12
0
Flow.
The flow is determined on the basis of heat requirements and tempera-
The specific heat amount of water is based on 1 ture drop. The theoretically calculated heat requirements are usually
kg at 15oC. Calculations for heating systems are higher than the real ones, and therefore an exact calculation of the flow
normally made with 1 kg water equal to 1 litre
and that is not physically correct because the is not necessary.
volume and the specific heat will change with the When the system has been commerioned, a measurement of the real
temperature. This deviation is still small compared
to the differences between calculated and real
values is important, in order to run the plant in the best way possible.
requirements.

7. Pre-insulated pipes.
Pre-insulated pipes with a high-quality insulation and a safe waterproof
protective cover should be used for all the heating distribution systems.
They should be constructed and installed in such a way as they last as
long as possible.
Stated maximum water rates should be strived for which will give a
smaller external diameter and therefore a smaller heat emitting surface.
The standard insulating thickness should be used.
Material.
Pre-insulated pipes consist of an internal steel pipe. On the outside there
is foam insulation and the waterproof external layer consists of a poly-
ethylene pipe. The insulation is foam with the steel pipe as an internal Pre-insulated pipe.
and the polyethylene pipe as an external mould. The construction Fig. 5:13
function as one unit from an expansion point of view. There are preinsu-
lated pipes in dimensions from the smallest to the largest, dout 27 – 1.220
mm.
Linear expansion due to variations in temperature.

The mounting of pre-insulated pipes is made at temperatures far below
the normal operating temperature. The pipes therefore expand operating,
0,12 mm/m pipe and a temperature raise of 10°C. The pre-insulated
pipes are functioning as one unit, i.e. the forces arising when the steel
pipe is expanding are transferred to the external plastic pipe through the
insulation. The plastic pipe, in turn, is held in position by the friction
against the poured sand. A linear expansion does not occur, but the wall
of the steel pipe picks up the expansion.
The mounting and the re-filling are done without any special measures
taken for an expansion pick-up. Once the pipes have been welded and
the joint has been tested, the caps for the external mantle are mounted
and the cavity filled with foam. After that there is a re-filling of sand
around the joint. Open pipe ends should be covered to avoid sand and
other impurities from entering the pipes. The system should be flushed
before use. Open pipe ends should be covered.
Fig. 5:14

Sizing of pipes.
A high water rate in pre-insulated pipes is important from several
aspects. It results in smaller pipes which have the advantage of being
cheaper and causes smaller heat losses. The temperature drop across a
certain distance becomes twice as large at the same temperatures if the
flow is halved. At the same time, the resistance in the circuit is reduced
to a quarter, and the operational cost of the pump will only be an eighth.
8. Heat exchangers.
A sub-station is situated in each building, maybe several in long, high-
rise buildings. It is cheaper to distribute heat in a primary distribution
system than to construct up a secondary one.
Coil units or plate heat exchangers can be used for hot water as well as
for domestic water systems. Both these types contain very small water
quantities, and therefore an increased consumption requires that the
whole primary system reacts quickly.
The water flow rate in heat exchangers ought to be high, so that the
deposits do not remain in them.
The flow resistance across an exchanger is usually 20-50 kPa.

Operating conditions.
1. Temperature levels.
The boilers in the combined heating and power plant with an electrical
production will work with steam, but a temperature of 130ºC ought to
be chosen for the distribution out to the local district heating networks.
The same temperature should also be applied to the boilers in the local
district heating systems.
Maximum temperature in the local distribution unit is 120ºC.
2. Return temperatures.
Low return temperatures should be strived for, partly because the flue gas
coolers, if any, require it, partly because a low return temperature means
a large temperature drop, i.e. the flow pumped around in the district
heating network is low.
The return temperature should be around 70ºC.
Boiler
Accumulator
130 oC 120 oC
70 oC 70 oC
Temperatures in a local district heating system.
Fig. 5:1

3. Temperature drop in the distribution network.

Proper functioning requires the same flow temperature at all the sub-
stations. Good insulation and a relatively high water rate through the
pipes are required to achieve this. Heat losses of up to 30% may occur in
a distribution network with low consumer energy density. In energy
dense areas with pre-insulated pipes the losses are 3% or less.
The stated maximum water rates should be strived for, see graph in
chapter 8.
4. Static pressure.
The static pressure is determined by the maximum The local distribution unit will be working with a static pressure, which
water temperature and the height of the highest is the sum of the steam pressure (100 kPa at 120 ºC) and the difference
part of of the system. To avoid boiling, a pressure
that is higher than the steam pressure at the in height between the pressure gauge in the production unit and the
temperature in question is required at the highest highest located sub-station. The pump should be placed in the flow.
point of the system.
The static pressure of the local boilers depends on their maximum
Water temperature ºC Steam pressure
kPa/bar working temperature. The steam pressure is 200 kPa at 130 ºC and that
(gauge pressure) pressure is to be added to the height of the boiler converted into kPa.
110 47/0,5
120 99/1 If the circulation pump is placed in the flow pipe, it is enough with an
130 193/2 addition of 10-20 kPa (as a safety margin) to the static pressure to get all
140 262/2,6 the parts of the system water filled at operation.
160 518/5,2
36 m
12 m
14 m
Static pressure, boiler 130 oC. Static pressure, district heating network 120 oC.
Steam pressure = 200 kPa Steam pressure = 100 kPa
Level pressure = 120 kPa Level pressure = 360 kPa
Total = 320 kPa Total = 360 kPa
Static pressure in a local district heating system.

Fig. 5:16

Under certain operating condition, the pressure in the control valves

could become so low that cavitation occurs. Cavitation means that steam
bubbles are formed (through boiling), and when these steam bubbles are
pressed together, imploding, large forces arise damaging the valve cone
and the valve seat. Cavitation ceases if the static pressure is raised. ∆p
All the components included must be officially approved for the current p1
∆pvalve
working pressure. p2
Valve min
5. Available differential pressure. Steam
The available differential pressure in the primary distribution system will
When water passes through a valve the speed will
vary with the flow in the system. The pump keep the differential pressure increase over the seat and cone and then decrease.
in the last sub-station constant at 150 kPa, at all flows. The differential The increase in speed will use up some pressure.
pressure will vary for the rest of the connected sub-stations, from the The result is ∆pvalve min.some of that pressure
returns when the speed decreases and the
maximum at 100% flow to approximately 150 kPa at a minimum flow.
result is p2.
The control valves should be sized for the lowest possible available diffe- If the ∆pvalve min becomes lower than the steam
rential pressure, 150 kPa, minus the resistance in the heat exchanger in pressure, cavitation occurs and the water will boil
question. and bubbles of steam will form. When the speed
decreases, the pressure will rise and the bubbles
implode. This causes a loud noise and the large
forces could damage surfaces of the valve.
Fig. 5:17
% ∆p, P
100
50
∆pn=∆Q2xp0
Pn=∆Q3xP0
0
0 50 100% Q
The resistance changes by the square of the flow change and the effect for the
pump by the cube.
Fig. 5:18

6. Water quality.
The water quality is very important as regards to the durability of all the
components included in the primary system. A plant can provide the
production as well as the distribution units with water. The plant for
water treatment should be designed so that it can also manage the refil-
ling of the secondary systems. Refilling pipes to the various systems
should be equipped with meters to obtain control over the refilled
volumes. With regard to systems with mixed new and old constructions,
a water change of 0,5 times per year is taken into account. The new pre-
insulated pipes are only refilled when considering new systems and
Feed water Flow meter
sub-stations and a possible filling of the secondary systems.
The following values apply of the water after purification.
A flow meter register the amount of water feeded.
Fig. 5:19
Conductivity max 10µS/cm
pH-value 9-10
Hardness 0,1 tHº
Appearance clear and sediment free
O2 0,02 mg/l

7. Pressure testing.
Before a system or parts of it are commissioned it has to be pressure
tested. The system in question is filled with treated water and all the air
is purged. After that, the pressure is increased, with a pump, to at least
1,3 times the maximum working pressure. The pressure should be
constant for at least 60 minutes, without dropping. Joints, connections
and components should be visually checked during the pressure testing,
to make sure that there is no leakage. The supervisor in charge should
keep records of the pressure tests. The records should contain information
on time, place, scope, current pressures at the beginning and the end of
the test, and also leakages attended to. The records are then to be signed
by the supervisor in charge.
Pressure testing of pre-insulated pipes.

Fig. 5:20
8. Operating times.
The local central boiler plants must be in operation until they are
connected to an accumulator, another district heating network or a
combined heating and power plant. If domestic hot water is to be
produced as well, this applies all year round.
When several local central boiler plants have been connected, just as
many boilers are used as necessary to obtain the required effect. After
being connected to a combined heating and power plant, they only
respond to the peak loads.
Combined heating and power plants producing electricity are to be in
operation all year round. During the non-heating seasons, the combined
heating and power plants should use the requirement of domestic hot
water in the buildings for cooling, as far as possible. If there is require-
ment for air conditioning the heat can be used to run a cooling process.

Local control and supervision.

All the information required to operate a local district heating system
efficiently can be gathered and processed only by computers. The concerns
information about everything from the air temperature supplied to the
combustion chamber in the boiler to the temperature in an apartment.
The gathering of information is important to improve the operating
process. The gathering comes out as statistics, and these statistics will at
the same time serve as a control function for the operation.
There is today, in 1998, computer software for this purpose which is well
tried and able to co-operate with weather compensators, control motors
and other equipment. Temperatures and pressures can be adjusted from
the centrally placed computer if and when there is a need for it.
1. The control of boilers.

There are a lot of operations to be automated and supervised will regard
to local boilers to making the plant effective and less pollutive.
On the whole, the supply of fuel should correspond to the requirement
of heat. The introduction of an accumulator to which the boiler is
connected, has made the task easier. A shortage or an excess of fuel
during a short time is evened out by the accumulator.
The operating temperature as well as the return temperature of the boiler
must be controlled the whole time. The filter and the flue gas tempera-
A computer network control center can control the
system and record and analyse large amounts of ture are important from an environmental and an efficiency point of view
information. and must be checked regularly.
Fig. 5:21
Flue gas fans and circulation pumps should be controlled according to
the current requirement.

2. Control of the accumulator.

The accumulator is a buffer between the boiler and the load. By
containing water with a high temperature in the accumulator during
periods with a smaller consumption, the boiler can work with a more
even load, which gives better combustion and a smaller amount of
impurities. Heat is avilable continuously.
At low outdoor temperatures, the accumulator is completely charged,
while it is only partly charged during spring and autumn.
The heat transfer from the heat exchanger to the accumulator is control-
led by a variable-speed circulation pump.
The temperature of the water to the accumulator should correspond to
the current charging temperature, and it can vary with the outdoor
temperature or the expected outdoor temperature. Weather forecasts,
expected temperature and wind force are all parts of the decision records
at the operation and the control of a district heating network with an
accumulator.
tflow oC
3. Control of the outgoing temperature in the district heating 130
network. 120
The maximum outgoing temperature is 120ºC and the return tempera- 110
ture is 60ºC. The outgoing temperature should be adjusted according to 100
requirement, i.e. the outdoor temperature, down to the temperature 90
required for the production of domestic hot water, 65-70ºC. The advan- 80
tage of this is that the losses from the pre-insulated piping network 70
decreases, and the flow down to this temperature is relatively constant. 60
50
When the heating system requires lower temperatures, large variations in
40
the flow are obtained. The same temperature is required for the opera-
30
tion of cooling processes during the summer as for the production of 20
domestic hot water. -15 -10 -5 ±0 5 10 15 20
toutdoor oC
The outgoing temperature can be lowered further according to the outdoor
temperature in systems where domestic hot water is not produced. The flow temperature will be controlled
The outgoing temperature must never be so low that the required heat by the weather compensator according to
volume is not available at each sub-station or that the return temperature the outdoor temperature. The dotted line
represents the lowest temperature for
becomes too high. The control valves should at all times have good heat
domestic hot water production.
authority. Fig. 5:22

