The Polarized Light Microscope: Should We Teach the use of a
19th Century Instrument in the 21st Century?
Mickey E. Gunter Department of Geological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
83844-3022, mgunter@uidaho.edu
ABSTRACT
The polarizing light microscope (PLM) has no doubt
contributed more to our knowledge of minerals and
rocks than any other single instrument. Then why is the
use of the PLM, and the teaching of optical mineralogy in
general, decreasing? Probably one of the main reasons is
educators seek to present the newest, most
technologically advanced techniques and methods to
their students. Also, the geoscience curriculum has
changed to include environmental geology, essentially
hydrogeology. However, in presenting these newer
materials, or new courses, we must exclude something,
and it appears that one of the things excluded is
instruction in use of the PLM. Another possibility is the
professors teaching these courses do not have an
adequate understanding of optical mineralogy.
Excluding the subject of optical microscopy will be
the biggest mistake we ever make in the geosciences
curriculum. This statement is justified because of the
fundamentally important concepts presented in optical
mineralogy: 1) three-dimensional visualization, 2)
inquiry-based learning, and 3) hands-on use of an
analytical instrument. No other single course in our
curriculum provides so many of these fundamental skills
to our students. An example of inquiry-based learning is
determining the best technique to identify a mineral. For
example, powder X-ray diffraction provides a diffraction
pattern searchable in a database, but the result might not
be correct. In the past 20-30 years, the spindle stage has
allowed for more detailed single crystal studies than ever
before. Optical techniques are also used to study such
diverse mineralogical problems as cation-diffusion in
zeolites and asbestos identification, or they may be
incorporated into other areas of research, such as
synchrotron experiments on oriented single crystals.
Also, any serious petrologic study must begin with a
thorough examination of the samples by PLM, before
other types of characterization can proceed. A diversity
of employment opportunities exist for students who are
trained in use of the PLM, such as in the fields of
forensics, material science, manufacturing, the food
industry, medical technology, and the emerging field of
environmental mineralogy.
INTRODUCTION
Our understanding of minerals and rocks is attributed
more to use of the polarized light microscope (PLM) than
any other single instrument. With the PLM, we can
quickly identify and characterize minerals and
determine textural relationships in rocks, including
microstructures used in petrofabric analysis. Why, then,
are we abandoning teaching these skills to our students
in favor of other subject matter? One of the main
problems using a PLM, though, is the answers do not
come from a computer but must be determined by the
user. Thus, more education and experience are required
to use the PLM correctly than what is required for
34 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 52, n. 1, January, 2004, p. 34-44
computer-based instruments (e.g., X-ray diffractometers
and electron microscopes). The overarching theme is that
students, and researchers, must understand the
limitations of the various instruments and be able to
select the most appropriate one for the problem at hand.
Also, equally important, we should teach how to
integrate several different analytical methods to answer
the question at hand.
The PLM is one of the few instruments students will
ever get to use independently. This itself warrants its
teaching as we strive for more interactive methods of
instruction. No other single instrument provides
chemical, structural, and morphological information on
a single sample and with so little sample preparation,
albeit the chemical and structural data are found
indirectly. It is this “indirect method” of inferring
chemical and structural data that is the double-edged
sword for the use of the PLM. Microscopists must infer
this information based on their experiences. When data
are misinterpreted, it is often (incorrectly) the
microscopic techniques and not the microscopist who is
blamed.
Clearly, the PLM cannot directly determine a
material’s crystal structure or chemical composition;
diffraction methods are commonly used for the former
and spectroscopic methods for the latter (e.g., energy
dispersive spectroscopy in an electron beam instrument).
However, once the structure and composition are
known, generally speaking, they can be related to some
feature that is observable or measurable with a PLM. For
instance, refractive index is related to compositional
variation and optical class is related to crystal system.
Students can quickly confirm the identity of a mineral if
they are taught how to use oil immersion and grain
mounts. For example, the refractive index can provide
the species of a plagioclase feldspar much easier than
using power X-ray diffraction, which is difficult
interpret. Also, chemical information from an electron
microscope cannot differentiate among kyanite,
sillimanite, and andalusite, or between quartz and opal.
Working with minerals in thin sections, there are even
simpler optical properties such as color, relief, twinning,
mineral associations, and alteration that give qualitative
chemical information and guide the pertologist in
further characterization of the rocks. The examples are
numerous, and several more will be presented below.
Most importantly, the PLM excels in determining sample
morphology, for instance to aid in differentiating
amphibole from amphibole-asbestos in grain mounts or
the textural relationships of minerals in rocks. The
significance of these relationships could be expanded
almost endlessly. And the cost of maintaining a PLM
versus that of an X-ray diffractometer or electron-beam
instrument is several orders of magnitude less. This
lower cost allows institutions with modest budgets to
still teach the use of the PLM, while the maintenance on
other instruments may be cost prohibitive.
