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Thermodynamics I
Text books:
Course Outline:
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo K 103
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
1.1 Thermodynamics
It is the science that deals with heat and work and those
properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work.
:تعريف آخر
هو ذلك الفرع من العلوم الطبيعية الذي يبحث في تحويل الطاقة من نوع إلى آخر
وبخاصة ما يتصل بالشغل والحرارة كما يبحث في الخواص الفيزيائية للمواد التي تدخل في تحويل
.الطاقة
هذه الكمية.هو مجموعة محددة من المادة أو أي منطقة يركز عليها االهتمام بغرض الدراسة والتحليل
) وهذه الحدود يمكن أن تكون ثابتة أوBoundaries( أو المنطقة تفصل عما يحيط بها بحدود النظام
) يحتوي كتلة ثابتة منTank( متحركة كما أنها يمكن أن تكون حقيقية مثل السطح الداخلي لخزان
.ًالمادة أو تخيلية كما يحدث عند دراسة خواص السريان عند فوهة صاروخ مثال
Example:
Each part of the tank will have the same value of the intensive properties and half
the value of the extensive properties.
Critical Point: is a point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical.
1.8 Phase Equilibrium in a pure substance:
Process A-B: sensible heating and the heat energy that transferred to the
substance is called sensible heat. (State 1-2)
Process B-C: latent heating (constant temperature process) in which the change
of phase from liquid to vapor occurs. The heat transferred to the substance
(mixture) is called the latent heat. (State 3-4)
𝑚𝑔
𝑥= , 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑓
𝑚
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 12
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑉𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑣𝑔
𝑣𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥 )𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑔 − 𝑥𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔
Similarly,
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑢𝑓𝑔 , ℎ𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 , 𝑠𝑥 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑠𝑓𝑔
Example:
Solution:
𝑉 0.4
𝑣= = = 0.2 m3/Kg
𝑚 2
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔
0.2 = 0.001101 + 𝑥 (0.3146)
𝑥 = 0.6322
Example:
Solution:
Since the volume does not change during this process, the specific volume
also remains constant.
P2 = 936 kPa
Example:
Determine whether water at each of the following states is a compressed
liquid, a superheated vapor, or a mixture of saturated liquid and vapor :
a) 18 MPa , 0.003 m3/kg Saturated 𝑥 =?
b) 1 MPa , 150 oC Compressed
o 3
c) 200 C , 0.2 m /kg Superheated
o
d) 10 kPa , 10 C Compressed
e) 130 oC , 200 kPa Superheated
f) 70 oC , 1 m3/kg Saturated 𝑥 =?
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑓𝑔
Example:
Determine the quality (if saturated) or temperature (if superheated) of
water at:
a) 120 oC , 1 m3/kg Superheated
3
b) 10 MPa , 0.02 m /kg Superheated
Equilibrium state
Many processes are characterized by the fact that one property remains
constant. These processes are:
Cycles:
When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of
different changes of state or processes and finally returns to its initial state,
the system has undergone a cycle.
Ideal Gases:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
Where:
P ≡ Absolute Pressure, Pa
V ≡ Volume, m3
m ≡ Mass, kg
T ≡ Temperature, oK
Where:
Gas M R (kJ/kg.oK)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
Or 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑅̅
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅̅ 𝑇
𝑀
𝑚
Where 𝑛 = : number of moles (kmol)
𝑀
𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Fig. A.5 Generalized compressibility chart
𝑃
𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑍 , 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝑍𝑅𝑇
𝑃
𝑃 𝑇
𝑃𝑟 = (Reduced pressure), 𝑇𝑟 = (Reduced temperature)
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝑇𝑐𝑟
Example:
Solution:
𝑃𝑉 100 ∗ 103 ∗ (6 ∗ 10 ∗ 4)
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 → 𝑚 = =
𝑅𝑇 287 ∗ 298.15
𝑚 = 280.48 𝑘𝑔
Example:
A tank has a volume of 0.5m3 and contains 10kg of an ideal gas having a
molecular weight of 24. The temperature is 25 oC. What is the pressure.