4. Flow limitation.
In cases where there is a rapidly increasing heat requirement, or when the
production unit hasn´t got enough energy, the solution would be to limit
the flow to each heat exchanger. Flow limitation means that an
exchanger does not receive a higher flow than it is set for. One exchanger
cannot steal heat from the others.
The most simple flow limitation consists of a control valve and a
differential pressure control. The differential pressure control keeps the
differential pressure across the control valve constant. The current
differential pressure is the one required in order to assure a fully open
control valve to provide the maximum required flow.
With such equipment at each heat exchanger there will only be a
maximum flow at each exchanger, even if the heat amount is not suffici-
ent. When the flow temperature then increases, all the exchangers are
receiving the same heat, until sufficient heat volume is available and the
control valves begin to close up.
m3/h kvs 4,0 l/s

10 3
7 2
5
1,0
3 0,7
2 0,5
1,0 0,3
0,7 0,2
0,5
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
kvs 4,0 ,03
0,1
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
∆pvalve 55 kPa
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG
Maximum flow 3 m3/h 0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar
Constant ∆p, across a fully open valve, creates limitation.
Fig. 5:23 Fig. 5:24

5. Differential pressure control.

In systems with a varying flow, large variations arise in the available dif-
ferential pressure for the control valves. A differential pressure control
should be used if the difference between the calculated and the highest
differential pressure is more than 50 % of the calculated one.
If a differential pressure control is installed in the flow direction after the
control valve, with one impulse tube connected before and one after the
control valve, the differential pressure across the control valve will be
constant. Possible variations in the available differential pressure, even
very large ones, will not affect the control valve.
If a control valve appears to be too large, a reduction of the differential
pressure can adjust the control valve to the real requirement, with the
help of the differential pressure control. This also applies in the opposite
case.
m3/h kvs -value l/s

10 3
7 2
5
3 1,0
6,4 0,7
1 2 4 3
2 0,5
1,0 2,5 0,3
1,6
0,7 0,2
0,5 1
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa ∆pvalve kPa
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG kvs ∆pvalve kPa Flow m3/h

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar 1 6,4 10 2,0
2 4,0 25 2,0
By changing ∆p, across the valve you can make 3 2,5 61 2,0
it correspond exactly to the requirement.
Fig. 5:25 Fig. 5:26

6. Pressure control of pumps.

The pumps should be pressure or temperature controlled in all circuits
with a varying flow. Temperature control applies to the charging pumps
to the accumulator. Pressure control applies in all the systems where the
control valves are adjusting the flow according to requirement, the local
pre-insulated piping network with sub-stations for example.
The variations in the differential pressure available to the control valves
will be so large, even with pressure controlled pumps, that a differential
pressure control is required to obtain the best operation. If the connec-
tion is made according to the Tichelmann principle, the variations will
be the same.
∆ppump
∆pmin
∆p Flow %
200 100
100 Flow pipe
0 0
150
0 0
100 Return pipe
200 Min ∆p = 150 kPa 100
With a Tichelmann laying of the distribution pipes the same ∆p is always available in all sub-stations.
The differences in ∆p depending on various flows will however be the same as with conventional two-pipe
laying.
Fig. 5:27

7. Heat metering.
The only way of establishing what has been produced and what has been
delivered is by metering the heat volume. The metering also makes it
possible to estimate the efficiency of different units. The deliveries con-
stitute a basis for invoicing.
The modern heat meters based upon ultrasound are very efficient and
safe in operation and they are available in all required sizes.
A heat meter is used to register the outgoing heat from the combined
heating and power plant. The obtained heat volume and the outgoing
delivery to the sub-stations is registered at each local production unit.
The production in the local boiler should be registered as well. Finally,
the heat volumen obtained in each sub-station should be registered.
The records made with values from these meters can reveal possible
defects in pre-insulated pipe construction or in the control of certain
units.
Powerplant Boilerplant
Heat metering is the basis for invoicing.

Fig. 5:28

8. Central control and supervision.

The question of control and supervision becomes even more important
in combined heating and power plants that also produce electricity.
For one thing, there are more items to take into consideration when the
production of electricity items is effected. Secondly, the local district
heating systems, in any case the operation of the accumulator, should be
controlled from the combined heating and power plant. It is essential
that centrally you have the knowledge of how much cooling that can be
obtained from the local district heating systems.
When a local boiler is to be connected to assist the existing ones, you
have to be able to control the operating process from a central point.
The local computers should be connected to the computer in the com-
bined heating and power plant.
Boilerplant Sub-stations
The operations and maintenance are assisted and made more efficient via
central data control and supervision.
Fig. 5:29

CHAPTER 6 • INSTRUCTIONS FOR DESIGNING HEATING SYSTEMS.
Instructions for designing

heating systems.
In order to obtain the required effect, a lower consumption, a smaller

quantity of impurities and improved comfort, heat and domestic hot
water installations in new and existing buildings have to be installed in a
way that fits into the total pattern.
The solutions stated below are those which appear to be the most
suitable for this purpose for the years to come.

Comfort.
The purpose when building houses and to supply them with heating and
domestic hot water is to create better conditions for the residents.
Comfort here is a question of creating conditions so that an apartment
will be comfortable to live in.
1. Room temperature.
Metering the room temperature with a thermometer is not a very good
20oC measure of comfort, but it is the simplest method of measuring we have.
16oC Heating systems are usually designed for a room temperature of 18-20 ºC,
and that is for most cases sufficient. Elderly or sick persons may need a
higher temperature to experience the same comfort as younger and
healthy ones.
18 oC
The temperature difference vertically in a room should not be too great
either. It is not nice if the feet are cold, while it is too warm in the area
16 oC round the head.
Measured air temperature is not a measure of
comfort. 2. Temperatures on the surfaces of the room.
Fig. 6:1 The heat transfers from warm to cold surfaces.
A person sitting close to a cold window emits heat to the window, and
after a while he/she will experience unpleasedt conditions. All surfaces
with a lower temperature than the skin receives radiant heat from the
person. How much is depends on the difference in temperature.
∆t K
16
14
U=3
12 ,0
10 U=2,0
8
U=1,5
6
U=1,2
4
-20 -15 -10 -5 ±0
Outdoor temperature oC
Difference in temperature between room, 20°C, and window of different window
constructions. Window temperatures below +12°C can cause radiant cooling.
Window with sealed double glazing give a U = 3.0.
Fig. 6:2

A room with many cold surfaces (a corner room with a roof ) provides a
lower level of comfort than a room with few cold surfaces (a room with
only one exterior wall), due to the radiant heat.
To increase the comfort, the temperature of the cold surfaces must be
raised, which can be done in two ways; either by raising the room
temperature or improving the insulation.
A better level of insulation with regard to windows means having sealed
double glazed units.
Roofs should be better insulated, and a heat transmission coefficient of
0,3 W/m2K, about 100 mm mineral wool, is a minimum requirement.
Gable walls should be insulated in the same way as roofs.
3. Downdraught
Downdraught is a reverse convection. Air coming into contact with a
surface that holds a lower temperature, cools down, becomes heavier and
descends.
Downdraught occurs mostly in the window areas, as the window has the
lowest temperature in a room, but all the surfaces with a lower temperature
than the room air causes downdraught. How much will depend on the
difference in temperature.
The cold air descends to the floor where it stays. Radiators below the
windows can remove the downdraught providing they cover the whole The down draught from the window can be
width of the window. prevented by the heat from the radiator if the
window bay and the windowledge are designed
Heat emission through radiation to a cold surface, cold radiation, is often properly.
mistaken for down draught. The same measures apply on both down Fig. 6:3
draught as well as cold radiation. To counter balance this, raise the tem-
perature of the cold surfaces!
4. Ventilation.
Ventilation removes impurities, such as small particles, odour and mois-
ture, from the rooms. Odour and moisture are secreted from the human
body, but they are also produced by cooking. The introduction of showers
in the apartments increases the moisture production greatly, and a brief
and effective ventilation is required. A brief cross draught is cheap and efficient.
Fig. 6:4
An easy way to ventilate is to simply open a window. If this is done
briefly with a fully open window or even with cross draught, it is both
efficient and cheap. If no extra measures are taken to insulate round the
windows, these leaks are sufficient during the winter months, together
with an efficient airing, to remove the odour and moisture.

5. Wind influences.
The air changes in the building increases when it is windy, and if one
wants to preserve the room temperature at the set level, a higher flow
temperature to the radiators is required.
6. Distribution of the heat.

In principle, the room temperature should be the same in all the rooms
of a building. If roof and gable walls are not insulated, it should be pos-
sible to keep a somewhat higher temperature in rooms with roof and/or
gable walls.
The room temperature must be somewhat higher in rooms with more cold surfaces
to keep the same comfort.
Fig. 6:5
7. Domestic hot water.

Each apartment should have access to domestic hot water in the kitchen
and in the bathroom. The bathroom should be equipped with a floor
drain and a shower.
When a combined heating and power plant is in operation and is using
the apartment, heating systems for cooling, the costs for a shower are
small, but the value of hygiene and comfort is substantial.

8. Hot water circulation.

When the water in a riser for domestic hot water stands without tapping
for a long time it will take room temperature. The first person wanting
hot water will therefore run away a large amount of water before hot
water reaches the tap. If a small circulation pipe is laid parallel to the riser
and connected with the riser at the top, a gravity circulation is obtained
so that hot water always is available.
A gravity circulating system makes water of the right temperature available

throughout the whole system.
Fig. 6:06

Conditions.
1. Heat requirement.
The heat losses in a building consist of:
• transmission
• ventilation
• domestic water
2. Calculation of the transmission losses.

The transmission losses are losses through walls, floors, ceilings/roofs,
windows and doors, arising due to the outdoor and indoor temperature
differences.
The size of these losses should be calculated at the outdoor design tem-
perature for the specific geographical area, for example –10ºC, and a
room temperature of 18-20ºC.
The calculated transmission loss will always be considerably higher than
the real value.
When starting up the system the real losses are to serve as a basis for the
adjustments made.
∆t oC 40 30 25 20 16
emission
Heat
tflow oC
1,2 100 12
1,1 95
1 90
1,0 10
0,9
0,8 2 80 8
0,7 70
0,6 6
0,5 60 5
0,4 4
0,3 50
0,2
0,1
0
0 1,0 2,0 Q
tflow treturn ∆t Q Required heat
1. Calculated 95 70 25 1 1,0
2. Measured 75 66 9 2 0,74
The calculated heat requirement is never equal to the actual requirement.

Fig.6:7

3. Ventilation.
It is rather easy in buildings with mechanical supply and exhaust air, to
calculate the heat requirement for the ventilating air. The size of the air
flow and the specific heat content of the air are known as well as the
required temperature rise. These factors are multiplied and the heat
requirement for ventilation is determined.
A fan exhausting air from an apartment, a kitchen fan for instance, takes
in air through leaks in the building, and that air is warmed up by the
radiators in the rooms.
It is difficult to determine the size of the air flow at self draught or at
airing through leaks. A lowest standard value is 0,5 air change per hour.
However, the cold incoming air is to be warmed up by the radiators.
Large forces arise in high-rise buildings due to differences in tempera-
ture between the air outside and the air inside the building, so called self
draught forces. The stair-well in a high-rise building becomes a
ventilating duct, removing large amount of heat from the building,
especially if the outer door on the ground floor is open. Keep the outer
door closed and put another door a few meters inside the outer door, a so
called airlock !
4. Incidental heat gain.

Incidental heat gain from other heat sources than the heating system
have to be used to reduce the heat consumption. The incidental heat gain
will give over-temperatures if the heat supply from the heating system is
not reduced correspondingly. Thermostatic valves are well suited to use
the incidental heat gains with a preserved room temperature.
The amount of the incidental heat gain will largely depend on the
activity of the residents, and the amount of the incidental heat gain as
part of the heat requirement of a room becomes larger the better the
room is insulated.

