applied

sciences
Article
Impact of Cryogenic Condition and Drill Diameter
on Drilling Performance of CFRP
Gültekin Basmaci 1 , A. Said Yoruk 2 , Ugur Koklu 3, * and Sezer Morkavuk 3
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur 15030, Turkey;
gbasmaci@mehmetakif.edu.tr
2 Natural and Applied Science, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur 15030, Turkey; yorukas@hotmail.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Karaman 70100, Turkey;
sezermorkavuk@kmu.edu.tr
* Correspondence: ugurkoklu@kmu.edu.tr; Tel.: +90-338-226-2208

Academic Editor: Kerry Kirwan

Received: 4 April 2017; Accepted: 21 June 2017; Published: 29 June 2017

Abstract: Machining of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a rather hard task due to the
inhomogeneity and anisotropy of this material. Several defects occur in the material when CFRP is
machined and machining quality deteriorates owing to these material properties. In recent years,
liquid nitrogen has been considered an environmentally safe, clean, and non-toxic coolant used to
cut various materials in order to enhance machinability and prevent damage during machining.
In this study, a new, eco-friendly cryogenic machining technique called dipped cryogenic machining
was applied for the drilling of CFRP. This experimental study investigated the effect of feed rate
and drill diameter on the thrust force, delamination factor, surface quality and drill wear. Machined
surfaces were analyzed in detail using a scanning electron microscope and atomic force microscope.
Results indicated that the drilling of CFRP with the dipped cryogenic machining approach greatly
improved machinability by reducing the surface roughness of the drilled parts and tool wear.
However, it increased the thrust force and delamination factor.

Keywords: CFRP; cryogenic; drilling; drill wear; surface quality

1. Introduction
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has such perfect properties as high stiffness, light
weight and high strength. Owing to these properties, the material is commonly used for modern
aerospace industry applications [1]. Machining of composites is generally carried out to obtain
desired geometrical shapes and tolerances [2]. Conventional drilling, the subject of this paper,
is a widely utilized machining technique in aircraft production [3]. Khashaba et al. [4] investigated the
influence of drill diameters and cutting conditions on the thrust force and drilling performance of glass
fiber-reinforced epoxy (GFRE) composites. They reported that delamination-free holes in the drilling of
GFRE composites were not obtained in the range of the tested parameters. El-Sonbaty et al. [5]
presented the effect of the fiber-volume fraction, feed rate, cutting speed, and drill size on the
thrust force, torque, and surface roughness in the drilling of fiber-reinforced composite materials.
The authors concluded that cutting speed had an unimportant influence on the thrust force and
surface roughness of epoxy resin, and drill diameter combined with feed significantly affected surface
roughness. The influence of drill diameter, feed rate and spindle speed on delamination in the drilling
process of glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene (GFR-PP) thermoplastic composites was studied by
Srinivasan et al. [6]. The response surface method was used to make a model and optimize delamination
damage during drilling. The result showed that the models utilized to predict delamination in the
drilling of GFR-PP composites were effective. Besides this, feed rate was the most influential parameter

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667; doi:10.3390/app7070667 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 2 of 12

on delamination. Tsao and Hocheng [7] presented an estimation and evaluation of delamination
when using a twist drill, candle stick drill and saw drill. In the experiments, three different drill bits
with different diameters, feed rates and spindle speeds were used as cutting variables. The authors
demonstrated that the feed rate and the drill diameter were the most influential factors affecting
overall performance. Herbert et al. [8] made an attempt at studying the effects of cutting parameters
on delamination when a bi-directional carbon-fabric-reinforced polymer composite was drilled by
using uncoated and TiN-coated solid carbide drills. The authors implied that the diameter of the drill
had an important effect on delamination. The experimental study also showed that delamination
increased with an increase of drill diameter and feed rate and decreased with an increase of spindle
speed. Palanikumar et al. [9] presented the impact of such machining parameters as feed rate, spindle
speed, and drill diameter on the thrust force when drilling polypropylene laminates. They revealed
that the principal factor influencing the machining process of composites was feed rate, followed by
drill diameter.
There are many studies in the literature regarding the drilling of metals [10–12] such as
aluminum [13], magnesium [14], steel [15], and white cast iron [16] under cryogenic conditions.
However, in contrast to metals, studies in relation to the machining of polymer composites under
cryogenic conditions are limited. Xia et al. [17] comprehensively investigated the influence of the
cryogenic cooling process on the drilling performance of CFRP. They reported that cryogenic cooling
reduced the rounding of the cutting edge of a drill bit and outer corner wear; it also improved
the surface quality of drilled holes. However, this cooling process generated larger thrust force
and torque, and this caused the occurrence of a larger delamination factor. Giasin et al. [18]
investigated the influence of minimum-quantity lubrication and liquid nitrogen cooling in the
drilling of glass–aluminum-reinforced epoxy fiber–metal laminates. They reported that the use of
minimum-quantity lubrication and liquid nitrogen coolants increased the machining forces; however,
they both decreased the surface roughness, adhesions and occurrence of a built-up edge on the
cutting tool when compared with dry drilling. In another article by the authors [19], hole quality was
evaluated by investigating the occurrence of burrs on the edges of the holes in the upper and lower
aluminum sheets, and the accuracy and circularity of hole size. The results indicated that cryogenic
and minimum-quantity lubrication coolants could remarkably decrease exit burr formation.
The research with regard to the drilling of polymer composites with various diameter drill bits has
been summarized above. New studies on the drilling of such composites under cryogenic conditions
have been carried out, especially in recent years, but these works are very limited. Furthermore,
there are no other studies investigating the effects of different diameter drill bits combined with dipped
cryogenic conditions on the drilling performance of polymer composites in the literature. In this paper,
the drilling performance of CFRP material was experimentally investigated using a constant cutting
speed and different feed rates and drill bits (4 and 6 mm diameter) under dry and cryogenic conditions.

