Senior Project Riceberry

EFFECT OF DRYING METHODS ON THE DRYING KINETICS AND QUALITY OF
RICEBERRY PARBOILED RICE
MR. ONGARD JIROJWONG
MR. KRITTAPROT TANGKITTIKUN
MR. ITTISAK PROMMA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING)
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KING MONGKUT’S UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY THONBURI
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Effect of Drying Methods on the Drying Kinetics and Quality of Riceberry Parboiled Rice
Mr. Ongard Jirojwong
Mr. Krittaprot Tangkittikun
Mr. Ittisak Promma
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Chemical Engineering)
Department of Chemical Engineering
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi
2016
Thesis Committee
………………………………………………… Chairman of Thesis Committee and Advisor
(Assoc. Prof. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph.D.)
………………………………………………… Member
(Assoc. Prof. Dr. Asawin Meechai, Ph.D.)
………………………………………………… Member
(Prof. Dr. Virote Boonamnuayvitaya, Ph.D.)
………………………………………………… Member
(Assoc.Prof. Dr. Wittaya Teppaitoon, Ph.D.)
Copyright reserved
ii
Thesis Title Effect of drying methods on the drying kinetics and quality of
riceberry Parboiled rice
Candidates Mr. Ongard Jirojwong 56070500050
Mr. Krittaprot Tangkittikun 56070500052
Mr. Ittisak Promma 56070503040
Thesis Advisor Assoc. Prof. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph.D.
Program Bachelor of Engineering
Department Chemical Engineering
Faculty Engineering
Academic year 2016
ABSTRACT
Parboiling technique is known to help in extending shelf life of rice for longer storage
time. In this research, the method was applied to produce a new product, Parboiled Riceberry
rice, to provide more option to health-conscious consumers. However, during the production
process, especially during drying step, protein denaturation and loss in antioxidant activity
were found. Thus, three different dryers including Fluidized Bed Dryer (FBD), Superheated
Steam Dryer ( SSD) , and Impinging Stream Dryer ( ISD) operated at three different
temperatures including 130oC, 150oC, and 170oC were investigated to find their effects on
quality of parboiled Riceberry product and their drying kinetics. Steaming time at 103 oC for
fully gelatinization of Riceberry is found to be 15 minutes at least. The time required to reach
22 % d.b. out of all 3 dryers are in order of SSD < FBD < ISD. Total phenolic content and
antioxidant activity were found to be linearly correlated and sensitive on time of exposure to
oxygen in the air, in this case, SSD at 170 oC is the best option to avoid losing antioxidant
activity due to its short drying time. Protein solubility was found to be decreased as drying
temperature increases even though the drying time is lower. If the qualities of TPC and
AOAC are of the most concern, SSD is the most suitable choice for a parboiled Riceberry
product.
Keywords: Riceberry, Impinging Stream Dryer, Parboiled rice, Hot air fluidized bed,
Superheated steam drying, Antioxidant and Protein in riceberry
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are using this opportunity to express our gratitude to our advisor, Assoc. Prof.
Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph. D. This project is impossible without his valuable advices,
guidance, assistance, and such a big impulsion. We are sincerely grateful to Mr. Ponlakrit
