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REHABILITATION AND
RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES
M. Tech. Course: Semester 2
N.Venkat Rao
Department of Civil Engineering
Institute of Aeronautical Engineering
COURSE OVERVIEW
• Structural Engineering Overview
• Introductory Definitions
• Problems to be addressed?
• What will you learn in this course?
• Recommended Texts for Study
• Recommended Mode of Study
• Internal Assessment
(A) Structural Engineering Overview
• Phase 1: Planning
• Phase 2: Design
• Phase 3: Construction
• Phase 4: Maintenance and Repair
• Phase 1: Planning Phase

– Ground Level Surveying
– Geotechnical evaluation
– Environmental evaluation
– Government regulations
• Phase 2: Design Phase

– Architectural Design
– Structural Analysis
– Structural Design
– Estimation and Costing (in detail)
• Phase 3: Construction
– Ground excavation and ground improvement
– Foundation Engineering
– Construction Materials Technology
– Construction Technology
– Project Execution and Management
• Phase 4: Maintenance and Repair Phase

– Periodical Inspections
– Maintenance Strategies
– Health Monitoring Technology
– Damage Assessment
– Rehabilitation and Retrofitting
(B) Introductory Definitions
• Repair: Process of reconstruction and renewal of
the existing buildings, either in whole or in part
• Renovation: Process of substantial repair or
alteration that extends a building’s useful life.
• Remodeling: Essentially same as renovation –
applied to residential structures.
• Rehabilitation: An upgrade required to meet the
present needs – being sensitive to building
features and a sympathetic matching of the
original construction.
(B) Introductory Definitions
• Restoration: More restrictive term than
rehabilitation – suggests replicating the structure
as originally built (Ref. Historical buildings)
• Retrofit: Upgrading certain building systems such

as electrical, mechanical, or structural to improve
performance or appearance.
• Refurbishment: Replacement of certain

components and using whatever is alright.
(C) Problems to be Addressed
• Aging of structures-Expected life and
performance
• Deterioration of concrete-causes and effects
• Durability considerations
• Distress diagnostics and performance monitoring-
Non-Destructive test methods.
• Damage assessment and evaluation models
• Structural condition assessment
(C) Problems to be Addressed
• Analysis and Design of repairs-suitable repair
techniques
• Materials for protection, repair and rehabilitation
• Repair Techniques-Shotcreting, guniting etc
• Refurbishment and Strengthening techniques
• Seismic retrofitting
• Bridge rehabilitation
(D) What you will learn in this course?
• Structural Material Behaviour
• Inspection and Evaluation Techniques
• Repair and Strengthening Methods
• Structural Health Monitoring
PART I: Structural Material Behaviour

To be able to do a proper rehabilitation we need to understand
the causes and the mechanisms of deterioration
(Unit I) (Unit II)

Common distresses and Corrosion of steel
deterioration, Damage reinforcement,
types (Causes & Damage due to Fire
Mechanism)
PART II: Inspection and Evaluation Techniques (Unit III)
Visual Inspections Damage

(What to look for?) Assessment
Semi - Destructive Non-Destructive

Testing Testing
PART III: Repairs and Strengthening Methods (Unit IV)
Types of Repairs: Strengthening of Structures:

Surface repairs Methods
PART IV: Health Monitoring of Structures (Unit V)
Types of Sensors &

Concept
Actuators
Building
Instrumentation
(E) Recommended Text Books
• Concrete Repair and Maintenance
– Peter H. Emmons, Gajanan M. Sabnis (Galgotia Publishers)
• Concrete Technology
– A. R. Shantakumar (Oxford University Press)
• Building Failures: Diagnosis and Avoidance
• W. H. Ransom ( E & F N Spon, 2nd Edn., 1987)
• Maintenance and Repair of Civil Structures
– B.L Gupta, Amit Gupta (Standard Publications)
• Defects and Deterioration in Buildings
– Barry A Richardson (Spon 2001)
(F) Recommended Mode of Study?
• Learn with the fun of learning
• Do not be exam oriented – be learning
oriented
• Regularity and attentiveness in classes
• Regular and systematic reading
(G) Internal Assessment
• Assignment !!!
• Presentations !!(on topics covered): 15 – 20
slides
– Groups not > 5
– Credit for attendance and good participation
UNIT 1: DETERIORATION AND DISTRESS IN
STRUCTURES
• Introduction
• Deterioration in Structures
• Distress in Structures
• Causes and Prevention
Introduction
Types of Structural Distress and
Deterioration
Leakage
Examples of roof leakage

and water seepage
Deterioration
Cracking
Non-Structural cracks Structural cracks

Deterioration
Settlement Cracks
Deterioration
settlement cracks on walls and floors

Deterioration
Spalling of Concrete
Deterioration
Chemical Attack on Concrete
sulphate attack induced spalling salt storage induced spalling

Deterioration
Deterioration of Concrete
deterioration of concrete cover load induced deterioration

Deterioration
Scaling of Concrete
Distress in Structures
Structural Non-Structural
 Caused by faulty design,  Caused by internally induced

faulty construction and/or stresses in components
overloading.  Looks unsightly
 Endangers building safety.  Indirectly leads to structural
 Needs immediate attention. weakening
Factors Causing distress
External Internal
 Overloads due to dead load,  Dimensional changes induced

live load, wind load, seismic by
loads, etc. which are not  moisture penetration
accounted in the design.  temperature changes
 Differential settlements in  horizontal shifts of building
components
the foundation.
 volume changes due to
chemical action
 Weakness in tensile and shear
stresses
Basic symptoms of distress
cracking spalling disintegration

flexural
cracking
shear and
large diagonal
deflections tension
cracking
Distresses due to
overloading
shear bond
column
failure (rebar
cover splitting)
spalling
compressive
crushing
twisting
total or
large
partial
deflections collapse
Common types of
damage
spalling leading
to size
buckling reductions
decoloration
Possible causes of deterioration/defects
Pre-construction Construction Post-construction

stage stage stage
PRE-CONSTRUCTION STAGE
DEFECTS
Poor design
Poor design
detailing
Poor deflection
estimations
Faulty design of
rigid joints in
precast elements
Faulty design
estimations at
changes in sections
Leakage through joints
Inadequate drainage
Inefficient drainage slopes
Structural Cracks due to unanticipated or

collapse under-estimated stresses
Incompatibility of materials at
critical sections
Thorough and careful design by
experienced design engineers
CONSTRUCTION STAGE DEFECTS
Local settlement of subgrade
Swelling of formwork
Internal settlement of concrete
Setting shrinkage
Premature removal of shores
Vibrations
I. Local settlement of subgrade

LOCAL SETTLEMENT OF SUBGRADE
Pouring fresh concrete some-

times may cause subgrade Cracks of this sort are
below it to compress or settle. cured while applying final
Uneven stresses thus created finish to the concrete.
cause cracks in the concrete.
II. SWELLING OF FORMWORK

SWELLING OF FORMWORK
• Formwork absorbs moisture from • Coating of the formwork with

concrete or the atmosphere, moisture resistant material.
which results in swelling of form. • Using unyielding lateral ties with
• Crushing of wale in the formwork good end anchorage
also causes movements of forms
• These result in cracks in the
concrete while setting
III. INTERNAL SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE

III. INTERNAL SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE
• Differential settlement between • Surface cracks can be cured and

the surface and the interior closed by delayed finishing.
volume of the concrete • Curing of concrete must start
suspension causes surface cracks. immediately after casting to delay
• Concrete on the surface sets faster setting of the surface concrete.
than the interior suspension • Good compaction will also help
prevent this defect.
IV. SETTING SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

IV. SETTING SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
• While setting the concrete shrinks • Good and timely curing will help
giving rise to surfacial cracks avoid this type of damage.
resembling the scales of the
alligator.
V. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF SHORES

V. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF SHORES
• Premature removal of shores from • Shores must be removed only

freshly poured concrete causes re- after the concrete has gained
distribution of stresses on sufficient strength.
formwork, causing movements
and cracking of concrete.
VI. VIBRATIONS INDUCED DAMAGES
• Vibrations due to indiscreet • Workers have to be trained in

walking over concrete and avoiding such carelessness
dumping construction materials,
etc., can also lead to cracking
POST-CONSTRUCTION STAGE DEFECTS
Temperature Stresses
Corrosion of reinforcement
Aggressive action of chemicals
Weathering action
Overloading
Moisture effects
Natural disasters
Fire
I. TEMPERATURE STRESSES
• Cracks in concrete can be • The finishing of the surface should

produced due to temperature be such that it reflects solar
stresses due to: radiation and not absorbs it.
i. Difference in temperature • Good concrete mix with low heat
inside and outside the of hydration
building
ii. Variation in the internal
temperature
II. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT BARS
II. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT BARS
• Seal the crack before it reaches the

• Corrosion of reinforcement
reinforcement bar
bars cab be due to:
• Protect against corrosive chemical
i. Entry of moisture
action by
through cracks
i. Keeping structure clean
ii. Electrochemical action
ii. Painting
iii. Prevent from absorbing moisture
iv. Provide bituminous or zinc
coatings.
v. Encase using fibre wrapping
systems
III. CHEMICAL ATTACK
EFFECTS
III. CHEMICAL ATTACK
• In sulphate environment, the concrete

• Sulphate attack
must be made of sulphate-resistant
• Acid attack
cement. Bituminous coating can also
• Actions of Salts
be provided
• Alkali-aggregate reactions
• In marine environment, C3A (tricalcium
aluminate) content must be less than
8%
• Use of limestone aggregate in acidic
environment is preferable
• Maximum alkali-content in cement
must be less than 0.6%
IV. WEATHERING ACTION

IV. WEATHERING ACTION
• Shock waves • Providing sufficient reinforcement is

o Shock waves could be said to an excellent resistance to shock
mechanical or thermal waves.
o Concrete is • Use of high-strength concrete
heterogeneous - different • Proper curing
constituents have • Proper finishing
different wave
transmission rates
• Erosion
UNIT I: types of damage and
mechanisms of damage
Mechanisms of Deterioration / Damage

 In Fresh Concrete
 In Hardened Concrete
In fresh State After hardening
Early frost Physical causes

damage
Chemical causes
Plastic
deformation
Thermal causes
Construction Structural causes

movement
In fresh state After hardening
Early frost Plastic deformation Construction

damage  Shrinkage movement of
 Settlement  Form
 Subgrade
Physical Chemical Thermal Structural

• aggregate • chemical attack • Freeze-thaw • Accidental
shrinkage • alkali aggregate • Temperature overloads
• drying reaction variation • Creep
• cement • Early • Design loads
shrinkage
carbonation thermal
• crazing
• Corrosion of contraction
reinforcement
bars
IN FRESH STATE OF CONCRETE
1) Early Frost Damage
Mechanism:
When fresh concrete is exposed to extremely low
temperatures, the free water in the concrete is cooled
below its freezing point and transforms into ice, leading to
a decrease in the compressive strength of concrete. When
freezing takes place after an adequate curing time, the
decrease in compressive strength does not occur.
2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks

Plastic shrinkage cracks appear in the surface of fresh
concrete soon after it is placed. These cracks appear
mostly on horizontal surfaces, and are usually parallel
to each other 1-3 feet apart, shallow and not reaching
the perimeter of the slab.

 MECHANISM:
 Rapid loss of water from the

surface of concrete before it
has set causes these cracks.
 It is critical when rate of
evaporation of surface
moisture exceeds the rate at
which rising bleed water can
replace it.

 MECHANISM:
 Water receding below the concrete surface forms menisci

between fine particles of cement and aggregate causing a
tensile force to develop in the surface layer.
• MECHANISM:
– If the concrete surface has started to set and has
developed sufficient tensile strength to resist
these tensile forces, cracks do not form.
– If the surface dries very rapidly before concrete
starts to set then cracks develop as the plastic
concrete begins to stiffen.

• REMEDIAL MEASURES
1. Dampen the sub-grade and

forms when conditions for
high evaporation state
exists.
2. Prevent excessive surface
moisture evaporation by
providing fog sprays and
erecting wind breaks.
3. Cover concrete with wet burlap or poly-
ethylene sheets between finishing operations
4. Use cooler concrete in hot weather and avoid

excessively high concrete temperatures in cold
weather.
5. Cure properly as soon as finishing has been

completed.
2) Plastic Deformation: (B) Settlement (subsidence)
MECHANISM
– Plastic settlement is caused due to bleeding,
which refers to the migration of water to the top
of concrete and the movement of solid particles to
the bottom of fresh concrete.
– The expulsion of water during bleeding results in
the reduction of the volume of fresh concrete.
This induces a downward movement of wet
concrete.
MECHANISM
If such movement is
hindered by the presence
of obstacles like steel
reinforcement, cracks will
be formed.
MECHANISM
• MECHANISM
– Plastic-settlement cracks appear in fresh concrete
directly over embedded objects such as reinforcing
bars or post-tensioning tendons. They occur because
the concrete settles and the embedded objects do
not.
– In some cases the whole reinforcing grid appears as
cracks on the floor surface.
– Plastic-settlement cracks are most likely where
reinforcing bars or post-tensioning tendons are large
in diameter and close to the surface.


Possible CAUSES – Poor construction practices
– Low sand content and high water content
– Large reinforcement bars
– Poor thermal insulation
– Restraining settlement due to irregular shape
– Excessive, uneven absorbency
– Low humidity
– Insufficient time between top-out of columns and
placement of slab and beam
– Insufficient vibration

Probability of cracking – A function of
(1) Cover (2) Slump (3) Bar size
Probability of Subsidence Cracking (%)
2" Slump 3" Slump 4" slump
Cover #4 #5 #6 #4 #5 #6 #4 #5 #6
3/4 " 80.4 87.8 92.5 91.9 98.7 100 100 100 100
1" 60 71 78.1 73 83.4 89.9 85.2 94.7 100
1.5 " 18.6 34.5 45.6 31.1 47.7 58.9 44.2 61.1 72
2" 0 1.8 14.1 4.9 12.7 26.3 5.1 24.7 39
# 4 bar = 12.7 mm dia; # 5 bar = 15.875 mm dia; # 6 bar = 19.05 mm dia (Imperial sizes)
NCHRP 297, Table 4, p.11 (Taken from: P.H. Emmons - p68)

2) Plastic Deformation: (B) Settlement
• REMDIAL MEASURES
– Use the largest possible coarse aggregate.
– Ensure the coarse aggregate is evenly graded.
– Use less water in the concrete mix (but beware
the effect on workability and finishability).
– Leave a generous surcharge when striking off.
– Place deep sections in two or more lifts. This is
worth considering when a slab is being cast
monolithically with thick joists or beams.
3) Construction Movement: Form movement



3) Construction Movement: Subgrade movement
• MECHANISM:
3) Construction Movement: Subgrade movement
PREVENTION
• Pour concrete on compacted subgrade to prevent

cracking. If the subgrade is not compacted, the
soil, and concrete above it, will settle and cause
the slab to crack. Most rental companies have
equipment available to properly compact the
subgrade, and it is well worth the investment.
Physical Chemical Thermal Structural

• aggregate • chemical attack • Freeze-thaw • Accidental
shrinkage • alkali aggregate • Temperature overloads
• drying reaction variation • Creep
• cement • Early • Design loads
shrinkage
carbonation thermal
• crazing
• Corrosion of contraction
reinforcement
bars
DAMAGE IN HARDENED CONCRETE
PHYSICAL CAUSE
(A) Aggregate Shrinkage

Physical Cause: (A) Aggregate Shrinkage
• MECHANISM:
– Some rocks exhibit the property of absorbing water
with attendant change in dimension.
– The shrinkage that occurs as the aggregate dries up is
called aggregate drying shrinkage.
– Change in volume of aggregate induces cavities and
leads to shrinkage, weakening of compressive
strength.
• REMEDIAL MEASURE
– Choose aggregate which do not have these problems.
PHYSICAL CAUSE
(B) Drying Shrinkage

Physical Cause: (B) Drying Shrinkage

• MECHANISM:
– On exposure to the atmosphere, concrete loses some of
its original water through evaporation and shrinks.
Normal weight concrete shrinks from 400 to 800
microstrain. One microstrain is equal to 1 X 10-6 in./in.
– If unrestrained, results in shortening of the member
without a build-up of shrinkage stress. If the member is
restrained from moving, stress build-up may exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete. this over stressing
results in dry shrinkage cracking.
Physical Cause:
(B) Drying
Shrinkage
Factors Affecting Drying Shrinkage

Reducing Concrete Drying Shrinkage

Some of the measures that can be taken to reduce the drying
shrinkage of concrete include:
• use the minimum water content (consistent with placing and
finishing requirements).
• use highest possible volume fraction of good quality aggregate and
maximum possible aggregate size.
• use Shrinkage limited Cement (Type SL) where available.
• Do not use admixtures known to increase drying shrinkage, eg
those containing calcium chloride.
• Ensure concrete is properly placed, compacted and cured.
• Ensure proper placement of reinforcing steel to distribute shrinkage
stresses and control crack widths.
PHYSICAL CAUSE
(C) Crazing
Physical Cause: (C) Crazing
What is Crazing?
Crazing is the development of
a network of fine random
cracks or fissures on the
surface of concrete or mortar
caused by shrinkage of the
surface layer. These cracks
are rarely more than 1/8 inch
deep and are more
noticeable on steel-troweled
surfaces.
The irregular hexagonal areas enclosed by

the cracks are typically no more than 1 ½
inches across and may be as small as ½ or
3/9 inch in unusual instances. Generally,
craze cracks develop at an early age and are
apparent the day after placement or at least
by the end of the first week. Often they are
not readily visible until the surface has been
wetted and it is beginning to dry out.
Crazing cracks are sometimes referred to as shallow map or

pattern cracking. They do not affect the structural integrity of
concrete and rarely do they affect durability or wear resistance.
However, crazed surfaces can be unsightly.
Why do Concrete Surfaces Craze?
Because one or more of the following improper construction practices:
(1) Poor or inadequate curing. Intermittent wet curing and drying or even the
delayed application of curing will permit rapid drying of the surface and
provoke crazing.
(2) Too wet a mix, excessive floating, the use of any procedures which will
depress the coarse aggregate and produce an excessive concentration of
cement past and fines at the surface.
(3) Finishing while there is bleed water on the surface or the use of a steel
trowel at a time when the smooth surface of the trowel brings up too much
water and cement fines.
Why do Concrete Surfaces Craze?