2. Materials and Methods

The CFRP plate used in the experiments was fabricated from plain, woven, carbon-fiber fabric
that is of 0/90◦ fiber orientation. Epoxy resin was used as the matrix. The plate was 5 mm thick
with the dimensions 500 mm × 500 mm. The drilling experiments were conducted on a three-axis
vertical machining center under dry and cryogenic cutting conditions. The drill bits were solid carbide
drills with a diameter of 4 and 6 mm. These drills were chosen due to their special application for the
machining of fiber-reinforced materials (Figure 1). A new drill bit was used for machining each hole to
avoid any tool wear effect.
Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2017,
2017, 7, 667
667 333 of
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12
Appl. Sci.
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7, 667 of 12

Figure 1. Drill
Figure 1. Drill bits
bits used
used in
in the
the experiments.
experiments.

The
The machining
machining controlcontrol factors
factors considered
considered for for the
the experiment
experiment were
experiment were feed
were feed rate
feed rate and
rate and drill
and drill diameter.
drill diameter.
diameter.
The cutting
The cutting speed
cutting speed considered
speed considered
considered for for the
for the experiments
the experiments
experimentswas was
wasat at a constant
ataaconstant
constantlevellevel
levelof of
of5050 m/min,
50m/min,
m/min, the the feed
the feed rates
feed rates
rates
The
were
were atat four
at four levels—0.075,
four levels—0.075,
levels—0.075, 0.15, 0.15, 0.225, and 0.3 mm/rev—and the drill diameters were at two levels, 44
were 0.15, 0.225,
0.225, and
and 0.30.3 mm/rev—and
mm/rev—andthe thedrill
drilldiameters
diameterswere wereatattwo twolevels,
levels,
and 66 mm. The cutting parameters and their levels were chosen by taking into account the authors’
4and
and 6mm.mm.The Thecutting
cuttingparameters
parametersand andtheir
theirlevels
levelswere
werechosen
chosenby bytaking
takinginto into account
account the the authors’
authors’
experiments, previous
experiments, previous studies
previous studies published
studies published
published by by other
by other authors,
other authors,
authors, andand
and thethe recommendations
the recommendations
recommendations of of the
of the cutting
the cutting
cutting
experiments,
tool
tool catalog.
catalog. Generally,
Generally, aa drill
drill that
that has
has the
the same
same diameter
diameter as
as the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the plate
plate to
to be
be drilled
drilled is
is
tool catalog. Generally, a drill that has the same diameter as the thickness of the plate to be drilled
used.
used. In
In this
this study,
study, in
in order
order to
to investigate
investigate the
the effects
effects of
of drill
drill diameter
diameter on
on the
the drilling
drilling of
of CFRP,
CFRP, both
both
is used. In this study, in order to investigate the effects of drill diameter on the drilling of CFRP,
smaller
smaller (4
(4 mm)
mm) and larger (6
(6 mm)
mm)(6diameter drills
drills than the thickness of
of the
the plate (5
(5 mm) were utilized.
both smaller (4 and
mm)larger
and larger diameter
mm) diameter than the
drills thickness
than the thickness plate
of the mm)
plate were
(5 mm) utilized.
were
A total of 16 experimental runs were conducted; eight were carried out in dry conditions and eight
utilized. A total of 16 experimental runs were conducted; eight were carried out in dry conditionseight
A total of 16 experimental runs were conducted; eight were carried out in dry conditions and and
in
in cryogenic
cryogenic conditions.
conditions. AA photographic
photographic view of
of the
view view theofexperimental
experimental set-up
set-up is
is presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 2.
2. The
The
eight in cryogenic conditions. A photographic the experimental set-up is presented in Figure 2.
experimental
experimental set-up
set-up consisted
consisted of
of aaofdrilling
drilling machine,
machine, an adjustable fixture, and aa piezoelectric
The experimental set-up consisted a drilling machine,ananadjustable
adjustablefixture,
fixture, and piezoelectric
and a piezoelectric
dynamometer.
dynamometer. The dynamometer
dynamometer was
The dynamometer rigidly
was rigidly mounted
rigidly mounted
mounted on on the
on the machine
the machine table.
machine table. The
table. The CFRP
The CFRP composite
CFRP composite
composite
dynamometer. The was
was held
was held
held byby
by anan adjustable
an adjustable
adjustable fixturefixture clamped
fixture clamped
clamped to to the
to the piezoelectric
the piezoelectric dynamometer.
piezoelectric dynamometer.
dynamometer. In In this study,
this study, liquid
study, liquid
liquid
was In this
nitrogen
nitrogen (LN
(LN 2) at −196 °C
) at −196 ◦
°C was
was used
used as
as the
the cryogenic
cryogenic coolant.
coolant. The
The CFRP
CFRP was
was machined
machined in
in a
a thermally
thermally
nitrogen (LN2 ) at −196 C was used as the cryogenic coolant. The CFRP was machined in a thermally
2
insulated fixture
insulated fixture that
fixture that was
that was full
was full
full ofof
of liquid
liquid nitrogen.
nitrogen. The The purpose
purpose of of using
using the thermally insulated fixture
insulated liquid nitrogen. The purpose of using thethe thermally
thermally insulated fixture
insulated fixture
was to
was to hinder
to hinder
hinder the the hazardous
the hazardous
hazardous effects effects
effectsofof LN
ofLN 2 on the dynamometer and the machining center.
LN22 on on the
the dynamometer
dynamometer and and thethe machining
machining center.center.
was

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Experimental
Experimental set-up.
set-up.