Solution
𝐽
𝑅̅ 8.3145∗103 .𝑘
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑅= = = 346.44 J/kg.ok
𝑀 24 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Example:
Solution:
we get, Z = 0.9
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 2 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.2
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = = 7.634 𝑘𝑔
𝑍𝑅𝑇 0.9 ∗ 188.92 ∗ 308.15
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 23
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
(b) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 2 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.2
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = = 6.87 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑅𝑇 188.92 ∗ 308.15
Or = (Z - 1) * 100 = 10%
H.W (2)
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥
1
Work is a form of energy. The unit of work in SI units is called Joule (J),
1 J = 1 N.m
By definition, the work done by the system through the process 1 – 2 is,
2 2 2
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃 . 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃 . 𝑑𝑉
1 1 1
From the work definition, the work is represented by the area under the
curve on P – V diagram.
Area depends on the path 1 to 2 work (Path function).
To evaluate the work from the above equation, the relationship between P and
V is required.
𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2 𝑛−1
−𝑛
𝑉 −𝑛+1 𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑛−1 𝑃2 𝑛
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑐 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 [ ] = ( ) = ( )
−𝑛 + 1 1 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑃1
1
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊1−2 =
1−𝑛
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉1 𝑃2
2 2
𝑊1−2 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
1 1
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑊1−2 = 0
Heat (Q):
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary
of a system at a given temperature to another system (or surrounding) at
a lower temperature.
Example:
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes an expansion process for
which the relationship between pressure and volume is given by 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 .
The initial pressure is 3 bars, the initial volume is 0.1 m3, and the final
volume is 0.2 m3 . Determine the work for the process, in kJ, if:
(a) n = 1.5 (b) n = 1 (c) n = 0
Solution:
𝑉 𝑛 0.1 1.5
𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( 1 ) = 3 ∗ ( ) = 1.06 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑉2 0.2
b) n = 1 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑉2 0.2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 3 ∗ 105 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 20790 𝐽 = 20.79 𝑘𝐽
𝑉1 0.1
c) n = 0 𝑃=𝐶
Example:
A spherical elastic balloon initially containing 5 kg of saturated vapor
ammonia at 20 oC is connected by a valve to a rigid 3 m3 evacuated tank.
The pressure inside the balloon is proportional to its diameter. The valve is
now opened until the pressure inside is dropped to 600 kPa, then it is closed.
The final temperature in both the balloon and the tank is 20 oC.
Determine:
a) The final pressure in the tank.
b) The work done by the ammonia during the process.
Solution:
a)
𝑚𝐵1 + 𝑚 𝑇1 = 𝑚𝐵2 + 𝑚 𝑇2
𝑚 𝑇1 = 0 , 𝑚𝐵1 = 5 𝑘𝑔
5 = 𝑚𝐵2 + 𝑚 𝑇2
1⁄
4 3 3 3 1⁄
𝑃𝛼𝐷 𝑉= 𝜋𝐷 → 𝐷 = ( ) 𝑉 3
3 4𝜋
Balloon
𝑃 = 𝐶1 ∗ 𝐷
1⁄ 5kg, 20oC
3 3 1⁄ 1⁄
𝑃 = 𝐶1 ∗ ( ) 𝑉 3 =𝐶∗ 𝑉 3
4𝜋
1⁄
or 𝑃𝑉 3 =𝐶 → 𝑃 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐶
3
𝑉𝐵2 𝑃𝐵2
= ( ) ……..