Kumklam, Miss Panicha Chutichaicharat, Miss Rungnapa Kaklong, Miss Jidapha
Srichompoang, and Miss Ratchaneeporn Ai-tang, who always teach, train and give us support
along with valuable discussion and assistance suggestions. We are sincerely grateful to them
for sharing their truthful and illuminating views on a number of issues related to the project.
We appreciate their kindness indeed. We also much obliged to Rice Science Center & Rice
Gene Discovery for valuable information about Riceberry. We also express our sincere
thanks to the Department of Chemical Engineering, KMUTT, and Drying Technology
Research Laboratory, KMUTT for giving us a precious chance to learn and practice lots of
real techniques used in the experiment. It is unforgettable moment in our lives. Last but not
least, we would like to express our warm thanks to our family and friends for standing by
ours sides all along, deeply thanks for their sincerity, encouragement and belief in us. Any
omission in this acknowledgement does not mean lack of gratitude.
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CONTENT
PAGE
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
CONTENT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES i
LIST OF SYMBOL iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION iv
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
.
1 1 Background and Importance of Research 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Scope of work 2
1.4 Expected benefit 2
2 THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW 3
.
2 1 Riceberry Rice and its nutrition 3
2.1.1 Protein and protein solubility 4
2.1.2 Antioxidant 5
2.2 Analysis of proteins and antioxidants 7
2.2.1 Protein analysis 7
2.3 Parboiled Rice 9
2.3.1 Soaking 11
2.3.2 Steaming 11
2.3.3 Drying 12
2.4 Effect of parboiling process on nutrition, protein, and antioxidant. 12
2.5 Drying methods and drying mechanism 14
v
CONTENT (Continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
..
2 5 1 Drying methods 14
2.5.1.1 Fluidized Bed Dryer (FBD) 14
2.5.1.2 Impinging Stream Dryer (ISD) 14
2.5.1.3 Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) 15
..
2 5 2 Drying mechanism 16
3 METHODOLOGY 18
.
3 1 Plant Materials 18
3.2 Parboiled Riceberry process 18
3.2.1 Soaking and steaming method 18
3.2.2 Drying method 18
3.2.2.1 Hot-air fluidization drying method 18
3.2.2.2 Impinging stream drying 19
3.2.2.3 Superheated steam drying method 20
.
3 3 Moisture content 21
3.4 Flour preparation 21
3.5 Degree of starch gelatinization 22
3.6 Determination of parboiled Riceberry qualities 22
3.6.1 Preparation of Antioxidant Extracts 22
3.6.2 Measurement of total phenolic comtents (TPC) 22
3.6.3 Assessment of antioxidant activity (AOAC) 23
3.6.4 Protein Determination 23
3.6.4.1 Total Protein 23
3.6.4.2 Protein Solubility 23
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 25
.
4 1 Steaming time 25
vi
CONTENT (Continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
.
4 2 Drying Kinetics between different Drying Methods 26
4.3 Antioxidant Analysis 33
4.3.1 Total Phenolic Content 33
4.3.2 Antioxidant Capacity 35
5 CONCLUSION 39
REFERENCE 40
APPENDIX 45
A. Moisture Content and Drying rate 46
B. Antioxidant and Protein 54
C. Reynolds number and Velocity 59
D. Examples of Calculation 61
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Protein content of several types of rice 4

