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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Thermodynamics I

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Text books:

1) Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, 6th Edition, by R. Sonntag,


C. Borgnakke and G. Van Wylen.
2) Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, 5th Edition, by Y. Gengel and
M. Boles.
3) Fundamentals of Engineering thermodynamics, 5th Edition, by M. Moran,
and H. Shapiro.

Course Outline:

1. Some concept of definitions.


2. Properties of a pure substance.
3. Work and heat.
4. The first law of thermodynamics.
5. The second law of thermodynamics.
6. Entropy
7. Irreversibility and availability.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

International System of Units

(I) Basic Units:


Mass (m) Kilogram (Kg)
Length (𝑙) Meter (m)
Time (t) Second (s)
Temperature (T) Kelvin (K)
(II) Derived Units:
Area (A) m2
Volume (V) m3
Density (𝜌) Kg/m3
Velocity (𝑣) m/s
Acceleration (a) m/s2
Force (F) N = Kg. m / s2
Pressure (P) Pa = N/m2
Energy (E, Q, U) J = N. m
Power (W, P) W = J/s

(III) Multiples of Units:

Prefix Symbol Multiplicative Factor

tera T 1012

giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo K 103

milli m 10-3

micro µ 10-6

nano n 10-9

pico p 10-12

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1. Some Concepts and Definitions

1.1 Thermodynamics
It is the science that deals with heat and work and those
properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work.

:‫تعريف آخر‬
‫هو ذلك الفرع من العلوم الطبيعية الذي يبحث في تحويل الطاقة من نوع إلى آخر‬
‫وبخاصة ما يتصل بالشغل والحرارة كما يبحث في الخواص الفيزيائية للمواد التي تدخل في تحويل‬
.‫الطاقة‬

1.2 Thermodynamic System


A thermodynamic system is a device or
a combination of devices containing a quantity of matter that is being studied.

 Control volume –Boundary – Surrounding: the control volume is chosen, so


that it contains the matter and devices inside its boundary (control surface).
Every external to the control volume is the surroundings. The boundary may
be movable or stationary. Also, it may be insulated.

‫ هذه الكمية‬.‫هو مجموعة محددة من المادة أو أي منطقة يركز عليها االهتمام بغرض الدراسة والتحليل‬
‫) وهذه الحدود يمكن أن تكون ثابتة أو‬Boundaries( ‫أو المنطقة تفصل عما يحيط بها بحدود النظام‬
‫) يحتوي كتلة ثابتة من‬Tank( ‫متحركة كما أنها يمكن أن تكون حقيقية مثل السطح الداخلي لخزان‬
.ً‫المادة أو تخيلية كما يحدث عند دراسة خواص السريان عند فوهة صاروخ مثال‬

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1.2.1 Closed System: (Control mass)


In closed system, no mass can escape or enter the
control volume (i.e. containing the same amount of matter at all times).
However, heat and work cross the boundary.

1.2.2 Open System:


In this system, both the mass and energy (heat and work)
can cross the boundary of the system.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1.3 Properties and state of substance:


A property can be defined as any quantity that depends
on the state of the system . Conversely, the state is specified or described by
the properties.

1.3.1 Intensive property: ‫الخاصية المركزة‬


The intensive property is independent of the mass such as
pressure, temperature, and density. Any specific property is intensive.

1.3.2 Extensive property: ‫الخاصية الشاملة‬


The value of an extensive property varies directly with
the mass such as mass, total volume, enthalpy, and internal energy.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example:

Each part of the tank will have the same value of the intensive properties and half
the value of the extensive properties.

 Temperature: It is an indication of the level of heat in a substance. A substance


at 10oc has more heat energy than the same substance at 0oc.

 Specific volume: It is defined as the volume per unit mass.


𝑉
𝑣= (m3/kg)
𝑚
It is clear that the specific volume is the reciprocal of the density (𝜌).

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

 Pressure: It is the normal component of the force per unit area.


𝐹
𝑃= (Pa)
𝐴
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa , 1 atm = 101325 Pa
 Absolute and Gauge Pressure: Most pressure gauges read the difference
between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure existing at the
gauge. This referred to as gauge pressure (Pg).
Pabs = Patm + Pg

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

2.Properties of a Pure substance:

1.4 The Pure Substance:


A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical
composition. It may exist in more than one phase, but the chemical composition in
all phases is the same.
1.5 The Phase:
A phase is defined as a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout. (gas,
liquid, solid) Ex. Water

1.6 Saturated temperature: (Ts)


The temperature at which vaporization takes place at a given pressure, and this
pressure is called Saturation Pressure (Ps) for that temperature.
For water at T=99.6 oC Ps=0.1MPa and at P=0.1MPa Ts=99.6 oC.

For pure substance there is a definite relation between Ts and Ps as shown:

1.7 Phase Diagram:


It is a P-T diagram that shows how the solid, liquid, and vapor phases may exist
together in equilibrium.
 Triple Point: the state at which all three phases may exist together. For water
T=0.01C, P=0.6113kPa.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

 Critical Point: is a point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical.
1.8 Phase Equilibrium in a pure substance:

Example: 1 Kg of water , P = 1 atm, T=20 oC ( heating at constant pressure )

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

State A: sub-cooled liquid (T<Ts) or compressed liquid (P<Ps). (State 1)

Process A-B: sensible heating and the heat energy that transferred to the
substance is called sensible heat. (State 1-2)

State B: saturated liquid state, any further heating causes vaporization.(state 2)

Process B-C: latent heating (constant temperature process) in which the change
of phase from liquid to vapor occurs. The heat transferred to the substance
(mixture) is called the latent heat. (State 3-4)

State C: saturated vapor state. (State 4)

Process C-D: sensible heating of water vapor (steam). (State 4-5)

State D: superheated steam. (State 5)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Tables of saturated steam give some explanation


 Quality (x):
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass. The
quality may be considered an intensive property. Quality has meaning only when
the substance is in a saturated state (at saturation pressure and temperature).

𝑚𝑔
𝑥= , 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓
𝑚
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 12
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑣𝑥 ≡ Specific volume of the mixture


𝑉
𝑣𝑥 = , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑔 1
𝑚

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔

Substitute in (1) 𝑚𝑣𝑥 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔


𝑚𝑓 𝑚𝑔
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑔
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚−𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑔
𝑚 𝑚

𝑣𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥 )𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥𝑣𝑓

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔

Similarly,
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑢𝑓𝑔 , ℎ𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 , 𝑠𝑥 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑓𝑔

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 13
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example:

A vessel having a volume of 0.4 m3 contains 2.0 Kg of liquid water


and water vapor mixture at a pressure of 600 KPa. Calculate:

1. The volume and mass of liquid.


2. The volume and mass of vapor.

Solution:
𝑉 0.4
𝑣= = = 0.2 m3/Kg
𝑚 2

From table A.1.2 at Psat = 600 KPa

𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.3157 – 0.001101 = 0.3146

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔
0.2 = 0.001101 + 𝑥 (0.3146)

𝑥 = 0.6322

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑥 𝑚 = 0.6322 ∗ 2.0 = 1.2644 Kg

𝑚𝑓 = (1 − 𝑥) 𝑚 = 0.3678 ∗ 2.0 = 0.7356 Kg

𝑉𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔 = 1.2644 ∗ 0.3157 = 0.3992 m3

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 = 0.7356 ∗ 0.001101 = 0.0008 m3

Example:

A rigid vessel contains saturated ammonia vapor at 20 oC. Heat is


transferred to the system until the temperature reaches 40 oC.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

What is the final pressure?