𝑉𝐵1 𝑃𝐵1
Tank 3 m3
State 1 : saturated vapor at 20 oC , from tables
𝑉𝑇 = 3 𝑚3
𝑉𝑇 3
∴ 𝑣𝑇2 = = = 0.7802 m3/kg
𝑚 𝑇2 3.845
0 (fixed volume)
∀2
𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧
2
u : internal energy
∀2
: kinetic energy
2
𝑔𝑧 : potential energy
𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑡
or in a rate equation, 𝑄̇ - 𝑊̇ = 𝐸̇ J/s = watt
∮ 𝜕𝑄 − ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = 0 or ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = ∮ 𝜕𝑄
Wcycle = Qcycle
Wnet = Qnet
𝑈
Unit of (U) is (J), 𝑢= , 𝑢: specific internal energy (J/kg)
𝑚
Explanation: ∮ 𝜕𝑊 = ∮ 𝜕𝑄
𝐴 2 1 2 1
, 𝐵
1−2 2−1 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐴 + ∫2 𝜕𝑄𝐵 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐴 + ∫2 𝜕𝑊𝐵 … 1
𝐶 2 1 2 1
, 𝐵
1−2 2−1 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐶 + ∫2 𝜕𝑄𝐵 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐶 + ∫2 𝜕𝑊𝐵 … 2
2 2 2 2
1 − 2 ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐴 − ∫1 𝜕𝑄𝐶 = ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐴 − ∫1 𝜕𝑊𝐶
2 2 2 2 2
∫1 (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊)𝐴 = ∫1 (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊)𝐶 ∫1 𝜕𝑢𝐴 = ∫1 𝜕𝑢𝐶 = ∫1 𝜕𝑢
This means the quantity (𝜕𝑄 − 𝜕𝑊) is a point function (depends only on
initial and final states).
Enthalpy (H):
In analyzing specific types of processes, we frequently encounter certain
combinations of thermodynamic properties, which are therefore also
properties of the substance.
H=U+PV
𝑞1−2 − 𝑤1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 h=u+pv
2
For constant pressure process, 𝑤1−2 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
𝑞1−2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1
= (𝑢
⏟ 2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 ) − (𝑢
⏟ 1 + 𝑃1 𝑣1 )
ℎ2 ℎ1
𝑞1−2 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 ………….. 𝐴
𝜕𝑢
𝐶𝑣 = ( ) , u = f(T,v)
𝜕𝑇 𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑇
1 1
𝜕ℎ
𝐶𝑝 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑝
𝜕ℎ
𝐶𝑝0 = ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑝
2 2
∫ 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑇
1 1
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑝𝑜 = 𝐶𝑣𝑜 + 𝑅
Adiabatic Process:
𝑞=0 − 𝜕𝑤 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 + 𝜕𝑤 = 0
𝑑𝑇 𝑅 𝑑𝑣
÷ 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑇 + =0
𝑇 𝐶𝑣𝑜 𝑣
𝑅
by integration 𝑙𝑛 𝑇 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑐
𝐶𝑣𝑜
𝑙𝑛(𝑇 ∗ 𝑣 𝑅⁄𝐶𝑣𝑜 ) = 𝑐
A cylinder fitted with piston has an initial volume of 0.1 m3 and contains nitrogen
at 150 kPa, 25 oC. The piston is moved compressing the nitrogen until the pressure
is 1MPa and temp. is 150 oC. During this compression process, heat is transferred
from the nitrogen, and the work done on the nitrogen is 20 kJ. Determine the
amount of heat transferred.
Solution:
State (1):
State (2):
𝑃1 = 1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇1 = 150 ℃
𝑄1−2 − 𝑊1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
From table A.8 (For nitrogen) 𝑅 = 0.2968 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 , 𝐶𝑣𝑜 = 0.7448 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑃1 𝑉1 150∗103 ∗0.1
𝑚= = = 0.1695 𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑇1 296.8∗298.15
Example:
A vessel having a volume of 5 m3 contains 0.05 m3 of sat. liquid water and 4.95 m3
of sat. water vapor at 0.1 MPa. Heat is transferred until the vessel is filled with
sat. vapor. Determine the heat transfer for this process.
Solution:
𝑉𝑓1 0.05
𝑚𝑓1 = = = 47.94 𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑓1 0.001043
𝑉𝑔1 4.95
𝑚𝑔1 = = = 2.92 𝑘𝑔
𝑣𝑔1 1.6940
𝑚𝑔1 2.92
𝑥= = = 0.0574
𝑚 50.86
𝑢1 = 𝑢𝑓1 + 𝑥1 𝑢𝑓𝑔1 = 417.36 + 0.0574(2088.7) = 537.277 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑉 5
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = = = 0.0931 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
𝑚 50.86
From sat. steam pressure Tables (Table A.1.2)
P 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑔
2 MPa 0.09963 2600.3
? 0.09831 ?