2 Types of food processing which affect antioxidants and oxidative stability of foods 6
3 Heating Medium Superficial Velocity and Reynolds Number for different Drying
Methods. 27
4 Drying time needed to achieve 22% d.b. moisture content in each drying method. 32
5 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 130 47
6 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 150 °C 47
7 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 170 °C 48
8 Moisture content and drying rate of the Hot Air Fluidized Bed (FBD) at 130 °C 48
11 Moisture content and drying rate of the Impinging Stream Dryer (ISD) at 130 °C 50
14 Moisture content of the Ventiliation by using Hot-air oven at 45 °C 53
15 Total Phenolic Contents (TPC) by expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) 55
16 Antioxidant activity (AOAC) by trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) 55
17 Total Protein in the Brown and Parboiled Riceberry from each Drying methods 55
18 Protein Solubility in the Brown and Parboiled Riceberry from each Drying methods 57
19 Reynold number of FBD for each temperature by fix velocity of hot air at 3.5 m/s 60
20 Velocity of SSD for each temperature to provide same Reynold number of FBD 60
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Riceberry grain structure 3

2 Classification of Polyphenois antioxidant 6
3 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol or 4-vinylguaiacol 7
4 Apigenin 7
5 The schematic of parboiling process 10
6 Graphical depiction of nutrition transfer 13
7 Drying mechanism of rice being contacted with different heating mediums, hot air for
FBD and superheated streamed for SSD. Ts,i refers to surface temperature of substance i
and Tm refer to medium temperature. 16
8 Schematic diagram of a hot-air fluidized-bed dryer. (1) fluidized-bed dryer, (2) heater,
(3) centrifugal fan 19
9 Schematic diagram of a hot-air impinging stream dryer. (1) drying chamber, (2) blower,
(3) heater, (4) globe valve, (5) feeder, (6) cyclone 20
10 Schematic diagram of a superheated-steam fluidized-bed drying system. (1) fluidized-
bed dryer, (2) heater, (3) centrifugal fan, (4) cyclone, (5) boiler 21
11 DSC Measurement Data of Raw Riceberry rice, 15 minutes steamed Riceberry, and 20
minutes steamed Riceberry at 103 oC. 26
12 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in ISD at different Inlet Medium Temperatures. 27
13 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in Hot-Air FBD at different inlet medium temperature.
28
14 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in SSD at different inlet medium temperature. 28
15 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in FBD at different moisture content and inlet medium
temperatures. 29
16 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in SSD at different moisture content and inlet medium
temperatures 30
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LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

Figure Page
17 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in FBD and SSD at 130 °C in different moisture
content. 31
content. 31
content. 32
20 Total Phenolic Content of raw sample and samples processed in different methods. 34
21 Antioxidant Capacity of raw sample and samples processed in different methods. 35
22 Relationship between lost in TPC and AOAC 36
23 Concentration of Total Protein within different processed samples. 37
24 Protein Solubility of different processed samples. 37
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LIST OF SYMBOL
∆H = Change of enthalpy of samples (J/g dry matter)
∆Href = Change of enthalpy of raw riceberry (J/g dry matter)

kg water
̅̅̅̅̅
MC𝑖 = Average Moisture Contnet between time or cycle ( kg dried solid )
Wt = Dried Weight of sample (g)
𝑤𝑖 = Weight of Wetted Paddy before drying (g)
𝑤𝑑 = Weight of Dried Paddy After drying (g)
Abssample = Optical density obtained for the sample test solution (Absorbance)
Absintercept = Optical density at the point of linear intercepts the axis (Absorbance)
Sstd = Slope obtained from calibration (µgGallic acid/ml) or (µgTrolox/ml)
msample = Mass of the dried rice sample in extraction solution (g)
Vsample = Volume of the rice sample extraction (mL)
∆P = Pressure drop at the pitot tube (hPa)

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION
TEAC = Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (mgTrolox / 100 gRice)
AOAC = Assessment of antioxidant activity
TPC = Total Phenolic Contents
ISD = Impinging Stream Dryer
FBD = Hot air Fluidized Bed Dryer
SSD = Superheated Steam Dryer

kg water
MC = Moisture Content (% d.b.) or ( kg dried solid )
MR = Moisture Ratio
SD = Standard Deviation
Avg. = Average
GT = Gratin Temperature (°C)
GAE = Gallic Acid Equivalent (mgGallic/100 gRice)