During
During the
the drilling operation, the thrust force was measured and monitored with the
the help of
of aa
During the drilling
drillingoperation,
operation,the thethrust
thrustforce was
force wasmeasured
measured andandmonitored
monitoredwithwith help
the help
Kistler
Kistler 9257B type
9257B9257B dynamometer
type dynamometer (Kistler,
(Kistler, Winterthur,
Winterthur, Switzerland),
Switzerland), a data acquisition
a data a
acquisition box, and an
box, andbox,
an
of a Kistler type dynamometer (Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland), data acquisition
amplifier.
amplifier. The
The signal
signal was
was transmitted
transmitted through
through the
the amplifier
amplifier to
to a
a PC
PC for
for data
data collection.
collection. The
The exit-hole
exit-hole
and an amplifier. The signal was transmitted through the amplifier to a PC for data collection.
surface
surface delamination
delamination was recorded
recorded using an Olympus SZX7
SZX7 stereo trinocular microscope with 12.5×
The exit-hole surfacewas delamination using
wasanrecorded
Olympususing stereo trinocular
an Olympus microscope
SZX7 stereo with 12.5×
trinocular
magnification.
magnification. In
In addition,
addition, scanning
scanning electron
electron microscope
microscope (SEM)
(SEM) (Quanta
(Quanta SEM,
SEM, FEI
FEI Company,
Company,
microscope with 12.5× magnification. In addition, scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Quanta SEM,
Hillsboro,
Hillsboro, OR,
OR, USA)
USA) analyses
analyses were also utilized to
to facilitate the
the delamination of
of the hole
hole damage and
FEI Company, Hillsboro, OR, were
USA)also utilized
analyses were facilitate
also utilized delamination
to facilitate the the damage
delamination of and
the
tool wear
tool wear induced
induced by the
by the drilling.
drilling. The
The average surface roughness (Ra), root mean square roughness
hole damage and tool wear induced byaverage surface
the drilling. The roughness (Ra), root
average surface mean square
roughness roughness
(Ra), root mean
(Rq)
(Rq) and
and the
the three-dimensional
three-dimensional (3D) (3D) view
view ofof the
the drilled
drilled hole
hole were
were measured
measured offline
offline using
using an
an atomic
atomic
force
force microscope
microscope (AFM)
(AFM) (NanoMagnetics
(NanoMagnetics Instruments,
Instruments, Oxford,
Oxford, UK).
UK).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 4 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 4 of 12

square roughness (Rq) and the three-dimensional (3D) view of the drilled hole were measured offline
using an atomic force microscope (AFM) (NanoMagnetics Instruments, Oxford, UK).
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and
Drilling Discussionwere performed under dry and dipped cryogenic conditions using solid
experiments
carbide drills experiments
Drilling with the sizewere
of 4 and 6 mm and
performed undervarying feed
dry and rates. cryogenic
dipped The machinability
conditionsof using
CFRPsolid
was
evaluated by the
carbide drills thrust
with force,
the size ofdelamination factor,
4 and 6 mm and hole surface
varying quality
feed rates. Theofmachinability
the CFRP andof tool wear.
CFRP was
evaluated by the thrust force, delamination factor, hole surface quality of the CFRP and tool wear.
3.1. Evaluation of Thrust Force and Delamination Factor
3.1. Evaluation of Thrust Force and Delamination Factor
During a drilling operation, the determination of the thrust force is important in order to define
(determine)
During the delamination
a drilling operation,of the determination
CFRP material.ofFigure 3a illustrates
the thrust a sampleinchart
force is important orderoftooverall
define
thrust force–time
(determine) cycles for CFRP
the delamination of drilling.
the CFRP The feed rateFigure
material. and cutting speed were
3a illustrates held constant
a sample chart ofat 0.075
overall
mm/rev and 50 m/min.
thrust force–time cyclesFigure 3b shows
for CFRP a sample
drilling. The feedchart of and
rate the overall
cutting thrust
speed force
were for
heldtheconstant
four feed at
rates examined (0.075, 0.15, 0.225 and 0.3 mm/rev.) at 50 m/min cutting speed.
0.075 mm/rev and 50 m/min. Figure 3b shows a sample chart of the overall thrust force for the four At the beginning of
the
feedcycles
rates when
examinedthe center
(0.075,and
0.15,chisel
0.225edges
and 0.3of mm/rev.)
the cuttingattool come into
50 m/min contact
cutting withAtthe
speed. theworkpiece,
beginning
the thrust
of the force
cycles rises
when thequickly. Thischisel
center and is dueedges
to theofhigh thrust force
the cutting at theinto
tool come chisel edgewith
contact regiontheofworkpiece,
the drill.
The thrust force
the thrust force rises
remains stable
quickly. for is
This a short
due totime
the and
highreaches the maximum
thrust force at the chiselrapidly. All cutting
edge region of theedges
drill.
of
Thethe cutting
thrust forcetool commence
remains stable machining at this
for a short time andpoint. Then,
reaches the the thrust rapidly.
maximum force decreases
All cuttingas the
edgesdrill
of
emerges
the cutting from
toolthe laminate
commence and goesattothis
machining zero when
point. thethe
Then, chisel edges
thrust forceand the cutting
decreases lips emerges
as the drill exit the
material.
from the laminate and goes to zero when the chisel edges and the cutting lips exit the material.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 3.
3. (a)
(a)Thrust
Thrustforce–time
force–time cycles
cycles for
for aa hole;
hole; (b)
(b) Relationship
Relationship between
between feed
feed rate
rate and
and thrust
thrust force.
force.