5. The wind influence on the heat requirements.

The air change increases in the buildings in windy conditions. The
harder the wind, the larger the air changes. An increase in volume of cold
air supplied to the room has to be warmed up to room temperature.
Otherwise the room temperature will decrease.
It is not usually windy at the same time as we have design outdoor
temperatures. Thus the radiator size needs no compensation for the wind
p1 p2 tflow influence, unless the experience/statistics from the area is/are showing
∆ppump something else. The flow temperature, however, must be raised in windy
conditions. As an alternative, a slightly too high flow temperature is used
and the thermostatic valves will keep the room temperature at the right
treturn level. Then the heat is there even in windy conditions.
6. Heat requirement per room.

Find ∆ppump; p2 - p1; The total heat requirement per room is equal to the sum of the trans-
Find the flow from the flow chart of the pump and mission and the ventilating requirement. The size of the radiators and
∆t for the circuit = tflow - treturn oC.
Heat consumption = ∆t x flow; the required flow are determined according to this value, at maximum
Fig. 6:8 load.
7. Control of the actual heat requirement.

The actual heat requirement for a building cannot be obtained until the
building is built and the system is in operation. The simplest way is to
meter the current flow and the flow and return temperatures. A
multiplication of the temperature difference and the flow gives the heat
amount.
Heat requirement for domestic hot water
Cold water: +8 oC 8. Domestic hot water.
Hot water: 65 oC The heat requirement for heating domestic water is rather easy to
Flow: 1 l/s calculate, the flow multiplied by the temperature raise, but the size of the
P = 1 × 3.600 × 57 × 0.86 = 176.472 W; accumulated flow is difficult to determine.
P = 176 kW; The pipes for domestic hot water have to be made of copper or of heat
resistant plastics.

Heating systems.
The heating system should be constructed and operated in a way that the
stated requirements can be reached with regard to environment, comfort,
operating economy and a low return temperature.
Before a system or part of it is taken into operation it have to be pressure
tested. The system in question is filled with treated water and all the air
is let out. After that, the pressure is increased with a pump, up to at least
1,3 times the maximum working pressure. The pressure should be kept
constant for at least 60 minutes, without dropping. Joints, connections
and equipment should be checked visually during the pressure testing to
make sure that there is no leakage. The supervisor in charge should keep
records, of the pressure tests. The records should contain information on
time, place, scope, current pressures at the beginning and the end of the
test, and also possible leakages attended to. The records are then to be
signed by the supervisor in charge.
1. Heat exchangers.
Each building ought to be equipped with its own sub-station. It is appro-
priate in long buildings to have several sub-stations. The same applies to
high-rise buildings, of more than 18 floors. These are however divided
vertically.
Sub-station.
In the sub-station, the high temperatures in the primary system are con-
verted to the level required by the system in the building. The systems are
completely separated from each other, a fact which requires an expansion
system and a circulation pump to make the secondary system work.
Circuit diagram.
If there is only one heat exchanger in the sub-station, there are no pro-
Two parallel connected heat exchangers.
blems in connecting it, but a parallel connection of the exchangers is
Fig. 6:9
recommended when it is a case of several exchangers. Then each system
will have its own control equipment and expansion vessel, as well as
circulation pump.

2. Expansion system.
Expansion system.
Expansion tank
An open expansion system, with the circulation pump installed in the
flow pipe, is a simple and practical solution.
There has to be room around the vessel for inspection and repair work.
Expansion pipe
The connection of the expansion pipe to the heat exchanger must not be
equipped with a shut-off device.
Corrosion protection of expansion vessels.

The expansion vessel and the upper part of the expansion pipe should be
made of rust-proof material.
Pump in the flow pipe and no shut-off valve

between the heat exchanger and the
expansion tank.
Fig. 6:10
The design circuit is the pipes from the heat exchanger to the radiator located
farthest away. The resistance in this circuit is equal to the pump head.
Fig. 6:11
3. Circulation pump.
Circulation pumps should be installed in the flow, which will guarantee
that there is water in all the radiators when the pump is in operation. The
pumps should be reliable and equipped with a tight sealing shaft that
requires no maintenance. It is advisable to place a unit for sludge separa-
tion after the pump, a filter for instance. The filter unit is constructed
with shut-off devices so that it can easily be emptied of sludge.
The flow is determined from the calculated heat requirements and the
temperature drop. The pressure increase over the pumps is obtained from
the pipe calculation. There is no reason for making any increases in these
values. The pumps are already oversize with the increases made when
calculating the heat requirements for the building. A too high differential
pressure can cause flow noise in valves and radiators.

4. Horizontal distribution pipe.
Definitions.
The horizontal distribution pipes distributes the water from the sub-
station to other buildings and/or risers.
Pipe material.
Standard pipes joined together by welding are used for the larger units.
The connection of valves and devices is made with flanges.
Smaller pipe installations are of threaded steel pipe and the sizes are
adapted to standardized pipe threads.
Piping.
The distribution pipes can be laid as pre-insulated pipes, in the ground,
under a building or hung from the roof in the basement of the building,
depending on how the building is constructed.
Horizontal distribution pipes.
Compensation of the linear expansion due to variations in temperature.
Fig. 6:12
The linear expansion for steel pipes is 0,12 mm per meter of pipe and a
temperature change of 10ºC. The temperature change 10-95ºC gives 85 ºC,
i.e. 8,5×0,12 mm =1,02 mm/m. Measures must be taken with regard to
long pipework seetions.
The linear expansion is absorbed up by expansion loops on the pipework
or by shifting the pipe course sideways to create an expansion loop. It is
important that the pipes can move towards the device picking up the
expansion and that the branches are of such length, up to a passage
Length of expansion loops.
through a wall or a vault, that they can pick up the expansion without Fig. 6:13
failing.
Insulation.
The distribution pipes are insulated in such a way that the heat losses to
the consumers are as small as possible. When the piping is visible, the
insulation is provided with a protective surface layer.
It is important for the functioning of the system that the flow tempera-
ture is the same for each connected riser.

5. Risers.
Definition.
Risers are the vertical pipes emanating from the horizontal distribution
pipes up through the building.
Each riser is equipped with shut-off and draining valves and possibly a
differential pressure valve.
Pipe material.
Standard pipes joined together through welding are used for the larger
installations.
Riser with shut-off and draining valves.

The connection of valves and devices are made with flanges.
Fig. 6:14 Smaller pipe dimensions are made of threaded steel pipes and the sizes
are adapted to standardized pipe threads.
Piping.
The risers are placed in central shafts with branches on each floor. The
branches are equipped with shut-off valves.
Pipe embedded Compensation of the linear expansion due to variations in temperature.

in concrete The linear expansion for steel pipes is 0,12 mm per meter pipe and a
temperature change of 10ºC, i.e. approximately 1 mm/m in heating
systems. Measures should be taken when the piping is 15 m long or
Floor more.
The linear expansion is absorbed by expansion loops on the piping or by
shifting the pipe course sideways to create an expansion loop. The pipes
should be fixed so that they can move towards the device absorbing the
Riser expansion.
The expansion of the riser must be taken into The branches on each floor should be of a sufficient length or have a
consideration when the branch is installed.
flexible insulation to be able to absorb the expansion. They must not be
Fig. 6:15
locked.
Insulation.
The risers are insulated in a way that the heat losses to the consumers are
as small as possible. When the piping is visible, the insulation is provided
with a protective surface layer.
It is important for the functioning of the system that the flow
temperature is the same at the branches on each floor.

6. High-rise buildings.
The equipment included in a heating system, radiators, pumps, valves
etc., are designed to the highest working pressure, usually 600 kPa
28th floor
(6 bar). Each meter vertically corresponds to about 10 kPa. With an
apartment height of three meters and an open expansion vessel placed at
the roof on the top floor, it is possible to accommodate 19 floors
((600-30)/30=19 floors), but then there are no margins. A maximum of
18 floors would be more realistic.
In buildings with more than 18 floors, the heat installation ought to be
vertically divided. A building with 28 floors receives two heating systems,
managing 14 floors each. There are two options for the upper floors. The
heat exchanger can either be placed in the sub-station on the ground
floor (A), or a separate sub-station is set up on the 15th floor (B). The
sub-station on the 15th floor might also serve the 14 first floors, but in
that case with a separate heat exchanger. (D)
If the sub-station of both the heating systems is placed on the ground
floor (A, C), the equipment installed for the highest located heating
system (C) have to manage the higher static pressure occurring, more B 15th floor D
than 600 kPa. 14th floor
If the sub-station is placed on a floor halfway up the building, it will
provide a correspondingly higher static pressure for the primary system,
(steam pressure at 120ºC 100 kPa, height to the sub-station placed on
the 18th floor 300 kPa, plus the possible difference in level between the
floor in the production unit and the floor on the 1st floor of the connec-
ted building, sum = at least 400 kPa). The material on the primary side
usually manages these pressures if the boilers are separated with heat
exchangers.
1st floor A C
Sub-station in high-rise buildings.
A or D for the lower part of the building
B or C for the upper part of the building

7. Radiator circuit, two-pipe horizontal.

The horizontal two-pipe system emanates from a centrally placed riser
with branches on each floor. A differential pressure control, keeping the
differential pressure constant at 10 kPa, is installed on the branch on each
floor. Then, branches are made for one radiator circuit to each apart-
ment. Each branch is equipped with shut-off valves and flow meters. The
radiator circuit is either laid as a two-pipe system with a parallel flow and
return pipe, or as a Tichelmann-coil with the pipes insulated in the
screed. With regard to existing buildings, the pipes are laid uninsulated
on a wall.
Adjustment.
The thermostatic valves in a two-pipe system provide a varying flow and
Insulated pipes for the radiator circuit embedded a varying differential pressure. A pre-set adjustment will only function at
into the floor. a maximum flow, when the flow decreases, the resistance over the adjust-
Fig. 6:17
ment changes by the square of the flow change.
∆p 5 kPa
Available ∆p on the 18th floor
∆p riser
Available ∆p on the 1st floor ∆p radiator circuit ∆p radiator
Available differential pressure in the riser without differential pressure control.

Fig. 6:18

A simple and safe method for the balancing of two-pipe systems with a
varying flow is based upon differential pressure controls at the bottom of
each riser or for each radiator circuit/floor. The differential pressure
control keeps the differential pressure constant independent of the
changes in flow. Maximum differential pressure across the thermostatic
valves is 25 kPa to prevent excessive noise.
Available ∆p on the 18th floor

∆p 10 kPa
∆p radiator circuit
∆p radiator
Differential pressure control gives the same available pressure on each floor.
Fig.6:19
It is sufficient with an approximate adjustment based upon heat

requirement for each radiator. The adjustment will only take effect if and
when the available heat volume is not enough to keep the temperature
set on the thermostatic valve, i.e. at a long decrease in the flow temperature
or at disturbances in the heat supply.

8. Radiators – convectors.
There are three types:
• radiators
• convectors
• convection radiators, convector with a front plate giving radiated heat.
Radiators emit heat through radiation but not through convection, or air
movement, until higher temperatures are reached – above 40ºC surface
temperature at 20ºC room temperature.
Section radiator. Panel Convector
radiator Convectors emit heat through convection.
Fig. 6:20 Convection radiators emit a smaller part of heat through radiation.
Approximate distribution among radiation and convection for different
heaters.:
Radiation % Convection %
Section radiators 15 85
Panel radiators, single 32 68
Convectors – 100
Convection radiators 10 90
As systems they are pretty much equal but they should not be mixed in
the same system, and from now on they will all be treated as radiators.
Radiator size.
The radiators are sized for a nominal heat requirement, and the flow will
vary when the thermostatic valves adjust the heat supply to the current
requirement. The best effect is reached if the connection with the flow is
made to the upper tap-in, and the return to the lower tap-in on the same
side of the radiator.
Mounting.
In order to prevent downdraught, the warm air from the radiators must
be able to rise and meet the cold glass in the windows. Window ledges,
if any, should be constructed so there is a gap along the whole window.
The gap should be at least 30 mm wide, as close as possible to the
window.