1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Importance of Research
Rice ( Oryza sativa L. ) has long been the staple food of over half the world’s
population [ 1 ] . Until now, many varieties of rice have been developed to supply different
needs of people, one of these is as a high nutrition food. Riceberry, Thai hybrid rice
developed by Rice Science Center of Kasetsart University, is one of the species that is
successful in serving high nutrition and benefits to general consumers [ 2 ] . It has an
antioxidant capacity which is much higher than average black rice, allowing it to lower the
chances of body to develop cancer and slows down aging process. Also, its total protein
content is higher than other colored rice( red rice, brown rice, and white rice) which helps
promoting growth and curing of body tissues [1].
Because of the benefits consumers could get from Riceberry product, this research
would like to propose a new suitable method to produce new Riceberry product to offer
general consumers more healthy diet options in the form of parboiled rice which has many
advantages to it including reduction in grain breakage during dehusking, higher nutritional
values, longer storage time and immunity to insect penetration and the suitability to be used
as raw material for puffed rice, flaked rice and canned rice which are popular in Thailand and
allows the product to has higher market value.
Parboiled rice is the rice that is pre- cooked by steaming before dehusking. The
conventional process of making parboiled rice includes soaking the rice in water for few
hours, steaming the rice for half an hour, dry it until its moisture content is lowered to 16%
d.b. for storage [1].The nutritional value of the rice is enhanced during the soaking process
because soaking helps dissolving nutrition in rice bran and diffusing into endosperm [ 3] .
However, one has to concern that after soaking the rice has to be steamed and dried which
might leads to losses in nutritional value and antioxidant capacity [ 4] . Steaming process
involves passing through the rice with superheated steam to cook or ‘gelatinize’ it. When
wetted rice is exposed to the heat from superheated steam, gelatinization occurs.
Gelatinization is a process where there is breaking down of the intermolecular bonds of starch
molecules in the presence of water and heat. Once the gelatinization of starch is taken place,
protein in endosperm is disintegrated, and then expands its volume to fill the space in
parboiled paddy which causes the hardening of rice kernel [3]. After the rice is steamed and
fully gelatinized it is dried within a dryer of choice until its moisture content becomes 16%
d.b..
For the drying of parboiled rice, there are several interesting techniques that will be
taken into consideration in this research. First one is fluidized bed dryer technique which can
be found in some part of rice industry [5]. It uses hot air with a velocity high enough to cause
fluidization to pass through a pile of wet rice. Generally, Fluidized bed dryer gives high
moisture removal rate at low maintenance cost with the cost of high pressure drop, high
electrical power consumption and sometimes non-uniform product quality. Another possible
drying technique is Impinging Stream Dryer Technique (ISD) which has lower drying time,
simpler design (no moving parts) and operation compared to FBD [5] but is not commonly
used for drying of rice grain because it causes unsatisfying low head rice yield [ 6 ] . Also it
2
causes pressure drop in a comparable level to FBD due to the impingement of rice carried
with hot air at high velocity within its impingement zone [ 5] . However, parboiled rice has
harder kernel which might allow it to withstand the stress from the impingement. That’s why
ISD is one interesting choice of drying technique for parboiled rice. So far, the
aforementioned methods all involve the use of hot air as heating medium which is not the
only available option. There is also another very useful technique which involves the use of
superheated steam as a heating medium which is called “Superheated Steam Drying
Technique”.
Superheated steam drying technique is a new method that will be also be proposed
for drying of parboiled riceberry in this research. It has the ability to combined both steaming
and drying process of the rice into one step [ 7 ] . Also, it could prevent oxidative reaction
assuming there is no air leaked into the steam which might help preserve antioxidant in the
rice. This could lead into a more efficient and effective process. However, it does not only
come with advantages, the SSD usually comes with 10 to 15% longer residence time in dryer
because of inevitable condensation before the drying solid reaches a certain temperature and
also harder to operate and also start up because no leakage can be allowed [8].
All in all, it is of our concern to propose an alternative option of riceberry in the form
of parboiled rice that is hopefully both tasty and high in nutrition to general consumers. This,
however, depends immensely on to effect of the drying method which has not yet been
reported elsewhere and therefore the effect of different drying methods at several drying
temperatures with a certain hot medium velocity to the total protein content and antioxidant
capacity of riceberry are investigated in this study.
1.2 Objective
To study the effects of temperature and drying process using Fluidized Bed
Dryer(FBD), Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD), and Impinging Steam Dryer (ISD) on quality
of parboiled riceberry rice.
1.3 Scope of work

Varying drying temperature of different drying techniques at 130, 150 and 170 °C
using FBD, SSD and ISD. Drying 2 kg of wet paddy per batch with hot air and with
superheated steam while feeding the sample into ISD with hot air at the rate of 50 kg/ h and
impinging distance of 5 cm until the moisture content is reduced to 22% d.b..
1.4 Expected benefit

To introduce a new form of nutritious parboiled riceberry for general or health
conscious consumers together with the most suitable drying method and conditions.
3
CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Riceberry Rice and its nutrition