Mineralogists often only think of using the PLM for
geological materials, but the uses outside of our
discipline often have important societal implications.
Again, the examples are numerous, and several will be
presented. Despite this, other disciplines have also
discontinued instruction of the PLM. We not only should
continue teaching polarized light microscopy but better
integrate its use into our research, both in the study of
geology and other areas.
Probably the main reason for the decline in the
teaching of optical mineralogy, and in fact mineralogy in
general, is that many geologists view this discipline as a
surrogate to igneous and metamorphic petrology, or
geochemistry. That is to say, that mineralogy is not a
stand-alone discipline but merely leads to more
“important areas” in the field of geology. Unfortunately
by thinking like this they ignore the geological
information gained by consideration of the crystal
chemical aspects of a mineral. A close corollary is that
because so many petrologists have been trained in the
field of optical petrography (i.e., using thin sections to
study rock texture), they teach optical mineralogy
courses without a full understanding of the power of
optical mineralogy outside of the field of petrology (i.e.,
they would always favor “cutting a thin section” to
examine a rock over using the immersion method to aid
in identification of a mineral). This is also unfortunate
because geological information could be gained by single
crystal optical studies of, for instance, the structure state
of feldspars (Su et al.,.1984).
This paper will provide a brief history of the PLM
and its historical uses in mineralogy and geology,
followed by a review of some basic optical methods (e.g.,
what can be measured with a PLM with the aid of a
spindle stage). Next, a series of mineralogical examples
will be given, some of which could only be solved with a
PLM. Finally, several examples of on-going integration
of optical techniques to study the orientational
dependence of physical properties of minerals will be
highlighted. It is not the intention of this paper to discuss
all the uses of the PLM but rather to concentrate on the
author’s research in an attempt to show the evolution of
his work and how he has incorporated classical optical
mineralogy into newer analytical methods in
mineralogy. This paper is based on a seminar the author
gave as a Mineralogical Society of America distinguished
lecturer.
BRIEF EVOLUTION OF THE USE OF THE
PLM
The main impetus for development of the PLM was to
study crystalline materials. In the 1800’s, scientists
studying minerals noted light interacted with minerals in
unique ways. They determined that certain minerals
would cause light to become polarized, and they also
observed that light traveled at different speeds in
different directions for some minerals, while for others
the speed of light was the same regardless of propagation
direction. They attributed these differences to varying
crystal structures of minerals and sought ways to study
this in more detail. The PLM would become their main
tool for studying minerals for the next hundred years.
For a complete discussion of the development of the PLM
and many of the accessories associated with it (e.g., the
U-stage for study of petrofabrics) see Kile (2003).
Two separate methods were developed to study
minerals. One was the immersion method, where
crystals of minerals were crushed and placed in a liquid
then observed with a microscope. This was first done in
1815 using water as the liquid. The other method was
development of thin sections, first crudely done in 1831.
Gunter - The Polarized Light Microscope
It was not until 1856 that the first true PLM was built, and
a theoretical understanding of how light interacts in a
mineral was quickly developed. Advances were made
both in the immersion and thin section methods until the
early 1900’s, when these techniques were basically
perfected. Little has changed in their use since. The
immersion methods allow for a fairly rapid identification
of single crystals, while thin section methods permit not
only mineral identification but also the study of textural
relationships of minerals in rocks. Currently, thin section
techniques are more commonly taught than the
immersion methods. This is probably because thin
section techniques can be applied to the study of rocks,
whereas the immersion method is basically used for
identification of minerals. Also, many scientists
incorrectly believe the commercially available refractive
index liquids in use today contain PCB’s and are
carcinogenic; this was true of formulations used decades
ago but not the newer formulations.
In the early 1900’s, the PLM was the main instrument
used by mineralogists and petrologists to study minerals
and rocks. The discovery of X-rays in 1912 led to a major
breakthrough by which the crystalline properties of
minerals could be directly studied by X-ray diffraction,
instead of indirectly studied by the interaction of light
with a mineral. The development of X-ray diffraction led
many mineralogists to abandon use of the PLM, because
now they could use powder diffraction to aid in the
identification of minerals and single crystal X-ray
diffraction to determine the crystal structures. Electron
beam instruments were also being developed in the
middle 1900’s, but it was not until the invention of the
microprobe in 1959 that these instruments became a
dominant force in the field of mineralogy and petrology.
In the 1960’s, the chemical composition of micron-sized
minerals could be determined with an electron
microprobe. This replaced the laborious technique of
using larger size samples and performing wet chemical
analysis. Mineralogists then had at their disposal
instrumentation capable of directly studying the atomic
arrangement of atoms in minerals and precisely
determining the chemical composition of minerals.