Solution:
Since the volume does not change during this process, the specific volume
also remains constant.

From table A.2 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0.14928 m3/Kg = 𝑣𝑔 at 20 oC


𝑣𝑔 at 40 oC < 0.14928 state 2 is
superheated

By interpolation between 900 and 1000 kPa Table A.2.2

P2 = 936 kPa
Example:
Determine whether water at each of the following states is a compressed
liquid, a superheated vapor, or a mixture of saturated liquid and vapor :
a) 18 MPa , 0.003 m3/kg Saturated 𝑥 =?
b) 1 MPa , 150 oC Compressed
o 3
c) 200 C , 0.2 m /kg Superheated
o
d) 10 kPa , 10 C Compressed
e) 130 oC , 200 kPa Superheated
f) 70 oC , 1 m3/kg Saturated 𝑥 =?

a) From table A.1.2 at P = 18 MPa we get

𝑣𝑓 = 0.00184 m3/kg , 𝑣𝑔 = 0.007489 m3/kg

And we have, 𝑣 = 0.003 m3/kg

Since 𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑔 mixture

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣𝑓 0.003−0.00184
𝑥= = = 0.205
𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 0.007489−0.00184

f) From table A.1.1 at T = 70 oC we get

𝑣𝑓 = 0.001023 m3/kg , 𝑣𝑔 = 5.042 m3/kg

And we have, 𝑣 = 1 m3/kg


1 − 0.001023
𝑥= = 0.198
5.042 − 0.001023

Example:
Determine the quality (if saturated) or temperature (if superheated) of
water at:
a) 120 oC , 1 m3/kg Superheated
3
b) 10 MPa , 0.02 m /kg Superheated

 Processes and Cycles:


 Process:
When one or more of the properties of a system change , the state of
the system changes the path of the succession of states through which the
system passes is called the Process. The process is identified by:
1. Initial state.
2. Final state.
3. Process path.

 Equilibrium state

The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium


state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the
system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated
from its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermody-
namic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibr-
ium are satisfied.
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 16
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

-Thermal equilibrium -Mechanical equilibrium


-Phase equilibrium -Chemical equilibrium

 Quasi – equilibrium Process: ideal process


Is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is
infinitesimal, and all the states the system passes through during this
process may be considered equilibrium states. Quasi – equilibrium Process
is a plot of series of infinite number of equilibrium states.
 Non – equilibrium Process:
Is one in which the system would not be in equilibrium at any time
during the change of state.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 17
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Many processes are characterized by the fact that one property remains
constant. These processes are:

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


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PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1. Isothermal process (constant temperature process)


2. Isobaric process (constant pressure process)
3. Isochoric process (constant volume process)

 Cycles:
When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of
different changes of state or processes and finally returns to its initial state,
the system has undergone a cycle.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 19
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

 Ideal Gases:

From experimental observation it has been established that the 𝑃 −


𝑣 − 𝑇 behavior of gases at low density is closely given by the following
equation of state:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

Where:

P ≡ Absolute Pressure, Pa

V ≡ Volume, m3

m ≡ Mass, kg

R ≡ Gas Constant, J/kg.oK

T ≡ Temperature, oK

The gas constant can be calculated from:


𝑅̅
𝑅=
𝑀

Where:

𝑅̅ ≡ The universal gas constant = 8.3145 kJ/kmol.oK

𝑀 ≡ Molecular weight, kg/kmol

The value of R for a number of substances is given in Table A.8

Gas M R (kJ/kg.oK)

Air 28.97 0.287


Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.18892
Nitrogen 28.013 0.2968
Oxygen 31.999 0.25983
Steam 18.015 0.46152

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 20
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Other forms of ideal gas equation of state:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

Or 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑅̅
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅̅ 𝑇
𝑀
𝑚
Where 𝑛 = : number of moles (kmol)
𝑀

At low density, all gases and vapors approach ideal-gas behavior. At


higher densities the behavior may deviate from the ideal gas equation of
state. So, we introduce the concept of the compressibility factor (Z) as,
𝑣
𝑍 = 𝑣 𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Fig. A.5 Generalized compressibility chart
𝑃
𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑍 , 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇
𝑃

𝑃 𝑇
𝑃𝑟 = (Reduced pressure), 𝑇𝑟 = (Reduced temperature)
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝑇𝑐𝑟

Pcr , Tcr from Table A.6


The following observations can be made from the generalized compressibility
chart:

1. At very low pressures (PR <<1), gases behave as an ideal gas


regardless of temperature.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 21
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

2. At high temperatures (TR > 2), ideal-gas behavior can be assumed


with good accuracy regardless of pressure (except when PR >> 1).

Example:

What is the mass of air contained in a room 6m x 10m x 4m if the


pressure is 100 kPa and the temperature is 25 oC. Assume air to be an ideal gas.

Solution:

𝑃𝑉 100 ∗ 103 ∗ (6 ∗ 10 ∗ 4)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 → 𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑇 287 ∗ 298.15
𝑚 = 280.48 𝑘𝑔

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 22
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example:

A tank has a volume of 0.5m3 and contains 10kg of an ideal gas having a
molecular weight of 24. The temperature is 25 oC. What is the pressure.

Solution
𝐽
𝑅̅ 8.3145∗103 .𝑘
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅= = = 346.44 J/kg.ok
𝑀 24 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚𝑅𝑇 10 ∗ 346.44 ∗ 298.15


𝑃= = = 2,065,821.70 𝑃𝑎
𝑉 0.5
= 2,065.8 kPa

Example:

A 200 L tank contains carbon dioxide gas at 35 oC and 2 MPa.

(a) Determine the mass inside the tank.


(b) Estimate the percentage error in (a) if ideal gas model is assumed

Solution:

(a) From Table A.6 for carbon dioxide


Pcr = 7.39*106 Pa , Tcr = 304.2 oK
2∗106 308.15
𝑃𝑟 = 6 = 0.27 , 𝑇𝑟 = = 1.01
7.39 ∗ 10 304.2

From generalized compressibility chart (fig. A.5) at Pr = 0.27 and Tr = 1.01

we get, Z = 0.9

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑇

𝑃𝑉 2 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.2
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = = 7.634 𝑘𝑔
𝑍𝑅𝑇 0.9 ∗ 188.92 ∗ 308.15
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 23
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

(b) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑇

𝑃𝑉 2 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.2
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = = 6.87 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑅𝑇 188.92 ∗ 308.15

|𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡 | 6.87−7.634


% error =
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡
* 100 =
7.634
* 100 = 10%

Or = (Z - 1) * 100 = 10%

H.W (2)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 24
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Work and Heat


 Work:
It is defined as a force F acting through a displacement x, the displacement being
in the direction of the force. That is,
2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥
1

Work is a form of energy. The unit of work in SI units is called Joule (J),

1 J = 1 N.m

𝑊 > 0 , work done by the system

𝑊 < 0 , work done on the system

By definition, the work done by the system through the process 1 – 2 is,
2 2 2

𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃 . 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃 . 𝑑𝑉
1 1 1

 From the work definition, the work is represented by the area under the
curve on P – V diagram.
 Area depends on the path 1 to 2 work (Path function).

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 25
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

To evaluate the work from the above equation, the relationship between P and
V is required.

Relationship (equation or graph form)

One common example of functional relationship is a polytropic process.

𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Work done by a system undergoes a polytropic process:

𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛 , n : polytropic index (−∞ , ∞)

2 2 𝑛−1
−𝑛
𝑉 −𝑛+1 𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑐 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 [ ] = ( ) = ( )
−𝑛 + 1 1 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑃1
1

𝑉21−𝑛 − 𝑉11−𝑛 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛 𝑉21−𝑛 − 𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 𝑉11−𝑛


𝑊1−2 = 𝑐 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 1
1−𝑛 1−𝑛

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊1−2 =
1−𝑛

 For 𝑛 = 1 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 (T = constant for ideal gas) isothermal


2 2 2
𝐶 𝑑𝑉
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫
𝑉 𝑉
1 1 1

𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉1 𝑃2

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 26
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

 For 𝑛 = 0 𝑃=𝐶 (isobaric process)

2 2

𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
1 1

𝑊1−2 = 𝑃 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

 For 𝑛 = ±∞ 𝑉=𝐶 (isochoric process)

𝑊1−2 = 0

 Work in free expansion:


There is no work involved in free expansion process because there is no
resistance at the system boundary as the volume increases.

 Heat (Q):
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary
of a system at a given temperature to another system (or surrounding) at
a lower temperature.

Unit of Heat: (J)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 27
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Q > 0 Heat transferred to a system (Heat added)


Q < 0 Heat transferred from a system (Heat rejected)

Formal sign conversion for heat and work;

Work done by a system  +ve

Work done on a system  -ve

Heat transferred to a system  +ve

Heat transferred from a system  -ve

Example:
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes an expansion process for
which the relationship between pressure and volume is given by 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 .
The initial pressure is 3 bars, the initial volume is 0.1 m3, and the final
volume is 0.2 m3 . Determine the work for the process, in kJ, if:
(a) n = 1.5 (b) n = 1 (c) n = 0

Solution:

a) P1 = 3x105 bar V1 = 0.1 m3


V2 = 0.2 m3

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 28
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑉 𝑛 0.1 1.5
𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( 1 ) = 3 ∗ ( ) = 1.06 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑉2 0.2

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 1.06 ∗ 105 ∗ 0.2 − 3 ∗ 105 ∗ 0.1


𝑊1−2 = = = 17600 𝐽
1−𝑛 1 − 1.5
= 17.6 KJ

b) n = 1 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

𝑉2 0.2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 3 ∗ 105 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 20790 𝐽 = 20.79 𝑘𝐽
𝑉1 0.1

c) n = 0 𝑃=𝐶

𝑊1−2 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 3 ∗ 105 (0.2 − 0.1) = 30000 𝐽 = 30𝑘𝐽

Example:
A spherical elastic balloon initially containing 5 kg of saturated vapor
ammonia at 20 oC is connected by a valve to a rigid 3 m3 evacuated tank.
The pressure inside the balloon is proportional to its diameter. The valve is
now opened until the pressure inside is dropped to 600 kPa, then it is closed.
The final temperature in both the balloon and the tank is 20 oC.
Determine:
a) The final pressure in the tank.
b) The work done by the ammonia during the process.

Solution:

a)

𝑚𝐵1 + 𝑚 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝐵2 + 𝑚 𝑇2

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 29
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑚 𝑇1 = 0 , 𝑚𝐵1 = 5 𝑘𝑔

5 = 𝑚𝐵2 + 𝑚 𝑇2
1⁄
4 3 3 3 1⁄
𝑃𝛼𝐷 𝑉= 𝜋𝐷 → 𝐷 = ( ) 𝑉 3
3 4𝜋

Balloon
𝑃 = 𝐶1 ∗ 𝐷
1⁄ 5kg, 20oC
3 3 1⁄ 1⁄
𝑃 = 𝐶1 ∗ ( ) 𝑉 3 =𝐶∗ 𝑉 3
4𝜋

1⁄
or 𝑃𝑉 3 =𝐶 → 𝑃 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐶

3
𝑉𝐵2 𝑃𝐵2
= ( ) ……..
𝑉𝐵1 𝑃𝐵1
Tank 3 m3
State 1 : saturated vapor at 20 oC , from tables

𝑃𝐵1 = 857.12 kPa 𝑣𝐵1 = 0.1494 m3/kg

𝑉𝐵1 = 𝑚𝐵1 𝑣𝐵1 = 5 * 0.1494

𝑉𝐵1 = 0.747 m3 , given 𝑃𝐵2 = 600 kPa


3 3
𝑃𝐵 600
2
∴ 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝑉𝐵1 ( ) = 0.747 ( ) = 0.256 m3
𝑃𝐵 857.12
1

From superheated ammonia Table at 600 kPa , 20 oC

𝑣𝐵2 = 0.2217 m3/kg


𝑉𝐵2 0.256
∴ 𝑚𝐵2 = = = 1.155 kg
𝑣𝐵2 0.2217

𝑚 𝑇2 = 𝑚𝐵1 − 𝑚𝐵2 = 5 – 1.155 = 3.845 kg

𝑉𝑇 = 3 𝑚3

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 30
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑉𝑇 3
∴ 𝑣𝑇2 = = = 0.7802 m3/kg
𝑚 𝑇2 3.845

From sat. ammonia Table at 𝑣 𝑇2 = 0.7802 m3/kg and 𝑇𝑇2 = 20 oC

𝑣𝑇2 > 𝑣𝑔 ∴ state 2 is superheated


𝑣 m3/kg P (kPa)
0.9388 150
0.7802 P
From superheated Table, 0.7001 200

By interpolation 𝑃𝑇2 = 183.22 𝑘𝑃𝑎

0 (fixed volume)

b) 𝑊1−2 = 𝑊𝐵1−2 − 𝑊𝑇1−2

𝑃𝐵2 𝑉𝐵2 − 𝑃𝐵1 𝑉𝐵1


𝑊1−2 =
1−𝑛
600∗0.256−857.12∗0.747
=
1−(−1⁄3)

𝑊1−2 = −365 kJ (work done on the system)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 31
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS


It is called the law of conservation of energy “Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only change forms”.

 The first law for a closed system:

𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = ∆𝐸1−2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 , (J)

Divide all parties on mass (m), we get


𝑞1−2 − 𝑤1−2 = ∆𝑒1−2 , (J/kg)

∀2
𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧
2

u : internal energy
∀2
: kinetic energy
2
𝑔𝑧 : potential energy

If we neglect kinetic and potential energies;

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 32
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑞1−2 − 𝑤1−2 = ∆𝑢1−2 (property)


Path function Path function path independent

𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑡
or in a rate equation, 𝑄̇ - 𝑊̇ = 𝐸̇ J/s = watt

The first law for a system undergoing a cycle:


During any cycle, the cyclic integral of the heat is equal to the cyclic integral
of the work.

∮ 𝜕𝑄 − ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = 0 or ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = ∮ 𝜕𝑄

Wcycle = Qcycle

Wnet = Qnet

Internal Energy (U):


It is the part of energy stored within the fluid which results from the internal
motion of its atoms and molecules.
It is a path independent (Property) ….. extensive property

𝑈
Unit of (U) is (J), 𝑢= , 𝑢: specific internal energy (J/kg)
𝑚

Explanation: ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = ∮ 𝜕𝑄

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 33
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝐴 2 1 2 1
, 𝐵
1−2 2−1 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐴 + ∫2 𝜕𝑄𝐵 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐴 + ∫2 𝜕𝑊𝐵 … 1

𝐶 2 1 2 1
, 𝐵
1−2 2−1 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐶 + ∫2 𝜕𝑄𝐵 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐶 + ∫2 𝜕𝑊𝐵 … 2

2 2 2 2
1 − 2 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐴 − ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐶 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐴 − ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐶

2 2 2 2 2
∫1 (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊)𝐴 = ∫1 (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊)𝐶 ∫1 𝜕𝑢𝐴 = ∫1 𝜕𝑢𝐶 = ∫1 𝜕𝑢

This means the quantity (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊) is a point function (depends only on
initial and final states).