Riceberry is a newly registered rice variety from Thailand originated from a cross-
breed between Jao Hom Nin (JHN), the local non-glutinous purple rice and Khoa Dawk Mali
105, the Thai Hom Mali Rice, by Rice Science Center, Kasetsart University, Thailand. It is
a black whole grain rice with softness and palatable after taste. Riceberry has been the most
popular brown rice known for health promoting properties with its ability to attract people to
consume more brown rice which is the most significant steps in solving food-related chronic
diseases like diabetes, heart disease, high blood cholesterol, obesity and cancers [2].
The structure of Riceberry grain is similar to other Asia rice grain ( Oryza sativa. ) , as
shown in Figure 1. The grain consists of an outer protective covering, the hull, and the rice
caryopsis or fruit, brown or dehusked rice. Brown rice consists of the outer layers of pericarp,
seed-coat and nucellus, together called rice bran; the germ or embryo; and the endosperm.
Figure 1 Riceberry grain structure
All nutritive properties of Riceberry are contained in rice bran with only small
fraction accumulated in its endosperm. This is the reason why many researchers paid
attention on the nutrition within rice bran, however, researches show that nutrition within
endosperm are scarce. This is true for all cereals and therefore it is best to consume brown
rice than polished or milled rice. In this research, quantitation of antioxidant and protein in
brown rice is focused. For other nutrients ( i. e. carbohydrates, and fats) , there will not be
mentioned.
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2.1.1 Protein and protein solubility

Protein, a macronutrient, is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage,
skin, and blood. In general, proteins can be categorized into many types depending on its
amino acid group. Protein in rice is an incomplete protein but still is a part of important
proteins that promote growth and curing of body tissues, especially for people who eat rice
as staple food. The data for amount of protein in Riceberry rice is rarely available but since
it is a kind of black rice, it is likely to contain higher amount of proteins compared to other
types of rice as shown in Table 1 [1].
Table 1 Protein content of several types of rice
Type of Rice Protein content

(grams/100g of rice)
Polished White rice 6.8
Brown White rice 7.9
Brown Purple rice 8.3
Brown Red rice 7.0
Brown Black rice 8.5
As mentioned before, protein consist mostly in rice bran, that is why protein content in
polished rice is lower than in brown rice. Parichart et al [9] reported that protein contents in
non-processed Riceberry rice bran was 27.8% wt. dry basis.
Major proteins in rice are albumin (water soluble), globulin (salt soluble), prolamin
(alcohol soluble), and glutelin (alkali soluble). Proteins in rice grain comprise mostly of
glutelins(up to 80% of the total protein [10] ).While prolamin is the minor protein found in
rice. Moreover, different types of protein locate in different parts of rice structure. Glutelin
and prolamin are grouped as storage proteins that makes basic biological function works and
can be found in high number within endosperm. Albumins and globulins are normally
concentrated in the embryo and aleurone layer. The proportions of albumins and globulins
are highest at outer layers of milled rice and decrease toward the center of grain [11].
When protein is exposed to thermal processing, denaturation can occur. Protein

denaturation involves a change in the protein structure (generally an unfolding) which results
in the loss in activity of functioning protein e.g. protein solubility. Denaturation is possible
with any treatment that cleaves hydrogen bridges, ionic or hydrophobic bonds. This can be
accomplished by: changing the temperature, adjusting the pH, or increasing the interface
area. The denaturation temperature varies for different proteins. Z.Y. Ju et al [12] reported
that the denaturation temperatures of albumin, globulin, and glutelin were 73. 3, 78. 9, and
82. 2 oC, respectively. The denaturation temperature of 60. 1 oC was reported previously for
rice globulin which was 18.8 oC lower than this determination (78.9 oC). It was also reported
that this determination achieved 20 oC lower denaturation temperature ( 56 oC) for soybean
globulin than other reports [13]. These showed that the denature temperature of protein also
varies in different variety. The discussion on effect of parboiling and drying methods on the
total protein content and protein denaturation of parboiled Riceberry rice has not yet been
done. The effect of parboiling process on protein will be discussed in section 2.3.
5
Protein denaturation can be observed through many signs. One is by a decrease in