2.25 MPa 0.08875 2602.0
𝑄1−2 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
Example:
A cylinder fitted with a piston has a volume of 0.1 m3 and contains 0.5 kg of steam
at 0.4 MPa. Heat is transferred to the steam until the temp. reaches 300 oC, while
the pressure remains constant. Determine the heat transfer and the work for this
process?
Solution:
2
𝑊1−2 = ∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑚((𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 )
First law:
= 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + 𝑚((𝑃2 𝑣2 − 𝑃1 𝑣1 )
𝑄1−2 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑉1 0.1
𝑣1 = = = 0.2 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
𝑚 0.5
Since 𝑣𝑓 < 𝑣1 < 𝑣𝑔 at P = 0.4 MPa → 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 (1) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥𝑣𝑓𝑔
Example:
Solution:
𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔 + 𝐹𝑠1
𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠1 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔
𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠2 = 𝑃𝑜 𝐴𝑝 + 𝑚𝑝 𝑔
∴ 𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠1 = 𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐹𝑠2
𝑃1 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐾𝑋1 = 𝑃2 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐾𝑋2
𝐴𝑝 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐾(𝑋1 − 𝑋2 )
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝐴𝑝 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐾 ( ) = 𝑚𝐾
𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑝
𝐴2𝑝 𝐴2𝑝
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = (𝑃 − 𝑃2 ) → 𝑣2 = 𝑣1 − (𝑃 − 𝑃2 )
𝑚. 𝐾 1 𝑚. 𝐾 1
(0.1)2
𝑣2 = 1.1215 − 3
(400 ∗ 103 − 125 ∗ 103 ) = 0.8465 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
2 ∗ 5 ∗ 10
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑥2 𝑣𝑓𝑔
0.8465 = 0.001048 + 𝑥2 (1.3749 − 0.001048)
𝑥2 = 0.615
𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥2 𝑢𝑓𝑔
𝑢2 = 444.19 + (0.615 ∗ 2069.3) = 1716.8 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
2 2
𝐾 𝐾 (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )2
= ∫ 𝑃1 + 2 (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )𝑑𝑉 = [𝑃1 𝑉 + 2 ]
𝐴𝑝 𝐴𝑝 2 1
1
𝐾
= 𝑃1 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) + 2
(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )2
2𝐴𝑝
𝑚2 𝐾
= 𝑚𝑃1 (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) + 2
(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )2
2𝐴𝑝
3 (0.8465
(2)2 ∗ 5 ∗ 103
= 2 ∗ 400 ∗ 10 − 1.1215) + ∗ (0.8465 − 1.1215)2
2 ∗ (0.1)2
𝑊1−2 = −144.3 𝑘𝐽
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 43
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
Example:
Solution:
𝑣1 = 0.3396 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
(the piston reaches the upper stops , but steam still mixture)
Therefore, a const. volume process must takes place to bring the mixture to sat.
vapor.
𝑣4 = 𝑣3 = 0.5094 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
P 𝑣𝑔 𝑢𝑔
350 0.5243 2548.9
? 0.5094 ?