 Enthalpy (H):
In analyzing specific types of processes, we frequently encounter certain
combinations of thermodynamic properties, which are therefore also
properties of the substance.
H=U+PV
𝑞1−2 − 𝑤1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 h=u+pv

2
 For constant pressure process, 𝑤1−2 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

𝑞1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 34
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

= (𝑢
⏟ 2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 ) − (𝑢
⏟ 1 + 𝑃1 𝑣1 )
ℎ2 ℎ1

𝑞1−2 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 ………….. 𝐴

 Specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure:

a) The specific heat at constant volume (𝐶𝑣 ) is defined as:

𝜕𝑢
𝐶𝑣 = ( ) , u = f(T,v)
𝜕𝑇 𝑣

The rate of change of u with respect to T at constant v .

For an ideal gas, 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑇)


𝜕𝑢
𝐶𝑣0 =
𝜕𝑇
Where the subscript o refers to an ideal gas
2 2

∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑇
1 1

∴ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) → for ideal gases

b) The specific heat at constant pressure (𝐶𝑝 ) is defined as:

𝜕ℎ
𝐶𝑝 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑝

For an ideal gas, ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇 → ℎ = 𝑓(𝑇)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 35
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝜕ℎ
𝐶𝑝0 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑝
2 2

∫ 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑇
1 1

∴ ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) → for ideal gases

Therefore, for ideal gas equation 𝐴 becomes,

𝑞1−2 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) ….. (const. pressure process + ideal gas)

 For constant volume process, 𝑤1−2 = 0

𝑞1−2 + 𝑤1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 → 𝑞1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1

For ideal gas,

𝑞1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) ….. (const. volume process + ideal gas)

The relation between 𝐶𝑝𝑜 and 𝐶𝑣𝑜

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇

𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇

𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇

𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 + 𝑅

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 36
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

 Adiabatic Process:
𝑞=0 − 𝜕𝑤 = 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢 + 𝜕𝑤 = 0

for ideal gas 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 0


𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑣

𝑑𝑇 𝑅 𝑑𝑣
÷ 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑇 + =0
𝑇 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑣

𝑅
by integration 𝑙𝑛 𝑇 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑐
𝐶𝑣𝑜

𝑙𝑛(𝑇 ∗ 𝑣 𝑅⁄𝐶𝑣𝑜 ) = 𝑐

e( ) for both sides of equation, we get


𝑅 𝐶𝑝𝑜 − 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝐶𝑝𝑜
𝑇 ∗ 𝑣 𝑅⁄𝐶𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐 = = −1= 𝛾−1
𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝐶𝑣𝑜

𝑇 ∗ 𝑣 𝛾−1 = 𝑐 𝛾 : Specific heat ratio

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 37
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
1
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 → 𝑇 = 𝑃𝑣 ∴ 𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝑐 W=?
𝑅

𝛾 = 1.6 for monatomic gases (Ar , He , Ne , ...) ‫أحادي الذرة‬


𝛾 = 1.4 for diatomic gases (H2 , O2 , ... ) ‫ثنائي الذرة‬
𝛾 = 1.3 for polyatomic gases (H2O , CO2 , ... ) ‫متعدد الذرات‬
Example:

A cylinder fitted with piston has an initial volume of 0.1 m3 and contains nitrogen
at 150 kPa, 25 oC. The piston is moved compressing the nitrogen until the pressure
is 1MPa and temp. is 150 oC. During this compression process, heat is transferred
from the nitrogen, and the work done on the nitrogen is 20 kJ. Determine the
amount of heat transferred.

Solution:

State (1):

𝑃1 = 150 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇1 = 25 ℃ , 𝑉1 = 0.1 𝑚3

State (2):

𝑃1 = 1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇1 = 150 ℃

1st law for closed system

𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1

𝑄1−2 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑊1−2

For ideal gas,

𝑄1−2 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣𝑜 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝑊1−2

From table A.8 (For nitrogen) 𝑅 = 0.2968 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 , 𝐶𝑣𝑜 = 0.7448 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 38
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑃1 𝑉1 150∗103 ∗0.1
𝑚= = = 0.1695 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇1 296.8∗298.15

𝑄1−2 = 0.1695 ∗ 0.7448(150 − 25) + (−20) = −4.22 𝑘𝐽

Example:

A vessel having a volume of 5 m3 contains 0.05 m3 of sat. liquid water and 4.95 m3
of sat. water vapor at 0.1 MPa. Heat is transferred until the vessel is filled with
sat. vapor. Determine the heat transfer for this process.

Solution:

state (1) is mixture at 0.1 MPa

From sat. steam Tables,

𝑣𝑓 = 0.001043 m3/kg , 𝑣𝑔 = 1.6940 m3/kg

𝑢𝑓 = 417.36 kJ/kg , 𝑢𝑓𝑔 = 2088.7 kJ/kg

𝑉𝑓1 0.05
𝑚𝑓1 = = = 47.94 𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑓1 0.001043
𝑉𝑔1 4.95
𝑚𝑔1 = = = 2.92 𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑔1 1.6940

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 39
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓1 + 𝑚𝑔1 = 47.94 + 2.92 = 50.86 𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑔1 2.92
𝑥= = = 0.0574
𝑚 50.86
𝑢1 = 𝑢𝑓1 + 𝑥1 𝑢𝑓𝑔1 = 417.36 + 0.0574(2088.7) = 537.277 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑉 5
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = = = 0.0931 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
𝑚 50.86
From sat. steam pressure Tables (Table A.1.2)

P 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑔
2 MPa 0.09963 2600.3
? 0.09831 ?
2.25 MPa 0.08875 2602.0

u2 = 2600.5 kJ/kg , P2 = 2.03 MPa

𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )

= 50.86 (2600.5 - 537.28) = 104935 kJ

Example:

A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains 0.5 kg of steam
at 0.4 MPa. Heat is transferred to the steam until the temp. reaches 300 oC, while
the pressure remains constant. Determine the heat transfer and the work for this
process?

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 40
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Solution:
2
𝑊1−2 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑚((𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 )

First law:

𝑄1−2 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑊1−2

= 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑚((𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 )

𝑄1−2 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑉1 0.1
𝑣1 = = = 0.2 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
𝑚 0.5
Since 𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣1 < 𝑣𝑔 at P = 0.4 MPa → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (1) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔

0.2 = 0.001084 + 𝑥1 ∗ 0.4614 → 𝑥1 = 0.4311

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 604.74 + 0.4311(2133.8) = 1524.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

State (2) is superheated : P2 = 0.4 MPa , T2 = 300 oC

∴ 𝑣2 = 0.6548 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 , ℎ2 = 3066.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑊1−2 = 𝑚𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) = 0.5 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 103 (0.6548 − 0.2) = 91 𝑘𝐽

𝑄1−2 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 0.5(3066.2 − 1524.6) = 771.1 𝑘𝐽

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 41
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example:

A cylinder fitted with a piston restrained by a linear spring contains 2 kg of water


at 400 kPa, 700 oC. The piston cross-sectional area is 0.1 m2 and the spring
constant is 5 kN/m. Heat is now transferred from the water to the surrounding,
and the process continues until the pressure inside the cylinder
has dropped to 125 kPa.
a) Determine the final state of the water.
b) Calculate the heat transfer from the process.