The thrust forces shown in Figure 4 were obtained from the experiments by using a 50 m/min
The thrust forces shown in Figure 4 were obtained from the experiments by using a 50 m/min
constant cutting speed, 4 and 6 mm diameter drill bits, and 0.075, 0.150, 0.225 and 0.300 mm/rev feed
constant cutting speed, 4 and 6 mm diameter drill bits, and 0.075, 0.150, 0.225 and 0.300 mm/rev
rates as parameters under dry and cryogenic conditions. As shown in the figure, larger thrust forces
feed rates as parameters under dry and cryogenic conditions. As shown in the figure, larger thrust
occurred under the cryogenic conditions when compared with dry conditions, and thrust force also
forces occurred under the cryogenic conditions when compared with dry conditions, and thrust force
increased depending on the increase of the feed rate and the drill diameter. An increase in the feed
also increased depending on the increase of the feed rate and the drill diameter. An increase in the
rate and the drill diameter increased the cross-sectional area of the unremoved chip. This led to an
feed rate and the drill diameter increased the cross-sectional area of the unremoved chip. This led
increased load on the tool; thus the thrust forces generated by using larger diameter drills and feed
to an increased load on the tool; thus the thrust forces generated by using larger diameter drills and
rates are greater [5,20–22]. In dry conditions, it is expected that heat formation at the cutting zone is
feed rates are greater [5,20–22]. In dry conditions, it is expected that heat formation at the cutting
higher during drilling since cutting fluid is not used. This heat occurrence softens the matrix (epoxy)
zone is higher during drilling since cutting fluid is not used. This heat occurrence softens the matrix
and the thrust force decreases. In cryogenic conditions, the material is exposed to extreme cold LN2
(epoxy) and the thrust force decreases. In cryogenic conditions, the material is exposed to extreme
and the Young modulus and tensile strength of the CFRP increases as the temperature of the material
cold LN2 and the Young modulus and tensile strength of the CFRP increases as the temperature of
decreases. Therefore, the thrust force generated in the drilling of CFRP rises in cryogenic conditions
the material decreases. Therefore, the thrust force generated in the drilling of CFRP rises in cryogenic
[17]. As can be seen in Figure 4, much more force was generated in drilling with a 6 mm diameter
conditions [17]. As can be seen in Figure 4, much more force was generated in drilling with a 6 mm
drill bit under the cryogenic conditions. The reason for the higher thrust force when drilling in
cryogenic conditions with a 6 mm diameter drill is in accordance with the explanations above.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 5 of 12

diameter drill7, bit

Appl. Sci. 2017, 667 under the cryogenic conditions. The reason for the higher thrust force when drilling
5 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 5 of 12
in cryogenic conditions with a 6 mm diameter drill is in accordance with the explanations above.

Figure 4.
4. The effect
effect of drill
drill diameter, feed
feed rate, and
and dryand
and cryogenicconditions
conditions onthrust
thrust force.
Figure 4. The
Figure The effect of
of drill diameter,
diameter, feedrate,
rate, anddry
dry andcryogenic
cryogenic conditionson
on thrustforce.
force.

In the drilling of composites, delamination is a critical damage characterized by the separation

Inthe
In thedrilling
drillingofofcomposites,
composites,delamination
delaminationis is a critical
a critical damage
damage characterized
characterized by by
thethe separation
separation of
of adjacent piles caused by an external action [23]. In a machining operation, minimizing the
of adjacent piles caused by an external action [23]. In a machining operation,
adjacent piles caused by an external action [23]. In a machining operation, minimizing the delamination minimizing the
delamination factor is an important criterion [24]. The delamination factor was calculated by the ratio
delamination
factor factor is an
is an important important
criterion [24]. criterion [24]. The delamination
The delamination factor wasfactor was calculated
calculated by the
by the ratio ofratio
the
of the maximum diameter (Dmax) of the damage zone to the nominal hole diameter (D). Figure 5
of the maximum diameter (D
maximum diameter (Dmax ) of the damage zone to the nominal hole diameter (D). Figure 5 demonstrates5
max) of the damage zone to the nominal hole diameter (D). Figure
demonstrates the delamination factor variation with different feed rates. As shown in the figure,
demonstrates
the delamination thefactor
delamination factordifferent
variation with variation
feedwith different
rates. As shownfeedin rates. As shown
the figure, in the figure,
larger delamination
larger delamination factors occurred under cryogenic conditions when compared with dry
larger occurred
factors delamination
under factors
cryogenic occurred
conditions under
when cryogenic
comparedconditions when compared
with dry conditions. with dry
The delamination
conditions. The delamination factor increased with the increasing of the feed rate. Also, the 6 mm
conditions. The delamination factor increased with the increasing of the feed
factor increased with the increasing of the feed rate. Also, the 6 mm diameter drill generated larger rate. Also, the 6 mm
diameter drill generated larger delamination than the 4 mm drill. As can be seen, the difference
diameter drillthan
delamination generated
the 4 mmlarger delamination
drill. As can be seen,thanthethedifference
4 mm drill. As can
between thebedelamination
seen, the difference
factors
between the delamination factors which occur under dry and cryogenic conditions increase
between the delamination factors which occur under dry and cryogenic
which occur under dry and cryogenic conditions increase depending on the feed rate. Also, it can be conditions increase
depending on the feed rate. Also, it can be seen that there is a compliance between Figures 4 and 5.
depending
seen on is
that there thea compliance
feed rate. Also, it canFigures
between be seen4that
andthere
5. Thisis shows
a compliance between
that there Figures
is a strong 4 and 5.
correlation
This shows that there is a strong correlation between thrust force and the delamination factor.
This shows
between thatforce
thrust thereand
is athe
strong correlation
delamination between thrust force and the delamination factor.
factor.