(4) Sprinkling cement on the surface to dry up the bleed water is
frequent cause of crazing surfaces. This concentrates fines on the
surface.
(5) Occasionally carbonation of the surface causes crazing.

Carbonation is a chemical reaction between cement and carbon
dioxide or carbon monoxide from unvented heaters. In such
instances the surface will be soft and will dust as well.

How to Prevent Crazing ?
(A) To prevent crazing start curing the concrete as soon as possible. The surface
should be kept wet by either flooding the surface with water or, covering the
surface with damp burlap and keeping it continuously moist for a minimum of 3
days or, spraying the surface with a liquid membrane curing compound.
(B) Use moderate slump (3 to 5 inches), air entrained concrete. Higher slump (up
to 6 or 7 inches) can be used providing the mixture is designed to produce the
required strength without excessive bleeding and/or segregation. Air entrainment
helps to reduce the rate of bleeding of fresh concrete and thereby reduces the
chance of crazing.
How to Prevent Crazing ?
(C) NEVER sprinkle or trowel dry cement or a mixture of cement and fine
sand into the surface of the plastic concrete to absorb bleed water. Remove
bleed water by dragging a garden hose across the surface. DO NOT perform
any finishing operation while bleed water is present on the surface.
(D) Dampen the subgrade prior to concrete placement to prevent it absorbing

too much water from the concrete. If an impervious membrane, such as
polyethylene, is required on the subgrade cover it with 1 to 2 inches of damp
sand to reduce bleeding.
TYPE 2:CHEMICAL CAUSE
(A) Acid Attack

Chemical Cause:
(A) Chemical Attack
Exposure to Aggressive
Chemicals, such as:
(A)Inorganic Acids
(B)Organic Acids
(C)Alkaline solutions
(D)Salt Solutions
Chemical Cause: (A) Chemical Attack
ACID ATTACK ON CONCRETE
Reaction between the acid and

the calcium hydroxide of the
hydrated Portland cement results
in water soluble calcium
compounds, which are leached
away.
ACID ATTACK ON CONCRETE
When limestone or dolomitic

aggregates are used then the acid
dissolves them.
Dolomite is a carbonate mineral

composed of calcium magnesium
carbonate - CaMg(CO3)2
What is Acid Attack?

Concrete is susceptible to acid attack because of its alkaline
nature. The components of the cement paste break down
during contact with acids.
Most pronounced is the dissolution of calcium hydroxide which

occurs according to the following reaction:
2 HX + Ca(OH)2 -> CaX2 + 2 H2O
(X is the negative ion of the acid)
Acid Attack mechanism continued…

The decomposition of the concrete depends on the porosity of the cement
paste, on the concentration of the acid, the solubility of the acid calcium salts
(CaX2) and on the fluid transport through the concrete. Insoluble calcium salts
may precipitate in the voids and can slow down the attack.
Acids such as nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and acetic acid are very aggressive
as their calcium salts are readily soluble and removed from the attack front.
Other acids such as phosphoric acid and humic acid are less harmful as their
calcium salt, due to their low solubility, inhibit the attack by blocking the
pathways within the concrete such as interconnected cracks, voids and
porosity.
Sulphuric acid is very damaging to concrete as it combines an acid attack and

a sulfate attack.
Visual Effects of Acid Attack

An acid attack is diagnosed
primarily by two main features
(microscopic appearance):
(1) Absence of calcium hydroxide

in the cement paste
(2) Surface dissolution of cement

paste exposing aggregates
(B) Alkali Aggregate Reaction

(AAR)
Chemical Cause: (B) Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
Alkali–aggregate reaction (AAR) is a term mainly referring to a

reaction which occurs over time in concrete between the highly
alkaline cement paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which is
found in many common aggregates. This reaction can cause
expansion of the altered aggregate, leading to spalling and loss of
strength of the concrete.
The alkali–aggregate reaction is a general, but relatively vague

expression. More precise definition are:
(1) Alkali–silica reaction(ASR);
(2) Alkali–silicate reaction and;
(3) Alkali–carbonate reaction
(1) Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
The ASR reaction is the same as the pozzolanic reaction, which is a simple acid-base
reaction between calcium hydroxide,(Ca(OH)2), and silicic acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4).
This reaction can be schematically represented as following:
Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 → Ca2+ + H2SiO42− + 2 H2O → CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O
This reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a
swelling gel of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). This gel increases in volume with
water and exerts an expansive pressure inside the material, causing spalling and loss
of strength of the concrete, finally leading to its failure.
(1) Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) -

MECHANISM
The mechanism of ASR causing the deterioration of concrete can be described in four
steps as follows:
(1) The alkaline solution attacks the siliceous aggregate, converting it to viscous alkali
silicate gel.
(2) Consumption of alkali by the reaction induces the dissolution of Ca2+ ions into the
cement pore water. Calcium ions then react with the gel to convert it to hard C-S-H.
(3) The penetrated alkaline solution converts the remaining siliceous minerals into bulky
alkali silicate gel. The resultant expansive pressure is stored in the aggregate.
(4) The accumulated pressure cracks the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste
when the pressure exceeds the tolerance of the aggregate.
(1) Alkali Silica Reaction
(ASR) - MECHANISM
The alkali-aggregate reaction may go

unrecognized for some period of time,
possibly years, before associate severe
distress develops.
(1) Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
A Typical Effect of Alkali-Silica Reaction

Chemical Cause: (B) Alkali aggregate reaction
(2) Alkali Silicate Reaction
In the alkali–silicate reaction, the layer of silicate

minerals (clay minerals), sometimes present as
impurities, are attacked,
Prevention
ASR can be controlled using certain supplementary cementitious

materials. In proper proportions, silica fume, fly ash, and ground
granulated blast-furnace slag have significantly reduced expansion due to
alkali-silica reactivity. In addition, lithium compounds have been used to
reduce ASR.
It is also important to note that not all ASR gel reactions produce
destructive swelling.
ACR is relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to this phenomenon

are less common and are usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other
reasons. Aggregates susceptible to ACR tend to have a characteristic
texture that can be identified by petrographers.
(3) Alkali Carbonate Reaction
The alkali–carbonate reaction is a process suspected for the degradation

of concrete containing dolomite aggregate.
Alkali from the cement might react with the dolomite crystals present in the
aggregate inducing the production of brucite, (MgOH)2, and calcite (CaCO3).
This mechanism was tentatively proposed by Swenson and Gillott (1950)
and may be written as follows:
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2 NaOH —> CaCO3 + Na2CO3 + Mg(OH)2

Brucite (Mg(OH)2), could be responsible for the volumetric expansion after
de-dolomotisation of the aggregate, due to absorption of water.
(C) Sulphate Attack

Chemical Cause: (C) Sulphate Attack
Sulfate attack is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulfate

ions attack components of the cement paste.
The compounds responsible for sulfate attack are water-soluble

sulfate-containing salts, such as alkali-earth (calcium,
magnesium) and alkali (sodium, potassium) sulfates that are
capable of chemically reacting with components of concrete.
Sulfate sources:
1. Internal Sources:
This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-making materials as hydraulic
cements, fly ash, aggregate, and admixtures.
• portland cement might be over-sulfated.
• presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
• Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulfates.
2. External Sources:
External sources of sulfate are more common and usually are a result of high-sulfate
soils and ground waters, or can be the result of atmospheric or industrial water
pollution.
• Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other sulfate.
• Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining walls, and
other underground structures.
• Industrial waste waters.
• Atmosphere near the oceans may carry sulphate contents .
Chemical Cause: (C) Sulphate Attack -

MECHANISM
Sulphates react chemically with cement paste’s hydrated lime

and hydrated calcium aluminate. The products of this reaction
are solids with volume greater than the compounds entering
the reaction.
The formation of gypsum and ettringite expands, pressurizes

and disrupts the paste. As a result, surface scaling and
disintegration set in, followed by mass deterioration.
Chemical Cause:
(C) Sulphate Attack -
MECHANISM
Microscopic view
of sulphate attack
(C) Sulphate Attack - Prevention
Main factors affecting sulfate attack:
1. Cement type and content:

The most important mineralogical phases of cement that affect the intensity
of sulfate attack are: C3A, C3S/C2S ratio and C4AF.
2. Fly ash addition: The addition of a pozzolanic admixture such as fly ash
reduces the C3A content of cement.
3. Sulfate type and concentration: The sulfate attack tends to increase with an
increase in the concentration of the sulfate solution up to a certain level.
4. Chloride ions
5. Other factors:
The level of the water table and its seasonal variation
The flow of groundwater and soil porosity
The form of construction
The quality of concrete
(C) Sulphate Attack - Prevention
The quality of concrete, specifically a low permeability, is

the best protection against sulfate attack. The concrete
must have the following other characteristics:
(a) Adequate concrete thickness

(b) High cement content – with low tricalcium aluminate
(c) Low w/c ratio
(d) Proper compaction and curing
(e) Proper proportions of admixtures such as silica fume,
fly ash and ground slag improve resistance against sulfate
attack.
(D) Cement Carbonation

Chemical Cause: (D) Cement Carbonation

What is carbonation?
Carbonation is the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) by a
chemical reaction in the concrete.
The creation of calcium carbonate requires three equally important

substances: carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium phases (Ca), and water
(H2O). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the surrounding air,
calcium phases (mainly Ca(OH)2 and CSH) are present in the
concrete, and water (H2O) is present in the pores of the concrete.
(D) Cement Carbonation -MECHANISM
The first reaction is in the pores where carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) react to form carbonic acid (H2CO3):
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
The carbonic acid then reacts with the calcium phases:

H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + 2•H2O
Once the Ca(OH)2 has converted and is missing from the

cement paste, hydrated CSH (Calcium Silicate Hydrate -
CaO•SiO2•H2O) will liberate CaO which will then also
carbonate:
H2CO3 + CaO CaCO3 + H2O

(D) Cement Carbonation
-MECHANISM
When these reactions take place

the pH value will start falling. The
normal pH-value of concrete is
above 13 and the pH-value of fully
carbonated concrete is below 9.
Once the carbonation process

reaches the reinforcement, and the
pH-value drops beneath 13 the
passive “film” on the re-bars will
deteriorate and corrosion will
initiate on the reinforcement.
(D) Cement Carbonation - Prevention
The speed of the carbonation

process through the concrete mainly
depends on two parameters:
• The porosity of the concrete
• The moisture content of the
concrete
In good quality concrete, the carbonation process is slow. Lesser

the porosity lesser the penetration of CO2. The carbonation
process requires constant change in the moisture levels (dry to
damp to dry). The process dos not occur when concrete pores
are filled with water – or when concrete is constantly
underwater.
(E) Reinforcement Corrosion

Chemical Cause: (E) Reinforcement corrosion
Detailed study in the next unit

TYPE 3:THERMAL CAUSE
(A) Freeze-Thaw
Thermal Cause: (A) Freeze Thaw Disintegration
Concrete is porous, so if water

gets in and freezes it breaks off
small flakes from the surface.
Deicing salts make it worse. This is
typically called scaling and it can
occur during the first winter and
get worse over time. When severe,
it can lead to complete destruction
of the concrete.
Freeze-Thaw disintegration takes

place due to:
(a) Freezing and thawing
temperature cycles within the
concrete
(b) Porous concrete that absorbs
water.
.
Generally occurs on horizontal surfaces that are
exposed to water or on the vertical surfaces on the
water line in submerged structures.
.
(A) Freeze Thaw
Disintegration
- MECHANISM
The freezing water contained

in the pore structure expands
as it converts to ice. The
expansion causes local
tension forces that fracture
the surrounding concrete
matrix
(A) Freeze Thaw Disintegration - MECHANISM
The fracturing occurs in small pieces, working from outer

surfaces inward.
Macro & microscopic appearance
Deterioration of concrete by freeze thaw

actions may be difficult to diagnose as
other types of deterioration mechanisms
such as ASR often go hand in hand with
F/T. The typical signs of F/T are:
 Spalling and scaling of the surface
 Large chunks (cm size) are coming
off
 Exposing of aggregate
 Usually exposed aggregate are un-
cracked
 Surface parallel cracking
 Gaps around aggregate - in the
ideal case
The rate of freeze-thaw deterioration is the function of :
 Porosity (increases rate)

 Moisture saturation (increases rate)
 Number of freeze-thaw cycles (increases rate)
 Air entrainment (reduces rate)
 Horizontal surfaces that trap standing water
(increases rate)
 Aggregate with small capillary structure and high
absorption (increases rate)
PRECAUTION/PREVENTION
To protect concrete from freeze/thaw damage, it should be

air-entrained by adding a surface active agent to the
concrete mixture. This creates a large number of closely
spaced, small air bubbles in the hardened concrete. The air
bubbles relieve the pressure build-up caused by ice
formation by acting as expansion chambers. About 4% air
by volume is needed and the air-bubbles should be well
distributed and have a distance between each other of less
than 0.25 mm in the cement paste.
(B) Temperature Variation

Thermal Cause: (B) Temperature Variation
Temperature Variation leads to Volume Changes in concrete
Resulting stresses lead to cracking, spalling and excessive deflections
Thermal Coefficient of concrete = 9 x 10-6 mm/mm/oC

Thermal Volume change leading to Shear Cracks

Diurnal Solar Heating induces flexural and shear stresses

Thermal Cause:
(B) Temperature Variation
Diurnal Solar Heating effects

the structure based on its
configuration.
In simple span structures only up and

down deflections take place and the
joints are free to rotate.
In continuous span structures, hinges may

form due to joint rotation being
restrained. These hinges open and close
with daily temperature.
Stress build-up in restrained structures may result in tension cracks,

shear cracks or even buckling at the weakest location
(C) Early Thermal Cracking in Fresh

Concrete
Thermal Cause: (C) Early thermal contraction
Fresh concrete undergoes temperature rise due to

cement hydration.
When concrete is cooling to the surrounding ambient

temperature in a few days, the concrete has very little
tensile strength.
Weak tensile strength + thermally contracting concrete =

tension cracks


Factors affecting early temperature

rise in fresh concrete
1. Initial temperature of materials: Warm materials lead to warm concrete.