Solution:
𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔 + 𝐹𝑠1

𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠1 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔

𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠2 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔

∴ 𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠1 = 𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠2

𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐾𝑋1 = 𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐾𝑋2

𝐴𝑝 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐾(𝑋1 − 𝑋2 )

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝐴𝑝 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐾 ( ) = 𝑚𝐾
𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑝

𝐴2𝑝 𝐴2𝑝
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = (𝑃 − 𝑃2 ) → 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 − (𝑃 − 𝑃2 )
𝑚. 𝐾 1 𝑚. 𝐾 1

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 42
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

State (1) superheated

𝑃1 = 400 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇1 = 700 ℃ , 𝑣1 = 1.1215 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔 , 𝑢1 = 3477.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

(0.1)2
𝑣2 = 1.1215 − 3
(400 ∗ 103 − 125 ∗ 103 ) = 0.8465 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
2 ∗ 5 ∗ 10

State (2) mixture 𝑃2 = 125 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , 𝑣2 = 0.8465 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥2 𝑣𝑓𝑔
0.8465 = 0.001048 + 𝑥2 (1.3749 − 0.001048)

𝑥2 = 0.615

𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥2 𝑢𝑓𝑔
𝑢2 = 444.19 + (0.615 ∗ 2069.3) = 1716.8 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝐸 & 𝑃𝐸 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠)


2
𝑚𝐾
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 , 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + (𝑣 − 𝑣1 )
𝐴2𝑝
1

2 2
𝐾 𝐾 (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )2
= ∫ 𝑃1 + 2 (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )𝑑𝑉 = [𝑃1 𝑉 + 2 ]
𝐴𝑝 𝐴𝑝 2 1
1

𝐾
= 𝑃1 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) + 2
(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )2
2𝐴𝑝

𝑚2 𝐾
= 𝑚𝑃1 (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) + 2
(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )2
2𝐴𝑝

3 (0.8465
(2)2 ∗ 5 ∗ 103
= 2 ∗ 400 ∗ 10 − 1.1215) + ∗ (0.8465 − 1.1215)2
2 ∗ (0.1)2

𝑊1−2 = −144.3 𝑘𝐽
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 43
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑄1−2 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) = −144.3 + 2(1716.8 − 3477.9) = −3666.5 𝑘𝐽

Example:

A cylinder-piston arrangement initially contains water at 100 kPa and 20%


quality. The system is now heated until the water eventually exists as a sat. vapor.
If the mass of the piston is such that 300 kPa is required to move it against the
outside ambient pressure and knowing that the enclosed volume is 0.4 m3 at the
lower stops and 0.6 m3 at the upper stops. Determine:
a) the final pressure in the cylinder.
b) the heat transfer and work for the overall process.

Solution:

a) state (1) is mixture, 𝑃1 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , 𝑥 = 20%

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔 = 0.001043 + 0.2(1.694 − 0.001043)

𝑣1 = 0.3396 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 44
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
𝑉1 0.4
𝑚= = = 1.178 𝑘𝑔
𝑣1 0.3396

At the upper stops:


𝑉3 0.6
𝑣3 = = = 0.5094 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑚 1.178

From sat. steam tables at 𝑃3 = 300 𝑘𝑃𝑎 → 𝑣𝑔 = 0.6058 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔

𝑣3 < 𝑣𝑔 → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (3) 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

(the piston reaches the upper stops , but steam still mixture)

Therefore, a const. volume process must takes place to bring the mixture to sat.
vapor.

𝑣4 = 𝑣3 = 0.5094 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔

From sat. steam pressure Tables (Table A.1.2)

P 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑔
350 0.5243 2548.9
? 0.5094 ?
375 0.4914 2551.3

𝑃4 = 361.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑢4 = 2550 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

0 0

b) 𝑊1−4 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4

𝑊2−3 = 𝑃2 (𝑉3 − 𝑉2 ) = 300 ∗ 103 (0.6 − 0.4) = 60 𝑘𝐽

𝑊1−4 = 60 𝑘𝐽

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 45
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑄1−4 = 𝑊1−4 + 𝑚(𝑢4 − 𝑢1 )

𝑢1 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥2 𝑢𝑓𝑔 = 417.36 + 0.2(2088.7) = 835.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

𝑄1−4 = 60 + 1.178(2550 − 835.1) = 2080.2 𝑘𝐽

 The First Law Of Thermodynamics For Open Systems (Control


Volume)
The mass balance equation during time ∆𝑡

𝜕𝑚𝑖 − 𝜕𝑚𝑒 = ∆𝑚
⏟ cv → (1)
cv ‫تغير الكتلة داخل‬

Dividing eqn. (1) by ∆𝑡 and take the limit as ∆𝑡 → 0

𝑑𝑚cv
𝑚̇𝑖 − 𝑚̇𝑒 = → (2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑚̇ = 𝜌∀𝐴 = 𝐴 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑣
The energy balance eqn. during time ∆𝑡

(𝛿𝑄 + 𝜕𝐸𝑖 ) − (𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐸𝑒 ) = ∆𝐸


⏟ cv → (3)
cv ‫تغير الطاقة داخل‬

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 46
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑖
⏟ = (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑖 + 𝑃𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑚𝑖
2 𝑖
‫الطاقة التي ترافق دخول المائع‬

∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑖 = (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑖
2 𝑖

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 47
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑒 = (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑒
2 𝑒

Substituting and dividing eqn. (3) by ∆𝑡 and take the limit as ∆𝑡 → 0

∀2 ∀2 𝑑𝐸cv
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + → (4) (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
𝑑𝑡

For multi-flow streams entering or leaving the C.V,

∀2 ∀2 𝑑𝐸cv
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − ∑ 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + → (5)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
𝑑𝑡

The seady-state, steady-flow process (SSSF)


𝑑𝑚cv 𝑒𝑞𝑛.(2)
=0 ⇒ 𝑚̇ 𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑖 = 𝑚̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸cv
=0
𝑑𝑡
∀2 ∀2
∴ 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ] → (6)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖

By neglecting PE & KE changes and dividing by 𝑚̇, equation (6) becomes,

𝑞̇ − 𝑤̇ = ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 → (7)

For adiabatic process 𝑞̇ = 0

𝑤̇ = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 → (8)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 48
‫‪PE246‬‬ ‫”‪“Part I Thermodynamics I‬‬

‫)‪The uniform-state, uniform-flow process (USUF‬‬


‫‪𝑑𝑚cv‬‬ ‫‪𝑑𝐸cv‬‬
‫‪≠0‬‬ ‫‪≠0‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬ ‫𝑡𝑑‬
‫‪𝑑𝑚cv‬‬
‫= 𝑒 ̇𝑚 ‪𝑚̇ 𝑖 −‬‬ ‫‪𝑚̇ 𝑖 = 𝐶1‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪𝑚̇ 𝑒 = 𝐶2‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬
‫𝑡‬ ‫𝑡‬ ‫𝑡‬
‫‪𝑑𝑚cv‬‬
‫∫ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑒 ̇𝑚 ∫ ‪∫ 𝑚̇ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 −‬‬ ‫‪→ 𝑚𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 = [𝑚cv ]𝑡0‬‬
‫𝑡𝑑‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬

‫𝑚 = 𝑒𝑚 ‪𝑚𝑖 −‬‬
‫𝑚 ‪⏟2 −‬‬
‫‪⏟1‬‬
‫𝑡=𝑡 𝑡𝑎‬ ‫‪𝑎𝑡 𝑡=0‬‬

‫‪∀2‬‬ ‫‪∀2‬‬
‫‪𝑄 − 𝑊 + 𝑚𝑖 (ℎ +‬‬ ‫‪+ 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚𝑒 (ℎ +‬‬ ‫)𝑧𝑔 ‪+‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫𝑖‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫𝑒‬