Figure5.5.The
Figure Theeffect
effectofof drill
drill diameter,
diameter, feedfeed
rate,rate, dry cryogenic
dry and and cryogenic conditions
conditions on theon the delamination
delamination factor.
Figure 5. The effect of drill diameter, feed rate, dry and cryogenic conditions on the delamination
factor.
factor.
In order to investigate the effects of the number of holes on the delamination factor and thrust
force,In
In
order
342
order
towere
holes investigate
drilledthe
to investigate on aeffects
the CFRPof
effects of
the number
plate
the using
number50of holes on
m/min
of
the delamination
holes cutting
factor and
speed, 0.15 mm/rev
on the delamination
thrust
feed
factor and rate
thrust
force, 342 holes were drilled on a CFRP plate using 50 m/min cutting speed, 0.15 mm/rev feed rate
force, 342 holes were drilled on a CFRP plate using 50 m/min cutting speed, 0.15 mm/rev feed rate
and 6 mm drill. Thrust force and delamination were measured for every 36 holes and Figure 6 was
and 6 mm drill. Thrust force and delamination were measured for every 36 holes and Figure 6 was
created from the measurements. As shown in the figure, the thrust force and delamination factor
created from the measurements. As shown in the figure, the thrust force and delamination factor
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 6 of 12

Appl. 6
and Sci.
mm 2017, 7, 667Thrust force and delamination were measured for every 36 holes and Figure 66 was
drill. of 12
created from the measurements. As shown in the figure, the thrust force and delamination factor
increased with
increased with increasing
increasing hole
hole numbers.
numbers. In
In addition,
addition, larger
larger thrust
thrust forces
forces and
and delamination
delamination factors
factors
occurred under cryogenic conditions when compared to dry
occurred under cryogenic conditions when compared to dry conditions.conditions.

300 Cutting speed: 50 m/min Dry Cryogenic

Feed rate: 0.15 mm/rev
Thrust force (N)

250 Dril diameter: 6 mm

200

150

100
Delamination factor

1.25

1.20

1.15

1.10

1.05

1.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Hole number

Figure 6. The effect of hole numbers on the delamination factor and thrust
thrust force.
force.

3.2. Observation
3.2. Observation from
from the
the SEM
SEM and
and AFM
AFM
Holes drilled
Holes drilled using
using 50 50 m/min
m/mincuttingcuttingspeed,
speed,four fourdifferent
differentfeedfeedrates (0.075,
rates (0.075,0.15,0.15,
0.225, 0.3
0.225,
mm/rev)
0.3 mm/rev) and and
a 4 mma 4 drill
mm under both dry
drill under bothand drycryogenic conditions
and cryogenic divideddivided
conditions into twointo parts
two using
partsa
hand saw,
using a hand and boreholes,
saw, were examined
and boreholes, were examinedin detail with an
in detail atomic
with force force
an atomic microscope
microscope (AFM) (AFM)and
scanning electron microscope (SEM). In the AFM measurements, an
and scanning electron microscope (SEM). In the AFM measurements, an area with the dimensions area with the dimensions 30 × 30
µm×was
30 30 µmscanned with 60 µ/s
was scanned with scanning speed. The
60 µ/s scanning average
speed. Thesurface
average roughness (Ra) and root
surface roughness (Ra)meanand
square roughness (Rq) values obtained from the AFM are shown
root mean square roughness (Rq) values obtained from the AFM are shown in Figure 7 and in Figure 7 and three-dimensional
(3D) views are shown
three-dimensional (3D)inviews
Figureare 8. shown
Three measurements
in Figure 8. Three were taken from the were
measurements borehole taken surface
from and the
their average
borehole surfacewasand calculated for each
their average was hole. As clearly
calculated for eachseen in As
hole. Figures
clearly 7 and
seen 8,in as the feed
Figures 7 and rate 8,
increased, surface quality deteriorated. In addition, cryogenic conditions
as the feed rate increased, surface quality deteriorated. In addition, cryogenic conditions presented presented better surface
qualitysurface
better than dry conditions
quality than dry in conditions
the drillinginof theCFRP.
drillingThis
of case
CFRP.can Thisbecase
clarified
can be inclarified
that the in liquid
that
nitrogen
the liquidsupplied
nitrogen both cooling
supplied bothand lubrication
cooling and thusand
and lubrication temperature
thus temperaturerise wasrise prevented
was preventedin the
cutting
in zone. The
the cutting zone.mainThereason why higher
main reason forces forces
why higher occur in cryogenic
occur machining
in cryogenic is explained
machining in the
is explained
literature
in as follows:
the literature as follows:engineering
engineering materials
materials show show muchmuch more
more resistance
resistancetotodeformation
deformation at low
at low
temperatures than at high temperatures. Also, it was reported that the
temperatures than at high temperatures. Also, it was reported that the Young modulus and tensile Young modulus and tensile
strength ofofCFRP
strength CFRPincrease
increase as the
as the temperature
temperature of theofmaterial
the material decreases.
decreases. These variations
These variations in the
in the material
material properties
properties cause much cause much
higher higher
thrust thrust
forces to be forces to be generated
generated during machining.
during machining. Although
Although cryogenic
machining increases thrust force, it enhances surface quality. Reducing temperature at the cuttingatzone
cryogenic machining increases thrust force, it enhances surface quality. Reducing temperature the
cutting zone prevents the occurrence of thermal damage on the borehole
prevents the occurrence of thermal damage on the borehole surface and alters the material properties surface and alters the
material
from properties
ductile from
to brittle, thusductile
smootherto brittle, thuscan
surfaces smoother surfaces
be obtained can be
through obtainedmachining.
cryogenic through cryogenic
Besides,
machining. Besides, it has been reported that cryogenic cooling generates
it has been reported that cryogenic cooling generates higher quality holes by helping to prevent tool higher quality holes by
helping
wear to prevent
[17,25,26]. Thetool wear
results [17,25,26].
show The results
that cryogenic show that
machining bothcryogenic machining
decrease cutting both decrease
temperatures and
cutting temperatures and increase thrust forces. When the overall process is
increase thrust forces. When the overall process is evaluated, it is concluded that cutting temperature evaluated, it is concluded
that
is cutting
a more temperature
effective factor on is aborehole
more effective
surface factor
qualityonthan borehole
thrust surface
force. Inquality than
addition, thrust force. of
a combination In
addition,
lower a combination
cutting temperatures, of lower
lower thrust
cutting temperatures,
forces and lower lower thrust
feed rates forces and
presented betterlower feed rates
performance.
presented better performance.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 7 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 7 of 12