MAJOR USES OF THE PLM
Identification and characterization of minerals -
Mineral samples are identified based on their structural
and chemical characteristics. X-ray and electron
diffraction techniques directly provide data about the
atomic structure of a mineral. Diffraction occurs when
X-ray radiation or electrons pass through and interacts
with the atoms of a crystalline material. Analysis of
diffraction patterns are used to determine structural
properties such as space group, unit cell parameters, and
positions of atoms. Energy dispersive spectroscopy
(EDS) and wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS)
directly provide information about the chemistry of a
sample. A sample is placed in the path of a high-energy
electron beam. These electrons collide with the inner
shell electrons of the atoms comprising the sample, eject
an inner shell electron, and create a vacancy. Outer shell
electrons move into the vacant inner shell and, in the
process, release energy in the form of X-ray radiation.
The specific energy, or wavelength, of X-ray radiation
produced by an atom is characteristic of each element.
EDS methods determine the energy of these X-rays, and
WDS determines the wavelengths of the X-rays. By using
35

Figure 1. A photomicrograph of amphibole and
amphibole-asbestos from Libby, Montana showing
differing morphologies. (The photo was taken in
plane-polarized light with 1.58 refractive index
liquid; the scale bar is 1 mm.)
EDS or WDS, it is possible to determine the quantity of
each element in a sample. EDS is more rapid and requires
less sample preparation than WDS; however, WDS
produces more precise and accurate quantitative
chemical analysis. Often, the correct identification of a
mineral requires that both structural and chemical
information be obtained.
Structural and chemical characteristics can also be
indirectly observed using polarized light microscopy.
Structural properties are obtained by the correlation of a
mineral’s optic class to its crystal system. Optical
classification of minerals is based on whether they are
isotropic or anisotropic. If a sample is isotropic, it has
only a single refractive index value and belongs to the
isometric crystal system, or it is amorphous. If a sample is
anisotropic, it is further classified based on its optic class.
Anisotropic minerals can be either uniaxial, which
belong to either the hexagonal or tetragonal crystal
system, or biaxial, which belong to the orthorhombic,
monoclinic, or triclinic crystal system. Both of these
classes are further divided into positive and negative
groups based on the relationship of refractive indices
and their principal vibration directions.
Chemical characteristics of minerals can be related to
the optical properties of the minerals (e.g., refractive
indices, 2V, sign of elongation, extinction, pleochroism,
etc.). A century’s worth of careful optical and chemical
measurements has provided many empirical
relationships, whereby a quick check of refractive index
or a determination of 2V can provide an approximation
of chemical composition often required for mineral
identification. Thus, chemical data of minerals are found
indirectly by measurement of some basic optic property,
usually the refractive index.
SOME IMPORTANT SPECIFIC USES OF
THE PLM
Asbestos - Without a doubt the most important use of
the PLM for the past 20 to 30 years is in the identification
of asbestos. This is true for two reasons. First, the size
range of concern for identification of asbestos fits the
36 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 52, n. 1, January, 2004, p. 34-44
resolution of a light microscope. Second, the
distinguishing characteristic of asbestos is its
morphology, which is fibrous. It could be argued that the
emerging filed of environmental mineralogy has its roots
in the use of the PLM for asbestos identification and
characterization. (For an overview of the asbestos issue
in the U.S.A. refer to Gunter, 1994.) A material could
have the exact same chemical composition and X-ray
diffraction pattern and in one case its morphology might
be fibrous and the other case it might be non-fibrous. So
the only method to distinguish between fibers and
non-fibers is the morphology, which can be observed in
the magnification range of that for a PLM. For example,
Figure 1 shows amphibole samples from Libby,
Montana, in an oil immersion mount. Clearly, the
particle on the left, labeled fragment, is non-fibrous and
the particle on the right is fibrous. This distinction can
only be made based on morphology. Chemical analysis
of these two materials would be identical, and if we were
to perform a powder X-ray diffraction experiment, the
diffraction patterns would also be identical.
Asbestos regulations are currently being revised in
the U.S.A. This is mainly the result of the amphibole and
amphibole asbestos minerals occurring in the former
vermiculite mine near Libby, Montana (Bandli et al.,
2003; Gunter et al., 2003). The first change in the
regulations will no doubt be to regulate amphiboles
based on group name and not species name. This is
necessary because the amphiboles at Libby are winchites
and richterites which, as of this time, are non-regulated
but are just as harmful as the regulated amphibole
minerals. At first this seems like a fairly simple
modification to the regulations. However, the issue will
then become how to distinguish asbestos from
non-asbestos amphiboles. Many of the regulatory
agencies have used the aspect ratio to make this
distinction. For instance, if an amphibole particle has a
length-to-width ratio greater than 3, it would be
considered a fibrous particle. Thus, what would clearly
be a non-fibrous sample (Figure 1) would, based on this
aspect ratio rule, become regulated as an asbestos
material. Clearly, to regulate these materials correctly
there must be close interaction between those
individuals trained in polarized light microscopy and
the regulatory agencies.