Aggregate temperature is most critical.
2. Ambient temperature: Higher ambient temperature leads to higher peaks
3. Dimensions: Large sections generate more heat.
4. Curing: Water curing dissipates the build-up of heat. Avoid thermal shock.
5. Formwork removal: Early removal of formwork reduces peak temperature.
6. Type of formwork: Wood form produces higher temperatures than steel forms.
7. Cement Content: More cement in the mix means more heat.
8. Cement Type: Type III cement produces more heat than most other cements
9. Admixtures: Fly ash reduces the amount of heat build-up
TYPE 4: STRUCTURAL CAUSE
(A) Accidental Overload

Structural Cause: (A) Accidental overload
Cracking modes in continuous span
Structural Cause:
(A) Accidental overload
SLAB/BEAM TO
COLUMN SHEAR
IN CANTILEVERED MEMBERS
IN CONTINUOUS STRUCTURES
DEFLECTIONS IN CONTINUOUS BRIDGE SPAN

SHORTENING IN COLUMNS
Elastic Creep Drying
shortening shortening shrinkage
Structural Cause:
(A) Accidental overload
IN POST-TENSIONED
MEMBERS
(B) CREEP
Structural Cause: (B) Creep
Definition of Creep
Creep is the ‘time-dependent’

part of the strain resulting
from stress.
In other words, creep is the

increase in strain under
sustained stress.
Explanation of Creep:
as different from stress dependent strain
Explanation of
Creep in Concrete
Under sustained stress and

with time, the hydrated
cement gel, the adsorbed
water layer, the water held
in the gel pores and the
capillary pores yields,
flows and readjust
themselves, resulting in
shrinkage of concrete.
Factors affecting creep:
1) Influence of aggregate: Stronger aggregate of high modulus of

elasticity) and a larger aggregate content in concrete mix reduces the
magnitude of creep. Creep is the ‘time-dependent’ part of the strain
resulting from stress.
2) Mix Proportions: Creep increases with increase in w/c ratio. Creep
is inversely proportional to the strength of the concrete.
3) Influence of age: In a broad sense, the age at which the concrete
is loaded has predominant effect on creep. Cement gel quality
improves with time. Stresses induced on young concrete will result in
large creep.
4) Time and the magnitude of stress are main factors
affecting creep.
Effects of creep:
 Unwanted deflections in reinforced concrete beams

 In columns, creep in concrete will transfer greater load on
to the reinforcing steel bars.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the
deflection and can lead to buckling.
 In mass concrete structures, creep accompanied by
differential interior temperature conditions can cause
cracking of the concrete.
 In pre-stressed concrete, creep reduces the pre-stressing
magnitude.
(C) Underestimated Design

Loads
Structural Cause: (C) Design loads
Poor design and detailing

UNIT ii:
CORROSION OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
• Causes
• Mechanisms
• Prevention
Embedded Metal Corrosion Process
Metal Corrosion is highly dependent

on the pH of concrete
Concrete is a high alkaline - pH of fresh

concrete is between 12 and 13.
In this range of alkalinity, embedded steel is

protected from corrosion by a passivating film
bonded to the reinforcing bar surface.
However, when the passivating film is

disrupted, corrosion may take place.
- An Electrochemical Process
An electrochemical process requires an anode,
cathode and an electrolyte.
Moist Concrete forms an Electrolyte.

Steel reinforcement provides anode and cathode.
- An Electrochemical Process
Electrical current flows between the cathode and anode, and the
reaction results in an increase in metal volume as the Fe (Iron) is
oxidized into Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3 and precipitates as FeO OH (rust
color). Water and oxygen must be present for the reaction to take place.
- Contributing Factors
In good quality concrete the corrosion rate will be slow.
Accelerated corrosion will take place if
 the pH (alkalinity) is lowered (carbonation)

 if aggressive chemicals or dissimilar metals are introduced into the
concrete
 presence of stray electrical currents and concentration cells caused
by an uneven chemical environment.
Effects on Reinforcement Corrosion
Effects of Rebar Corrosion
1- Cracking and Spalling
In compressive members, cracking and spalling of concrete reduces the effective cross
section of the concrete, thereby reducing the ultimate compressive load capacity.
2- Reduction of Structural Capacity
The research conducted on flexural beams found that in steel with more than 1.5
percent corrosion, the ultimate load capacity began to fall, and at 4.5 percent
corrosion, the ultimate load was reduced by 12 percent probably as a result of
reduced bar diameter.
ACI Structural journal, March-April 1990, p.220

Embedded Metal Corrosion
- Factors Influencing Cracking and Spalling
1. Concrete tensile strength

2. Quality of concrete over the
reinforcing bar
3. Bond or condition of the
interface between the rebar
and surrounding concrete.
4. Diameter of the reinforcing
bar
5. Percentage of corrosion by
weight of the reinforcing bar.
- Factors Influencing Cracking and Spalling
With the cover-to-bar diameter ratio (C/D) of 7, concrete cracking starts

when corrosion reaches 4 percent, whereas, with a (C/D) ratio of 3, only
1 percent corrosion is enough to crack the concrete
- Cracking and Spalling
In good quality concrete the corrosion rate will be slow.
Accelerated corrosion will take place if
 the pH (alkalinity) is lowered (carbonation)

 if aggressive chemicals or dissimilar metals are introduced into the
concrete
 presence of stray electrical currents and concentration cells caused
by an uneven chemical environment.
Chloride Induced Corrosion
- Induced by Chloride Penetration
Source of Chlorides:
Environments containing chlorides, such as sea water or de-icing salts.
Penetration rate of chlorides into concrete depends on:

 The amount of chlorides coming into contact with concrete.
 The permeability of the concrete.
 The amount of moisture present.
- Chloride Penetration Mechanism
The concentration of chlorides in contact with the reinforcing
steel will cause corrosion when moisture and oxygen are
present. As the rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by the
expansion of the oxide cause the concrete to crack and
delaminate.
Spalling of the delamination occurs if the natural forces of

gravity or traffic wheel loads act on the loose concrete. When
cracking and delamintaion progress, accelerated corrosion
takes place because of easy access of corrosive salts, oxygen and
moisture.
Corrosion then begins to affect rebars buried further within the

concrete.
Embedded Metal
Corrosion
- Chloride Penetration
Mechanism
Influence of pH:
The concentration of chlorides
necessary to promote corrosion is
greatly affected by the concrete’s pH. It
was demonstrated that a threshold
level of 8000 ppm of chloride ions was
required to initiate corrosion when pH
was 13.2. As the pH was lowered to
11.6 corrosion was initiated with only
71 ppm of chloride ions.
- Chlorides through de-icing salts
Cracks and construction joints in concrete permit corrosive

chemicals such as de-icing salts to enter the concrete and access
embedded reinforcing steel.
Embedded Metal
Corrosion
- Chloride Penetration aided by
cracks and construction joints
Tolerable crack widths to avoid

rebar corrosion
Cast - in Chlorides
Chlorides cast into the concrete.
Chlorides may be introduced deliberately as a accelerator, or in the form of

natural ingredients found in some aggregates.
Concrete made of beach sand or having seawater for mixing water will result in
cast-in chlorides.
Chlorides occur in either water soluble or acid soluble form. Chlorides used as
admixtures are water soluble, while those found in aggregate sources may be
only acid soluble. Water soluble chlorides are the most damaging, since they
readily become free to attack surrounding reinforcing steel.
Embedded Metal
Corrosion
Cast - in Chlorides limits
suggested by ACI
% of CI to
Service condition weight of
cement
Prestressed concrete 0.06

Conventionally reinforced concrete in a moist 0.10
environment and exposed to chloride
Conventionally reinforced concrete in a moist 0.15

environment not exposed to chloride
Above-ground building construction where No limit

concrete will stay dry
Carbonation aids Corrosion
Carbonation aids Corrosion
What is carbonation?
Carbonation is the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) by a

chemical reaction in the concrete.
The creation of calcium carbonate requires three equally

important substances: carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium phases
(Ca), and water (H2O). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the
surrounding air, calcium phases (mainly Ca(OH)2 and CSH) are
present in the concrete, and water (H2O) is present in the pores
of the concrete.
Cement Carbonation
-reduces pH of concrete
When these reactions take place the pH
value will start falling. The normal pH-value
of concrete is above 13 and the pH-value of
fully carbonated concrete is below 9.
Once the carbonation process reaches the

reinforcement, and the pH-value drops
beneath 13 the passive “film” on the re-bars
will deteriorate and corrosion will initiate on
the reinforcement.
In good quality concrete, the carbonation

process is very slow. It has been estimated
that the process will proceed at a rate up to
0.04in. (1mm) per year. The process
requires constant change in moisture levels
from dry to damp to dry.
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion
Also called as galvanic corrosion
Corrosion can take place in Below is a list of metals in

concrete when two different increasing order of activity:
1. Zinc
metals are cast into a concrete
2. Aluminum
structure, along with an 3. Steel
adequate electrolyte. A moist 4. Iron nickel
concrete matrix provides for a 5. Tin
good electrolyte. 6. Lead
7. Brass
8. Copper
Different metals have 9. Bronze
different rates of 10. Stainless steel
electrochemical activity. 11. Gold
Also called as galvanic corrosion
When two metals are in contact via an active electrolyte, the less
active metal (lower number) in the series is corroded.
One of the most common situations found in concrete is

the use of aluminum cast into reinforced concrete.
Aluminum has less activity than steel; therefore, the

aluminum Is the metal that corrodes. The steel will
actually become cleaned, and the aluminum surfaces will
grow a white oxide, which will cause tensile forces to
crack the surrounding concrete.
Embedded Metal
Corrosion
Dissimilar Metal
Corrosion Mechanism
Prevention
PREVENTION METHODS
1) Keep concrete always dry, so that there is no H2O to form rust. Also
aggressive agents cannot easily diffuse into dry concrete. If concrete is
always wet, then there is no oxygen to form rust.
2) A polymeric coating is applied to the concrete member to keep out

aggressive agents. A polymeric coating is applied to the reinforcing
bars to protect them from moisture and aggressive agents. The
embedded epoxy-coating on steel bars provide a certain degree of
protection to the steel bars and, thereby, delay the initiation of
corrosion. These coatings permit movement of moisture to the steel
surface but restrict oxygen penetration such that a necessary reactant
at cathodic sites is excluded.
3) Stainless steel or cladded stainless steel is used in lieu of

conventional black bars.
PREVENTION METHODS (contd…)
4) FLY ASH : Using a Fly Ash concrete with very low permeability,
which will delay the arrival of carbonation and chlorides at the level of the
steel reinforcement. Fly Ash is a finely divided silica rich powder that, in
itself, gives no benefit when added to a concrete mixture, unless it can react
with the calcium hydroxide formed in the first few days of hydration.
Together they form a calcium silica hydrate (CSH) compound that over
time effectively reduces concrete diffusivity to oxygen, carbon dioxide,
water and chloride ions.
5) A portion of the chloride ions diffusing through the concrete can be

sequestered in the concrete by combining them with the tricalcium
aluminate to form a calcium chloro-aluminate (Friedel’s salt). It can have a
significant effect in reducing the amount of available chlorides thereby
reducing corrosion.
6) Electrochemical injection of the organic base corrosion inhibitors,

ethanolamine and guanidine, into carbonated concrete.
PREVENTION METHODS (contd…)
7) The rougher the steel surface, the better it adheres to concrete.

oxidation treatment (by water immersion and ozone exposure) of rebar
increases the bond strength between steel and cement paste to a
value higher than that attained by clean rebars. In addition, surface
deformations on the rebar (such as ribs) enhance the bond due to
mechanical interlocking between rebar and concrete.
8) As the cement content of the concrete increases (for a fixed amount of

chloride in the concrete), more chloride reacts to form solid phases, so
reducing the amount in solution (and the risk of corrosion), and as the
physical properties improve, the extent of carbonation declines, so
preventing further liberation of chloride from the solid phase.
9) Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ECE) is a relatively new

technology for which long-term service data are limited. This method
employs a temporary anode that is operated at current density
UNIT II
DAMAGE IN STRUCTURES DUE TO FIRE

DAMAGE IN STRUCTURES DUE TO
FIRE
• PART 1: Fire Induced Damages in Structures

• PART 2: Fire Rating of Structures
• PART 3: Phenomenon of Desiccation
PART 1: Fire Induced Damages in Structures

FIRE
Part I: Fire Induced Structural Damages
Effects of Fire on Concrete Structures
Uneven volume changes in

affected members, resulting
in distortion, buckling and
cracking. The temperature
gradients are extreme -
from ambient 70oF (21oC),
to higher than 1500oF
(800oC) at the source of the
fire and near the surface.
Spalling of rapidly expanding

concrete surfaces from
extreme heat near the source
of the fire. Some aggregates
expand in bursts, spalling the
adjacent matrix. Moisture
rapidly changes to steam,
causing localized bursting of
small pieces of concrete.
The cement mortar

converts to quicklime
at temperatures of
750oF (400oC), thereby
causing disintegration
of concrete.
Reinforcing steel loses tensile

capacity as the temperature rises.
Once the reinforcing steel is

exposed by the spalling action,
the steel expands more rapidly
than the surrounding concrete,
causing buckling and loss of bond
to adjacent concrete where the
reinforcement is fully encased.
Concrete undergoes cracking, spalling, and
experiences a decrease in stiffness and
strength as the temperature increases.
Concrete has low thermal conductivity,

which allows it to undergo heating for
longer durations before the temperature
increases significantly and damage occurs.
The concrete compressive
strength starts decreasing
rapidly after its temperature
reaches approximately 400°C
(750°F).
At temperatures of around
500oC (932oF), the concrete
compressive strength is reduced
to 50% of
its nominal strength.
Effects of Fire on Steel Structures
Effects of Fire on Steel Structures
Effects on Steel Yield Strength
The tensile yield strength of the steel
decreases gradually up to 500oC (932o
F). It is reduced to about 50% of its
nominal yield strength at 600oC
(1112oF). This essentially eliminates
any factor of safety, which is usually
between 1.5 and 2.0.
The steel yield strength decreases more

rapidly for temperatures greater than
500oC (932oF), and failure may be
inevitable if temperatures keep
increasing while the loading is
sustained.
Effects on Steel Yield Strength
Effects on Steel Connections
Effects on Steel Modulus
Stages of
deterioration
due to Fire
PART 2: Fire Ratings of Structures

FIRE
What is Fire Rating?
A fire rating refers to the length of time that a material can

withstand complete combustion during a standard fire
rating test. Fire testing of building materials and
components of buildings -- such as joists, beams and fire
walls -- is required in most places by building codes.
Other fire tests for things such as appliances and furniture

are voluntary, ordered by manufacturers to use in their
advertising. Wall and floor safes are examples of products
for which fire resistance is a key selling point.
What is Fire Rating?
With the required tests, the results are measured in

either units of time, because the emphasis is on
holding up under fire (literally) long enough for the
occupants of a home or building to escape, or by
classification designations. This does not mean,
necessarily, that the components of every new
structure have to be fire tested. In most cases, the fire
rating has been already established by testing the
product before it is even put on the market.
PART 3: Phenomenon of Desiccation

FIRE
PART 3: Phenomenon of Desiccation
• Desiccation is a phenomenon referring to

dryness of the material induced by the loss of
moisture
Few more Disintegration &
deterioration mechanisms
• Erosion: Cavitation and Abrasion