The covering of radiators reduces the heat emission by obstructing the

heat emission from the radiator to the room. The most common type of
covering, which has only a grille in front of part of the radiator, reduces
the heat emission disastrously. A better solution, if the radiator is to be
concealed, is to make the front tight but with a 10 cm high opening at
the floor. The width of the opening should be equal to the width of the
radiator. An opening is made in the horizontal protection plate of the
cover of the same length as the radiator. The depth of the opening should
be 15-20 cm and it should be as close as possible to the window.
This function will be even better if plates are placed closely, at both ends
of the radiator so that a vertical passage is formed. The reason why many
residents are using radiator screens is that the high surface temperature
causes a strong radiant heat which is experienced as unpleasant, when
you are close to the radiator. The flow temperature should therefore not
be higher than that which is necessary to manintain the desired room
temperature.
a+40 Alternative
a openings
Open lattice Small and tight Acceptable cabinet

> -15% lattice. ca -8 - 10%
Not recommended.
> -30%
Covering a radiator reduces the heat emission.

Fig. 6:21

Operating conditions.
1. Temperature levels.
A flow temperature of 95ºC and a temperature drop of 20-25ºC have
been referred to as the calculated values. If the radiators are sized cor-
rectly, a flow temperature of 95ºC is required for the last radiator. The
temperature drop from the sub-station to the last radiator is about 5ºC
in larger systems. Consequently the outgoing temperature from the sub-
station should be 100ºC and that is not possible.
90ºC is the highest temperature at which a radiator system can be ope-
∆t °C 40 30 25 20 16 rated under these circumstances, which means an outgoing temperature
of about 95ºC from the sub-station. The adjoining heat emission curve
1 2
100 for radiators is therefore made for a flow temperature of 90ºC.
1,2 3 12
1,1 90 A lower flow temperature or a smaller temperature drop requires larger
1,0 10
0,9 4 80 radiators. The lower flow temperature should be used if it turns out that
0,8 8 a lower flow temperature can be used without influencing the desired
0,7 70
0,6 6 room temperature, (the heat authority of the thermostatic valves or a low
0,5 60 5
return temperature). A lower flow temperature provides improved
0,4 50 4
0,3 comfort by reducing the difference in surface temperature between
0,2
0,1 different surfaces in the rooms.
0
0 1,0 2,0 Q A two-pipe radiator system requires that the flow temperature to all the
radiators is pretty much the same if the system is going to function well.
1 first radiator in circuit, tflow 95oC, Q = 1,0
By metering the temperature drop across a radiator and then reading the
2 last radiator in circuit, tflow 90oC, Q = 1,0
room and the outdoor temperatures, it is possible to get an idea of how
If Q = 2,0 the temperature drop across radiator will large the system in question is, compared to the actual requirement. The
be 50% lower. The flow temperature can be reduced
while the heat emission remain the same. flow temperature is set at a level providing good heat authority for the
3 first radiator in circuit, tflow 87,5oC, Q = 1,0 last thermostatic valve of the design circuit. The calculated temperature
drop across radiator or radiator circuit should be strived for.
4 last radiator in circuit, tflow 85oC, Q = 1,0
2. Return temperature.
The return temperature from the radiators should be at least as low as the
required primary return temperature. 70ºC is the calculated value, but a
lower temperature is preferable and should be strived for.
A two-pipe system is the only solution that can guarantee a low return
temperature at the right conditions.

3. Temperature drops in the pipe system.

Excessively large pipes result in low water rates and large heat losses.
Large heat losses in pipes with a small area result in a large temperature
drops, and it is important for a good functioning that the flow temperature
is the same to all the radiators.
Good insulation and the highest rates applies for a good functioning.
The stated maximum water rates should be strived for. See graph in
chapter 8.
4. Static pressure.
At temperatures below 100ºC, the static pressure is equal to the height Expansion tank
converted into kPa from the pressure gauge in the sub-station to the
highest point of the system. The pumps should be installed in the flow. 0,5 - 1 m
The static pressure is to ensure that all the parts of the system are filled Expansion pipe
with water, whether the circulation pump is in operation or not.
5. Expansion vessels.
The expansion vessel should be placed on the roof on the top floor. The
bottom of the vessel should be at the level for the static pressure, 0,5-1
meter above the highest point of the system. The space is warm, thus
there is no risk of freezing, and it can be equipped with a floor drain so
that a possible overflow does not cause any water damage.
The lower edge of the expansion tank should be
6. Available differential pressure. placed above the highest point of the system.
The available differential pressure must not be so high that it causes dis- Fig. 6:23
turbing noise. With regard to thermostatic valves, 25 kPa is applied
today, as a maximum for the highest quality thermostatic valves.
Differential pressure controls with a set constant differential pressure of
10 kPa guarantees quiet and well-controlled thermostatic valves.
The differential pressure controls give the same available differential pressure to
each radiator circuit.
Fig. 6:24

7. Water quality.
The requirements of the water used for filling the primary system also
applies to the secondary system.
The system must never be emptied of water, not even during longer
breaks in operation. As regards possible repairs, only the parts of the
system directly affected should be emptied.
Leakages should be attended to immediately.
Feeding Flow Water for filling the system is taken from the primary system. The
pipe meter refilling pipe should be equipped with a flow meter so you can register
the quantity of the refill in order to control the losses.
The secondary system can be filled up with treated
water from the district heating system but
8. Heat losses in the sub-station.
controlled. The amount of water fed into system
is to be measured and leakages are not acceptable. There are many surfaces with high temperatures emitting a lot of heat in
Fig. 6:25 the production units.
All warm surfaces should be well insulated in order to increase the effi-
ciency of the plant.
A high room temperature, which is a result of a bad insulation or none,
is shortening the life of the equipment required in a modern plant of this
type, not to mention the electronic controls. Furthermore, people have to
be able to work efficiently within the plant.
Ventilation assisted by of a thermostatically controlled fan reduces the
over-temperatures which arise.
Good insulation increases the efficency and lower the temperature in the
sub-station.
Fig. 6:26
Control.
It is in the apartments that the actual consumption occurs. Hot water
emits heat to a room and comfort is created with the right heat supply.
Comfort requires a control of the heat supply, that is, it must not be too
warm or too cold.
Comfortable environment and living conditions require efficient systems
with control over heat supply and heat emission.
1. Control and supervision.

The regular supervision of pressures and temperatures in sub-stations is
necessary for an economic and environmentally sound operation of the
local district heating system and in due course the combined heating and
power plants.
Information data on temperatures, water level or pressures in expansion
vessels, the position of the cone in the control valve, current primary flow
etc., is transferred to the computer in the local production plant, and
alarms for excessive temperatures, a low water level etc. can be recorded.
A computerized control and supervision makes it possible to optimize
the operation and also increases the operating safety.
Control valves.
Two-way valves should be used on the primary side, which means that Control and supervision will be efficient when
no more water than required is circulating in the system and that a large computerized.
temperature drop can be maintained. Fig. 6:27
Each heat exchanger should have its own control valve, which should be
sized according to the current flow and the lowest available differential
pressure. Avoid too large valves!
The valve capacity is stated with a kv-value. The flow through the valve
in m3/h, Q, at a differential pressure across the valve, ∆pv, on 1 bar (100
kPa). The kvs-value states the flow at a fully open valve.

2. Control of flow and return temperature.

The flow temperature should be adjusted according to the outdoor
temperature with a weather compensator which can be connected to a
computerized control and supervision system.
The flow temperature should be set so that the worst located thermostatic
valve will have good heat authority. Measure the flow and return
temperature across the radiator! A too high return temperature is obviated
by gradually increasing the flow temperature.
Measure the flow temperature to and the

temperature drop across the last radiator in the
tflow 72 °C
design circuit. Heat
A small increase in flow temperature has a big emission ∆t oC 40 30 25 20 16
influence on the temperature drop as well as on tflow oC
the flow. 100
1,2 12
1,1 90
1,0 10
0,9 3 2 80
0,8 1 8
0,7 70
0,6 6
0,5 60 5
0,4 50 4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 1,0 2,0 Q
1 : tflow 72oC, ∆t 9oC, heat requirement 0,73.
2 : ∆t 16oC, requires tflow 75oC.
3 : ∆t 25oC, requires tflow 80oC.
Fig. 6:28
3. Control of the room temperature.

kv
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N
The room temperature is controlled by having thermostatic valves on
RTD-N 15 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,20 0,27 0,36 0,45 0,60 each radiator. Even the last thermostatic valve is to have good heat
RTD-N 20 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83
RTD-N 25 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83 authority. A rough adjustment of the required flow is made on each
thermostatic valve.
Pre-set values for thermostatic valves. The thermostats can be limited to a maximum temperature of 18-22ºC.
Fig. 6:29 The temperatures should be higher where elderly or sick persons live.
A thermostatic valve with a built-in thermostat should in most cases be
used. When the valve cannot sense the actual room temperature, it is
replaced by a separate capillary connected sensor, placed at a suitable
point, in the room.
4. Pressure control of pumps.

All the circulation pumps in systems with varying flow should be
equipped with pressure control. A constant differential pressure at the
last branch/valve provides the largest saving. Using pressure control
doesn’t mean that differential pressure control valve should be excluded.
∆p kPa ∆p
∆p kPa ∆p
100 Circuit 100

90 90 Radiator
80 80
70 Circuit
∆p - control 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 Flow and return 30
pipe to circuit Flow and return
20 20 pipe to circuit
10 10
0 0
Q 0 50 100 % Q 0 50 100 %
Available differential pressure for a circuit close to the sub-station but with ∆p Available differential pressure for a circuit close to
control for the circuit. The pump has proportional pressure control. the sub-station. The pump has proportional pressure
Fig. 6:30 control.
Fig. 6:31
∆p kPa
7,5 4 kPa 55 ∆p 10 kPa ∆p 4 kPa
8 ≈ 17 m 55,5 ∆p 10 kPa 50 m
8,5
49
9 49,5
9,5 50
∆p 10 kPa ∆p 50,5 kPa

Available differential pressure with one differential
Available differential pressure with the differential pres- pressure control for each radiator circuit in high-raise
sure control in the riser, up to six floors. buildings.
Fig. 6:32 Fig. 6:33

Requirement 5.600+9.400=15.000 W. 5. Control of the available differential pressure.

Correction factor=5.600/15.000=0.37. In buildings of maximum 6 floors, each riser is equipped with a differen-
Requirement 5.600+5.600=11.200 W. tial pressure control providing 10 kPa.
Correction factor=5.600/11.200=0.5.
When the building has more than 6 floors, a differential pressure control,
providing 10 kPa, should be installed on each floor.
6. Flow metering per apartment.
Heat.
Each apartment is equipped with a flow meter for the distribution of the
heating costs. The flow meter should be accessible for reading from the
stair-well, and possibly connected with the control and supervision
system of the building.
Requirement 5.600 W. With regard to gable apartments and apartments with a roof, a
Correction factor=0. compensating factor is calculated on the basis of heat requirement
Requirement 5.600+1.700=7.300 W. calculations made for a similar apartment in the centre of the building.
Correction factor=5.600/7.300=0.77.
The heat comsumption, for apartments of the same Domestic water system.
size, will vary depending on how many outer wall Domestic hot water is produced in a heat exchanger of the percolation
and roof surfaces there are. A correction factor can type in the sub-station.
be calculated based on the heat requirement per
apartment or per square meter. A distribution pipe is laid in the ground floor of the building, from which
Fig. 6:34 risers are drawn up centrally through the building. Each riser is equipped
with shut-off and draining valves.
The branches on each floor are equipped with shut-off valves.
Distribution pipes and risers should be made of a non-corrosive material
and well insulated.
A gravity pipe for the of hot water should be laid parallel to the tap water
pipe.
The circulation pipe should be laid uninsulated in the riser, and at the
connection with the horizontal circulation pipe be equipped with an
adjustment valve.
Flow meters for domestic hot water should be installed in the stair-well,
Principles for domestic hot water in installation with one for each apartment.
circulation pipe, shut-off and adjustment valves.
Fig. 6:35

7. Control of domestic hot water.

The outgoing temperature from the heat exchanger should be kept con-
stant. A control valve on the primary side, regulated by an electronic <65 °C
control, which is either built-in to the weather compensator or placed
separately, keeps the outgoing temperature constant. Self-acting controls
>60 °C
can also be used.
The maximum temperature at the tap is 65ºC and the minimum is 60ºC.
The return temperature from the heat exchanger for domestic water
should be below 60ºC, by a comfortable margin.
8. Control of domestic water in an apartment. Control of flow temperature for domestic hot water.
Maximum and minimum temperatures are impor-
The taps for personal hygiene, shower and wash-basin should be tant.
designed so that hot and cold water can be mixed to a suitable temperature. FIG. 6:36
Max flow in the shower, 0,2 l/s.
Max flow in the wash-basin, 0,1 l/s.
Max flow in the kitchen, 0,2 l/s
Shower with mixer.