Today there are many more jobs in asbestos
identification laboratories and in regulatory agencies
than there are qualified microscopists to fill them. This
scarcity of trained microscopists has occurred because
we have stopped teaching classical optical mineralogy in
our geology curriculum. The void has been filled in the
private sector with one-week short courses in polarized
light microscopy, optical mineralogy, and asbestos
identification. For instance, the McCrone Research
Institute in Chicago has trained hundreds of
microscopists in the past 20 to 30 years. If the private
sector is teaching these courses because of a nationwide
demand, it would be logical for us to include them as part
of our curriculum. Any geology student successfully
completing a semester long course in optical mineralogy
could be practically guaranteed a job in one of these labs.
The spindle stage - One of the major advances in optical
characterization of minerals has been the refinement of
spindle stage techniques by Bloss and coworkers (for
example, Bloss, 1982; Bloss 1999; Gunter et al., 1988;
Gunter and Twamley, 2001; Su et al., 1987). The spindle
stage, which is basically a one-axis rotation device, is a

Figure 2. A) The necessary “equipment” to mount
single crystals for optical examination with a spindle
stage. Under a binocular microscope, a small single
crystal (ca. 50-200 mm) is glued with fingernail polish
to a (ca.) 100 mm glass fiber. Then the glass fiber is
placed in a brass pin that fits into the X-ray
goniometer head, also pictured. Acetone can be used
to remove the crystal for further study if desired. B &
C) Photomicrographs of an amphibole single crystal
mounted on a glass fiber. The sample has been
rotated 90° on the spindle axis between B & C, thus
allowing three-dimensional viewing of the single
crystal. (The photos were taken in plane-polarized
light with a 1.58 refractive index liquid; the scale bar
is 100 mm.)
microscope attachment that aids in obtaining large
amounts of optical data quickly and efficiently. A brief
introduction to the spindle stage and its uses follows; for
Gunter - The Polarized Light Microscope
Figure 3. Photographs of three different types of
spindle stages: Supper, detent, and poster board. The
figure shows the X-ray goniometer head (with an
affixed crystal) mounted onto the Supper spindle
stage and the oil cell supplied with this spindle stage.
The oil cell for the poster board and detent spindle is
also shown.
a thorough discussion of spindle stage techniques, see
Bloss (1981; 1999).
The basic design for the spindle stage is a single
crystal mounted on a glass fiber, or sewing needle, that is
placed on the rotation device (i.e., the spindle stage). The
crystal can be placed in an immersion liquid, and routine
optical measurements and observations can be made.
Figure 2 is a photograph of three different spindle stages.
The Supper spindle stage is often used for research
purposes, while the small detent spindle stage (Bloss,
1999) and poster board spindle stage (Gunter, 1997) can
be used for teaching purposes. In all cases, however, the
setup is the same: small (50 to 200 mm) single crystals are
mounted on the end of the spindle stage and placed on a
PLM. Figure 3 shows the materials required to mount
single crystals. Commonly, a single crystal is mounted,
with the aid of a binocular microscope, on the end of a
glass fiber with fingernail polish. The glass fiber is, in
turn, placed in a 3 mm diameter brass pin, which is
inserted into an X-ray goniometer head. Next, the X-ray
goniometer head is screwed onto the Supper spindle
stage shown in Figure 3. Now the crystal can be
immersed in refractive index liquid contained in the oil
cell mounted on the spindle stage. Figure 3B and C show
an amphibole crystal affixed to the end of a glass fiber
and immersed in refractive index oil. The crystal has
been rotated 90° between B and C.
Figure 4A shows the spindle stage X-ray goniometer
head combination mounted on the stage of a PLM. Also
shown in this image is a temperature-controlled oil cell
used to record and change the oil’s temperature. At the
same time, the wavelength of light can be changed with a
monochrometer. By changing both temperature and
wavelength, the refractive indices of a material are
measured to within plus or minus two to five in the
fourth decimal place by the double-variation method
(Bloss, 1981; Su et al., 1987).
One of the major advances of Bloss and coworkers is
the ability to orient biaxial minerals easily on the spindle
stage with the aid of the computer program EXCALIBR
(Bloss, 1981; Gunter et al., 1988). All that is required is
37
Figure 4. Photographs of three different experimental
setups for single crystal study; in all cases, an X-ray
goniometer head is used and thus the same crystal
can be easily moved between experimental setups. A)
The Supper spindle stage, with goniometer head, is
mounted on the rotating stage of a PLM to observe
crystal morphology in three dimensions and to
measure optical properties (e.g., refractive index,
pleochroism, 2V, orientation of the indicatrix, etc.).