• Moisture Effects
• Faulty Workmanship
MECHANISMS
EROSION
BY CAVITATION
EROSION
Erosion by Cavitation
Good-quality concrete shows excellent resistance to steady
high-velocity flow of clear water; however nonlinear flow at
velocities exceeding 40 ft/sec. may cause severe erosion of
concrete due to cavitation.
CAVITATION
As water moves at a high velocity over a rough surface, vacuum
bubbles or vapour bubbles form, due to pressure changes. These
flow downstream and as they enter into a region of high pressure,
they implode (collapse) with such a great force that they fracture
the adjacent rock, thereby accelerating erosion.
The formation of vapour bubbles and they subsequent collapse is

called cavitation.
Cavities are formed near the
curves, offsets or at the
centre of the vortices.
The imploding bubbles

erode the cement matrix
leaving the harder
aggregate.
At high velocities, the forces

of cavitation may be great
enough to wear away large
quantities of concrete
It is not enough to have a structural design in water
retaining and irrigation structures , but it is equally
important to consider the hydraulic design.
The structure should have smooth surfaces and must not

have protruding obstructions to flow, surface misalignments
and abrupt changes in slopes.
BY ABRASION
EROSION
Erosion by Abrasion
ABRASION
Abrasion is the wearing away of the surface by
rubbing and friction.
Mechanism: Abrasion-erosion damage is caused by the action
of debris rolling and grinding against a concrete surface. In
hydraulic structures, the areas most likely to be damaged are
spillway aprons, stilling basin slabs, and lock culverts and
laterals. The sources of the debris include construction trash
left in a structure, riprap brought back into a basin by eddy
currents because of poor hydraulic design or asymmetrical
discharge, and riprap or other debris thrown into a basin by the
public. Also barges and towboats impacting or scraping on lock
wells and guide wells can cause abrasions erosion damage.
Images of
Abrasion
Images of
Abrasion
Concrete surfaces abraded by water-borne debris are
generally smooth and may contain localized depressions.
Most of the debris remaining in the structure will be
spherical and smooth. Mechanical abrasion is usually
characterized by long shallow grooves in the concrete
surface and spalling along monolith joints.
 Compressive strength of concrete
 Aggregate properties
 Finishing methods
 Curing
 By Design
 By operation
 By proper materials
(A) Design: While improvements in materials reduce the rate of

concrete damage caused by erosion, this improvement alone will
not solve the problem. Until the adverse hydraulic conditions that
can cause abrasion-erosion damage are minimized or eliminated, it
will be extremely difficult for any of the construction materials
currently being used to avoid damage by erosion. Prior to
construction or repair of major structures, hydraulic model studies
of the structure may be required to identify potential causes of
erosion damage and to evaluate the effectiveness of various
modifications in eliminating those undesirable hydraulic
conditions.
 By Design
 By operation
(b) Operation: In existing structures, balanced flows should be maintained into

basins by using all gates to avoid discharge conditions where eddy action is
prevalent. Substantial discharges that can provide a good hydraulic jump without
creating eddy action should be released periodically in an attempt to flush debris
from the stilling basin. Guidance as to discharge and tail-water relations required for
flushing should be developed through model and prototype tests. Periodic
inspections should be required to determine the presence of debris in the stilling
basin and the extent of erosion. If the debris cannot be removed by flushing
operations, the basin should be cleaned by other means.
 By Design
 By operation
(c) Materials: Abrasion-resistant concrete should include the maximum amount of the
hardest coarse aggregate that is available and the lowest practical w/c. In some cases
where hard aggregate was not available, high-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA)
and condensed silica fume have been used to develop high compressive strength concrete
97 MPa to overcome problems of unsatisfactory aggregate. Apparently, at these high
compressive strengths the hardened cement paste assumes a greater role in resisting
abrasion-erosion damage, and as such, the aggregate quality becomes correspondingly less
important. The abrasion-erosion resistance of vacuum-treated concrete, polymer concrete,
polymer-impregnated concrete, and polymer portland cement concrete is significantly
superior to that of comparable conventional concrete that can also be attributed to a
stronger cement matrix.
Fiber-reinforced concrete is consistently less resistant to abrasion-erosion than

conventional concrete. Therefore, it should not be used for repair of stilling basins or other
hydraulic structures where abrasion-erosion is of major concern.
MOISTURE EFFECTS
MOISTURE EFFECTS
on concrete
 Moisture Vapour Transmission
 Volume Change
 Curling
Moisture Vapour Transmission
MOISTURE EFFECTS
Moisture Vapour Transmission
• Water vapour travels through concrete when a
structural member’s surfaces are subject to
different levels of relative humidity (RH). Moisture
vapour travels from high RH to low RH regions.
• The amount of moisture vapour transmission is a

function of the RH gradient between the faces and
the permeability of the concrete.
Volume Change
MOISTURE EFFECTS
Volume Change – Moisture
Content
• Concrete changes length (volume) depending on its
moisture content
• Moist concrete that dries out will shrink, while dry

concrete that becomes moist will expand.
• Hot, humid summers will increase moisture content

in concrete. Cold, dry winters will reduce moisture
content.
Curling
MOISTURE EFFECTS
CURLING
• Curling is a common problem with slabs cast

on grade.
• Curling is caused by uneven moisture and

temperature gradients across the thickness of
the slab.
Curling
• Effect of Moisture gradient: The top drier surface

has a tendency to contract in length relative to the
moist bottom surface. Stress releases by the slab
curling upwards.
• Effect of Temperature gradient: Due to solar

heating of the top surface the top surface has a
tendency to grow in length as compared to the
bottom surface. Stress releases by the slab curling
downwards.
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
Considerations in Placing Reinforcement Steel
FIRST CONSIDERATION: Reinforcing Steel is

placed in concrete to carry tensile loads. Thus,
rebars should be accurately located
SECOND CONSIDERATION: Reinforcing Steel

requires adequate concrete cover to protect itself
from corrosion. Thus, the rebars must be properly
placed to have enough concrete cover.
Some Examples
1) In negative moment areas in cantilevers

Some Examples
2) Inadequate concrete cover

Some Examples
3) Congested Reinforcement Placements

Some Examples
4) Improper placement of Stirrups

Some Examples
4) Improper placement of Stirrups

Premature Removal of Formwork
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
Some Examples
ACI – SP 4
Since early form removal is usually desirable so that forms can be reused,
a reliable basis for determining the earliest proper stripping time is
necessary. When forms are stripped, there must be no excessive
deflection or distortion and no evidence of cracking or other damage to
the concrete, due either to removal of support or to the stripping
operation. Supporting forms and shores must not be removed from
beams, floors, and walls until these structural units are strong enough to
carry their own weight and any approved superimposed load, unless
provision has been made to allow for anticipated temporary construction
loads, as for example in multi-storey work. In no case should forms and
shores be removed from horizontal members before concrete has reached
the strength specified by the engineer/architect for form removal.
Improper Column Form Placement
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
Some Examples
Cold Joints and Segregation
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
What are Cold Joints ?
Cold Joints are places of

discontinuity within a member
where the concrete may not
tightly bond to itself.
Typically occurs in huge

structures where placement of
concrete requires multiple lifts.
Examples of Cold Joint Defects
What is Segregation ?
Non-uniform distribution of
constituents due to high slump
mixes, incorrect handling of
concrete or excessive vibrations.
Durability is affected.
Examples
Honeycomb and Rock Pockets
FAULTY WORKMANSHIP
Voids left in the
concrete due to
failure of mortar to
fill spaces between
the aggregates
CAUSES
Construction
conditions
Poor member
designs
Fresh concrete
properties
Faults in formwork
Placement defects
Consolidation
CAUSE 1: Poor member designs
Highly congested Internal

reinforcement interference
Reinforcement
narrow sections
splices
Highly congested
reinforcement
Highly congested
reinforcement
Reinforcement
splices
Internal
interference
reinforcements Electrical systems Plumbing systems

Internal
interference
CAUSE 2: Faulty Formwork
Leakage at Joints Severe grout loss

CAUSE 3: Construction Conditions
Reinforcement too
High temperature Accessibility
close to forms
CAUSE 4: Fresh Concrete Properties
Insufficient fines Excessive mixing
Low workability Early stiffening
Too large aggregate

CAUSE 5: Placement Defects
Excessive free-fall segregation
Excessive travels in Improper drop

forms chute
Too high lift

CAUSE 6: Consolidation
Excessive spacing
Too small vibrator
between insertions
Short immersion
Low frequency
time
Low amplitude
UNIT III
INSPECTION AND TESTING

• Testing Methods
• Visual Inspection
• Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluations
• Semi-Destructive Tests
Testing Methods
Summary of the Testing Methods
Condition Survey Procedure

Condition Survey Procedure
1. Visual Inspection
2. Review of Engineering Data
3. Condition Survey
4. Final Evaluation Analysis
5. Condition survey Report
Visual Inspection
Visual Inspection
- a vital step to evaluation
Components
1. Tools and Equipment
2. Familiarization with the Engineering Data
3. Walk-through: What to look for?
4. Sketches
5. Mapping of deficiencies
6. Recommendations
1. Sampling and Testing
2. Non-destructive testing
Visual Inspection
- a vital step to evaluation
For Details:
1) Refer to NDT handbook - Chapter 2
TESTING METHODS
Mechanical Properties
 Semi-destructive Tests
 Non-destructive Tests
Testing For Mechanical Properties
Core testing, Windsor probe test,

Compressive Strength
Rebound hammer test, Pull-out test
Quality of Concrete Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test
Tensile Strength Pull off test, Splitting tensile test
Flexural Strength Centre-point & third-point load test
Abrasion Resistance Sand blasting test
Bond Strength Pull off testing

Testing For Mechanical Properties
Already Discussed in Detail:
Detailed References:
1) Main Text book: Part 2
Concrete Repair and Maintenance Handbook –
P H Emmons and Sabnis
2) Concrete Technology – A R Santhakumar
Chapter 25 (Particularly see – Semi-destructive tests)
3) NDT Handbook - Chapter 4, 7 and 11
TESTING METHODS
Chemical Properties
NDTs
Testing For Chemical Properties
Half cell potential,

Electro-Chemical Activity Electrical resistivity
Phenolphthalein Solution
Carbonation Depth Petrographic Analysis
X-ray diffraction
Infrared Spectroscopy
Alkali-Aggregate
Petrographic Analysis
Reactions
Uranyl Acetate Fluorescence Method
Chloride Content Chloride meter

TESTING FOR CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ACTIVITY
(CORROSION ACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS)
Electrochemical Activity
I. Half Cell Potential Method
(also called Open-Circuit Potential Measurement Technique)
The half-cell is usually a

copper/copper sulphate or
silver/silver chloride cell.
The concrete functions as an

electrolyte.
The risk of corrosion of the

reinforcement in the
immediate region of the test
location is related
empirically to the measured
potential difference.
I. Half Cell Potential Method
(also called Open-Circuit Potential Measurement Technique)
The general interpretations of half-cell potential measurements:
Less negative than – 0.2 volts  No corrosion [90% probability]
Between – 0.35 and – 0.2 volts  corrosion activity [uncertain]
More negative than – 0.35 volts  corrosion [90% probability]
Positive value  insufficient moisture in the concrete (invalid reading)
The test does not indicate the rate of corrosion. It only gives an
indication of the potential for corrosion at the time of measurement.
The test is difficult to apply for post-tension strands.

The test fails if there is discontinuity in the reinforcement.
Yet, simple and economical method for quick corrosion potential assessment.
II. Electrical Resistivity
Whilst the half cell potential measurement is effective in locating regions

of corrosion activity, it provides no indication of the rate of corrosion.
Electrical resistivity measurements give further insight into corrosion.
PRINCIPLE:
A low resistance path between anodic and cathodic sites would normally be
associated with a high rate of corrosion than a high resistance path. Electrical
resistivity measurements determine the current levels flowing between anodic
and cathodic portions, or the concrete conductivity over the test area, and are
usually used in conjunction with the half-cell potential technique. This is an
electrolytic process as a consequence of ionic movement in the aqueous pore
solution of the concrete matrix.
EQUIPMENT: Wenner 4 Probe Resistivity Meter
EQUIPMENT: Wenner 4 Probe Resistivity Meter
The equipment consists of four electrodes (two outer current probes and
two inner voltage probes) which are placed in a straight line on or just
below the concrete surface at equal spacings. A low frequency
alternating electrical current is passed between the two outer electrodes
whilst the voltage drop between the inner electrodes is measured.
The apparent resistivity (ρ) in “ohm-cm” may be expressed as:

ρ = 2aV/I
where
V is voltage drop,
I is applied current,
a is electrode spacing.
Spacing of probes in the Resistivity Meter
The spacing of the four probes determines the regions of concrete being
measured. It is generally accepted that for practical purposes, the depth of
the concrete zone affecting the measurement will be equal to the
electrode spacing. If the spacing is too small, the presence or absence of
individual aggregate particles, usually having a very high resistivity, will
lead to a high degree of scatter in the measurement. Using a larger spacing
may lead to inaccuracies due to the current field being constricted by the
edges of the structure being studied. In addition, increased error can also
be caused by the influence of the embedded steel when larger spacings
are employed. A spacing of 50 mm is commonly adopted, gives a very
small degree of scatter and allows concrete sections in excess of 200 mm
thick to be measured with acceptable accuracy.
Factors influencing Electrical Resistivity Measurements
1) Moisture 2) Salt content 3) Ambient temperature,

4) Water/cement ratio and 5) Mix proportions.
The variations of moisture condition have a major influence on in situ

test readings. Precautions need to be taken when comparing
results of saturated concrete, e.g. those exposed to sea water or
measurements taken after rain showers, with those obtained on
protected concrete surfaces.
Ambient temperature: Concrete has electrolytic properties; hence,

resistivity will increase as temperature decreases. Usually resistivity
measurements are higher readings during the winter period than the
summer period.
General Guidelines for Interpretation of Resistivity

Measurements for Corrosion Assessment
It is necessary to calibrate the technique, either through exposing the steel

to assess its condition, or by correlating the resistivity values with data
collected with other techniques, such as half-cell potential measurement.
III. Electrical Resistivity
OTHER METHODS for determining corrosion activity :
3. Surface Potential Measuring Technique

4. Polarization Resistance Technique
5. Electrochemical Noise Analysis
References for the above:
1) Sections 25.4.25, 25.4.26 and 25.4.27 from the book

Concrete Technology – A R Santhakumar
PROPERTIES
CARBONATION DEPTH MEASUREMENT

Carbonation Depth Measurement
I. Acid Base Indicators
Principle:
Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the
atmosphere in the presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement
minerals to produce carbonates, e.g. calcium carbonate. The
carbonation process is also called depassivation, as it reduces the pH
value of the concrete matrix.
Carbonation penetrates below the exposed surface of concrete

extremely slowly. The time required for carbonation can be
estimated knowing the concrete grade and using the following
equation:
t = (d/k)2
where
t is the time for carbonation,
d is the concrete cover,
k is the permeability.
Method to Measure the Depth of Carbonation:
The 1% phenolpthalein solution is made by dissolving 1gm of phenolpthalein in 90 cc of
ethanol. The solution is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water. On freshly
extracted cores the core is sprayed with phenolphthalein solution, the depth of the
uncoloured layer (the carbonated layer) from the external surface is measured to the
nearest mm at 4 or 8 positions, and the average taken. If the test is to be done in a
drilled hole, the dust is first removed from the hole using an air brush and again the
depth of the uncoloured layer measured at 4 or 8 positions and the average taken.
If the concrete still retains its alkaline characteristic the colour of the concrete will
change to purple (pink). If carbonation has taken place and pH lowers below 10 there
will be no colour change.
Method to Measure the Depth of Carbonation:
II. Petrographic Analysis
What is Petrographic Analysis?
Petrographic analysis is a technique developed in the

earth-sciences for observation of rocks and minerals. It
involves creating a "thin-section" of the material being
studied. Once the thin-section is made it is viewed through
a polarising microscope, which has two polarizing filters
oriented at right-angles to each other, thereby blocking out
any light . However, a sample containing minerals may
diffract the light, so that they are visible in cross-polarized
light. The degree of diffraction is a key characteristic
enabling identification of the crystals.
Illustration
The petrographic
examination helps to improve
the extrapolation from test
results to performance in situ.
Together with various other
concrete tests, petrographic
analysis helps to determine
why this concrete in situ
behaved in the way it did, and
how it may behave in the
future.
To perform this type of analysis, concrete specimens are taken from the
structure and are prepared by either polishing or etching a surface of
the specimen. Petrographic examination includes identification of
mineral aggregates, aggregate-paste interface, assessment of the
structure, and integrity of the cement paste.
Petrographic examination helps determine some of the

following mechanisms:
1) Freeze-thaw resistance
2) Sulfate attack
3) Alkali-aggregate reactivity
4) Aggregate durability
5) Carbonation
PROPERTIES
ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION, SULPHATE ATTACK
BY
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
Source: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/pubs/hif09004/asr11.cfm
Source: http://alkalisilicareaction.blogspot.in/
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
I. Petrographic Analysis
Macroscopic Observations:
Several macroscopic signs of concrete

deterioration, some of which are related to ASR,
can be observed by examining the cores
immediately after the extraction or in the
laboratory in an as received condition. The
observations can be made with naked eye or
aided by a small magnifying lens (up to 10X
magnification) that can be easily used in the field.
These are……
 Symptom 1: Macrocracks penetrating at different depths in the concrete

member [Note: macro-cracks can be due to several mechanisms other than
ASR]
 Symptom 2: Fine to-medium size cracks will stay damp while rewetting
 Symptom 3: Gel staining surrounding surface cracks.