‫‪∀2‬‬ ‫‪∀2‬‬
‫‪= 𝑚2 (𝑢 +‬‬ ‫‪+ 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚1 (𝑢 +‬‬ ‫)𝑧𝑔 ‪+‬‬
‫⏟‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫التغير في طاقة النظام خالل الزمن من ‪𝑡←0‬‬

‫‪∀2‬‬
‫الكتلة الداخلة ∶ 𝑖𝑚‬ ‫‪(ℎ +‬‬ ‫الطاقة المصاحبة للسريان الداخل ‪+ 𝑔𝑧) :‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫𝑖‬

‫‪∀2‬‬
‫الكتلة الخارجة ∶ 𝑒𝑚‬ ‫‪(ℎ +‬‬ ‫الطاقة المصاحبة للسريان الخارج ‪+ 𝑔𝑧) :‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫𝑒‬

‫‪∀2‬‬
‫الكتلة داخل ‪ CV‬قبل العملية ∶ ‪𝑚1‬‬ ‫‪(𝑢 +‬‬ ‫طاقة ‪ CV‬قبل العملية ‪+ 𝑔𝑧) :‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪∀2‬‬
‫الكتلة داخل 𝑉𝐶 في نهاية العملية ∶ ‪𝑚2‬‬ ‫‪(𝑢 +‬‬ ‫طاقة ‪ CV‬بعد العملية ‪+ 𝑔𝑧) :‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili‬‬


‫‪Page 49‬‬
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

For insulated systems : 𝑄 = 0

For rigid systems : 𝑊=0


Filling processes only: 𝑚𝑒 = 0

𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
By neglecting PE & KE changes

𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 → (9)

If the tank is initially evacuated (𝑚1 = 0) → 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚2

𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 → ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢2

For ideal gas → 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑇2 → 𝑇2 = 𝛾𝑇𝑖

The SSSF process is applied to a variety of cases of engineering interest (nozzles,


turbines, compressors, throttling devices ...).

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 50
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Applications of the 1st law:

1. Nozzles and Diffusers

𝑚̇ 𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑖 = 𝑚̇

0 0 0

∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖

∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + ) − (ℎ + ) ]
2 𝑒 2 𝑖

If the nozzle is insulated or heat transfer is neglected (𝑄̇ = 0)

∀2 ∀2
0 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + ) − (ℎ + ) ]
2 𝑒 2 𝑖

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 51
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

∀2𝑒 ∀2𝑖
ℎ𝑒 + = ℎ𝑖 +
2 2

2. Throttling Devices:

A significant reduction in pressure can be achieved by a restriction in the


flow line. (Partially opened valve)

0 0 0 0 0 0

∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖

Assumptions:

- negligible heat transfer (rapid process & small area)

- no work.

- negligible changes in PE & KE.

∴ ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑒

For ideal gas → 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑖 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑒

∴ 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑒

3. Heat Exchanger:
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 52
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Heat gain of the cold fluid is equal to that lost by the hot fluid.

4. Steam Generator (Boiler):

Boilers convert water to steam which used for power generation 0r industrial
processes.

5. Pumps:

It is used to pump liquids (rise the pressure).

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 > 𝑃𝑖𝑛 , ∀𝑖𝑛 ≅ ∀𝑜𝑢𝑡

6. Steam Turbines:

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 53
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

It is device used to generate mechanical energy from:

1) Steam steam turbine

2) Gas gas turbine

3) water hydraulic turbine

1st law:

∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖

𝑄̇ = 0 , 𝑚̇𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑖 = 𝑚̇ , 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑃𝐸 & 𝐾𝐸

𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 )

7. Compressors:
It is device used to compress gases (rise the pressure)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 54
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 )

1) Rotary compressor

2)Reciprocating compressor

Example:
The mass flow rate into a steam turbine is 1.5 kg/s and the heat transferred from
the turbine is 8.5 kW. The conditions of steam entering and leaving the turbine are
shown in the figure. Determine the power output of the turbine.

Solution:
𝑑𝑚cv 𝑑𝐸cv
1st law of open system for SSSF process (𝑖. 𝑒. =0, = 0)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖

hi : from superheated steam table at 2 MPa , 350 oC

hi = 3137 kJ/kg

he = hg at 0.1 MPa

he = 2675.5 kJ/kg

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 55
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

∀ 2 ∀ 2
𝑊̇ = 𝑄̇ − 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2 𝑒 𝑖

(200)2
𝑊̇ = −8.5 ∗ 10 − 1.5 [(2675.5 ∗ 10 + (
3 3
) + 9.81 ∗ 3)
2

(50)2
3
− (3137 ∗ 10 + ( ) + 9.81 ∗ 6)]
2

𝑊̇ = 655700 𝐽⁄𝑠 = 655.7 𝑘𝑊

Example: An air compressor receives air from the ambient atmosphere where
the pressure is 1 bar and the temp.300 oK . At the discharge of the compressor, the
pressure is 4 bar, the temp. is 480 oK and the velocity is 100 m/s . The mass flow
rate into the compressor is 15 kg/s. Determine the power required to drive the
compressor.

Solution

𝐴𝑖𝑟 → 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠

0 0 0 0
∀ 2 ∀ 2
SSSF 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2 𝑒 𝑖

∀2𝑒
∴ 𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 ) − ]
2

ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑒 )

∀2𝑒
∴ 𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇ [𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑒 ) − ]
2

(100)2
= 15 [1003.4(300 − 480) − ]
2

= −2784450 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = −2784.45 𝑘𝑊

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 56
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example: Steam at 0.6 MPa and 200 oC enters insulated nozzle with a velocity of
50 m/s. It leaves at a pressure of 0.15 MPa and velocity of 600 m/s. Determine the
final Temp. if the steam is superheated in the final state , and the quality if it is
saturated.

Solution:

0 0 0 0
∀ 2 ∀ 2
SSSF 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2
𝑒 𝑖

∀2𝑒 ∀2𝑖
ℎ𝑒 + = ℎ𝑖 +
2 2
∀2𝑖 ∀2𝑒
ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑖 + −
2 2
From steam tables at 𝑃𝑖 = 0.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇𝑖 = 200 ℃ → ℎ𝑖 = 2850.1 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

(50)2 (600)2
ℎ𝑒 = 2850.1 + [ − ] ∗ 10−3 = 2671.4 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
2 2

At the exit 𝑃𝑒 = 0.15 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , ℎ𝑒 = 2671.4 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

From Sat. steam tables at 𝑃 = 0.15 𝑀𝑃𝑎 →

ℎ𝑓 = 467.1 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 , ℎ𝑔 = 2693 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔

ℎ𝑓 < ℎ𝑒 < ℎ𝑔 → 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑓 2671.4 − 467.1
ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 → 𝑥𝑒 = =
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2693 − 467.1

𝑥𝑒 = 0.99

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 57
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example: Steam at 1.4 MPa and 300 oC is flowing in a pipe connected to an


evacuated tank through a valve. The valve is opened and the tank fills with steam
until the pressure is 1.4 MPa, and the valve is closed. The process takes place
adiabatically and kinetic & potential energies are negligible . Determine the final
temp. of the steam and the mass entered the tank.