B) A goniometer head mounted on a single-crystal
diffractometer used to obtain structural data (e.g.,
unit cell parameters, crystal structure, orientation of
the crystallographic axes, etc.). C) A modified spindle
stage placed in a synchrotron beam source for studies
of the orientational dependence of absorption
spectra.
Figure 5. Sketches showing the optical orientation
for andalusite and “Mn-andalusite.” Note that for
andalusite the small refractive index (X) is parallel to
the long dimension of the crystal, while for
Mn-andalusite the optical orientation has changed
and Z (the largest refractive index) is parallel to c. The
lower part of the figure is a polyhedral representation
of the structure of andalusite. The main structural
unit is an edge-sharing chain of octahedral parallel to
the c crystallographic axis.

38 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 52, n. 1, January, 2004, p. 34-44

Figure 6. Relationship between refractive indices and Mn + Fe content for 20 andalusite samples (modified
from Gunter and Bloss, 1982). Because there is a change in the optical orientation as a function of Mn + Fe
content (x+y on graph), the refractive index curves are labeled n||a, n||b, and n||c to correspond to the
refractive index directions in the a, b, and c crystallographic directions, respectively. Note that when the
curves cross, a sample of that composition would appear isotropic.

extinction measurements are determined for different
spindle stage settings. A mathematical relationship
exists between these extinction data and the optical
indicatrix. In other words, given extinction
measurements, a computer program will provide the
microscopist the spindle stage and microscope stage
settings to place the crystal so any of its three principal
refractive indices can be directly determined without
appreciable error due to misorientation. Another major
advantage of this method is that all refractive indices are
determined on the same crystal. This, in turn, lends itself
to studies whereby the optically characterized single
crystal can also be used for X-ray diffraction or chemical
analysis. All the physical properties of a mineral can be
determined on the same single crystal.
Isotropic andalusite - An example of an integrated
optical, X-ray, and chemical study was performed on
andalusites with varying compositions (Gunter and
Bloss, 1982). Andalusite, Al2SiO5, can have appreciable
substitution of Mn and Fe for the six-coordinated Al in its
structure. There is also a change in the optical orientation
in andalusite as this substitution occurs (Figure 5). Figure
5 also shows a polyhedral representation of a portion of
the structure of andalusite. Andalusite is an orthosilicate
mineral and the isolated Si tetrahedron is shown in
Figure 5. There are two Al sites: a five-coordinated site
labeled M2 and a six-coordinated site labeled M1. Mn
and Fe substitute for Al in the M1 site that form
edge-sharing chains of octahedrons parallel to the c
crystallographic axis. Notice how the structure of
andalusite controls its morphology; these edge-sharing
chains are the main structural unit, thus elongating
andalusite parallel to its c crystallographic axis.
Gunter and Bloss (1982) obtained a suite of
approximately 50 andalusite samples and selected 20 of
varying compositions. For each of these 20 samples, we
precisely measured the refractive indices with the PLM
and spindle stage, cell parameters by X-ray diffraction,
and chemical composition by electron microprobe. These
different measurements were made on the same single
crystals; thus, the change in the optical orientation could
be tracked as a function of chemical composition. We
found that the refractive index direction parallel to the c
crystallographic axis was the smallest of the refractive
indices for pure andalusite; however, it increases at a
greater rate than the other two refractive indices with
substitution of Mn and Fe for Al. Upon close examination
of Figure 6, notice a void in our data in the area where
these three curves of refractive index values cross. Two
reasons were postulated for this: that samples of this
composition do not exist in nature (although this did not
seem reasonable to us), and that andalusites with this
composition had been overlooked in thin section because
they would appear isotropic, or near isotropic. Shortly
after our work was published, Grambling and Williams

Gunter - The Polarized Light Microscope 39

Figure 7. Relationships of the refractive of the fibrous Figure 8. Photomicrographs of an approximately 500
zeolites - natrolite, mesolite, and scolecite (modified mm long natrolite sample capped with mesolite taken
from Gunter and Ribbe, 1993). This graph was in both plane-polarized and cross-polarized light. The
produced from data synthesized from the literature – crystal is mounted on a glass fiber and immersed in
no data were collected. Based on this graph, it is easy index-matching fluid for natrolite. In the plane-
to distinguish between these three samples by their polarized photo, the mesolite tip has higher relief
sign of elongation. than the natrolite portion of the crystal. In the
cross-polarized photo, the mesolite tip appears near
(1985) found andalusites in this compositional range that isotropic because of the lower birefringence of
indeed appeared isotropic. mesolite (Figure 7).