Dry Cryogenic Cutting speed: 50 m/min

Appl.0.6
Sci. 2017, 7, 667 0.6 7 of 12

Dry Cryogenic Cutting speed: 50 m/min

(µm) (µm)
0.5 0.6 0.6
0.5

roughness
Avarage roughness (µm)

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4

roughness
Avarage roughness (µm)

0.4 0.4

square
0.3 0.3

square
0.3 0.3

meanmean
0.2 0.2

0.2 0.2

RootRoot
0.1 0.1
0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0
0.075
0.0 0.150 0.225 0.300 0.0 0.075 0.150 0.225 0.300
0.075 0.150 0.225 0.300 0.075 0.150 0.225 0.300
Feed rate (mm/rev) Feed rate (mm/rev)
Feed rate (mm/rev) Feed rate (mm/rev)
Figure 7.7.TheThe
average surface
average roughness
surface and root
roughness andmean
rootsquare
mean roughness
square under several
roughness machining
Figure
Figure 7. The average surface roughness and root mean square roughness under several under several
machining
conditions.
machining conditions.
conditions.

Cutting speed:
Cutting speed:50
50m/min, Drilldiameter:
m/min, Drill diameter: 4 mm
4 mm
Dry
Dry Cryogenic
Cryogenic

(a)
(a)

(b)

8. Cont.
Figure(b)
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 8 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 8 of 12

(c)