FIG. 6:37


CHAPTER 7 • HOW TO SELECT SIZE OF PRODUCTS AND COMPONENTS.
How to select size of

products and components.
Thermostatic valves.
Choice of valve size.
By-pass insert
Existing one-pipe systems.
All the radiators must be equipped with thermostatic valves to be able to
control the room temperature, use the incidental heat gain efficiently and
distribute the heat according to requirements. This requires a by-pass at
each radiator, and the resistance in the by-pass has to be larger than in
the main pipe so that a certain amount of water is let to in the radiator.
Good operation is obtained if the thermostatic valve has a low resistance,
like valves intended for gravity circulation, and the by-pass is of the same Existing one-pipe system with thermostatic valve
dimension as the main pipe. The by-pass is equipped with a restriction and by-pass.
creating the required resistance. Distribution through radiator and by-pass.
Fig. 7:1
Two-pipe systems.
The valve size is determined on the basis of the required flow and the
available differential pressure. Maximum differential pressure is limited
to 25 kPa as far as noise is concerned. The available differential pressure
for each thermostatic valve is obtained from the pipe calculation.
Flow.
The flow is calculated from the heat requirement in watts, W, and the
temperature drop across the radiator in Kelvin, K. The valve size can then
either be determined from a selection flow chart or be calculated.

Valve size.
The last valve in the design circuit, (which determines the pump head
throughout the entire system) ought to have a resistance of about 5 kPa.
The other valves should be sized according to the differential pressure
available for them, i.e. the penultimate valve in the design circuit has an
available pressure equal to the resistance across the last valve plus the
resistance in the pipes between the two valves.
∆p 5 kPa
1
∆p 80 kPa
140 133 125 7
∆p 72 kPa ∆p 9 kPa
Available ∆p for the risers in a two-pipe system.

Fig. 7:2
RTD-N 15
l/h kvs -value Pre-set value l/s
500
,1
300 N ,07
200 7 6 ,05
1 7
100 5 ,03
4
70 0,60 0,45 ,02
50 3
0,36 0,27 2 ,01
kv 30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N 0,20 0,12 ,007
20 ,005
RTD-N 15 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,20 0,27 0,36 0,45 0,60 1
RTD-N 20 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83
RTD-N 25 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83 10 0,08 ,003
7 0,04 ,002
5
Radiator l/h ∆p kPa Pre-set ,001
1 140 5 N 3
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 kPa
∆pvalve
7 140 9 7
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 mWG
125 140 72* 3,5
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 Bar
140 140 80* 3,5
*too high ∆p, will create a problem with noise. Finding the pre-set values for the thermostatic valves in the above heating system.
Fig. 7:3

Pre-setting.
Adjusting a valve implies a calculation of the difference between the
available and the required pressure for the valve. The resistance across the
valve should then be increased, through adjustment, so that all the
available pressure is utilized. The setting values providing the required
resistance can be read from the selection flow charts.The values for each
valve should be stated on the drawing so that the setting can be made in
connection with the installation.
Choice of control unit.

There are many conditions influencing the function of the thermostatic
valve. The control unit has to sense the room temperature to be able to
control it.This is not possible if it is covered by a long curtain or a
cabinet.
Heat radiation from warmer surfaces, for example heating pipes, a warm
floor, electrical devices etc., deceives the sensor into believe that it is
warmer than it actually is in the room.
Downdraught and draught from open windows or doors deceives the
sensor into believe that it is colder in the room than it actually is.
A control unit with a built-in sensor has difficulties in managing these
problems. A control unit with a separate capillary tube connected sensor
therefore should be chosen. The sensor can then be placed where it
detects the right room temperature.
The control unit has to sense the room temperature to be able to control it.
Fig. 7:4

Control valves.
Primary systems.
Two-way valves and consequently varying flow are recommended for the
primary systems.
Available differential pressure.

A resistance of 100-120 kPa is recommended to be available in the
design circuit for the control valve.
As regards other control valves in systems without a pressure controlled
pump the available differential pressure is obtained from the pipe
calculation.
When using pressure controlled pumps with the sensor located farthest
away in the system all the control valves should be sized for the lowest
available differential pressure of the system. In other words, the differential
pressure set on the sensor, 150kPa, is recommended, minus the resistance
in the heat exchanger in question, 20-50 kPa. Check the resistance in the
heat exchanger with the supplier!
If the available differential pressure at a valve should increase by 50% or
more of the designed differential pressure a differential pressure control
is recommended for that particular valve. The designed differential pres-
sure is shared between the control valve and the differential pressure
control.
∆ppump
∆pmin
∆p ∆psystem
600 Min ∆p = 150 kPa 100
Flow %
500
400 50
300
200
0
100
0
If the pump is equipped with pressure control the valves must be calculated for the
lowest available ∆p. In this case 150 kPa, 1,5 bar, minus the resistance in the heat
exchanger.
Fig. 7:5

Valve size.
Enter information of flow and available differential pressure into the
valve selection flow chart and then select the valve size! The dimension
of the pipe in which the control valve is to be installed has no influence
on the required valve size.
m3/h Valve kvs - value l/s

50 40 15
3 25 10
30 1 Example, control valve:
7
20 16 ∆t = 50 oC.
5 1 P = 1.500 kW; Q = 1.500 × 0,86 / 50 = 25,8 m3/h.
10 3
10
7 6,3 2 ∆p available = 1,5 bar. ∆p heat exchanger = 0,3 bar.
5 4,0
1,0 2 ∆p = 1,5 bar - 0,3 = 1,2 bar.
3 2,5 0,7
2 1,6 0,5 Values from diagram:
1,0 1,0 0,3 3 kvs = 25 m3/h, ∆pv = 1,1 bar
0,7 ,63 0,2
0,5 ,4
0,3 0,1
,07
0,2 ,05
2
0,1 ,03
10 20 30 40 60 100 150 kPa
∆pvalve
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG
0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar
Sizing of the control valves in the adjoining district heating circuit.

Fig. 7:6

Secondary systems.
Two-way valves should also be used in the secondary systems, with a
main pump supplying the water out to each mixing loop or shunt.

Two-way valve.
A resistance of 10-15 kPa is recommended to be available for the control
valve in the design circuit.
The available differential pressure for other control valves in systems
without a pressure controlled pump is obtained from the pipe calculation
and as much as possible of the differential pressure should be used.
∆ppump
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
∆pvalve
∆psystem < 15 kPa
∆psystem ∆p 100% flow Design ∆p

without pump control or with constant ∆p
∆p kPa
60
50 ∆p at 0% flow
40 with max ∆p
30
20 with proportional ∆p
10
0
∆pvalve
With proportional or parallel pump control
Available ∆p with or without pump control at different flow.

Impulse tube
Fig.7:7
With regard to the pressure controlled pump with the sensor at the
pump, all the control valves should be sized for the lowest differential
pressure they will obtain. The designed differential pressure depends on
which type of pressure control that is used:
• a constant differential pressure gives design values according to the
pipe calculation
• a proportional control gives that design value which is 50% of the
maximum differential pressure
• a pressure control parallel to the pipe resistance gives a design value
that is 50% of the maximum differential pressure
This combination provides the control valve with the • a constant ∆p at control valve located the farthest away gives design
same available pressure when the flow fluctuates. values for all the control valves equal to the lowest set differential pres-
Fig 7:8 sure

If the available differential pressure at a valve should increase by 50% or

more of the designed differential pressure, a differential pressure control
is recommended for that particular valve. The designed differential pres-
sure is shared between the control valve and the differential pressure
control.
Valve size.
Enter information of flow and available differential pressure into the
valve selection flow chart and then select valve size! The dimensions of
the pipe in which the control valve is to be installed has no influence on
the required valve size.
Sizing of the control valves in the above heating circuit. Exampel.

Q = 3 m3/h
∆ppump = constant
m3/h Valve kvs - value l/s ∆pavailable = from the calculation of the design
circuit, including valve 9.
200 50 Here: from the above diagram + ∆p valve no 9.
145 100 Excessive ∆p, ∆pexc. = ∆pavailable - ∆pvalve
100 30
∆ppump = ∆psystem + ∆p valve 9.
63 20
∆psystem = 60 kPa.
50
40 Sizing of control valve 9.
30 10
25 7 See diagram: 3 m3/h, ∆p<15 kPa
20 16 5 kvs 10, ∆p valve 9 = 9 kPa.
10 Selecting valve size from diagram:
10 3
Valve ∆pavailable kvs ∆pvalve ∆pvalve
7 3 1 6,3 2
5 1 53+9=62 4,0 55 7
9 8 7 6 54 2 4,0 1,0 2 47+9=56 4,0 55 1
3 2,5 0,7 3 40+9=49 6,3 23 26
2 1,6 0,5 4 34+9=43 6,3 23 20
1,0 1,0 0,3 5 26+9=35 6,3 23 12
0,7 ,63 0,2 6 20+9=29 6,3 23 6
0,5 7 14+9=23 6,3 23 -
,4
0,1 8 7+9=16 10 9 7
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar
Sizing valves from a diagram will not give the same mathematical accuracy
as a calculation, but it is good enough when considering the inaccuracy of the
underlying calculations.
Fig 7:9

Differential pressure controls.

∆p Only the differential pressure control can eliminate the pressure varia-
tions being the result of a varying flow in the systems, and only the dif-
ferential pressure control can provide the control valves with good
working conditions.
The valve size is determined on the basis of the required flow and the
available differential pressure. A differential pressure control keeping the
pressure constant across a control valve has to be sized along with the
control valve.
h
Controlled ∆p gives the best result. Primary systems.
Fig.7:10 Differential pressure controls are used in primary systems to keep the dif-
ferential pressure constant across a sub-station or a valve in the sub-
station.

The available differential pressure for the sub-station, 150 kPa, minus the
resistance across the heat exchanger, 30 kPa, is the available differential
pressure for both the control valve and the differential pressure control,
∆pv2 =150-30=120kPa.
Two parallel connected heat exchangers.