While this discovery may seem like a mere optical
curiosity (i.e., that orthorhombic minerals may appear increases at a lower rate than the refractive indices
isotropic), it has significance to the metamorphic parallel to the a and b crystallographic axes (Figure 7).
petrology community. Grambling and Williams (1985) Thus, natrolite has its largest refractive index direction
showed how changes in the triple point for the parallel to its long dimension, mesolite has its
aluminosilicates could be related to the Mn and Fe intermediate refractive index direction parallel to its long
contents of those andalusites, thus helping to account for direction, and scolecite has its smallest refractive index
some of the variability in location of the triple-point in parallel to its elongation. It is simple to distinguish these
the aluminosilicate phase diagram. three minerals in thin section or grain mount based upon
their sign of elongation.
Retardation and optical orientation of natrolite group Figure 7 also shows that the retardation for natrolite
zeolites - Based upon my previous work on andalusite, I and scolecite, while being low, would still appear
searched the literature for other possible effects of anisotropic in thin section or grain mount. Mesolite, on
changes in optical orientation that could provide the other hand, exhibits very low retardation and would
worthwhile information. Also, in general, a portion of appear isotropic, or near so. During the preparation of
my research is directed toward the understanding of Gunter and Ribbe (1993), we collected samples of fibrous
how the optical properties of materials are related to zeolites from a nearby basalt flow (Gunter et al., 1993).
their crystal structure and chemical composition. I first Figure 8 shows one of these fibrous zeolites affixed to a
investigated zeolites because of their many industrial glass fiber. In the plane-polarized light photograph, the
applications and wide-spread geologic occurrences. refractive index fluid matches natrolite, so it exhibits
Also, zeolites have low birefringence because they are very low relief. Mesolite has a slightly higher refractive
framework silicates; thus, a small change in some index and thus stands out in higher relief at the tip of the
structural or chemical property may cause a large change crystal. In cross-polarized light the photomicrograph
in the easily observable retardation. reveals how the retardation clearly shows an anisotropic
Gunter and Ribbe (1993) collected optical data from crystal, but because the retardation for mesolite is so low,
the existing literature for the natrolite group zeolites it appears isotropic. The study again shows how subtle
(natrolite, mesolite, and scolecite). After some obvious changes in chemistry can cause large effects on the
corrections to the optical orientations incorrectly retardation. Because retardation is so easily observable, it
provided in some of the standard reference books, a plot can be used for other purposes than simply to identify
of the refractive indices for these three minerals could be minerals in thin section or grain mount.
made as a function of their Ca and Na content. In a
similar manner to andalusite, the rate of change of the Cation diffusion in heulandite group zeolites - In
refractive indices were different for the different another study by Gunter et al. (1994) on Pb-exchange
crystallographic directions. In this mineral group, the heulandite group zeolites, we used optical data to aid in
refractive index direction parallel to the c determining the extent of Pb exchange. Pb substitution
crystallographic axis, which corresponds to chains of increases the birefringence, and thus the retardation.
tetrahedrons parallel to the c crystallographic axis, Figure 9A shows a non-exchanged sample exhibiting

40 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 52, n. 1, January, 2004, p. 34-44


Figure 9. A series of images of natural and
Pb-exchanged heulandite zeolites showing changes in
retardation (in the PLM images) and back-scattered
electron (BSE) intensity (in the BSE images) as a
function of Pb exchange (modified from Gunter et al.,
1994, which are in color). (All scale bars are 100 mm.)
A) PLM image of a natural sample exhibiting low
retardation. B) PLM image of a fully Pb-exchanged
sample showing a drastic increase in retardation. C)
BSE image of a partially Pb-exchanged sample; the Pb
has only diffused into the edges of the sample. D) PLM
image showing how increased retardation can be used
to monitor Pb exchange around the edges of the
crystal; the greatest exchange is in the lower right
hand corner of the grain. E) BSE image of a partially
Pb-exchanged sample, with Pb diffusing in along the
edge and cracks in the grain. F) PLM image showing
Pb diffusion along the edges and cracks in a sample as
shown by increases in retardation.
first-order grey retardation, and Figure 9B shows a fully
Pb-exchanged sample exhibiting second-order red
retardation. (A color rendition of this figure can be found
in Gunter et al., 1994.)
Another method that can be used to determine
whether exchange has occurred, or to measure diffusion
of Pb into the structure, is backscattered electron imaging
(BSE) with a scanning electron microscope. Figure 9C
shows a BSE image where the Pb has diffused a few tens
of microns on the rim of the grain. Figure 9D shows a
similar grain except this time as observed with a PLM.
Note the high order retardation on the lower right
portion of the grain; this indicates Pb has diffused into
this portion of the mineral. Pb not only diffuses into the
rims of these minerals, but also through cracks. Figure 9E
is a BSE image showing areas of Pb diffusion, and Figure
9F is a PLM image showing areas of Pb diffusion. Thus,
again, in this study optics is very sensitive in
determining chemical changes and much more efficient
than performing a chemical analysis with an electron
beam instrument to see spatial variation in chemistry.