 Symptom 4: Dark reaction rims at the periphery of reacted aggregate particles; dark
rims may appear at the periphery of weathered gravel particles and are
consequently not fully indicative of ASR in the case of gravel aggregates.
 Symptom 5: Cracks within reactive aggregates, which extend sometimes in the

cement paste, with/without reaction products gels.
 Symptom 6: Alkali-silica gel in voids of the cement paste.
 Symptom 7: Deposits of reaction products on the cracked surfaces of cores.
 Symptom 7: Deposits of reaction products on the cracked surfaces of cores.
For Petrographic Microscopic Analysis View

II. Uranyl Acetate Fluorescence Method
Use of uranyl (uranium) acetate

fluorescence method has been developed.
This method can be used to monitor
possible ASR prior to development of
serious distress and to confirm ASR
existence.
Principle and Method:
Alkali silica Reactivity is uniquely characterized by production of a gel-like
reaction product. It is composed of essentially of silica, the alkalis (sodium
and potassium), and calcium in the presence of water. Uptake of water by
the gel is the primary factor determining volume changes associated with
ASR. The gel may be present in large or minute amounts in aggregates,
aggregate sockets, air voids, fractures, and on the surfaces of externally
formed concretes. By application of uranyl acetate solution to a surface
containing the gel, the uranyl ion substitutes for alkali in the gel, thereby
imparting a characteristic yellowish-green glow when viewed in the dark
using short wavelength (254 nanometer) ultraviolet light. ASR gel
fluoresces much more brightly than the cement paste due to the greater
concentration of alkali and, therefore, the uranyl ion in the gel.
OBSERVATION: The presence of ASR gel will be revealed in UV light by a yellowish-

green fluorescent glow. Deposits will be localized in cracks, air voids, certain
aggregate particles and, in severe cases, as broad films in aggregate particles and
fractured surfaces. Such films on sawed and cored surfaces may reflect as “smear”
from sawing or cutting. Fractured surfaces eliminate this effect and most clearly
reveal undisturbed ASR gel deposits.
III. Observation under Petrographic Microscopes
PROPERTIES
CHLORIDE CONTENT
Chloride Content Measurement
It is done by taking a sample of concrete from the structure, either by drawing

pulverized concrete using a rotary-percussion hammer(preferably electric), or by
taking cores and then pulverizing the concrete in the laboratory.
At each level of sampling, the pulverized material is collected and stored in a clean
container, the hole is vacuum cleaned, and the next sample is drawn at the next desired
depth. Where deep holes are to be drilled, care must be taken to prevent contamination
of the sample from the abrasion of the rotary drill bit against the side of the hole. Using
a drill bit with a stepped-down bit diameter will reduce the chance of contamination.
Powdered samples are analyzed using a wet chemical method.
The Chloride Field Test System measures the
amount of chloride present in wet or dry
concrete.
The C-CL-2000 produces results on-site, within

minutes that are accurate and comparable to
expensive laboratory tests. It measures the
electrochemical reaction of a weighted sample
placed in an extraction liquid. It automatically
shows a temperature compensated reading of
percent of chlorides on its digital display. A
wide range - from 0.002 to 2% chloride by
weight - is covered.
A sample of powder is obtained by drilling and careful quartering. Then an
accurately weighed 3 gr. sample is dissolved in 20 ml of extraction liquid
which consists of a precise, measured concentration of acid. For sampling
wet concrete a 3 gr. sample of mortar is used.
The chloride ions react with the acid of the extraction liquid in an
electrochemical reaction. An electrode, with integral temperature sensor, is
inserted into the liquid and the electrochemical reaction measured. A
uniquely designed instrument converts the voltage generated by the
chloride concentration. The instrument automatically applies the
temperature correction and it shows the chloride concentration on a LCD
display in either lbs. per cu. yd. or percentage by weight. Once the sample is
obtained, test results can be determined and read in less than five minutes.
For more details of how the chlorimeter probe works:
Look at Section 25.4.9 : Quantab Test
From Concrete Technology

- A. R. Santhakumar
TESTING METHODS
Physical Condition Monitoring

NDTs
TESTING FOR PHYSICAL
CONDITION
UNIFORMITY OF CONCRETE
UNIFORMITY OF CONCRETE
TESTING METHODS:
 Petrographic Analysis
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
 Winsor Probe Method
 Rebound Hammer Test
 Core Examination and Testing
CONDITION
DELAMINATION AND VOIDS

DELAMINATION / VOIDS DETECTION
TESTING METHODS:
 Hammer Sounding
 Chain Drag
 Impact Echo
 Pulse Velocity
 Exploratory Removal
 Remote Viewing (TV, borescope)
 Infrared Thermography
Refer to NDT Handbook for details

I. Hammer Sounding
When striking the areas of delamination the sound of

the hammer changes from solid sound (“ping”) to a
hollow sound (“pluck”).
Low-cost accurate method but highly time consuming.

Not possible to access all location.
II. Chain Drag Method
Same as hammer sounding method but covers a larger area.

Distinctly different sound heard over delamination areas.
III. Impact Echo Method
The impact-echo technique
works by impacting the concrete
surface with a short duration
stress pulse that is reflected
from defects and external
boundaries back to a receiver
(transducer). The signals
received are converted into a
frequency spectrum and are
displayed on a computer screen.
Artificial intelligence software is
used to analyze these signals,
predicting the probability and
depth of defects. The system
works quickly, caking
approximately two seconds to
process each reading.
IV. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
VI. Remote Viewing
Since access to certain parts of
structures may be limited, remote
viewing may be the only way to inspect
these areas. Fiber optics (borescope),
video cameras, and periscopes are tools
that allow for remote viewing. The fiber
optics method utilizes a bundle of glass
fibers that transmit light to the subject
being viewed. Images are then
transmitted back to a lens for viewing by
eye or camera.
With this method, views are limited to

small areas, since drilled holes can be as
small as 1/2” (1.27 cm) for penetration
of the borescope. Use of video
cameras and periscopes requires larger
drilled holes and provide a larger
viewing area of the subject.
VII. Infrared Thermography
IR thermography is a method for measuring the
temperature distribution of a surface. It permits
to detect regions of heat production (e.g. due to
a crack under cyclic loading or a hot spot in a
defective IC) or regions of inhomogeneous
cooling (e.g. due to blisters
or air voids in a pavement or under waterproof
membranes. In the building phase of road
constructions, IR thermography can be used to
control the temperature of the single
components.
When flashes or a sine-modulated radiator heat

an object, voids and debondings buried below
the surface hinder the heat transfer. The
resulting transient thermal contrast on the
surface is made visible with pulse or lock-in
thermography.
CONDITION
EMBEDDED METAL DETECTION

AND EVALUATION
TESTING METHODS:
 Pachometer
 Radiography
 Ground Penetrating Radar
Refer to NDT Handbook for details

I. Pachometer
Magnetic devices, known as pachometers
or covermeters, are used to determine the
location of embedded steel reinforcement
in concrete.
If the size of reinforcement is known, the

amount of concrete cover can be
determined. In general, these devices can
measure cover within 1/4" (6 mm) at 0 to
3” (0 to 75 mm) from the surface.
The accuracy of the devices is dependent

on the amount of reinforcing steel that is
present in concrete. The more congested
the reinforcing, including multiple layers,
the less accurate the device becomes. In
some cases, when other bars interferer, the
device cannot identify either location or
depth of cover.
CONDITION
AIR AND MOISTURE

PENETRATION & PERMEABILITY
1) Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT)

2) Modified Figg’s Permeability Test
PERMEABILITY TESTS
I. Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT)
ISAT measures the ease of water penetration into the surface layer of
the concrete (also called covercrete).
PERMEABILITY TESTS
PERMEABILITY TESTS
Levitt has given the following relation:
P=a/tn
where ‘P’ is the initial surface absorption, ‘t’ is the time
from the start, ‘a’ is a constant and ‘n’ is a parameter
between 0.3 and 0.7 depending on the degree of silting or
flushing mechanisms, but constant for a given specimen.
PERMEABILITY TESTS
II. Modified Figg’s Permeability Test
The test can be used to determine the rate of water as well as

air penetration into the surface layer of the concrete.
A hole of 10 mm diameter is drilled 40 mm deep normal to the

concrete surface. A plug is inserted into this hole to form an
airtight cavity in the concrete.
In the air permeability test, the pressure in the cavity is reduced

to –55 kPa using a hand operated vacuum pump and the pump
is isolated. The time for the air to permeate through the
concrete to increase the cavity pressure to –50 kPa is noted and
taken as the measure of the air permeability of the concrete.
PERMEABILITY TESTS
II. Modified Figg’s Permeability Test
Water permeability is measured at a

head of 100 mm with a very fine
cannula passing through a hypodermic
needle to touch the base of the cavity.
A two-way connector is used to
connect this to a syringe and to a
horizontal capillary tube set 100 mm
above the base of the cavity. Water is
injected through the syringe to replace
all the air and after one minute the
syringe is isolated with a water
meniscus in a suitable position. The
time for the meniscus to move 50 mm
is taken as a measure of the water
permeability of the concrete.
CONDITION
HYDRATION CHARACTERISTICS OF HARDENED CONCRETE

(A) X-ray diffractrometry (XRD)
(B) X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)
(C) Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
HYDRATION CHARACTERISTICS
I. X-ray Diffractrometry (XRD)
A powdered sample of concrete is bombarded with high-energy X-rays. Different
mineral constituents refract through different angles on incidence of X-rays. The
presence of various mineral ingredients are detected by examining an XRD pattern.
I. X-ray Diffractrometry (XRD)
The XRD pattern shows the intensity of the X-ray plotted

against the angle of the reflected beam. The peaks
generally indicate calcium hydroxide, calcite, calcium
silicate hydrate, etc. in concrete.
II. X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Spectroscopy
A sample of concrete is
bombarded with high-energy X-
rays and the fluorescent emission
so caused is collimated into a
parallel beam, directed on to the
analysing crystal within a
spectrometer and reflected into a
detector.
The wavelength and the density of

the fluorescent emission measured
give the properties of the
constituent materials. This
method is a comparative one and
the results obtained are compared
with samples of known properties.
III. Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
DTA uses the rate of change of temperature of a sample when heated at a

constant rate of heat input. It involves heating a small sample of powdered
concrete in a furnace together with a sample of inert material. The DTA
graph shows a series of peaks at particular temperatures, which are
characteristic of minerals in the concrete sample under test.
This test is useful for assessment of exposed temperatures for a fire

damaged concrete structures and can also for assessment of the depth of
affected concrete.
CONDITION
CRACKS AND SPALLS

CRACKS AND SPALLS DETECTION
TESTING METHODS:
 Hammer Sounding
 Infrared Thermography
 Impact Echo Testing
 Pulse Velocity Method
 Remote Viewing (TV, Borescope)
NDT FOR CONCRETE
SUMMARY
NDT SUMMARY
What are you What test should

looking for? you adopt?
Core testing
(Semi-destructive test)
Windsor probe test

Compressive Schmidt (Swiss) Rebound hammer

(Non- Destructive Test)
Strength
Pull-out test
• LOK Test
• CAPO Test
• NA pull out test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Tensile Strength Pull off test, Splitting tensile test
Flexural Strength Centre-point & third-point load test
Bond Strength Pull off testing

Half-Cell Potential Method
(NDT)
Electrical Resistivity
(4 probe resistivity test)
Corrosion of Surface Potential Technique

(NDT)
reinforcement
Polarization Resistance
Electrochemical Noise Analysis

Acid-base indicators
(Phenolphthalein Solution)
Carbonation
X-ray diffraction test
Depth (Semi- Destructive Test)
Measurement
Infrared Thermography
Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction
Uranyl Acetate Fluorescence

Method
Chloride
Chlorimeter
Content (Quantab Method)
Core testing
Windsor probe test

Concrete Schmidt (Swiss) Rebound hammer

Uniformity
(semi-destructive test)

Hammer Sounding Test
(Non-destructive Test)
Chain Drag Test

(Non-destructive test)
Delamination/ Impact-Echo Test

Voids/ Cracks
Infrared Thermography

Water Leakage
Remote Viewing
Pachometer or Covermeter
Radiography
Embedded Ground Penetrating Radar

Metal Detection
UNIT IV: REPAIR IN STRUCTURES
Syllabus Description
• Common Types of Repairs
• Repairs in Concrete Structures
• Repairs in Underwater Structures
(Guniting, Shotcrete, Underpinning)
SYNOPSIS
 Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures
 Broad Classification
 Repair Materials
– Material Requirements
– Material Types
 Types of Surface Repairs
– Repair of Cracks
– Repair of Spalling and Disintegration
Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete
Structures
BROAD CLASSIFICATION
SURFACE STRENGTHENING OF
REPAIRS STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
 Repairing Cracks
 Enlargements
 Repairing Deteriorations
 Composite Construction
(spalling & disintegration)
In this session we are focusing on surface repairs

SURFACE REPAIRS
EVALUATION – ANALYSIS - STRATEGY
EVALUATION – ANALYSIS – STRATEGY
Example of Spalling due to Corrosion
REPAIR MATERIALS
 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
 MATERIAL TYPES
MATERIAL
SELECTION
PROCESS
REPAIR MATERIALS
 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
DESIRED PROPERTIES OF REPAIR MATERIALS
1. Engineered materials with high performance, high durability
and low maintenance
• Composites
• Polymers
• High performance concrete
2. Materials must be easy to use, have high productivity and
reduce construction cycle time
• High flow self-levelling concrete/mortar
• Setting time controlling materials
• Materials with wide applicability for varied substrate and environmental
conditions
3. Safe for the workers and users, environment friendly: which
do emanate toxics or irritating fumes during application or
service
4. Materials that do not add to the dead weight of the repaired
component or the structure
MATERIALS PROPERTIES AS PER REPAIR REQUIREMENTS
CHOICE OF THE MATERIAL HAS A CHEMICAL ANGLE

- Not just chemical composition but its performance characteristics
Selection of the Repair Material is guided by

• Type of the structure
• Type of the service conditions and environment
• Nature of the deterioration
• Extent of the deterioration
• Appearance
• Economic considerations
LOAD CARRYING PROPERTIES

LOAD CARRYING PROPERTIES
SERVICE/EXPOSURE PROPERTIES
SERVICE/EXPOSURE PROPERTIES
EXTERNAL LOADS/PROPERTIES
EXTERNAL LOADS/PROPERTIES
CONSTRUCTABILITY & APPEARANCE PROPERTIES
CONSTRUCTABILITY & APPEARANCE PROPERTIES

Volume Change Effects
Repair materials must have very low / zero drying shrinkage

REPAIR MATERIALS
 MATERIAL TYPES
MATERIAL TYPES
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF
REPAIR MATERIALS
1. Portland cement based materials