(d)
Figure 8. Three-dimensional atomic force microscope (AFM) images of the drilled holes at different
Figure 8. Three-dimensional atomic force microscope (AFM) images of the drilled holes at different
feed rates. (a) Feed rate: 0.075 mm/rev; (b), Feed rate: 0.150 mm/rev; (c) Feed rate: 0.225 mm/rev; (d)
feed rates. (a) Feed rate: 0.075 mm/rev; (b), Feed rate: 0.150 mm/rev; (c) Feed rate: 0.225 mm/rev;
Feed rate: 0.3 mm/rev.
(d) Feed rate: 0.3 mm/rev.
Drilling in dry conditions generates higher temperatures and thus lower forces occur, but
Drillingwith
drilling in dryLNconditions
2 reduces cutting zone higher
generates temperature excessively,
temperatures andsothushigher forces
lower occur.
forces Lowbut
occur, thrust
drilling
forces and low cutting temperatures are desired so as to obtain better machining
with LN2 reduces cutting zone temperature excessively, so higher forces occur. Low thrust forces and quality. Higher
temperatures
low cutting and largerare
temperatures cutting forces
desired bring
so as about undesirable
to obtain defects such
better machining as delamination,
quality. fiber
Higher temperatures
pull out and rough surface finish in the drilling of heterogeneous materials. The surface morphology
and larger cutting forces bring about undesirable defects such as delamination, fiber pull out and
of the drilled hole surface was studied using SEM imaging to identify the type of drilling-induced
rough surface finish in the drilling of heterogeneous materials. The surface morphology of the drilled
damage and defects. In this SEM study, fiber pullout, fiber breakout, matrix crack and matrix
hole smearing
surface was werestudied
the primaryusing SEMdefects
surface imaging to identify
or damages the type
observed. of drilling-induced
A total damage
of 324 holes were drilled on and
defects.
a CFRP material using a constant 50 m/min cutting speed and 0.15 mm/rev feed rate in dry and the
In this SEM study, fiber pullout, fiber breakout, matrix crack and matrix smearing were
primary surface
cryogenic defects orThe
conditions. damages observed.
SEM images of theA boreholes
total of 324 areholes were drilled
demonstrated on a CFRP
in Figure 9 for material
dry
usingconditions
a constantand 50 Figure
m/min10cutting speed and
for cryogenic 0.15 mm/rev
conditions. In Figure feed
9, itrate in drythat
is shown andsome
cryogenic conditions.
partitions of
carbon
The SEM fibers of
images werethepulled
boreholesawayarefrom the machinedinsurface
demonstrated Figureleaving
9 for dry cavities that caused
conditions a rough10 for
and Figure
surface
cryogenic when dry drilling.
conditions. In Figure 9, it is shown that some partitions of carbon fibers were pulled away
In dry
from the machined drilling, highleaving
surface cutting temperatures
cavities that lead to the
caused softening
a rough and decomposing
surface of the matrix,
when dry drilling.
resulting in poor support for fibers. This causes fibers to be pulled out and removed. Consequently,
In dry drilling, high cutting temperatures lead to the softening and decomposing of the matrix,
high surface roughness occurs due to cavities. Figure 10 shows that a smoother surface is obtained
resulting in poor support for fibers. This causes fibers to be pulled out and removed. Consequently,
when using LN2. Lower temperatures increase the durability of the matrix and help to maintain the
high position
surface of roughness
fibers and occurs
thus lowerduesurface
to cavities.
roughnessFigure 10 obtained
can be shows that a cryogenic
in the smootherdrilling
surface ofis obtained
CFRP.
whenAccording
using LNto 2 the SEM images, more damage occurred in the 324th hole and damage is marked with the
. Lower temperatures increase the durability of the matrix and help to maintain
position
a redofcircle.
fibersFewer
and thus lower
defects (pullsurface
out androughness canobserved
cavities) were be obtained
in the in324th
the cryogenic drilling
hole drilled using LNof 2CFRP.
According
than thatto drilled
the SEM images,
in dry moreAs
conditions. damage occurred
a consequence, in the
usage 324th
of LN hole and
2 provides damage
a benefit is marked
to surface finish with
a redby reducing
circle. Fewer thedefects
machining (pulltemperature.
out and cavities) were observed in the 324th hole drilled using LN2
than that drilled in dry conditions. As a consequence, usage of LN2 provides a benefit to surface finish
by reducing the machining temperature.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 9 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 9 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 9 of 12

Figure 9. SEM images of drilled holes performed under dry conditions for the 1st (a–d) and 324th (e–
Figure 9. SEM images of drilled holes performed under dry conditions for the 1st (a–d) and
Figure
f) holes.9. SEM images of drilled holes performed under dry conditions for the 1st (a–d) and 324th (e–
324thf)(e–f) holes.
holes.

Figure 10. SEM images of drilled holes performed under cryogenic condition for the 1st (a–d) and
Figure 10. SEM images of drilled holes performed under cryogenic condition for the 1st (a–d) and
324th
Figure 10. (e–f)
SEMholes.
images of drilled holes performed under cryogenic condition for the 1st (a–d) and
324th (e–f) holes.
324th (e–f) holes.
3.3. Tool Wear
3.3. Tool Wear
Due to rapid tool wear and catastrophic tool failure, various problems such as short tool life,
3.3. Tool Wear
poor Duehole to rapid low
quality, tool cutting
wear and catastrophic
efficiency, and high tool machining
failure, various problems
cost may occur.such as short tool
The formation life,
of tool
Due
wear gives rise to several undesirable results, e.g., large machining force generation, heat poor
poor to rapid
hole tool
quality, wear
low and
cutting catastrophic
efficiency, andtool
highfailure, various
machining costproblems
may such
occur. The as short
formation tool
of life,
tool
wear gives
hole quality,
accumulationlow rise
cutting
in theto cutting
several
efficiency, undesirable
zone, and results,
highpower
extreme machining e.g., cost
consumption,largemay machining
etc. occur.
[27]. A The force
study ofgeneration,
formation
the wear heat
ofoftool
thewear
accumulation
givescutting
rise totools
several in the cutting
wasundesirable zone,
made using aresults, extreme power
e.g., large
SEM. Figure 11 showsconsumption,
machining etc.
the drill force
wear for[27]. A study
generation,
a constantheatof the
cutting wear of
accumulation
speed (50 the in
cutting tools was made using a SEM. Figure 11 shows the drill wear for a constant cutting speed (50
the cutting
m/min)zone, extreme
and feed rate power consumption,
(0.15 mm/rev) etc. [27].
after drilling 324 A study
holes in of
CFRPthe wear
underofdry theand cutting tools
cryogenic was
m/min)
conditions. and feed
Corner rate
wear (0.15
was mm/rev)
observed after
in drilling
drilling 324 holes
experiments in CFRP
performed under dry
under and
both cryogenic
dry and
made using a SEM. Figure 11 shows the drill wear for a constant cutting speed (50 m/min) and feed
conditions.conditions.
cryogenic Corner wear When wasa 324observed
new drill isin drilling experiments oneperformed under both corner
dry and
rate (0.15 mm/rev)
cryogenic
after drilling
conditions. When a new
holes
drill
inexamined
is
CFRP under
examined
carefully,
dry and
carefully, one
can see that
cryogenic
can see that
the tool’s
conditions.
the tool’s
Corneris
corner is
wear
highly
was observed sharp.
in From
drilling the figure,
experiments it can be seen
performed that the
under dominant
both dry wear
and is at the
cryogenic outer corner
conditions. and on the
When
highlycutting
main sharp.edge
Fromduring
the figure, it can
the dry be seen
drilling of that
CFRP. theThese
dominant
resultswear is at
point thethe
out outer
severecorner and on
abrasive wearthe new
a
drill is examined
main carefully, one thecan see that the tool’sThese
corner is highly
pointsharp.
out theFrom the figure,wear it can be
of the cutting edge during
drill’s carbon fibers [28]. dry drilling
Wearing of oftheCFRP.
chisel edge was results
predominantly severe
seen abrasive
in the tests using
seen that
of thethe dominant
drill’s carbon wear
fibers is at the
[28]. outerofcorner
Wearing the andedge
chisel on thewas main cutting edge
predominantly seenduring
in the the
testsdry
using drilling
cryogenic cooling. This can also be an indication of the high forces induced during the cutting process
cryogenic
of CFRP. cooling. This can also be an indication of the high forces induced during
[29]. This is basically owing to the very high stress in the flow zone of the tool–workpiece interfaceof the
These results point out the severe abrasive wear of the drill’s carbon fibersthe cutting
[28]. process
Wearing
[29].
chiselthat
edge This
wasisabout
brings basically
predominantly owing
erosion wear to
seenthethe
of invery
the high
tests
chisel stress
using
edges incryogenic
[30]. the flow zone of theThis
cooling. tool–workpiece
can also be an interface
indication
that brings about erosion wear of the chisel edges [30].
of the high forces induced during the cutting process [29]. This is basically owing to the very high
stress in the flow zone of the tool–workpiece interface that brings about erosion wear of the chisel
edges [30].
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 10 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 10 of 12