375 0.4914 2551.3
𝑃4 = 361.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑢4 = 2550 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
0 0
𝑊1−4 = 60 𝑘𝐽
𝜕𝑚𝑖 − 𝜕𝑚𝑒 = ∆𝑚
⏟ cv → (1)
cv تغير الكتلة داخل
𝑑𝑚cv
𝑚̇𝑖 − 𝑚̇𝑒 = → (2)
𝑑𝑡
∀
𝑚̇ = 𝜌∀𝐴 = 𝐴 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑣
The energy balance eqn. during time ∆𝑡
∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑖
⏟ = (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑖 + 𝑃𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑚𝑖
2 𝑖
الطاقة التي ترافق دخول المائع
∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑖 = (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑖
2 𝑖
∀2
𝜕𝐸𝑒 = (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜕𝑚𝑒
2 𝑒
∀2 ∀2 𝑑𝐸cv
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + → (4) (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
∀2 ∀2 𝑑𝐸cv
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − ∑ 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + → (5)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑞̇ − 𝑤̇ = ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 → (7)
𝑤̇ = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 → (8)
𝑚 = 𝑒𝑚 𝑚𝑖 −
𝑚 ⏟2 −
⏟1
𝑡=𝑡 𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑡=0
∀2 ∀2
𝑄 − 𝑊 + 𝑚𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚𝑒 (ℎ + )𝑧𝑔 +
2 𝑖
2 𝑒
∀2 ∀2
= 𝑚2 (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚1 (𝑢 + )𝑧𝑔 +
⏟ 2 2
2 1
التغير في طاقة النظام خالل الزمن من 𝑡←0
∀2
الكتلة الداخلة ∶ 𝑖𝑚 (ℎ + الطاقة المصاحبة للسريان الداخل + 𝑔𝑧) :
2 𝑖
∀2
الكتلة الخارجة ∶ 𝑒𝑚 (ℎ + الطاقة المصاحبة للسريان الخارج + 𝑔𝑧) :
2 𝑒
∀2
الكتلة داخل CVقبل العملية ∶ 𝑚1 (𝑢 + طاقة CVقبل العملية + 𝑔𝑧) :
2 1
∀2
الكتلة داخل 𝑉𝐶 في نهاية العملية ∶ 𝑚2 (𝑢 + طاقة CVبعد العملية + 𝑔𝑧) :
2 2
𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
By neglecting PE & KE changes
𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 → (9)
𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 → ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢2
𝑚̇ 𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑖 = 𝑚̇
0 0 0
∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + ) − (ℎ + ) ]
2 𝑒 2 𝑖
∀2 ∀2
0 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + ) − (ℎ + ) ]
2 𝑒 2 𝑖
∀2𝑒 ∀2𝑖
ℎ𝑒 + = ℎ𝑖 +
2 2
2. Throttling Devices:
0 0 0 0 0 0
∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
Assumptions:
- no work.
∴ ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑒
∴ 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑒
3. Heat Exchanger:
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 52
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
Heat gain of the cold fluid is equal to that lost by the hot fluid.
Boilers convert water to steam which used for power generation 0r industrial
processes.
5. Pumps:
6. Steam Turbines:
1st law:
∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − 𝑚̇ 𝑖 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧)
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 )
7. Compressors:
It is device used to compress gases (rise the pressure)
𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 )
1) Rotary compressor
2)Reciprocating compressor
Example:
The mass flow rate into a steam turbine is 1.5 kg/s and the heat transferred from
the turbine is 8.5 kW. The conditions of steam entering and leaving the turbine are
shown in the figure. Determine the power output of the turbine.
Solution:
𝑑𝑚cv 𝑑𝐸cv
1st law of open system for SSSF process (𝑖. 𝑒. =0, = 0)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∀2 ∀2
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 𝑒
2 𝑖
hi = 3137 kJ/kg
he = hg at 0.1 MPa
he = 2675.5 kJ/kg
∀ 2 ∀ 2
𝑊̇ = 𝑄̇ − 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2 𝑒 𝑖
(200)2
𝑊̇ = −8.5 ∗ 10 − 1.5 [(2675.5 ∗ 10 + (
3 3
) + 9.81 ∗ 3)
2
(50)2
3
− (3137 ∗ 10 + ( ) + 9.81 ∗ 6)]
2
Example: An air compressor receives air from the ambient atmosphere where
the pressure is 1 bar and the temp.300 oK . At the discharge of the compressor, the
pressure is 4 bar, the temp. is 480 oK and the velocity is 100 m/s . The mass flow
rate into the compressor is 15 kg/s. Determine the power required to drive the
compressor.
Solution
0 0 0 0
∀ 2 ∀ 2
SSSF 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2 𝑒 𝑖
∀2𝑒
∴ 𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 ) − ]
2
ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 = 𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑒 )
∀2𝑒
∴ 𝑊̇1−2 = 𝑚̇ [𝐶𝑝𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑒 ) − ]
2
(100)2
= 15 [1003.4(300 − 480) − ]
2
Example: Steam at 0.6 MPa and 200 oC enters insulated nozzle with a velocity of
50 m/s. It leaves at a pressure of 0.15 MPa and velocity of 600 m/s. Determine the
final Temp. if the steam is superheated in the final state , and the quality if it is
saturated.