2. Polymer modified concrete
3. Resin based mixtures
4. Substitute materials/Recent products
MATERIAL TYPES
1. PORTLAND CEMENT BASED MATERIALS
1. Portland cement mortar

2. Portland cement concrete
 The commonly used cement mortar or concrete with similar properties

as the substrate.
 General observation is that problems such as shrinkage, cracking or
even eventual failure of the repair work occurs
MATERIAL TYPES
2. POLYMER MODIFIED CONCRETE PRODUCTS
1. Polymer modified cement

2. Polymer modified mortar
3. Polymer modified concrete
• also called Latex Modified Concrete (LMC)
4. Polymer and fibre-modified mortar
5. Polymer mortar
6. Polymer concrete (PC)
7. Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
MATERIAL TYPES
 Polymer products have better durability under long-term

exposure to UV radiation.
 In cement mortar or concrete, the polymer can be used as a
second binder to the mix.
 Polymer mortars form matrix with cement in two-phase systems
1. In the cementitious water phase, fine polymer particles of
0.1 – 0.2 m are dispersed
2. With cement, polymer particles join to form chain link
reinforcement matrix increasing the tensile and flexural
strength.
Matrix achieves greater plasticity and reduces shrinkage stress.
MATERIAL TYPES
Polymer Concrete (PC) is formed by polymerizing a mixture of a

monomer and aggregate (no other bonding material is present)
Latex-Modified Concrete (LMC) is also known as Polymer Portland

Cement Concrete. It is conventional concrete made by replacing part
of mixing water with a latex.
Polymer-Impregnated Concrete (PIC) is produced by impregnating or

infiltrating a hardened concrete with a monomer and subsequently
polymerizing the monomer in-situ.
Both PC and LMC have been in commercial use since the 1950s.
PIC was developed and has been in use since the 1970s.
MATERIAL TYPES
Polymer Concrete (PC)
Polymer concrete (PC) is a mixture of aggregates with a polymer as the sole binder. To
minimize the amount of the expensive binder, it is very important to achieve the maximum
possible dry-packed density of the aggregate.
Commercial products are available with a variety of formulations, some capable of

hardening to 105 MPa within a few minutes without thermal treatment.
Due to good chemical resistance and high initial strength and modulus of elasticity, industrial
use of PC has been mainly in overlays and repair jobs.
Thermal and creep characteristics of the material are usually not favourable for structural
applications of PC.
MATERIAL TYPES
Latex Modified Concrete (LMC)
The materials and the production technology for concrete in LMC are the same as those used
in normal portland cement concrete except that latex, which is a colloidal suspension of
polymer in water, is used as an admixture.
A latex generally contains about 50 % by weight of spherical and very small (0.01 to 1 m in
diameter) polymer particles held in suspension in water by surface-active agents.
Earlier latexes were based on polyvinyl acetate or polyvinylidene chloride, but these are
seldom used now because of the risk of corrosion of steel in concrete in the latter case, and
low wet strengths in the former.
Elastomeric or rubberlike polymers based on styrenebutadiene and polyacrylate copolymers

are more commonly used now.
MATERIAL TYPES
Latex Modified Concrete (LMC)
The most impressive characteristics of LMC are its ability to bond strongly
with old concrete, and to resist the entry of water and aggressive
solutions.
It is believed that the polymer film lining the capillary pores and
microcracks does an excellent job in impeding the fluid flow in LMC.
These characteristics have made the LMC a popular material for

rehabilitation of deteriorated floors, pavements, and bridge decks.
MATERIAL TYPES
Polymer Impregnated Concrete (PIC)
The concept underlying PIC is to eliminate voids by filling with a polymer to improve strength
and durability properties of concrete.
Monomers such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) and styrene are commonly used for
penetration of the hardened concrete because of their relatively low viscosity, high boiling
point and low cost.
After penetration, the monomer has to be polymerized in situ. This is generally accomplished
by using a monomer-catalyst mixture for penetration, and subsequently polymerizing the
monomer by heating the concrete to 70 C with steam, hot water, or infrared heaters.
In PIC, by effectively sealing the microcracks and capillary pores, it is possible to

produce a virtually impermeable product which gives an ultimate strength of the
same order as that of PC.
PIC has been used for the production of high-strength precast products and for
improving the durability of bridge deck surfaces.
MATERIAL TYPES
3. RESIN BASED PRODUCTS
1. Resin-fibre composites
2. Resin polymer mixture (for injection grouting)
 Epoxy resin is combined with a hardener such as an amine or

polyamide. Once combined, a molecular crust linkage takes place with
very high bonding properties in a very short time.
 It is most useful to bond fresh concrete to the old concrete, filling up cracks, and
for grouting and patchwork.
MATERIAL TYPES
4. SUBSTITUDE MATERIALS/ RECENT PRODUCTS
1. Micro concrete
• Flowable and shrinkage free; only water required at site
2. Fibre Reinforced Cement Composites
• Improve tensile strength, toughness, abrasion resistance,
energy absorbing capacity
3. FRP composite bars
• Effective in replacing defective or corroded reinforcement
4. High performance concrete mixes
REPAIR MATERIALS
CONCLUSION OF THE SECTION
Based on the repair requirements and on the

specific repair material properties, a suitable
material type is selected for the repair work.
TYPES OF SURFACE REPAIR
 Repair of Cracks
 Repair of Spalls and Disintegration
TYPES OF SURFACE REPAIRS
SPALLS AND
REPAIR OF CRACKS
DISINTEGRATION REPAIRS
1) Placement of repair materials

• Form and Cast in place
• Form and pump
1) Sealing with Epoxies
2) Dry Packing
2) Routing and Sealing
3) Prepacked concrete (Grout Preplaced Aggregate)
3) Stitching
4) Pneumatically Applied Mortar
4) External Stressing
• Dry Mix Shotcrete (Guniting)
5) Blanketing • Wet Mix Shotcrete
6) Overlays 5) Replacement of concrete (Full depth repair)
7) Grouting 6) Overlays
8) Autogeneous Healing 7) Protective surface treatments
8) Hand-applied treatment
 Repair of Cracks
Crack Assessment
Check: Is the crack active or dormant?
Active crack is a growing crack.

Dormant crack is a crack that has stopped growing.
How to check whether the crack is active or dormant?
Use tell-tales.
Crack Assessment
Using the following tell-tales the nature of the crack is determined:
1) Placing a mark at the end of the crack.

2) A pin or a toothpick is lightly wedged into the crack and it falls out if
there is any extension of the defect
3) A strip of notched tape works similarly : Movement is indicated by
tearing of the tape
4) The device using a typical vernier caliper is the most satisfactory of all.
Both extension and compression are indicated.
5) If more accurate readings are desired, extensometers can be used.
6) Where extreme accuracy is required resistance strain gauges can be
glued across the crack
Crack Assessment
Telltales for distinguishing active and dormant cracks
Crack Repair Techniques
1) Sealing with Epoxies

3) Stitching
5) Blanketing
6) Grouting
7) Overlays
8) Autogeneous Healing
1)Sealing with Epoxies
Cracks in concrete can be sealed by injecting epoxy with
pressure into the cracks.
Steps involved in this method:

(i) drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at
several locations
(ii) flush out dirt by injecting water or some solvent
(iii) allow the surface to dry
(iv) surface-seal the cracks between the injection points
(v) inject the epoxy into the drilled holes until it flows
through the other holes
Sealing with Epoxies
1)Sealing with Epoxies
Usually the epoxy is injected through holes of about ¾ inch in diameter and ¾
inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centres. Smaller spacing is used for finer cracks.
LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD:
1) Unless the crack is dormant or the cause of cracking is removed and

thereby the crack is made dormant, it will probably recur, possibly
somewhere else in the structure.
2) Also, this technique is not applicable if the defects are actively leaking to
the extent that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are
numerous.
The Method:
(i) enlarge the cracks along their exposed surfaces,
(ii) fill them up and seal them with a suitable material
Example: On road pavements, the cracks are commonly sealed by pouring hot
tar over them.
ADVANTAGES: LIMITATIONS:
1) Simplest and common method for 1) The cracks must be dormant.

sealing fine pattern cracks and large 2) For leaking cracks the method must
isolated cracks. be applied on the pressure face so
2) Inexpensive and expedient that the water-aggressive agents
technique. cannot penetrate the interior of the
3) Water-tightness of the joint is not concrete.
required. 3) Carelessness can cause side-effects
4) Useful when appearance is not such as swelling, chemical attack or
important. corrosion of the rebars
3) Stitching
The Method: The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored
by stitching in a manner similar to sewing a cloth, but using iron or steel dogs.
Dogs of variable length are

placed at varied locations and
orientation so that the tension
across the crack is distributed
throughout rather than being
concentrated on a single plane.
The holes drilled in the

concrete to receive the dogs
must be finally filled with non-
shrink grout.
3) Stitching
CAUTIONS IN USING THIS TECHNIQUE:
1) Over strengthening of the crack joint tends to stiffen the structure locally.
2) Stitching the crack will tend to migrate the crack elsewhere in the
structure. Strengthening of the adjacent areas of the crack is necessary.
3) In places where water ingression is likely the crack must be sealed in
addition to stitching. Suitable overlay must also be applied to prevent
corrosion of the stitches.
4) At the ends of the cracks, where the stress concentration is more, the
spacing between the stitching dogs must be reduced. The stress
concentrations at each end of the crack can also be relieved by drilling
suitable holes or marking the ends rounded.
5) Whenever possible both sides of the cracks must be stitched to prevent
bending of the dogs due to the movement of the structure.
6) The dogs are thin and long and so cannot take much of compressive force.
These must be stiffened and strengthened by encasing them in an overlay.
Stitching
The Method:
• Involves counteracting the
tensile stress that causes
cracking by inducing a
compression force.
• This compression force not only
overcomes tension but also
provides a residual
compression.
• The compressive force is applied
by using pressing wires or rods.
• The principle is similar to
stitching except that the stitches
are pre-tensioned.
5) Blanketing
Technique is similar to routing and sealing but is used on

a large scale for sealing both active and dormant cracks.
 Preparing the chase is the first step

 Usually the chase is cut square or trapezoidal.
 The bottom should be chipped as smooth to facilitate
breaking the bond between sealant and concrete
 The sides of the chase should be prepared to provide a
good bond with the sealant material
5) Blanketing
The first consideration in the selection of sealant

materials is the amount of movement anticipated and
the extremes of temperature at which such movements
will occur. Depending on the need different types of
sealants are used
1) Elastic sealants 2) Mastic sealants
3) Mortar-plugged joints 4) Crimped water bar
Blanketing: Type I – With Elastic Sealant
At a crack or a joint an elastic sealant is used. The sealant

material is one which returns to its original shape when
the externally induced stress is removed.
When the crack width is small, a strip sealant is sufficient.

Blanketing: Type II – Mastic-filled Joint
The sealant is mastic rather than a compound with elastic properties.

The sealant is bonded to the bottom as well as to the sides of the chase.
The bond breaker at the bottom is omitted.
This sealant type is used when anticipated movements are small. There
is risk of sealant tearing at the bottom in this type.
Blanketing: Type III – Mortar-plugged joint
The chase is cut in the form

of a trapezoid to and filled
with mortar.
The internal stresses in the

mortar due to external and
internal pressures are
shown in Fig (a) and (b).
Fig (c) shows the pressure

relieving groove on the
surface of the plugged
mortar and cutting and
closing the mouth tip of the
crack with quick set mortar.
Fig (d) shows weep pipes to
drain excess fluids and also
to relieve pressure.
Blanketing: Type IV – Crimped water bar
A crimped water bar arrangement at locations where

(a) the bar is not subjected to direct loads such as the traffic loads.
(b) the bar is subjected to direct loads such as the traffic loads.
It must be noted
that both the ends
of the water bar
must be
adequately
anchored.
6) Grouting
The technique is similar to the injection of an epoxy. Grout is a

mortar paste, sometimes mixed with adhesives to increase bonding
properties.
The steps involved in grouting are:
 cleaning the concrete along the crack
 installing built-up seats at intervals along the crack
 sealing the crack between the seats with a cement paint or grout
 flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal, and then allow it to dry
 then grouting the whole crack by forceful injection of the grout mix
 Allow the grout to set for some duration of time before reuse.
6) Grouting
6) Grouting
7) Overlays
Overlays are used to seal cracks when a large number of cracks are present and
treatment of each individual crack would be too expensive and laborious.
For Active Cracks:

Sealing of active cracks by overlays should be done with a material
which is extensible but not flexible. A two or three –ply polymeric
membrane with a top coat of tar or with tar between the plies
covered with a protective course of gravel, concrete or brick,
functions very well for this purpose. Gravel is used for roofs.
For Dormant Cracks almost any type of overlay can be used.

7) Overlays
7) Overlays
8) Autogenous Healing
The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within itself is
termed ‘autogenous healing’.
This is used for sealing dormant cracks such as in the repair

of precast units cracked during handling, rectifying cracks
developed during the driving of precast piling, sealing of
cracks in water tanks, and sealing of cracks which are the
result of temporary loading conditions. This property also
provides some increase in the strength of concrete damaged
by vibration during setting and concrete disrupted due to
freezing and thawing.
The mechanism by which autogenous healing occurs is the
carbonation of calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide in the cement
paste by CO2 in the air and water. The resulting CaCO3 and Ca(OH)
crystals precipitate, accumulate, and grow through and out from
the cracks. The crystals interlace and twine, thus producing a
mechanical bonding effect which is supplemented by chemical
bonding between adjacent crystals, and between crystals and the
surfaces of the paste and aggregates. As a result some of the
tensile strength is restored across the cracked section and the
crack is sealed.
Dormant cracks such as those caused by shrinkage or fault in
construction such as premature removal of forms or settlement of
sills supporting shores are self-sealing. This is because cracks get
clogged by dirt and debris and the result is that these are plugged
and the problems of leakage specially if it is intermittent will
disappear without any repair. Such self-healing can also be
attributed to the autogenous healing property of concrete.
 Repair of Spalling and Disintegration

Repair of Spalling and Disintegration
1) Placement of repair material

• Form and Cast in place
• Form and pump
2) Dry Packing
• Dry Mix Shotcrete (Guniting)
• Wet Mix Shotcrete
5) Replacement of concrete (Full depth repair)
6) Overlays
7) Protective surface treatments
8) Hand-applied treatment
1) Placement of Repair Material : (A) Form and Cast-in-Place
One of the most common methods of
surface repair of vertical and, in some
cases, overhead locations is the placement
of formwork and casting of repair material
into the prepared cavity.
Formwork facilitates the use of many

different repair materials, selected on the
basis of in-place performance vs.
constructibility. The repair material must
be of low shrinkage and provide the
necessary flowability.
Placement of repair materials follows

normal placement practice. Rodding or
internal vibration is necessary to remove air
and provide intimate contact with the
existing concrete substrate.
1) Placement of Repair Material : (B) Form and Pump
The form and pump repair method is a two-
step process of constructing formwork and
pumping repair material into the cavity
confined by formwork and existing concrete.
The form and pump technique allows the use

of many different repair materials. The
necessary requirement for material selection
is pumpability.
Various pumps are used, depending upon the

mix design (particularly the aggregate size).
Prior to construction of formwork, any
surfaces that may cause air to become
trapped during the pumping process must be
trimmed, or vent tubes installed.
1) Placement of Repair Material : (B) Form and Pump
Repair materials are mixed and pumped

into the confined cavity. The sequence
of pumping is from low points to high
points and when performed overhead,
from one extremity to the other. Large
areas may require bulk-heading to
separate placements into manageable
areas.
When the cavity is full, pump pressure is

exerted on the form, causing the repair
material to consolidate and make
intimate contact, and effect bonding
with existing concrete surfaces.
(B) Advantages of Form and Pump Technique
Form and pump technique offers many advantages to alternative techniques,

such as shotcrete, hand-placement, and preplaced aggregate. Advantages
include:
• The use of almost any repair material from fine grained mortars to coarse
aggregate concrete, including polymers and hydraulic cement materials.
• Placement is not limited by depth of repair or by size or density of exposed
reinforcement.
• Repair materials are premixed and placed to provide a uniform cross section
without segregation or intermediate bond lines.
• The process does not depend on fighting the forces of gravity; all materials
are supported by formwork during the placement and curing process.
• The pressurization process consolidates the repair material, providing for full
encapsulation of exposed reinforcing steel.
• The formwork protects the repair material during the curing process.
• The process is less subject to individual operator error.
• Quality assurance of the in-place repair is easier to provide.
2) Dry Packing
Dry packing is a method of placing zero-
slump, or near zero-slump, mortar or
concrete, by ramming, into surface
cavities.
Dry packing techniques can be used in all

locations: overhead, vertical and flat.
Best applications are generally small
cavities such as tie holes, small areas of
surface honeycomb or rib bottoms
(shown in illustration).
Each dry pack mortar repair is placed in layers. Compaction is achieved with a
hardwood stick to prevent polishing of the surface. Curing is accomplished with a
continuous 7-day moist cure.
2) Dry Packing
The consistency of dry pack mortar must be such that it can be

molded into a ball without excessive bleeding. Compaction
densifies the mortar and provides the necessary intimate contact
with the existing concrete for achieving bond.
Grouted preplaced aggregate is a two-step process.