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Drill
Drill wear
wear for
for the
the dry
dry and
and cryogenic
cryogenic condition
condition tests
tests after
after324
324holes
holesdrilled.
drilled.

4. Results
4. Results
Drilling performance
Drilling performance ofof CFRP
CFRP material
material was
was experimentally
experimentally investigated
investigated using
using constant
constant cutting
cutting
speed, different
speed, different feed
feed rates
rates and
and drill
drill bits
bits (4
(4 and
and 66 mm
mm diameter)
diameter) under
under dry
dry and
and cryogenic
cryogenic conditions.
conditions.
The results of the comprehensive experimental study are given
The results of the comprehensive experimental study are given below.below.
• When CFRP is exposed to excessive cold under cryogenic conditions, the temperature of the
• When CFRP is exposed to excessive cold under cryogenic conditions, the temperature of the
material decreases extremely. This decrease in the temperature leads to an increase in Young
material decreases extremely. This decrease in the temperature leads to an increase in Young
modulus and tensile strength and also makes the material stiffer, more brittle, and fragile. As
modulus and tensile strength and also makes the material stiffer, more brittle, and fragile.
materials are highly resistant to deformation at low temperatures, the thrust forces generated
As materials are highly resistant to deformation at low temperatures, the thrust forces generated
during the drilling of CFRP in cryogenic conditions are larger when compared with dry
during the drilling of CFRP in cryogenic conditions are larger when compared with dry conditions.
conditions.
• The high temperatures that occurred in the dry drilling of CFRP may cause several problems if
• The high temperatures that occurred in the dry drilling of CFRP may cause several problems if
temperatures in the cutting zone surpass the glass transition temperature of the matrix. As using
temperatures in the cutting zone surpass the glass transition temperature of the matrix. As using
a cryogenic coolant prevents temperature increase in the cutting zone and provides lubrication,
a cryogenic coolant prevents temperature increase in the cutting zone and provides lubrication,
less damaged, smoother, and higher quality surfaces were obtained under cryogenic conditions.
less damaged, smoother, and higher quality surfaces were obtained under cryogenic conditions.
•• Owing
Owing to to the
the fact
fact that
that the
the temperature
temperature increase
increase inin the
the cutting
cutting zone
zone is
is small
small under
under cryogenic
cryogenic
conditions,
conditions, there
thereisisless
lesstool
toolwear
wearcompared
comparedto todry
dryconditions.
conditions.
•• According
Accordingtotothe results
the resultsof this study,
of this 4 mm4 diameter
study, mm diameterdrills performed better than
drills performed 6 mm
better diameter
than 6 mm
drills in all tested cases. Smaller diameter drill bits should thus be chosen
diameter drills in all tested cases. Smaller diameter drill bits should thus be chosen unless thereunless there is
aisrestriction in terms of design.
a restriction in terms of design.
•• Using
Using cryogenic
cryogenic coolant
coolant is is profitable
profitable when
when drilling
drilling CFRP
CFRP since
since it
it enhances
enhances machining
machining efficiency
efficiency
by reducing heat occurrence in the cutting zone during machining, rapidly
by reducing heat occurrence in the cutting zone during machining, rapidly transferring transferring heat from
heat
the
fromcutting zone and
the cutting zoneallowing high-speed
and allowing machining.
high-speed machining.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 667 11 of 12

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by Commission of Scientific Research Projects of Mehmet Akif
Ersoy University (Project No. 0402-YL-16).
Author Contributions: Gultekin Basmaci and A. Said Yoruk designed the experiments and measured the AFM
and SEM; Ugur Koklu, Sezer Morkavuk and Gultekin Basmaci performed the experiments, analysed the data and
wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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