Solution:
0 0 0 0
∀ 2 ∀ 2
SSSF 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ [(ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) − (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) ]
2 2
𝑒 𝑖
∀2𝑒 ∀2𝑖
ℎ𝑒 + = ℎ𝑖 +
2 2
∀2𝑖 ∀2𝑒
ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑖 + −
2 2
From steam tables at 𝑃𝑖 = 0.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , 𝑇𝑖 = 200 ℃ → ℎ𝑖 = 2850.1 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
(50)2 (600)2
ℎ𝑒 = 2850.1 + [ − ] ∗ 10−3 = 2671.4 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔
2 2
ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑓 2671.4 − 467.1
ℎ𝑒 = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 → 𝑥𝑒 = =
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2693 − 467.1
𝑥𝑒 = 0.99
Solution:
Process: USUF
1st Law
∀2
𝑄⏟
cv + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (ℎ + ⏟ + 𝑔𝑧
⏟) =
2
=0 =0
=0 𝑖
∀2 ∀2 ∀2
𝑊
⏟cv + ∑ 𝑚𝑒 (ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧) + 𝑚2 (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
⏟ ) − 𝑚1 (𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧)
⏟ 2 ⏟
2 ⏟ 2
=0 𝑒 =0 1
=0 2
=0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡) =0 (𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)
Leading to 𝑚𝑖 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 → (1)
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑢 2
𝑇2 = 452 ℃ (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑣2 = 0.2357 𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑔
𝑉 0.4
𝑚2 = = = 1.697 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 0.2357
-1عند هبوط الوزن و بذل شغل يتم انتقال حرارة للمحيط .
-2لكن عند انتقال حرارة للنظام ترتفع درجة حرارة الغاز و ال يرتفع الوزن لألعلى
Working fluid:
Is the fluid which heat is transferred to or from while undergoing a cycle.
𝑊(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠)
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
Example:
Ex.: all devices that produce net positive work, even though don't operate in a
thermodynamic cycle (internal combustion engine & gas turbine).
A device that operates in a cycle, that requires work, and that accomplishes the
objective of transferring heat from a low-temperature body to a high- temperature
body.
Example:
Simple refrigeration cycle.
It is a body whose temperature does not change regardless of the quantity of heat
transferred to or from it.
من غير الممكن إنشاء آلة تعمل على دائرة ثيرموديناميكية بحيث تتبادل الحرارة من: بالنك-نص كيلفن
QL ≠ 0 أي.مستودع حراري واحد وتنتج مقدار مماثل من الشغل
من غير الممكن إنشاء آلة تعمل على دائرة ثيرموديناميكية بحيث يكون التأثير الوحيد لها: نص كالوسيوس
W ≠ 0 أي.هو نقل الحرارة من مستودع حراري بارد إلى مستودع حراري ساخن
Reversible Process : ممكن العودة إلى الحالة االبتدائية مرور ًا بنفس الحاالت
(ideal Process)
It is defined as the process that once having taken place can be reversed and
in so doing leaves no change in either system or surroundings.
النظام ( )Systemعاد لحالته االبتدائية ،لكن المحيط ( )Surroundingتغير بفعل الشغل المبذول على
النظام وكذلك الحرارة المنتقلة إلى المحيط ← العملية االبتدائية . Irreversible
كلما كان وزن األثقال أصغر وعددها أكبر كلما اقتربنا أكثر من reversible process
Examples:
نتيجة وجود احتكاك بين المائع وجدار االنبوبirreversible :سريان سائل داخل أنبوب
- Heat transfer
- Unrestrained expansion
(ضغط الغاز) ويحدث إنتقال حرارةWc إلعادة النظام ← نحتاج إلى بذل شغل
- Mixing of Gases
. (ضغط الغاز) لفصل هذه الغازاتW إلعادة النظام ← نحتاج إلى بذل شغل
Carnot cycle:
It is a reversible cycle, consists of four reversible processes, in which heat is
transferred reversibly with two reservoirs at two fixed temperature 𝑇𝐻 and 𝑇𝐿 .