Fig. 7:11

Valve size.
Divide ∆pv2 by two and choose a control valve from the valve selection
flow chart according to the ∆p and the flow in question. The remaining
∆p, i.e.120 kPa minus ∆pv is the available differential pressure for the
differential pressure control. Enter the differential pressure and the flow
for the differential pressure control into the selection flow chart and
then select size!
∆ppump
∆psystem ∆pmin
∆p
600 Flow % 100
500
400 50
300
200
0
100
0
Min ∆p = 150 kPa
If the pump is equiped with pressure control, the valves must be calculated for the
lowest available ∆p. In this case 150 kPa, 1,5 bar, minus resistance in the heat
exchanger. All valves for which the available ∆p will exceed the design ∆p with
more than 50% require a ∆p control.
Fig, 7:12
Example, control valve and differential pressure control:
∆t = 50 oC
m3/h Valve kvs - value l/s
1 P = 1.500 kW; Q = 1.500 × 0,86 / 50 = 25.800 l/h.
50 15 ∆p available = 1,5 bar. ∆p heat exchanger = 0,3 bar.
0 ∆p = 1,5 - 0,3 = 1,2 bar.
30 1 3 2 4 4 25 10
7
20 16 5 2 ∆p available for ∆p valve = 1,2/2 = 0,6 bar;
10 3 Values for ∆p - valve from diagram: kvs = 40 m3/h;
10
7 6,3 2
3 ∆pv = 0,41 bar
5 4,0
1,0
3 2,5 0,7 4 ∆p available for control valve = 1,2-0,41 = 0,79
2 1,6 0,5 bar
1,0 1,0 0,3 kvs = 40 m3/h; ∆pv = 0,41 bar;
0,7 ,63 0,2 Pre-set value for the ∆p control = 0,41 bar;
0,5 ,4
0,3 0,1
,07
0,2
,05
0,1 ,03
10 20 30 40 60 100 150 kPa
∆pvalve
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG
Fig, 7:13 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar

Setting value.
A differential pressure control keeps the differential pressure constant
across a circuit. The setting value for the differential pressure control is
equal to the resistance in that particular circuit.
Secondary systems.
In the secondary systems differential pressure controls are used to keep
the differential pressure constant across a control valve or a part of the
system, for example a riser or a two-pipe radiator circuit containing
several thermostatic valves.

In secondary systems, the resistance in the design circuit, of which the
differential pressure control is a part, is calculated. It is important when
calculating to check the requirements for the differential pressure control
in question. Some of these differential pressure controls require a
minimum differential pressure to function properly.
The resistance across the differential pressure control in the design
circuit is obtained from the selection flow chart. Enter the flow in
question into the selection flow chart then select valve size and read the
resistance.
For the other circuits the available differential pressure is obtained from
the pipe calculation.
Valve size.
Differential pressure control across a control valve.
In the designed circuit first of all check if the differential pressure control
requires a minimum differential pressure. Is this the case, select a size of
control which requires at least this pressure. Even if the resistance across
the smallest valve is not large enough make sure that at least the
minimum differential pressure is available. Select accordingly the size of
the control valve.
The available pressure in the other circuits is divided by two. The control
valve is selected first and the remaining differential pressure is used for
selection of the differential pressure controller.

∆pvalve
< 15 kPa
∆ppump
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Example
∆psystem ∆p 100%
∆p Pa ∆p at 0% Q = 3m2/h
With max ∆p ∆ppump = constant
60
50
40 With proportional ∆p ∆pavailable = from the calculation of the design
30
circuit, including valve no 9.
20
∆pvalves no
10 Here: from the above diagram ∆p valve 9.
0
Excessive ∆p ∆pexc. = ∆pavailable - ∆pvalve
Design ∆p ∆ppump = ∆psytem + ∆p control and differential
Available ∆p with or without Without pump control or with constant ∆p pressure valves no 9.
pump control at different flow With proportional or parallel pump contol ∆psystem = 60 kpa.
Fig. 7:14 Sizing of the control and differential pressure
control valves no 9.
Sizing of the control valves and differential pressure control valves in the above See flow chart: 9. 3m3/h ∆p control valve <15 kPa.
heating circuit.
∆p valve no 9 kvs 10, ∆p = 9 kPa.
The ∆p control valve will be the same size
m3/h Valve kvs-value m3/h l/s and ∆p ∆pvalves = 18 kPa.
200 50 ∆ppump = 60 + 9 + 9 = 78 kPa.
145 Selecting valve size from flow chart:
100 30
100 Divide the total available ∆p by 2.
63 20
Find in flow chart the cutting point between flow,
50 40
10
3 m3/h, and the ∆p available for the valve.
30 25 Choose the first valve size which is big enough.
7
20 16 5 Find ∆p across the chosen valve, that is the set pressure
10 for the differential pressure control.
10 3
42 The two valves will have the same size.
7 7 6,3 2
5 Valve ∆pavailable kvs ∆pvalve ∆pvalves
9 8 6 3 1 4,0
5 1,0
3 2,5 0,7
Total 1 valve
2 1,6 0,5 1 53+18=71 35 6,3 23 46
2 44+18=6 31 6,3 23 46
1,0 1,0 0,3 3 39+18=57 28 6,3 23 46
0,7 ,63 0,2 4 34+18=52 26 6,3 23 46
0,5 5 29+18=47 23 6,3 23 46
,4 6 24+18=42 21 10 9 18
0,3 0,1
,07 7 19+18=37 18 10 9 18
0,2 8 12+18=30 15 10 9 18
,05
,03 Calculation of valve no 9.
0,1
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 kPa 3
kv = ; kv = 7,8; => valve with kv 10,0;
∆pvalves
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG √ 0,15

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar ∆p =
( 103 ) ; 2 ∆p = 0,09 bar; => 9 kPa.
v
Choosing valves from a flow chart will not give the mathematical accuracy
as a calculation, but it is good enough when considering the inaccuracy of the
underlying calculations.
Fig. 7:15
Differential pressure control of risers.

With regard to the design circuit, it is first of all a question of checking
if the differential pressure control requires a lowest differential pressure.
If so, choose a size of control that requires at least this pressure, or make
a reservation for the lowest required pressure for the control, even if the
resistance across it is not very large.
Concerning the other circuits, the flow and the available differential
pressure are entered in the selection flow chart and a suitable valve size
is chosen.
∆p 5 kPa 1
∆p 9 6
∆p 9
∆p 80 kPa 140 133 125 ∆p 9 kPa 7
∆p 72 kPa
Available ∆p for the risers with ∆p-control valves.

Fig. 7:16
l/h Valve kvs - value Set values l/s

500
140 ,1
300 N
125 ,07
200 7 6 ,05
1 7
100 5 ,03
4
70 0,60 0,45 ,02
50 3
0,36 0,27 2 ,01
30
0,20 0,12 ,007
20 ,005
1
kv
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N 10 0,08 ,003
RTD-N 15 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,20 0,27 0,36 0,45 0,60 7 ,002
RTD-N 20 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83
0,04
5
RTD-N 25 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83 ,001
3
Radiator l/h ∆p kPa Pre-set 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 kPa
∆pvalve
1 140 5 N 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 mWG

7 140 9 7 0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 Bar
125 140 9 7 Calculation of the pre-set values for the valves in the above system with ∆p control
valves in the riser.
140 140 9 7
Fig. 7:17

Setting value.
A differential pressure control keeps the differential pressure constant
across a circuit. The setting value for the differential pressure control is
equal to the resistance in that particular circuit.
∆p 5 kPa 1
∆p 9 6
∆p 9
140 133 126 ∆p 9 kPa 7
20 19 18 2 1
∆p kPa 89 85 81 22 18
Q in each riser = 980 l/h

Available ∆p for the ∆p-control valves at each riser.
Fig. 7:18
ASV-P, ASV-PV Min. available ∆p Sizing of ∆p-valve in riser.

Q in each riser = 980 l/h
m3/h Valve kvs-value l/s ∆p riser = 9 kPa.
10 3 Max. ∆pvalve Valve no 1 , se diagram.
10
7 2 kvs = 4,0, ∆pvp = 6 kPa
5 6,3 ∆p-valve with fixed ∆p = 10 kPa and
4,0 1,0 minimum available ∆p = 8 kPa gives 18 kPa.
3 0,7
2 2,5
0,5 Valves 2, 18, 19 and 20.
1 2 18-20 1,6
1,0 0,3 ∆p-valve Q l/h ∆pavail.-∆priser = ∆pvp avail kvs ∆pvp
0,7 0,2
0,5 2 980 22 10 12 4,0 6
0,1
0,3 18 980 81 10 71 1,6 37
7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
19 980 85 10 75 1,6 37
∆pvalve
,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG
20 980 89 10 79 1,6 37
,06 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,1 1
Sizing of the ∆p-valves in the riser

Fig. 7:19

Flow limitation.
Flow limitation is required in both primary and secondary systems.
Primary systems.
In a primary system, it is the flow to a whole sub-station or to the applied
heat exchangers that should be limited.
The heat supply is controlled by a control valve and if the differential
pressure across this valve is kept constant with a differential pressure
control the sub-station contains the required components to limit the
flow.
Calculate the differential pressure that is necessary across the fully open
valve to obtain required flow. Set the differential pressure control so that
it will provide the differential pressure and the maximun flow is limited.
Combined flow limiters consisting of a differential pressure control and
k vs 4,0 a setting valve are available. The differential pressure control keeps a
constant differential pressure across the integrated pre-set valve. The size
∆pvalve kPa of the flow is determined by changing the resistance across the setting
valve. When large sizes are required a flow limitation is obtained as a
differential pressure control can keep a constant differential pressure
across a integrated pre-set valve. The valve size is determined in a
Example, limiting the flow in a primary circuit.
selection flow chart on basis of the available differential pressure and the
Control valve kvs 4,0
flow.
Ex. no Q m3/h ∆pvalve. ∆pvp-set m3/h kvs-value l/s
10 3
1. 3 55 55 7 2
2. 4 100 100 5
1 2 1,0
3. 1 6,3 6,3 3
0,7
2 4 0,5
The ∆p necessary for a specific flow through a fully
3
open control valve is equal to the setting ∆p for the 1,0 0,3
differential pressure control. 0,7 0,2
Calculation 0,5
1 ∆pv = ( 43 ) ; ∆pv = 0,56 bar => 56 kPa;
2
0,3
0,1
,07
0,2 ,05
∆pv = ( 44 ) ; ∆pv = 1 bar => 100 kPa;
2
2
0,1 ,03
∆pv = ( 1 ) ; ∆pv = 0,0625 bar => 6,3 kPa;
2 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
3
4
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG
Fig. 7:20 0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar
Limiting the flow in a sub - station equiped with ∆p control valve
Fig. 7:21

Secondary systems.
In secondary systems the limitation of the flow could come into
question to a shunt coupling, a riser or a one-pipe circuit.
If there already is a control valve and a differential pressure control in a
shunt coupling, use these for the flow limitation too! Calculate the resis-
tance across a fully open control valve at the maximum required flow and
set the differential pressure control on this differential pressure!
In other cases there are flow limiters keeping the differential pressure
constant across a built-in adjustment valve. They are often sized
according to the available differential pressure and the required flow.
Setting value is read in the selection flow chart.
Example, limiting the flow in a primary circuit.

Control valve kvs 1,6
∆p-valve kvs 1,6
m3/h kvs-value l/s Ex. no Q m3/h ∆pvalve. ∆pvp-set ∆p-contr
10 3
7 2 1. 0,4 5,8 5,8 ASV-PV
5
1,0 2. 0,8 25 25 ASV-PV
3
0,7 3. 1,5 90 90 AVP
2 3 0,5
The ∆p necessary for a specific flow through a fully
1,0 2 1,6 0,3 open control valve is equal to the setting ∆p for the
0,7 0,2 differential pressure control.
0,5 1 ASV-PV: setting range 5-25 kPa.
0,3 0,1
,07 AVP: setting range 5-50, 20-100 and 80-160 kPa.
0,2 ,05 Calculation
0,1
,03 1 ∆pv = ( 0,41,6 ) ; ∆pv = 0,0625 bar => 6,3 kPa;
2
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 kPa
∆pv = ( 1,6 ) ; ∆pv = 0,25 bar => 25 kPa;
0,8 2
∆p 0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 mWG 2
∆pv = ( 1,6 ) ; ∆pv = 0,88 bar => 88 kPa;

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 Bar 1,5 2
3
Fig. 7:23
Limiting the flow for a control valve in a secondary circuit with ∆p control.
Fig. 7:22

Flow limitation in a one-pipe circuit

∆p available > ∆p1-pipe circuit + ∆pv
∆pv = 25 kPa
Example, ASV-Q
ASV-Q Capacity l/h Setting value
15 100-800 1-8
20 200-1400 2-14
25 400-1600 4-16
32 500-2500 5-3
Q = 1100 l/h
Choose ASV-Q 20
(always choose the smallest possible valve)
Setting value = 11
∆p one-pipe circuit
∆pv
∆p available
Flow limitation in a one-pipe circuit

Fig. 7:24

Control equipment.
Different control equipment is required for different purposes. The
control of the flow temperature to radiators requires one type of control,
hot water heating requires another, and ventilation devices require a third
type. For the last two cases there is also a choice between electronic and
self-acting control.
Radiator systems.
The flow temperature in radiator systems is controlled according to the
outdoor temperature by a weather compensator.
The electronic central control can be equipped with timers with twenty-
four hours or weekly functions. This is however only the case if the heat
supply is set back during a period of several days and nights and if the
system is not connected to a computer.
A pump stop is an optional function which shuts off the circulation
pump when the outdoor temperature is so high that the building requires
no heating.
The limitation of the return temperature is usually not required in the
two-pipe systems with thermostatic valves.
A computerized supervision and control system is a labour-saving and
efficient way of controlling large systems with many sub-stations.
Weather compensator
Outdoor temperature sensor

Surface sensor
Reversible gear motor
Necessary control equipment for sub-station

Fig.7:25

Hot water heating.