The first step in-volves aggregate placement into the cavity during the
erection of formwork. The aggregate is gap-graded and washed of all fines.
The void ratio of the cavity after the aggregate is placed, ranges from 40%
to 50%.
The second step involves pumping a highly flowable grout through the
formwork and into the preplaced aggregate. Grout flow fills the lower
voids and progressively fills the cavity, eventually flowing to higher
elevation ports.
After grout flows from adjacent ports, the grout hose is disconnected from
the port being pumped, and reconnected to the port showing new flow.
The process continues until the cavity is full and pressurized.
The grout flow makes contact with the prepared substrate as the
cavity is filled, provid-ing intimate contact and bonding. A unique
advantage of this method is the low drying shrinkage of the repair
material due to the point-to-point contact between the coarse
aggregates. The aggregate contact restricts the volume change of
the cement grout as drying shrinkage occurs. Various grouts can
be used for the grouting process. Most popular are Portland
cement- based grouts and, for special applica-tions, epoxy resins.
4) PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
Mortar or concrete is conveyed through a hose and pneumatically

projected at high velocity onto a surface to be freshly constructed
or to be repaired.
There are two procedures of placing concrete pneumatically:
A) Guniting or Dry Mix Shotcrete

B) Wet Mix Shotcrete
4 (A) Dry Mix Shotcrete or Gunite
Dry mix shotcrete is a method that involves the

premixing of binder and aggregates, which are then
fed into a special mechanical feeder metering the
premixed materials into a hose. The material is
conveyed through the hose with compressed air to a
nozzle which is outfitted with a water ring where
additional water is mixed with the binder and
aggregates. The mix is jetted from the nozzle at high
velocity onto the prepared concrete surfaces.
The process varies, depending upon the necessary thickness and orienta-tion. Where
the repair is thick, the process may involve the placement of multiple layers. Excessive
thickness of individual layers may result in slough-ing off.
The use of special admixtures has helped improve the workability and
performance of shotcrete. Silica fume is a good property enhancer. It improves
the concrete's adhesive and cohesive properties, along with its ability to
provide for larger placement thicknesses. The resulting hardened properties
include increased flexural and compressive strengths and in-creased durability
to freeze-thaw and chemical attack.
The use of chemical accelerators should be avoided where not absolutely necessary
Accelerators have been found to cause increased drying shrinkage.
4) Pneumatically applied mortar (B) Wet Mix Shotcrete
Wet mix shotcrete is a method that involves premixing of all

ingredients (except accelerators) including binder, aggregates,
admixtures, and mixing water. The premixed repair materials are
deposited into a pump or pressure vessel which transports the
materials to an exit nozzle, where compressed air is introduced.
The repair material is propelled onto the substrate with
compressed air.
Admixtures can be used to enhance the shotcrete

mate-rial. Silica fume and fibers are com-monly
used to enhance durability. Air entrainment is
required for freeze-thaw resistance.
4 (B) Wet Mix Shotcrete
GUNITE AND SHOTCRETE IMAGES
GUNITE AND SHOTCRETE IMAGES
4) Pneumatically applied mortar (B) Wet Mix Shotcrete
Typical Problems Associated with

Shotcrete Repairs
 Presence of voids due to

encapsulated rebound;
common when multiple layers
are used or when heavy
rein-forcing is encountered.
 Shrinkage cracking caused by

high cement content, improper
curing, or excessive water
content.
For a more detailed analysis between
Gunite Vs Shotcrete
(Dry Mix Shotcrete Vs Wet Mix Shotcrete)
Click at the object below
Source: http://www.mortarsprayer.com/shotcrete-gunite/
5) Replacement of Concrete: Full depth repair
In certain situations, surface repair may be better served by full

depth repair. For example, when concrete surfaces have
extensive surface dam-age, it may be more economical and
provide for longer lasting repairs if the affected part of the
member is re-moved and reconstructed. Consider-ation should
be given to minimizing the restrained perimeter drying
shrinkage. After placement of the new con-crete, drying
shrinkage results, causing tension within the newly reconstructed
member and at the bond between new and old. In most cases, if
tension stresses are not addressed, unplanned cracking may
result. Low shrinkage concrete mixes should be used to reduce
shrinkage stresses.
6) Overlays
WHY USE OVERLAYS ?
Overlays are used to repair concrete structures as a remedy for

a variety of concrete problems. They may be used to improve
drainage, rideability, or load carrying capacity; to increase skid
resistance; or to protect underlying concrete from aggressive
environ-ments. Many overlays also address underlying surface
deterioration prob-lems.
Overlays can be constructed of different materials

from very thin (3mm) to very thick.
Bridge and parking decks, as well as concrete
pavements, are common locations for the use
6) OVERLAYS of bonded over-lays for restoring existing
worn and deteriorated concrete.
Common materials used in the overlays
are low water/cement ratio Portland
cement concrete, latex- modified Portland
cement concrete, and microsilica-
modified Portland cement concrete. Most
bonded over-lays used in parking and
bridge decks and pavement repairs
involve thickness ranges of 1.5" to 3"
(38mm to 76mm). Many applications do
not require additional reinforcement.
Overlays require special attention to
placement techniques to prevent various
prob-lems such as plastic shrinkage
crack-ing, lack of consolidation,
segregation, or poor bonding.
6) Overlays
6) Overlays
6) Overlays
7) Protective Surface Treatments
Durability of concrete can be substantially improved by

preventive maintenance in the form of weather-proofing surface
treatments. These treatments are used to seal the concrete
surface and to inhibit the intrusion of moisture and/or chemicals.
Materials used for this purpose are

• Oils such as, linseed oils, petroleum oils, etc.
• Silicons used to seal concrete and masonry structures against
moisture
• Epoxies
7) Protective Surface Treatments
8) Hand-applied Treatments
Hand-applied techniques are used to place non-sag repair

materials on vertical and overhead locations. Most hand-
applied materials are special blends of cement, finely graded
aggre-gates, non-sag fillers, shrinkage com-pensating systems,
and water. The mixed material is applied to the pre-pared
surface with either a trowel or by hand. The applied pressure
drives the repair material into the pore structure of the
exposed concrete. The repair material is designed to "hang" in
place until subsequent layers are added. Each layer is
roughened to promote bond with the next layer.
The best use of this technique is for topical cosmetic repairs not involving
reinforc-ing steel. When reinforcing steel is encountered, it is very difficult to
consolidate and provide for complete encapsulation of the reinforcing steel.
Problems associated with this tech-nique involve poor bond between layers
and voids around embedded reinforcing steel.
ADDITIONAL READING REQUIRED FOR
(A)Underpinning
(B)Repair of Underwater Structures
(Please look into the additional reading

material provided for these topics)
UNIT IV: STRENTHENING OF
STRUCTURES
Syllabus Description
• Methods of Strengthening
Contents of the Slides taken from the recommended Text book
‘Concrete Repair and Maintenance’ P.E. Emmons and G.N. Sabnis
SYNOPSIS
 Stabilization and Strengthening of Structures
 Methods of Strengthening
 Underpinning
Stabilization and Strengthening
CLASSIFICATION
STABILIZATION STRENGTHENING
The process of halting a The process of adding

particular unwanted situation capacity to a member
from progressing. or a structure.
Eg. Stabilizing settlement of a structure

Eg. Jacketing of an existing structure
by grouting to arrest movement
STRENGTHENING OF
STABILIZATION STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
 Enlargement
 Composite Construction
 Post-Tensioning
 Stress Reduction
 Internal Grouting
 External Grouting
Enlargement
Enlargement is the placement

of addi-tional concrete and
reinforcing steel on an existing
structural member. Beams,
slabs, columns, and walls, if
necessary, can be enlarged to
Example: Jacketing
add stiffness or load- carrying
capacity.
Composite Construction
Composite construction is a method Steel plates and structural shapes

wherein materials other than concrete can be fabricated to meet almost any
are placed in concert with an existing configuration requirement. Load
concrete member to add stiffness or transfer in the composite mem-ber is
load carrying capacity. Steel is the most accomplished by the use of
common material used in this adhesives, grouts, and mechanical
tech-nique. anchorage systems.
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning is a technique used to

Placement of the tension components
prestress reinforced concrete. The
can be achieved either internally
tensioning provides the member with
within the member or externally to
an immediate and active load-carrying
the mem-ber.
capability
Post-Tensioning
Tension components are generally steel plates, rods,

tendons or strands. Tension is imparted to the
compo-nents by jacking or, less commonly, by
preheating. Post-tensioning enhances a member's
ability to relieve overstressed conditions in tension,
shear, bending, and torsion. The post-tensioning
tech-nique can also be used to eliminate unwanted
displacements in members and to turn
discontinuous members into continuous members.
Stress Reduction
Stress reduction is a technique that reduces stress in a member or

struc-ture. Some of the more common methods of stress reduction
include cutting new expansion joints, jacking displaced structures,
and installing isolation bearings. Other more radical techniques
involve the removal of portions of structures.
Internal Grouting
Internal grouting is the placement of a

flowable material into an unwanted
discontinuity, such as a crack within the
concrete member. The flowable
material, upon reaching the
disconti-nuity, will solidify and assume
neces-sary structural properties.
Internal grouting is used to repair
fractured, honeycombed, or voided
concrete placements. The most
common materi-als used for internal
grouting are polymers and hydraulic
cement-based materials.
External Grouting
External grouting is the placement of a pumpable material outside the

struc-ture, generally within the surrounding foundation soils or at the interface
between the structure and the soil. The grouting materials can be used either to
provide necessary load trans-fer between the structure and soil, or to displace
unwanted settlement. Most materials used for external grouting include
cement-based mixtures. Pave-ment subsealing (slab stabilization) is a specialized
external grouting technique used to fill small voids beneath the slab and/or
stabilized base that have been caused by pumping action.
STABILIZATION STRENGTHENING
Passive Load Active Load

Carrying Carrying
Enlargement, Composite Construction, Post-Tensioning,

Stress Reduction, Internal Grouting, External Grouting
Passive Active
Strengthening Strengthening
Techniques in which repairs do not The situations in which additional

participate in stress sharing until deformation is not acceptable, the repairs
additional loads (live or dead) are must immedi-ately participate in stress
applied and/or until addi-tional sharing. Such techniques of repairs are
deformation occurs are called passive. called active.
I. BEAM SHEAR
STRENGTHENING
 Strategies
Introduction to Beam Shear Strengthening
Beam shear capacity can be increased by using various
strengthening tech-niques, including:
• external post-tensioning
• internal post-tensioning
• internal mild steel reinforcement
• bonded steel members
• enlarging member's cross-section
Beam Shear Strengthening
Beam Shear Strengthening
Internally Placed Passive Shear Strengthening
Strengthening of existing members to increase their shear capacity can be performed by adding shear
reinforce-ment. For example, the use of mild reinforcement dowels inserted perpen-dicular to the
direction of shear crack-ing, into drilled holes. The dowels are then grouted into place with epoxy.
Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge
If a significant thermal gradient exists, in combination with insufficient tensile
capacity in the bottom of the member, a hinge may form. Hinges may occur
randomly in newly formed cracks, or may form in construction joints near the
columns. Hinges open and close with daily temperature changes.
Cracks can be a cause for structural

concern, since they sometimes
identify insufficient shear capacity.
When strengthening the member by
repairing cracks, consideration must
be given to the need for providing
movement of the hinge. Generally
any repair of a moving crack by
bonding it with epoxy will fail.
Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge
An effective method: the installation demonstrates how to strengthen a cracked beam
with a post-tensioned shear clamp and a teflon slide bearing allowing for hinge
movement.
External Post-Tensioned Straps
II. SHEAR TRANSFER
STRENGTHENING BETWEEN
MEMBERS
Shear Transfer Strengthening between members
(Introduction)
1) Dowel Shear Device

2) Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device
3) Grouted Subgrade
4) Cantilever Shear Arm
Introduction to
Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members
Types of junctions between members
(1) Dowel Shear Device
(1) Dowel Shear Device
(2) Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device
(3) Grouted Subgrade
(4) Cantilevered Shear Arm
III. STRESS REDUCTION
TECHNIQUES
1) Installing New Expansion Joint

2) Lateral Ground Movement Isolation
(Seismic Isolation)
III. Stress Reduction Techniques
(1) Installing New Expansion Joint
Overstressing in members and struc-tures can

be repaired utilizing stress reduction techniques.
Stress can be reduced by either reducing the
load applied to the structure, or by modify-ing
the behaviour of the structure.
An example of a continuous concrete frame in which stress is relieved by installing a new
expansion joint.
(2) Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation)
(2) Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation)
IV. COLUMN STRENGTHENING
1) Compressive Strengthening by Enlargement (Jacketing)

2) Shear Capacity Strengthening using Shear Collars
3) Beam-column Moment Capacity Strengthening
4) Confinement Strengthening
IV. Column Strengthening
(1) Jacketing: Section Enlargement
Enlarging the cross section of an existing column will strengthen the column by
increasing its load carrying capacity. This is called Jacketing.
A column can be enlarged in various configurations.
However, the drying shrinkage effects in the con-crete used to enlarge the column
must be considered. Drying shrinkage, if restrained, will induce tensile stresses in
the new portion of the column.
Method A will ac-complish efficient load transfer if the new portion is cast with a bond
breaker between the new and old concrete.
After most of the drying shrinkage has occurred, the ties that link the old and new concrete
can be installed. The gap between the new portion of the column and the existing member
(to be partially supported by this column) can be filled with dry- packing material. This will
allow the new material to share its portion of the load.
When Methods B and C are used, extreme care should be exer-cised to select concrete
mix designs with very low shrinkage rates. Pre- placed aggregate concrete generally
offers the lowest drying shrinkage; it is, therefore, an excellent material for column
enlargements.
(2) Shear Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars
Shear stress occurs at the connection of floor systems and columns. When
additional shear capacity is required to resist punching shear, the following
techniques are often used:
• column section enlargement
• composite bonded steel shear collars
(2) Shear Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars
(3) Beam – Column Moment Capacity Strengthening
Beam-column connections can he strengthened using

various techniques including:
• bonded steel members

• concrete overlay
• continuous external column confinement
• shear wall construction
IV. Column
Strengthening
(4) Confinement
Strengthening
V. FLEXURAL
STRENGTHENING
1) External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement

2) Span Shortening Techniques
3) Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement
4) Correction of Deflected Member with Bonded Steel Plate
5) Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement
6) Wall Strengthened
V. Flexural Strengthening
Beam and Slab Flexural Strengthening
The flexural capacity of concrete mem-bers requires an increase when either a design
deficiency is found, excessive deflection occurs, or addi-tional loads are anticipated.
Various techniques used to increase flexural capacity include:
 concrete encasement
 external post-tensioning
 externally bonded reinforcement
 concrete overlays
 span length shortening
 supplemental support
Beam and Slab Flexural Strengthening
(1) External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement
The use of external post-tensioned reinforcement is an excellent method of

increasing flexural capacity or re-placing damaged pre-stressed strands.
Different types of hardware are avail-able, providing various load

configura-tions and corrosion protection. High strength thread bar is
commonly used for straight lengths, and strand is generally used where drape
is re-quired.
External post-tensioning pro-vides for immediate and active partici-pation in

both dead and live load distribution. Prior to the pre-stressing, any flexural
cracks should be pressure- grouted with epoxy for uniform com-pression
distribution.
External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement
(1) External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement
(2) Span Shortening Techniques
Span length shortening, adding addi-tional flexural

capacity or stiffness, can be very cost effective.
Span shortening for slabs and beams is
accomplished by various methods, including
enlarg-ing the column capitals, adding steel or
concrete diagonal braces, or placing sub-framing
within the span.
(3) Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement
Externally bonded reinforcement is an effective method of increasing live load

capacity or removing unwanted deflec-tion. In most cases, steel plates are bonded,
using epoxy, to the soffit or sides of flexural members. An advan-tage of this technique
is that repair results in only a small increase in dimensions, which may be important
for vertical traffic clearance or aesthetics.
The reinforcement can only be stressed by the application of live loads, or if the
flexural member is jacked, prior to installation of the bonded reinforcement. When
using steel plates, removal of mill scale and any bond-inhibiting materials is re-quired.
Shot blasting or heavy abrasive blasting produces a rough surface on the steel, which
improves the adhesive bond and shear transfer. Mating con-crete surfaces, heavy
abrasive blasting is required. Effective bonding has been achieved using either
pressure-injected flowable epoxy resin or epoxy gel applied to the mating surfaces
prior to final erection of the steel plates. In some applications, expansion anchors are
used in combination with the epoxy adhesive to develop adequate shear transfer
between the concrete and steel.
(3) Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement
(4) Correction of Deflected Member with Bonded Steel Plate
(4) Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement
Concrete overlaying techniques have been effective

when used to increase both flexural capacity and the
stiffness of concrete floor slabs and beams. This
technique involves the addition of considerable dead
load, thus requiring careful analysis of its effects on the
supporting structural components. Slabs can be
overlayed from the top side or soffit. When soffit
overlays are constructed, shotcrete or form and pump
techniques must be used.
(5) Wall Strengthening
(5) Wall Strengthening
Further Recommended Reading
From the Reference Book:
Concrete Technology
A. R. Santhakumar
Chapter 22. Repair and Rehabilitation

Section 22.4.1 Jacketing and Types of Jacketing
Section 22.6 Repair of Structural Components
UNIT- V
STRUCTURAL
HEALTH MONITORING
SYNOPSIS
 Major Unexpected Catastrophes
 Need for Continuous Monitoring of Structures
 Real-time on-line monitoring concept
 Definition: Structural Health Monitoring
 Levels of System Identification by SHM
 Components of a SHM system
 Types of Sensors
 Passive Sensing, Active Sensing
 Building Instrumentation
MAJOR UNEXPECTED
CATASTROPHES
Structural Health Monitoring
1916: Quebec Bridge, Canada 2007: Minnessota Bridge, USA

2009: 13 storey building, Shanghai 2008: Firdous Bldg, Surat
Neglect of incipient damages can be disastrous.

Need for automated real-time structural health monitoring.
Need for Incipient Damage Identification
1988: Aloha Airlines Mishap - Hawaii Airport (USA)
The top of the aircraft tore open all of a sudden due to the opposing
wind speed a few minutes after take-off.
FAILURE OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Consequences of Structural Failures
 Loss of invaluable human lives

 Heavy loss of property
 Engineering embarrassment/ loss of trust
 Potential revenue earning activities halted
 Effects economy on local or global scale
(depends on the utility of the building)
NEED FOR
CONTINUOUS
MONITORING
OF STUCTURES
NEED FOR STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
Analysis and Design Phases Construction Phases

Imperfections in Analysis and Design Compromises in implementing the
design
Assumptions of ideal construction
conditions Poor quality of materials and
workmanship
Degradation Natural Calamities

Deterioration of material Earth Quakes
properties with time
Storms and Cylones
Damages due to excessive loading
and unforeseen impacts Floods and Tsunamis effect on
structures built over water bodies
Environmental effects on material
properties Chemical Attacks
Need for Continuous Monitoring
 Periodic Visual Inspections and Localized NDTs will
not help in detecting suddenly manifesting changes in
the structure
 These techniques require expertise in analysis and
assessment of structural integrity
 Being localized techniques they cannot give a global
evaluation of the structure
 The deteriorating portions of the structure may be
inaccessible for NDE.
 Most of the times for NDE, the portion of the
structure being inspected is rendered unusable
throughout the length of the tests
Efforts are being invested by many capable researchers around the world in
recent times towards the development of an efficient structural health
monitoring system, which is capable of real-time on-line automated health
monitoring.
Real-time on-line automated health monitoring:
Real-time implies that the monitoring is continuous even during the service
period of the structure and the level of responsiveness of such a system is
quick enough to enable appropriate remedial action or evacuation.
On-line implies that the alerting system must use user friendly on-screen
imaging and audible alarms.
Automated implies that the diagnosis and alerting system does not need
human interference for its operation.
Motivation for such a Structural Health Monitoring System:
I. Structural View
• predicts optimal use of the structure
• minimizes downtime of the structure
• avoids catastrophic failures
II. Constructor View

• gives the constructor a scope for improvement in his products
• gives him a chance for repair before an embarrassing collapse of
the structure
III. Maintenance Services View

• drastically changes the work organization of maintenance services
• replaces scheduled and periodic maintenance inspection with
performance-based (condition-based) maintenance
• reduces the present maintenance labor, in particular by avoiding
dismounting parts where there is no hidden defect;
• by drastically minimizing the human involvement, and consequently
reducing labor, downtime and human errors, and thus improving safety
and reliability.
IV. Improving Safety (Most important reason)

• To overcome failures due to unsatisfactory maintenance
• To detect the deterioration and aging of the structure before it becomes
critical
V. Reducing Accidents and Losses
VI. Economic savings primarily for end users.

STRUCTURAL HEALTH
MONITORING
A formal definition
Structural Health Monitoring is a

process of real-time, on-line and
automated evaluation of a structure’s
integrity and performance, prediction of
the remaining serviceable life of
structure and timely warning to the end-
user of it deterioration.
Typically, a critical structure in service is monitored for

(a) the strength of the constituent materials,
(b) the stresses due to loads to be with permissible limits,
(c) deflections and strains for appropriate serviceability conditions
(d) the integrity of the structural assembly at its joints,
(e) occurrences of damages etc.
This is done so as to take a suitable rehabilitation and retrofitting work to

prevent a catastrophic failure.
LEVELS OF SYSTEM
IDENTIFICATION WITH SHM
Levels of System Identification
SHM is classified into two categories, namely the Diagnosis and Prognosis.
Through diagnosis, one can determine the presence of a flaws, their location,
and their extent along with the possibility of looking at the delaying the
propagation of flaws in the structure.
The prognosis part uses the information of the diagnosis part and determines
the remaining life of the structure.
Levels of System Identification
The SHM can be broadly divided into following levels.
Level 1: Confirming the presence of damage

Level 2: Determination of location and orientation of the
damage
Level 3: Evaluation of the severity of the damage
Level 4: Possibility of controlling or delaying the growth
of damage
Level 5: Determining the remaining life in the structure
(prognosis)
COMPONENTS OF
STRUCTURAL HEALTH
MONITORING
SYSTEM
Components of SHM system
Components of a SHM System
 Sensing Technology
 Diagnostic Signal Generation
 Signal Processing
 Damage Identification Analysis
 System Integration
 Sensing Technology
It consists of an array of distributed sensors, either
wired or wireless to interrogate the structure at
periodic intervals or continuously.
 Diagnostic Signal Generation

This involves generation of suitable signals from the
sensors, which must reflect the desired parameters
in the health assessment of the structure, with the
properties of controllability, repeatability, reliability
and sensitivity to damages.
 Signal Processing
This involves the necessary electronic components to efficiently transmit the
diagnostic signal, while filtering out unwanted noise so that the signal analysis
gives realistic picture of the state of the structure.
 Damage Identification Analysis

This is considered as the brain of the SHM system as it relates the sensor
measurements to the physical changes in the structures. It involves expertize in
identification and characterization of damages using the knowledge of static
and dynamic structural mechanics, material properties and the physics of the
specific sensing technology being used.
 System Integration
This involves software development, with the support of suitable hardware
components, to control the above mentioned components with a user friendly
interface and must be capable of giving needed indications and warnings to the
maintenance department or the user.
Impator
Structure
Signal
Actuator Sensor Amplifier Filter
Analyzer
Signal
Generator
Figure illustrating the components and operation of typical SHM system

Existing Structural Evaluation Methods
Visual Smart System

Inspection based Methods
(Active Sensing)
Localized Structural Response

NDE Methods based Methods
(Passive Sensing)
(methods suitable for

continuous SHM)
Passive and Active SHM techniques
What is an Actuator?
An actuator typically is a mechanical device that takes energy — usually
energy that is created by air, electricity or liquid — and converts it into some
kind of motion.
Actuator is used to generate force or induce displacement or vibrations.
What is a Sensor?
A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical
quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by
an (today mostly electronic) instrument.
What is Passive SHM technique?

If the monitoring process is based only on the diagnostic signal from the
sensors, which is generated only upon occurrence of damage/deflections in the
structure, such a technique is called “passive monitoring.”
Examples:
(A) Monitoring with acoustic emission sensors
(B) SHM using static displacement/strain guages
(C) SHM using velocity meters and accelerometers
What is active SHM technique?
If the monitoring process is consisting of both actuators and sensors and some
perturbations/vibrations are generated by the actuators and the structural
response is captured by the sensors, which is then analysed for identifying
damages, then such a technique is called “active monitoring.”
In active monitoring technique the diagnostic signal is generated at will and not
dependent on the situation where damage induced changes produce the
diagnostic signal.
Examples:
(A) Ultrasonic Tests (Example: Impact-Echo method)
(B) Piezoeletric actuators and sensors based methods
(C) Vibration response based methods.
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
Smart Materials
TYPES OF SENSORS
Displacement Sensors Strain Sensors
Vibration Sensors Acoustic Sensors
Optical Sensors Thermal Sensors

Smart Materials
SENSORS for SHM based on Structural
Response
Vibration/Dynamic Response
Static Response
Displacement Sensors Vibration Sensors

(Eg: Displacement gauges,LVDTs) (Eg. Accelerometers)
Strain Sensors Acoustic Sensors

(Eg: Resistive Strain gauges) (Velocity receiver,
ultrasonic thickness gauges)
Smart Materials
SMART MATERIALS SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
• PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
• ELECTROSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
• MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
• ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
• SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
• FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS
Smart Materials
3
PIEZO-ELECTRIC
2
MATERIALS w
E3
T2
h
(a) Direct Effect (Sensor)

Mechanical stress Electric field D3   33T E3  d32T2
(b) Converse Effect (Actuator)
Electrical field Mechanical Strain S 2  s22E T2  d32 E3
Actuation is possible at very high frequencies – in the order of MHz

Smart Materials
PIEZO-ELECTRIC MATERIALS
PIEZOCERAMICS PIEZOPOLYMERS
(PZT) (PVDF)
Lead zirconate titanate Polyvinvylidene flouride
• Self-sensing actuators • Flexible thin films

• High rigidity • Low rigidity
• Effective actuator • Effective sensors
• Large frequency range • Ineffective actuators
• Brittle • High dielectric strengths
Smart Materials
ELECTROSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
(ferroelectric materials)
• Lead magnesium niobate (PMN)
• Lead-titanate enriched lead magnesium niobates (PMN-PT)
• Non-linear e/m coupling
• Do NOT generate negative strains on reversal of the electric field
• Less extensive applications as compared to Piezoelectrics
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS
(property of magnetostriction)
• Terfenol - D
• Magnetic field produces significant strains
• Strains produce notable magnetic fields
• Highly non-linear constitutive relationships
• Larger and heavier than other smart transducers
Smart Materials
ELECTRO-RHEOLOGICAL (ER) FLUIDS
Suspensions of solid particulates Exhibit reversible changes

in hydrophillic solvents with in viscosity when subjected
disparity in dielectric properties to electric fields
A low viscosity fluid can turn into a solid like material
• Large force generation capabilities – effective actuating functions

• High voltage consumption actuators
• Significantly temperature dependent
• Lacking long term stability of ER response
• Applications: Shock absorbers, damping of helicopter blades
Smart Materials
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
Metal compounds that exhibit the ability
to sustain large strains even within
the plastic range and recover their original shape
when heated without undergoing plastic deformation
Copper zinc alloys:

Cu-Zn, Cu-Zn-Al, Cu-Zn-Si, Nitinol
Applications as actuator/sensors Advantages / Disadvantages
> Air conditioners • Small size
> Fire detection and alarm systems • Good performance on repeated loading
> Circuit breakers in appliances • Slow time response
> Active shape control • Nonlinear thermomechanical response

• Large energy for SM effect
Smart Materials
FIBRE-OPTIC SENSORS (FOS)
Optical isotropic fibres made of silica and glass

Unstrained fibres  Unpolarized light remains unpolarized
Strained fibres  Unpolarized light gives polarized signals
Advantages / Disadvantages
Applications as Sensors • Light weight
• Ease in embedding into structures
Damage sensing in bridges and • Adaptable to diverse geometry
other civil engineering structures • Non-conductive pathways in structures
• No actuation capabilities
• Easily damageable & difficult repair
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REHABILITATION AND

• Phase 1: Planning Phase

• Phase 2: Design Phase

• Phase 4: Maintenance and Repair Phase

• Retrofit: Upgrading certain building systems such

• Refurbishment: Replacement of certain

PART I: Structural Material Behaviour

(Unit I) (Unit II)

PART II: Inspection and Evaluation Techniques (Unit III)

Visual Inspections Damage

Semi - Destructive Non-Destructive

PART III: Repairs and Strengthening Methods (Unit IV)

Types of Repairs: Strengthening of Structures:

PART IV: Health Monitoring of Structures (Unit V)

Types of Sensors &

Examples of roof leakage

Non-Structural cracks Structural cracks

settlement cracks on walls and floors

sulphate attack induced spalling salt storage induced spalling

deterioration of concrete cover load induced deterioration

 Caused by faulty design,  Caused by internally induced

 Overloads due to dead load,  Dimensional changes induced

cracking spalling disintegration

Pre-construction Construction Post-construction

Inefficient drainage slopes

Structural Cracks due to unanticipated or

Local settlement of subgrade

Internal settlement of concrete

Premature removal of shores

I. Local settlement of subgrade

LOCAL SETTLEMENT OF SUBGRADE

Pouring fresh concrete some-

II. SWELLING OF FORMWORK

• Formwork absorbs moisture from • Coating of the formwork with

III. INTERNAL SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE

III. INTERNAL SETTLEMENT OF CONCRETE

• Differential settlement between • Surface cracks can be cured and

IV. SETTING SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

IV. SETTING SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

V. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF SHORES

V. PREMATURE REMOVAL OF SHORES

• Premature removal of shores from • Shores must be removed only

VI. VIBRATIONS INDUCED DAMAGES

• Vibrations due to indiscreet • Workers have to be trained in

• Cracks in concrete can be • The finishing of the surface should

II. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT BARS

• Seal the crack before it reaches the

• In sulphate environment, the concrete

IV. WEATHERING ACTION

• Shock waves • Providing sufficient reinforcement is

Mechanisms of Deterioration / Damage

Early frost Physical causes

Construction Structural causes

Early frost Plastic deformation Construction

Physical Chemical Thermal Structural

1) Early Frost Damage

2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks

2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks

 Rapid loss of water from the

2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks

 Water receding below the concrete surface forms menisci

2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks

2) Plastic Deformation: (A) Shrinkage Cracks