The reversibility is satisfied when the system is at temperatures infinitesimal lower
than 𝑇𝐻 and higher than 𝑇𝐿 (Two isothermal heat addition and rejection).
To complete the cycle, two reversible adiabatic processes take place as shown.
𝛾−1
𝑇𝐻 𝑇2 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑃2 𝛾
= =( ) =( ) → (3)
𝑇𝐿 𝑇3 𝑉2 𝑃3
𝛾−1
𝑇𝐿 𝑇4 𝑉1 𝛾−1 𝑃4 𝛾
= =( ) =( ) → (5)
𝑇𝐻 𝑇1 𝑉4 𝑃1
Therefore
Example:
Solution:
The maximum theoretical efficiency operating between the two temperatures is,
𝑇𝐿 300
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 − =1− = 0.40 𝑜𝑟 40%
𝑇𝐻 500
Since, the thermal efficiency of the actual cycle exceeds the max. theoretical
(Carnot), the claim cannot be valid.
Example:
It is proposed to heat a house during the winter using a heat pump. The house is to
be maintained at 20 oC at all times. It is estimated that when the ambient temp.
outside drops to -10 oC, the rate of heat loss from the house will be 2.5 kW. What is
the minimum electrical power required to drive the heat pump unit?
Solution:
𝑄𝐻 ∶ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 ≡ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Due to irreversibilities, the heat pump must be actually supplied with more work
than W to accomplish the heating effect.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
remember that:
Entropy (S)
Clausius Inquality
𝜕𝑄 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣.
∮ { ≤0
𝑇
𝑟𝑒𝑣.
Mr. Mohamed Elgabaili
Page 76
PE246 “Part I Thermodynamics I”
𝜕𝑄
∮ =0 𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝐸
𝑇
𝜕𝑄
∮ =0 𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝑃
𝑇
𝜕𝑄
∮ <0 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣. 𝐻. 𝐸 & 𝐻. 𝑃
𝑇
The property of entropy (s): هو مقياس لمقدار الطاقة المتاحة في النظام
2 2 2
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
∴ ∫( ) = ∫( ) = ∫( )
𝑇 𝐴 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇
1 1 1
𝜕𝑄
Since the term ∮ for all reversible processes is independent of the path and it
𝑇
is a function only of the end states, therefore it is a property. This property is
called entropy.
2
𝜕𝑄
∆𝑆1−2 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫ , 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇
1
2
𝜕𝑞
𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑠1−2 = 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = ∫ , 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦)
𝑇
1
→ 𝑄1−2 = 𝑇(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 )
Which is equal to the area under the process line 1-2 on the T-S diagram.
2
𝜕𝑄
∆𝑆1−2 = ∫ =0
𝑇
1
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑠2 = 𝑠1
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities
All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine,
and condenser) are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady-flow processes. The kinetic and
potential energy changes of the steam are usually small relative to the work and
heat transfer terms and are therefore usually neglected. Then the steady-flow
energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to
q – w = he – hi
The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the pump and the
turbine are assumed to be isentropic. Then the conservation of energy relation for
each device can be expressed as follows:
Example: Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the
condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.
Analysis:
First determine the enthalpies at various points in the cycle using steam tables.
State 2: P2 = 3 MPa
State 4: P4 = 75 kPa
Thus,
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used cycle for
refrigerators, air-conditioning systems, and heat pumps. It consists of four
processes:
Example:
Consider an ideal refrigeration cycle that utilizing Freon-12 as the working fluid.
The temperature in the evaporator is -20 °C and in the condenser it is 40 °C. the
refrigerant is circulated at a rate of 0.03 kg/s. Determine COPR and the capacity of
the plant in refrigeration.
Analysis:
state 2:
also
h4 = h3
QL = m. qL = 0.03×104.08 = 3.12 kW