Solution:

Model: Steam Tables

C.V. : Tank (shown)

Process: USUF

Initial state (tank): evacuated m1 = 0

Final state: P2 = known

Inlet state: Pi , Ti (in line) known

1st Law

∀2
𝑄⏟
cv + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (ℎ + ⏟ + 𝑔𝑧
⏟) =
2
=0 =0
=0 𝑖

∀2 ∀2 ∀2
𝑊
⏟cv + ∑ 𝑚𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + 𝑚2 (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
⏟ ) − 𝑚1 (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧)
⏟ 2 ⏟
2 ⏟ 2
=0 𝑒 =0 1
=0 2
=0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡) =0 (𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 58
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Leading to 𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 → (1)

But 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚2 (mass balance)

ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢 2

At 1.4 MPa , 300 oC → ℎ𝑖 = 3040.4 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 = 𝑢2

State (2) - (final state)

P2 = 1.4 MPa , u2 = 3040.4 kJ/kg → 𝑢2 > 𝑢𝑔 → 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑇2 = 452 ℃ (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝑣2 = 0.2357 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑉 0.4
𝑚2 = = = 1.697 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.2357

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 59
‫‪PE246‬‬ ‫”‪“Part I Thermodynamics I‬‬

‫‪The Second Law of Thermodynamics‬‬


‫أي إجراء ‪ process‬أو دورة ‪ cycle‬ال تخل بالقانون األول للثيرموديناميكا هذا ال يعني أن‬
‫اإلجراء أو الدورة يمكن حدوثها فعليا حيث إن القانون األول ال يضع قيودا على اتجاه‬
‫الحرارة أو الشغل‪ .‬أي أن الدورة الثيرموديناميكيا تحدث فقط إذا تحقق كال من القانون األول و‬
‫الثاني للثيرموديناميكا‪ .‬وذلك أن القانون الثاني يعترف بحدوث إجراءات باتجاه معين دون‬
‫االعتراف بحدوثها باالتجاه المعاكس‪.‬‬

‫‪ -1‬عند هبوط الوزن و بذل شغل يتم انتقال حرارة للمحيط ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬لكن عند انتقال حرارة للنظام ترتفع درجة حرارة الغاز و ال يرتفع الوزن لألعلى‬

‫‪Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili‬‬


‫‪Page 60‬‬
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Thermal Energy Reservoir (Reservoir)


Is a body whose temperature does not change regardless of quantity of heat
transferred to or from it.

Working fluid:
Is the fluid which heat is transferred to or from while undergoing a cycle.

Heat Engine and Heat Pump


Heat Engine:

A device that operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does a certain amount


of net positive work through the transfer of heat from a high-temperature body to
a low- temperature body.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 61
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝑊(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠)
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

Example:

Simple steam power plant

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 62
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Ex.: all devices that produce net positive work, even though don't operate in a
thermodynamic cycle (internal combustion engine & gas turbine).

Heat Pump (Refrigerator):

A device that operates in a cycle, that requires work, and that accomplishes the
objective of transferring heat from a low-temperature body to a high- temperature
body.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 63
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of


performance as,
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑄𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 = =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑊
𝑄𝐿
=
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻 = = , 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 + 1 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿

𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻 ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔.

Example:
Simple refrigeration cycle.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 64
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1-2 Compression process.

2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection.

3-4 Constant enthalpy expansion.

4-1 Constant pressure heating.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 65
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Thermal Reservoir : ‫مستودع حراري‬ (ocean, atmosphere, ...)

It is a body whose temperature does not change regardless of the quantity of heat
transferred to or from it.

- Source : Heat transfers from it.

- Sink : Heat transfers to it.

Second Law of Thermodynamics


 The Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a thermodynamic cycle; exchanges heat energy with a single
reservoir, and produce an equivalent amount of work.
(Impossible to build a heat engine that has 𝜂 = 100%)

‫ من غير الممكن إنشاء آلة تعمل على دائرة ثيرموديناميكية بحيث تتبادل الحرارة من‬: ‫ بالنك‬-‫نص كيلفن‬
QL ≠ 0 ‫ أي‬.‫مستودع حراري واحد وتنتج مقدار مماثل من الشغل‬

 The Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in


a thermodynamic cycle and produce no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a body at low temperature to a body at high temperature.
(always COP < 1)

‫ من غير الممكن إنشاء آلة تعمل على دائرة ثيرموديناميكية بحيث يكون التأثير الوحيد لها‬: ‫نص كالوسيوس‬
W ≠ 0 ‫ أي‬.‫هو نقل الحرارة من مستودع حراري بارد إلى مستودع حراري ساخن‬

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 66
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Reversible Process : ‫ممكن العودة إلى الحالة االبتدائية مرور ًا بنفس الحاالت‬
(ideal Process)

It is defined as the process that once having taken place can be reversed and
in so doing leaves no change in either system or surroundings.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 67
‫‪PE246‬‬ ‫”‪“Part I Thermodynamics I‬‬

‫النظام (‪ )System‬عاد لحالته االبتدائية‪ ،‬لكن المحيط (‪ )Surrounding‬تغير بفعل الشغل المبذول على‬
‫النظام وكذلك الحرارة المنتقلة إلى المحيط ← العملية االبتدائية ‪. Irreversible‬‬

‫إزالة األثقال تدريجيا ً ‪Quasi-equilibrium process → reversible process‬‬

‫إزالتها مرة واحدة ‪Non-equilibrium process → irreversible process‬‬

‫كلما كان وزن األثقال أصغر وعددها أكبر كلما اقتربنا أكثر من ‪reversible process‬‬

‫‪Examples:‬‬

‫‪- Friction‬‬ ‫‪friction makes process irreversible‬‬

‫احتكاك جزئيات الغاز مع بعضها و احتكاك المكبس مع الجدار المحيط يؤدي‬

‫إلى فقدان جزء من الشغل في التغلب على االحتكاك‪.‬‬

‫‪Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili‬‬


‫‪Page 68‬‬
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

‫ نتيجة وجود احتكاك بين المائع وجدار االنبوب‬irreversible :‫سريان سائل داخل أنبوب‬

- Heat transfer

Finite temp. difference → irreversible process

Infinitesimal temp. difference≡ T=0 → irreversible process

- Unrestrained expansion

‫ (ضغط الغاز) ويحدث إنتقال حرارة‬Wc ‫إلعادة النظام ← نحتاج إلى بذل شغل‬

. Irreversible process ‫للمحيط للرجوع إلى الحالة االبتدائية‬

- Mixing of Gases

.‫ (ضغط الغاز) لفصل هذه الغازات‬W ‫إلعادة النظام ← نحتاج إلى بذل شغل‬

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 69
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

. Irreversible process - )Gas separation plant(

Carnot cycle:
It is a reversible cycle, consists of four reversible processes, in which heat is
transferred reversibly with two reservoirs at two fixed temperature 𝑇𝐻 and 𝑇𝐿 .
The reversibility is satisfied when the system is at temperatures infinitesimal lower
than 𝑇𝐻 and higher than 𝑇𝐿 (Two isothermal heat addition and rejection).
To complete the cycle, two reversible adiabatic processes take place as shown.

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 70
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

1-2 Reversible isothermal heat addition.

2-3 Reversible adiabatic expansion. 𝑇𝐻 → 𝑇𝐿

3-4 Reversible isothermal heat rejection.

4-1 Reversible adiabatic compression. 𝑇𝐿 → 𝑇𝐻

By definition, Carnot cycle efficiency


𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝐿
𝜂= =1− → (1)
𝑄𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝐻

Process 1-2 isothermal heat addition

1st -Law 𝑄1−2 = 𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊1−2 + ∆𝑈


⏟ 1−2
𝑈2 −𝑈1

For ideal gas model, ∆𝑈1−2 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣𝑜 ∆𝑇1−2 = 0 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝐻


𝑉2
∴ 𝑄1−2 = 𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊1−2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝐻 ln ( ) → (2)
𝑉1

Process 2-3 Reversible adiabatic expansion. 𝑄2−3 = 0


Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 71
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
𝐶𝑝
For ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶 𝛾=
𝐶𝑣

𝛾−1
𝑇𝐻 𝑇2 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑃2 𝛾
= =( ) =( ) → (3)
𝑇𝐿 𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑃3

Process 3-4 isothermal heat rejection


𝑉4
1𝑠𝑡 − 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑄3−4 = −𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊3−4 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln ( ) → (4)
𝑉3
𝑉3
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝐿 ln ( )
𝑉4

Process 4-1 Reversible adiabatic expansion.