Water is heated in a heat exchanger or in an accumulator.
The heat supply for the two types of hot water heating can be controlled
by a weather compensator with an extra function for this purpose or self-
acting controls for the accumulating hot water tanks.
For heat exchangers up to 30 apartments there are self-acting controls
with flow compensation available.
Flow compensated thermostatic valve for control of domestic hot water tempera-
ture.
Fig. 7:26

Pipes and heat exchangers.

Pipes for heating.
When designing pipe systems an economic water rate has to be maintained.
Too low a rate will give large-size pipes, deposits in the pipes, larger heat
losses and temperature drops, but of course also a lower flow resistance
and thereby lower operating costs for the pump.
An optimization reflecting the costs for pre-insulated pipes gives water
rates of approximately 0,6 m/s for the internal diameter of 27 mm to 3,6
m/s for the internal diameter of 1.220 mm.
The corresponding values for insulated standard pipes in the heating
system of a building will give about 0,3 m/s for pipes with an internal
diameter of 10 mm and 1,5 m/s for an internal diameter of 150 mm.

Pipes for domestic water.

There are three types of pipe material to choose from for the domestic
water - galvanized steel, copper and plastic. All of them can as a rule be
used for cold water, but copper and plastic are superior. For hot water
only copper and special plastic pipes can be used.
Copper pipes are sensitive to high water rates and they are environmen-
tally hazardous, (copper is transported together with the sewage down to
the purification plant and will there affect the purification process nega-
tively).
Maximum rates in an easily exchangable pipe:
• cold water 2 m/s
• hot water 1,5 m/s
For plastic pipes there are no limits to the water rate, but pipes intended
for domestic hot water must endure the temperature in question for
many years – 50 years according to international standards, NKB
Product rules, 3, July 1986 and DIN 16892.
Heat exchangers.
Modern heat exchangers, plate and coil units, contain small quantities of
water and the flow channels are narrow. By making them short and by
Domestic hot water, Q l/s Effect, P kW laying a large number of them parallel, the flow resistance is kept at a low
2,5
400
level in spite of a relatively high water rate.
2,0 350
300 The high water rate is necessary to prevent deposits from settling on the
1,5
250
200
heat transferring surfaces.
1,0
150
0,5 100 The resistance across the coil unit is in the range of 20-30 kPa and for
0
50
0
the plate heat exchanger the resistance is up to 50 kPa. The choice of size
1 10 50 100 150 200 250 is made according to the instructions from the manufacturer. There are
Number of apartments
domestic water selection flow charts, based on empirical values, giving
Maximum required flow according to the Swedish the total consumption for various number of apartments.
Board for District Heating
Fig. 7:27

Heat meters.
Heat meters register the delivery to each building/apartment, but they
also indicate if anything goes wrong in the system. As there are large
variations in the flow, a flow meter must also be able to measure low flows Accumulator
with great accuracy. Heat meter
The primary network.

Meters on the primary side register the heat consumption, i.e. flow and
temperature drops. The meters should be based on ultrasound, and the Heat meter
integration unit should be able to communicate with a central computer.
The theoretical maximum flow determines the size of the flow
meters.The ultrasonic meter has an advantage of being able to measure Heat meters register consumption and heat losses
from pipe network.
the lowest flows very well, independent of size. Fig. 7:28
Each heat exchanger for heating and for domestic hot water should be
equipped with a heat meter.
The secondary network.

On the secondary side, it is sufficient to measure the flow for each
apartment. Based on this, make a percentage calculated distribution
between the apartments of the total heat supply to the building. Then use
a flow meter, mechanical or ultrasonic to register the flow to each
apartment.
The variations in flow can be considerable, so it is important to carefully
register the low flows here.
Flow meters based upon ultrasound are therefore the most suitable
choice, especially when considering the large numbers and the fact that
the ultrasonic meters require practically no maintenance.
The choice of the flow meter sizes is made according to the theoretical
maximum flow to each apartment.
If the distribution of the heating costs is to be consistent, the hot domes-
tic water to each apartment ought to be registered too, which requires
that the riser for hot domestic water be placed centrally, in the stair-well,
Flow meters register the flow to each apartment
and that separate pipes are laid from there to each apartment. Fig. 7:29

Pressure control of pumps.

The pressure control of pumps should be applied on the primary and the
secondary sides to reduce the consumption of electricity. The effect on
the available pressure will be marginal as the differential pressure control
is applied on control valves or parts of the systems.
The primary network.

The required pressure and flow on the primary side is always so high
that it requires a pump with a separate motor. The motor is a standard
induction motor and a frequency converter is therefore the most suitable
choice for control.
Frequency converters are available in the same sizes as the ones being
standard for the standard induction motors. There are therefore no
problems in selecting the size. Choose a frequency converter
corresponding to the size of the motor!
The secondary network.

There are pumps with a wet motor and a built-in pressure control
available for the secondary side. These pumps should be used as far as
possible and when their capacity isn’t sufficient to meet the requirements,
dry pumps and frequency converters should be chosen. The largest cut in
the operating costs for the pump is obtained when the differential pres-
sure is kept constant at the last riser/valve.
% ∆p, P
100
50 2
∆p n =∆Q x p 0
3
P n =∆Q 0 xP 0
0
Q 0 50 100%
The resistance varies by the square of the flow change and the effect of the pump
by the cubic
Fig. 7:30

CHAPTER 8 • TECHNICAL DATA, FORMULAS AND CHARTS
TECHNICAL DATA, FORMULAS AND CHARTS

Diagram for local district heating plants and heating and power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Diagram for heating and domestic hot and cold water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Heat emission from radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Conversion chart for radiators in one-pipe systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
Reduction of heat emission from radiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Heat losses from uninsulated pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Pressure drops in steel pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Resistance in heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Sizes of steel pipes for heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
Flow chart for thermostatic radiator valves in one-pipe system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Flow chart for thermostatic radiator valves in two pipe system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Flow chart for ∆p control valves for risers or circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Flow chart for control valves in heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Flow chart for control valves in district heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Flow chart for ∆p control valves in district heating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Heat requirements for domestic hot water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Flow limiters for one-pipe circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Calculation of one-pipe systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Calculation of two-pipe systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
SI-units, Greek alphabet, Physical properties for water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184

Diagram for local district heating plants connected to a heating and power plant.
Flue gas
cooler Safety
valve
Safety 130 °C
valve 70 °C
Accumulator
130 °C
Boiler
70 °C
Exp. tank Heat meter
Heat exchanger
Flue gas
cooler Safety
valve
Safety 130 °C
valve 70 °C
Accumulator
130 °C
Boiler
70 °C
Heat exchanger
130 °C
Flue gas
70 °C Safety
cooler
valve
Heating and Safety 130 °C
power plant valve 70 °C
Accumulator
130 °C
Boiler
70 °C
Heat exchanger
Local heating plant

Diagram for heating and domestic hot and cold water.
Flow meter
∆p - control Domestic hot water
Expansion tank Domestic cold water
> 6 storeys Flowmeter
< 6 storeys Control valve

90 °C
65 °C
Domestic hot water 60 <6 >6 Storeys
Heat meter Circulation
Domestic cold water
120-70 °C

Heat emission from radiators.
n = 1,3 troom = 20 oC tflow = 90 oC ∆t = 25 oC
∆t oC 40 30 25 20 16
emission
Two-pipe system with thermostatic
Heat
valves. 12
Measured 1 : tflow 75 oC, ∆t 8 oC
Heat requirement : 0,83, Q = 2,47 1,2
4 90
tflow 80 oC : 2 ∆t 16 oC, Q = 1,23 1,1 10
Every point along the horizontal line 1,0
0,83 gives the same heat emission. 5 3 80
0,9 1 8
0,8 6 2 70
0,7
6
0,6
60 5
0,5
0,4 4
50
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 QQ
The influence of gravity forces on heat emission from a radiator in a two-
pipe system
For a correctly sized radiator 3 ( with manual radiator valve in a two-pipe
system ) the heat emission will increases only by 5% when the flow
increases by 23%, 4 , depending on gravity forces. The temperature drop
across the radiator however will decrease by 5 oC and that is significant,
because it reduces the capacity of the whole system all the way down to
the heating and power plant.
Resuls ∆t for one- and two - pipe circuits, and required pump capacity
when thermostatic valves utilize internal and external heat gains.
Two-pipe circuit One-pipe circuit
Point Heat Flow ∆t Circuit resi- Pump ca- Flow ∆t Pump ca-
gain % % oC stance % pacity % % oC pacity %
3 0 100 25 100 100 100 25 100

5 10 66 33 44 29 100 22,5 100
6 20 47 39 22 10 100 20 100

Conversion chart for radiators in one-pipe circuits.
Fc tflow oC
60 65
2,0
70
1,9
1,8
1,7
75
1,6
1,5 80
1,4
1,3 85
1,2
1 90
2
1,1
1,0
0,9
0,8
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
∆t oC
Conversion chart for panel and section radiators in one-pipe circuits.

Enter the current tflow and temperature drop and find the conver-
sion factor, Fc.
Multiply the heat requirement by Fc and select size of the radiator
according to the new value.
Example.
Calculated heat requirement: 1.230 W.
tflow : 82 oC, ∆t: 15 oC, 1
Fc = 1,16 2
Converted heat requirement: 1.230 x 1,16 = 1.427 W.
Formula for calculating Fc:
t1 - tr
( ) n n
F=
[ 49,33 x ln
t1 - t2
t2 - tr
] Panel radiator
Section radiator
Convector
1,28
1,29
1,3 - 1,33

Reduction of heat emission from radiators fixed in some type of enclosure
Alternative a+40
10 - 100 mm 30 - 100 mm openings
a
> 100 mm
No enclosure Shelf with Shelf close to Open fronted Encased with Encased with Acceptable
0% opening the wall recess with a grille in front small grille in cabinet.
0% 10 -2% shelf > -15% front. Not ≈ -8 - 10%
12 -6% recommended.
> -30%
The control unit has to sense the room temperature to be able to control it.
Radiation from a radiator depending on the treatment of the

surface.
Material Surface treatment Radiation %
Steel, cast iron 100
Oil paint 100
Aluminium or
copper bronzes 75
Zinc white 101
Lead white 99
Enamelled White 101
Matt green 96
Aluminium 8

Heat losses from uninsulated horizontal pipe.
Heat emission
W/m pipe DN/0 80/89 65/76
400
50/6
300
40
32
200 25
0
20
15
10
100
0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature above room temperature oC
For vertical pipe reduce by 20%

One-pipe above another reduce by 12%
Three pipes above each other reduce by 20%

Pressure drop in steel pipes for heating installations.
m3/h DN mm l/s
200 50
150 3,0 40
150 30
100
70 125 20
50 15
100
40 10
30 2,0
7
20 80
5
15 4
65
10 3
7 50 2
5 1,5
4 1
40
3
,7
32
2 kPa/m 1,0 ,5
1,5 ,4
l/h 1000 25 ,3
700 ,2
20 ,15
500
400 ,1
300
15 ,07
200 ,05
150
10 0,5 ,04
0,4 ,03
100
0,3
70 ,02
0,2
50 m/s ,015
40 ,01
,05 ,07 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
5 7 10 15 20 30 40 50 mmWG/m
k = 0,00003 m
Density = 1.000 kg/m3

∆p for ζ values at differnt rates.