A natural extension of this project was to measure
diffusion rates of different cations in heulandite group
zeolites by observing changes in optical properties. In a
series of exchange experiments by Yang et al. (1997), we
Gunter - The Polarized Light Microscope
were able to determine the diffusion coefficients for Na,
K, Rb, and Cs by making simple observations in changes
of optical properties with a PLM. No other single method
available could be used as easily and efficiently to
qualitatively observe exchange in zeolites or to
quantitatively determine their diffusion coefficients.
EXAMPLES OF CURRENT RESEARCH
A major theme in this paper is the orientational
dependence of refractive indices and morphology of
minerals. And, as discussed in detail above, the spindle
stage is the perfect tool to study this dependence. What
follows are three examples of how we have recently
integrated the spindle stage into other analytical
methods with the underlying theme to characterize the
directional dependence of various physical properties.
Single-crystal X-ray diffraction and optical orienta-
tion - The optical orientation of minerals relates the crys-
tallographic axes to the optical indicatrix. It is also useful
to identify the mineral either in immersion mounts or in
thin section and is an important physical property of the
mineral. While X-ray diffraction is used to locate the
crystallographic axes, it cannot be used to locate the opti-
cal directions. Thus if one wants to collect spectroscopic
data along the optical directions of a mineral, the spindle
stage is used to determine these orientations. The optical
orientation is basically nonexistent for isotropic minerals
and trivial for uniaxial minerals. However, for biaxial
minerals the relationship is harder to determine, espe-
cially for monoclinic and triclinic minerals. Determining
the optical orientation of these minerals requires an inte-
grated study using both X-ray diffraction to locate the
crystallographic axes and the PLM to determine the ori-
entation of the biaxial indicatrix.
This entire process can be simplified by using a
spindle stage equipped with an X-ray goniometer head
(Figure 4A). The X-ray goniometer head, with crystal
affixed, can be transferred between the spindle stage and
an X-ray diffractometer (Figure 4B). Also, as described
above, the orientation of the biaxial indicatrix can be
determined with the measurement of extinction
positions and use of the computer program EXCALIBR.
Thus, the orientation of the biaxial indicatrix is found
and cast into the coordinate system of the microscope.
Next, the goniometer head is transferred to the X-ray
diffractometer and the orientation matrix is obtained.
The orientation matrix contains information on the
orientation of the crystallographic axes a, b, c cast into the
coordinate system of the X-ray diffractometer. Next, to
fully determine the optical orientation, these two
coordinate systems are transformed into each other and
the relationship of the biaxial indicatrix and the
crystallographic axes mathematically determined
(Gunter and Twamley, 2001). This entire process takes
about one hour, as compared to older methods that
might require several days.
Synchrotron radiation and absorption spectroscopy
- The advent of synchrotrons with their high-energy
white X-ray beams have created a major new analytical
technique with which to examine minerals. X-ray
absorption spectroscopy is one of many techniques that
requires synchrotron radiation. In this method, the
energy of the X-ray beam is changed in such a way as to
encompass the absorption-edge of an element of interest.
41

Figure 10. X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy
(XANES) spectra of a garnet and olivine with the
polarized synchrotron beam parallel to each of the
three crystallographic axes. For garnet, all spectra
exhibit the same features, while for olivine they vary
as a function of orientation. Thus, the X-ray
absorption indicatrix is similar to the optical
indicatrix.
For example, for Fe absorption the energy of the X-ray
beam is scanned over the main absorption edge at 7111
eV. Information about the coordination, valence, and
other bonding characteristics can be obtained from
interpretation of these spectra. The majority of the work
in this area has been on millimeter-scale powders of
minerals, as well as on single crystals of similar size. Our
current research (Dyar et al., 2002a, b) is exploring new
ways to make these measurements on micron-sized
single crystals. However, one of the concerns in this area
of research is the orientational dependence of the
absorption spectra. Some previous researchers have tried
42 Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 52, n. 1, January, 2004, p. 34-44
Figure 11. Photographs showing integration of
spindle stage methods with a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). A) Stage of SEM with a 3 mm brass
pin used for crystal mounting in a goniometer head
(Figure 3A) inserted into a normal SEM sample holder.
B) Photomicrograph of an acicular amphibole particle
mounted on the end of a glass fiber. C) SEM image of
the same sample in B in approximately the same
orientation. D) SEM image of a bundle of amphibole
fibers mounted on a glass fiber. E) Magnified and
reoriented image of the white box area in D to better
observe the morphology of the amphibole. (Images
modified from Bandli and Gunter, 2001.)
to ascertain the orientational dependence of these
absorption spectra by using oriented thin section
minerals. There are technical difficulties with this
method, along with a considerable amount of time being
required for sample preparation. For instance, study of
an orthorhombic mineral would require at least two
oriented samples.