𝐶𝑝
For ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶 𝛾=
𝐶𝑣

𝛾−1
𝑇𝐿 𝑇4 𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑃4 𝛾
= =( ) =( ) → (5)
𝑇𝐻 𝑇1 𝑉4 𝑃1

From eqn. (3) and eqn. (5)


𝑉3 𝑉4 𝑉2 𝑉3
= 𝑜𝑟 = → (6)
𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉4

By substituting equations (2), (4), and (6) in eqn. (1) yields,


𝑇𝐿
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻

Therefore

< 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)


𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 = 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑣. 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
= 𝜂𝑡ℎ {
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
> 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 72
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

For a heat pump operating on Carnot cycle,


𝑇𝐿
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅,𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
𝑇𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻,𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 =
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿

< 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)


= 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑣. 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
𝐶𝑂𝑃 {
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
> 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

Example:

An inventor claims to have developed a power cycle capable of delivering a net


work output of 410 kJ for an energy input by heat transfer of 1000 kJ. The system
undergoing the cycle receives the heat transfer from hot gases at a temp. of 500 oK
and discharges energy by heat transfer to the atmosphere at 300 oK.
Evaluate this claim.

Solution:

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 73
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

The system thermal efficiency,


𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 410
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 0.41 𝑜𝑟 41%
𝑄𝐻 1000

The maximum theoretical efficiency operating between the two temperatures is,
𝑇𝐿 300
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − =1− = 0.40 𝑜𝑟 40%
𝑇𝐻 500

Since, the thermal efficiency of the actual cycle exceeds the max. theoretical
(Carnot), the claim cannot be valid.

Example:

It is proposed to heat a house during the winter using a heat pump. The house is to
be maintained at 20 oC at all times. It is estimated that when the ambient temp.
outside drops to -10 oC, the rate of heat loss from the house will be 2.5 kW. What is
the minimum electrical power required to drive the heat pump unit?

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 74
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Solution:

The condition of min. power corresponds

to reversible operation (Carnot cycle).


𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻 = =
𝑊 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿

𝑄𝐻 ∶ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ≡ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒 = 2.5 𝑘𝑊


2.5 293
= → 𝑊 = 2.56 𝑘𝑊 (𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
𝑊 293 − 263

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 75
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Due to irreversibilities, the heat pump must be actually supplied with more work
than W to accomplish the heating effect.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

remember that:

Entropy (S)
Clausius Inquality

𝜕𝑄 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣.
∮ { ≤0
𝑇
𝑟𝑒𝑣.
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 76
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

𝜕𝑄
∮ =0 𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝐸
𝑇
𝜕𝑄
∮ =0 𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝑃
𝑇
𝜕𝑄
∮ <0 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝐸 & 𝐻. 𝑃
𝑇

Example: Clausius Inquality

The property of entropy (s): ‫هو مقياس لمقدار الطاقة المتاحة في النظام‬

Assume reversible cycle as shown,

For the cycle A-B

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 77
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
2 1
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
∮ = 0 = ∫( ) + ∫( )
𝑇 𝑇 𝐴 𝑇 𝐵
1 2

For the cycle C-B


2 1
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
∮ = 0 = ∫( ) + ∫( )
𝑇 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 𝐵
1 2

2 2 2
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
∴ ∫( ) = ∫( ) = ∫( )
𝑇 𝐴 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇
1 1 1

𝜕𝑄
Since the term ∮ for all reversible processes is independent of the path and it
𝑇
is a function only of the end states, therefore it is a property. This property is
called entropy.

1. The entropy change during a reversible process is defined as follows,

2
𝜕𝑄
∆𝑆1−2 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫ , 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇
1

2
𝜕𝑞
𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑠1−2 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫ , 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦)
𝑇
1

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 78
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

a) Reversible isothermal process T=C

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 79
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
2
𝜕𝑄 𝑄1−2
∆𝑆1−2 = ∫ =
𝑇 𝑇
1

→ 𝑄1−2 = 𝑇(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )

Which is equal to the area under the process line 1-2 on the T-S diagram.

b) Reversible adiabatic process 𝜕𝑄 = 0

2
𝜕𝑄
∆𝑆1−2 = ∫ =0
𝑇
1

𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑠2 = 𝑠1

rev. + adiabatic = isentropic

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 80
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Some Thermodynamic Cycles

(1) Ideal Rankine Cycle:

The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities

and consists of the following four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler

3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine

4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine,
and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The kinetic and
potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative to the work and

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 81
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

heat transfer terms and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow
energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to

q – w = he – hi

The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump and the
turbine are assumed to be isentropic. Then the conservation of energy relation for
each device can be expressed as follows:

Example: Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the
condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.

Analysis:
First determine the enthalpies at various points in the cycle using steam tables.

State 1: P1 = 75 kPa, sat. liquid:  h1 = hf @ 75 kPa = 384.39 kJ/kg


 v1 = vf @ 75 kPa = 0.001037m3/kg
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 82
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

State 2: P2 = 3 MPa

wpump = v1(P2-P1) = 0.01037 (3000-75) = 3.03 kJ/kg

h2 = h1+ wpump = 384.39 +3.03 = 387.42 kJ/kg

State 3: P3 = 3 MPa, T3 = 350 °C (state fixed)

h3 = 3115.3 kJ/kg and s3 = 6.7428 kJ/kg.K

State 4: P4 = 75 kPa

s4= s3 (sat. mixture)

x4 = (s4-sf)/sfg = (6.7428-1.213)/6.2434 = 0.8857

h4 = hf + x4.hfg = 384.39 + 0.8857(2278.6) = 2402.6 kJ/kg

Thus,

qin = h3-h2 = (3115.3-387.42) = 2727.9 kJ/kg

qout = h4-h1 = (2402.6-384.39) = 2018.2 kJ/kg

and ƞth = 1- qout/qin = 1- (2018.2/2727.9) = 0.26 (or 26.0 %)

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 83
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

(2) Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for
refrigerators, air-conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four
processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor


2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 84
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”

Example:

Consider an ideal refrigeration cycle that utilizing Freon-12 as the working fluid.
The temperature in the evaporator is -20 °C and in the condenser it is 40 °C. the
refrigerant is circulated at a rate of 0.03 kg/s. Determine COPR and the capacity of
the plant in refrigeration.

Analysis:

state 1: saturated vapor

h1= hg@ - 20 °C = 178.61 kJ/kg

s1=sg @ -20 °C = 0.708 kJ/kg.K

state 2:

P2 = Psat@ 40 °C = 0.9607 MPa

s2 = s1 = 0.7082 kJ/kg.K  h2 = 211.38 kJ/kg


state 3: saturated liquid

h3= hf @ 40 °C = 74.53 kJ/kg

also

h4 = h3

wc = h2-h1 = 211.38 -178.6 = 32.77 kJ/kg

qL= h1-h4 =178.61 -74.53 = 104.08 kJ/kg

COPR = qL/wc = 104.08/32.77 = 3.18

Capacity of the plant as a refrigerant

QL = m. qL = 0.03×104.08 = 3.12 kW

Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili


Page 85

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