Symbol Units Coefficient of resistance, ζ The values for the coefficient of resis-
tance for tees, elbows and bends.
Branch tee 1 The pressure drop is calculated from:
∆p = ζ 0,5 ρ ν2 ,
Through tee 1
Elbow, smooth 0,2
Bend 1
m/s ζ value
3
2
1
1,0
24 3
0,5
0,3 6
0,2
0,1
,01 ,02 ,03 ,05 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,5 1 2 3 4 5 7 10
∆p kPa
Recommended portion of pipe losses for different systems or part of

systems.
Type of system Unit Friction %
Heating Small buildings 50 - 60
Large buildings 60 - 70
Sub-stations Primary and secondary side 20 - 30
Distribution pipe net work Primary side 80 - 90
Sizes of steel pipes for heating systems. Working pressure 1,0 MPa (10 bar)
Nominal diameter External diameter Wall thickness Internal diameter
mm inch mm mm mm
8 1/4 13,50 2,25 9
10 3/8 17,00 2,25 12,5
15 1/2 21,25 2,75 15,75
20 3/4 26,75 2,75 21,25
25 1 33,50 3,25 27,00
32 1 1/4 42,25 3,25 35,75
40 1 1/2 48,00 3,50 41,00
50 2 60,00 3,50 53,00
65 2 1/2 75,50 3,75 68,00
80 3 88,50 4,00 80,50
100 4 114,00 4,00 106,00
125 5 140,00 4,50 131,00
150 6 165,00 4,50 156,00

Flow chart for RTD-G 15, 20 and 25
RTD - G 15, 20 and 25
l/h Valve size l/s

1000 ,3
700 25 20 ,2
500
15 ,1
300 ,07
200 ,05
100 ,03
70 ,02
50
,01
30
0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 kPa
∆pvalve
0,01 ,02 ,03 ,05 ,07 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,5 ,7 1 2 mWG

,001 ,002 ,004,006 0,01 ,02 ,03,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 Bar

Flow chart for thermostatic valves in two-pipe system

RTD - N 15
Pre-set value l/s
l/h
500
300 ,1
N ,07
200 7 6 ,05
100 5 ,03
4
70 ,02
50 3
2 ,01
30
,007
20 ,005
1
10 ,003
7 ,002
5
,001
3
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 Bar
Pre-set value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N
kv values 0,04 0,08 0,12 0,20 0,27 0,36 0,45 0,60
RTD - N 20 - 25
Pre-set value l/s
l/h
500
N ,1
300
7 ,07
200 6 ,05
5 4
100 ,03
70 3 2 ,02
50
1
30 ,01
,007
20
,005
10 ,003
7 ,002
5
,001
3
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 Bar
Pre-set value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N
kv values 0,10 0,15 0,17 0,25 0,32 0,41 0,62 0,83

Flow chart for ∆p control valves for riser or circuit in heating systems.
ASV-P, PV 15-40 and ASV-M 15-40

m3/h kvs-value l/s
20 5
10 3
7 2
5 10
1,0
3 6,3 0,7
2 4,0 0,5
2,5 0,3
1,0
0,7 1,6 0,2
0,5
1 0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 80 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 ,8 Bar
Working range:
ASV-P 10 kPa
ASV-PV 5 - 25 kPa.
Minimum available ∆p for good functioning: 8 kPa.
Example
Q: 300 l/h. ∆p riser: 7kPa. ∆p radiator including valve: 5 kPa.
∆p-control kv 1,6. ∆pvp = 3,4 kPa, 1
Necessary ∆p = 7+5+8 = 20 kPa.

Flow chart for control valves in heating systems.
m3/h kvs-value l/s

200 50
145 100 30
100
63 20
50 40
10
30 25 7
20 16 5
10 3
10
7 6,3 2
5 4,0
1,0
3 2,5 0,7
2 1,6 0,5
1,0 1,0 0,3
0,7 ,63 0,2
0,5 ,4
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 kPa
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG
∆pvalve
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar
Formulas. Q
Q 2
∆p : bar. Q: m3/h. kv =
Q
√∆p
; ∆p = ( )
kv
; Q = kv √ ∆p ;
Q
Q 2
; Q = 100x kv √ ∆p ;
Q
∆p : kPa. Q: l/h. kv = 0,01
√∆p
; ∆p = 0,01 (
kv )
Q
Q 2 kv
√∆p ; ∆p = 36 kv ; Q = 36 √ ∆p ;
Q
∆p : kPa. Q: l/s. kv = 36 ( )

Flow chart for valves in district heating systems.
m3/h kvs-value l/s

200 50
145 100 30
100
63 20
50 40
10
30 25 7
20 16 5
10 3
10
7 6,3 2
5 4,0
1,0
3 2,5 0,7
2 1,6 0,5
1,0 1,0 0,3
0,7 ,63 0,2
0,5 ,4
0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
∆pvalve
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 kPa
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG
0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar

Flow chart for ∆p control valves in district heating systems.
AVP 15 - 32
m3/h kvs-value l/s
20 5
10 3
7 2
5 10
1,0
3 6,3 0,7
2 4,0 0,5
2,5 0,3
1,0
0,7 1,6 0,2
0,5
1 0,1
0,3
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 80 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 ,8 Bar

Flow chart for ∆p control valves in district heating systems.
IVD-IVFS kvs 0,63 - 25,0 m3/h
AFP kvs 50 - 125 m3/h
m3/h kvs-value l/s

200 50
125
100 30
80
20
50 50
30 10
25 7
20 20 16 5
10 3
10
7 6,3 2
5 4,0 1,0
3 2,5 0,7
2 1,6 0,5
1,0 1,0 0,3
0,7 ,63 0,2
0,5
0,3 0,1
,07
0,2 ,05
0,1 ,03
1 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 60 100 150 200 kPa
∆pvalve
0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 Bar
∆p-regulator, working range: IVD 5 - 50 and 20 - 250 kPa.

AFP 20 - 120 and 50 - 250 kPa
Maximum ∆p valve IVF kvs: 0,63 and 1,0 = 1.000 kPa
2,5 = 630 kPa
4,0 - 25 = 800 kPa
Maximum ∆p valve AFP: 1.200 kPa

Heat requirement for hot water according to the Swedish Board of District Heating
Domestic hot water, Q L/s. Effect, P kW

2,5
400
2,0 350
300
1,5
250
1,0 200
150
0,5 100
50
0 0
1 10 50 100 150 200 250
Number of apartments.

Flow limiter, ASV-Q 15, Flow limiter, ASV-Q 20
3 Set values
m /h ∆p v kPa
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1,0 8
0,9
0,8 6,5
0,7
0,6 5
0,5 4
0,4
3
0,3
ASV-Q Capacity l/h Set value ∆
2
15 100 - 800 1-8
20 200 - 1400 2 - 14 0,2
25 400 - 1600 4 - 16
32 500 - 2500 5 - 30 0,15
1
0,1
0,07
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
p v Bar
Set values
∆p v kPa
3
m /h
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2,0
14
1,5 12
10
1,0 8
0,9
0,8
0,7 6
0,6
∆
0,5 4
0,4
0,3
2
0,2
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8

p v Bar
Flow limiter, ASV-Q 25, Flow limiter, ASV-Q 32
Set values
∆p v kPa
3
m /h
30 40 50 60 70 80
2,0
16
1,7 14
1,5 12
1,2 10
1,0 8
0,9
0,8 ∆
0,7 6
0,6
0,5
4
0,4
0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8

p v Bar
∆p v kPa
3
m /h Set values
30 40 50 60 70 80
4,0
30
3,0 25
20
2,0
15
1,5
1,2 ∆ 10
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6 5
0,5
0,4
0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
p v Bar

Calculation of one-pipe system
5 4 3 2 1,5 m
1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200

0
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

3 x 12 = 36 m
6
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

1
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200
10 m 6m 6m 6m 6m 6m 6m 6m
10 9 31 m 8 7 5 4 3 2
6

Calculation of one-pipe system

Calculation of two-pipe system
1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200
5 4 3 2 1
3m
1000 1000 1000 1000 6 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 7 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 8 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 9 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 10 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 11 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 12 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 13 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 14 1000 1000 1000 1000
1000 1000 1000 1000 15 1000 1000 1000 1000

3m
1200 1200 1200 1200 16 1200 1200 1200 1200
31 m 3m 6m 6m 6m
17

Calculation of two-pipe system

SI-units.
Effect, P. Pressure, p.
W kcal/h Pa kPa bar mWG
1 0,85985 1 0,001 0,00001 0,0001
1,163 1 1.000 1 0,01 0,1
100.000 100 1 10
10.000 10 0,1 1
Flow, Q (ϕ). Temperature, t (θ).

l/s m3/h Kelvin K Celsius oC
1 3,6 0 -273,15
0,278 1 273,15 ±0
373,15 100
Greek alphabet.
Αα Ββ Γγ ∆δ Εε Ζζ Ηη Θθ Ιτ
alfa beta gamma delta epsilon seta eta theta iota
Κκ Λλ Μµ Νν Ξξ Οο Ππ Ρρ Σσ
kappa lamda my ny xi omikron pi ro sigma
Ττ Υυ ϑϕ Χχ Ψψ Ωω
tau ypsilon phi chi psi omega
Physical properties for water.

Temperature Pressure Density Isobaric heat
υ oC p kPa ρ kg/m3 capacitivity
cp J/ (kg x K)
0 - 999,84 4218
10 - 999,70 4192
20 - 998,205 4182
30 - 995,65 4178
40 - 992,2 4178
50 - 998,14 4181
60 - 983,21 4184
70 - 977,78 4190
80 - 971,80 4196
90 - 965,33 4205
100 1,3 958,35 4216
110 43,26 951,0 -
120 98,54 943,1 4245
130 170,11 934,8 -
140 261,36 926,1 4287
150 375,97 916,9 -


8 Steps - Control of Heating Systems

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8 STEPS -

CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 1

4. Weather compensation 75 Operating conditions 101

1 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 1

Chapter 8 Technical data, Formulas and charts 161

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 1

Central boiler plant Distribution Consumption

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 3

In the production plant, the water temperature is increased to the re-

Production Distribution Consumption

In the production plant, the secondary water temperature is increased

4 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Steam pressure System or level pressure

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 5

6 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

District heating systems

Central boiler plant Distribution Consumption

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 7

Hydrocarbons derived from motor-driven vehicles and industrial proces-

8 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

3. Exhaust emission control

Boiler Primary air Electro-filter SOx reactor Fabric filter

Principle for purifying the exhaust gases.

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 9

10 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Thermal Feed water

Ion reduction Heat exchanger

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 11

Different temperatures in different units in district heating.

12 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

sure level of the system.

Expansion systems can be designed in two ways:

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 13

Boiler or heat 7. Open expansion system

8. Closed expansion system

Closed expansion system.

14 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Central boiler plant Distribution Consumption

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 15

4. Linear expansion due to variations in temperature.

16 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 17

18 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Central boiler plant Distribution Consumption

Plate heat exchanger.

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 19

One heat exchanger with two separated circuits.

Indirect parallel connection. Indirect semi-parallel connection.

20 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

3. Electronic temperature controls.

Self-acting regulator controlling domestic

Self-acting regulator controlling air temperature in a ventilation unit.

8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS 21

m3 /h Lowest available ∆p in sub-station Valves kvs - value l/s

0,1 0,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 30 40 60 100 mWG

0,01 ,02 ,04 ,06 0,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,7 1,0 1,5 2 3 4 56 10 Bar

Flow chart for sizing control valves.

22 8 STEPS - CONTROL OF HEATING SYSTEMS

6. Differential pressure control

Fig 2:33 Controlled circuits