To study the orientational dependence of the spectra
and fully characterize them on a 100 micron-size crystal,
we modified a spindle stage so it could be placed in a
polarized synchrotron beam (Figure 4C). We could then
place an X-ray goniometer head on the spindle
stage/synchrotron combination and make the required
measurements. To test the system we developed, we
made measurements on samples that should show no
preferred orientation (e.g., an isotropic mineral, such as
garnet) and samples that should show orientational
dependence (e.g., an orthorhombic mineral, such as
olivine). The garnet was oriented using X-ray diffraction
as described above. The olivine was oriented using the
spindle stage as described above. Based on the spectra in
Figure 10, it is clear there is no orientational dependence
of the absorption spectra for garnet, as would be
predicted, and there is an orientational dependence of
the absorption spectra for the olivine, as also would be
predicted based on the analogy with the behavior of the
minerals and polarized light. Prior to the collection of
these spindle stage assisted spectra, it was unclear what
the orientational dependence of the spectra would be.
Thus, integration of the methods of classical optical
mineralogy aids in understanding these new analytical
methods and provides for better data collection methods.
Scanning electron microscope and three-dimen-
sional imaging - When higher magnifications are re-
quired, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be
used in lieu of, or in conjunction with, a PLM. It is also
possible to obtain chemical information directly if the
SEM is equipped with an energy dispersive detector. The
SEM has a greater depth of field at similar magnifications
when compared to a PLM. Standard sample preparation
for the SEM is placement of mineral grains on an alumi-
num stub or glass slide. With this type of mount,
two-dimensional imaging of the sample is possible.
However, if a single crystal is affixed to the brass
pin/glass fiber combination that fits into the X-ray
goniometer head, as used on the spindle stage, this brass
pin can be placed in the sample holder stage of the SEM
(Figure 11A) to achieve three-dimensional imaging of the
particle (Bandli and Gunter, 2001). Combined optical and
scanning electron microscope studies can be performed
on the same single crystal; this is a great aid in identifica-
tion of the sample because chemical information can also
be obtained. It is also a very useful method to handle
100-micron size particles without losing them. Once a
crystal has been affixed to a glass fiber and observed in
the PLM (Figure 11B), it can then be easily transferred to
the scanning electron microscope (Figure 11C).
The main advantage of this method is to be able to
manipulate the crystal in the SEM to gain morphological
information in different directions. Figure 11D shows a
bundle of amphibole asbestos fibers affixed to the end of
a glass fiber. In Figure 11E the sample has been
manipulated to view approximately down the long axis
of the fibers. In this orientation the crystal faces of the
amphibole particle can be seen. If the sample were
mounted on a flat surface, one would not be able to
manipulate it to observe the morphology in different
directions. In the case of amphibole minerals, different
surfaces may have an impact on the minerals’ health
effect. For instance, amphibole asbestos particles tend to
expose the 100 surface, amphibole cleavage fragments
expose the 110 surface, and small single crystals of
amphibole expose the 100 surface. Clearly, from a
mineralogical perspective these different surfaces would
have different reactivities. Using the SEM with a spindle
stage style sample mount helps to characterize the
morphology of these particles.
Gunter - The Polarized Light Microscope
CONCLUSIONS
I hope I have convinced the reader that the answer to the
question posed in the title is “yes.” From the teaching
perspective, the main reason we should continue
teaching polarized light microscopy is that it is one of the
few hands-on, interactive methods of learning about
analytical instrumentation students get to participate in.
From an employment perspective, there is no other
single course students can take that will secure them a job
as rapidly as one that teaches the use of a PLM in
environmental applications, especially in the field of
asbestos identification. In mineralogical research, there
are still many new discoveries and innovations waiting
to be made using well-established, existing methods in
optical mineralogy, and efforts should be made in the
mineralogical community not to lose sight of these
methods in favor of the latest instrumentation, which
may not provide the best and most accurate data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Emeritus Professor F.D. Bloss, VPI
& SU, for his major contributions to the field of optical
mineralogy as a textbook author, teacher, and researcher,
and for mentoring me in the field of optical mineralogy. I
would also like to thank the MSA (Mineralogical Society
of America) for inviting me to be a distinguished lecturer
in 2002-03; this paper was based on a seminar presented
in that series. I would like to thank Professor Osamu
Tamada of Kyoto University for providing a visiting
professorship, which enabled me to contemplate the
significance of polarized light microscopy in the
geoscience curriculum and work on my MSA lecture.
Lastly, I would like to thank Professor Charles Guidotti
of the University of Maine for a thorough review of this
manuscript, providing suggestions for how to improve
it, and confirming my views of the importance of
teaching the use of the PLM. This work was partially
supported by funds from the National Science
Foundation (NSF-CCLI 0127191).
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