protein solubility of protein in a specific solvent. For rice, i.e. Riceberry, alkali solution, i.e.
Potassium hydroxide ( KOH) , is the most suitable solvent because KOH can effectively
dissolve glutelin which is a major protein in rice.
Protein content and protein solubility are determined by first carrying out Kjeldahl
digestion, ammonia distillation and then using titration or colorimetric ammonia assay of the
digest to determine nitrogen content, which is converted to protein by the factor of 5.95. The
factor, based on a nitrogen content of 16. 8 percent for the major protein of milled rice
(glutelin).
2.1.2 Antioxidant
An antioxidant is a molecule stable enough to donate an electron to a rampaging free
radical and neutralize it, thus reducing its capacity to damage. These antioxidants delay or
inhibit cellular damage mainly through their free radical scavenging property [ 1 4 ] . Light
antioxidants or micronutrient ( vitamins) antioxidants such as vitamin E ( α- tocopherol) ,
vitamin C ( ascorbic acid) , and B- carotene cannot be made within human body. Therefore,
they need to be supplied through diet and Riceberry rice is one of the viable options. It has
been stated that there is no real drawbacks of eating black rice [ 1 ] . However, Antioxidant
consumption does not directly increase the level of antioxidant in the blood plasma but
instead work as signaling molecules telling certain cells in the body to alter their expression
of particular genes. It is the products of these genes which then exert protective effects against
free radicals in the body.
Antioxidants can be classified into two major types based on their source, namely,
natural and synthetic antioxidants. Polyphenois is one of natural antioxidant that is a class of
the phytochemicals ( plant chemicals) that possess marked antioxidant activities. Their
antioxidant activities depend on their chemical and physical properties which in turn
regulates the metabolism depending on their molecular structures. The classification of
Polyphenoils is shown in Figure 2. Flavonoids and Phenolics are two major classes of
Polyphenois compound and are mostly found in vegetables, fruits, grains, seeds, leaves,
flower, bark, and etc. Both reported to have antioxidant properties i. e. anti- inflammatory
and anticancer activities.
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Figure 2 Classification of Polyphenois antioxidant
Weakness of antioxidants is their low resistance against oxygen, particularly under

exposure to light and high temperature. Antioxidant changes continue during food process
and storage. Table 2 showed examples of food processing that leads to loss of antioxidants.
For rice parboiling process, antioxidants was reported to be decreased [ 15] . The effect of
parboiling process on antioxidant will be discussed in section 2.3.
Table 2 Types of food processing which affect antioxidants and oxidative stability of foods
Temperature Type of process Examples

Pasteurisation
Sterilisation
Water as heat transfer medium Blanching
Elevated temperature Evaporation
Extrusion
Drying
Air as heat transfer medium
Roasting, baking
Effect of enzymes Fermentation
Ambient temperature Effect of chemicals Curing, smoking
Effect of time Storage (also cold and frozen storage)
For raw Riceberry, Panawan et al [ 16] , reported that the methanolic extract of
Riceberry bran had the strongest total antioxidant activity ( scavenging activity ( % ) ) and
phenolic content at 97. 83% and 9. 87 mg GAE/ ml of extract, respectively. The methanolic
extract was further fractionated by column chromatography to obtain ten fractions. The
chemical components of the crude extracts and the fractions were analyzed by gas
chromatography- mass spectrometry ( GC- MS) . Among constituents that are reported, 9
simple phenolics and 4 flavonoids, which were previously reported to have antioxidant
activities, were quantified. The major simple phenolic was 4- vinylguaiacol and the major
flavonoid was apigenin. Simple phenolics and flavonoids are responsible for antioxidation,
anti-inflammation and anticancer, for instance, 4-vinylguaiacol is a flavoring substance with
an antioxidant property, apigenin has antioxidant, anti- inflammatory and anticancer
activities. Without oxygen, these antioxidants can be only be denatured at temperature higher
7
than 170 oC. The structure of 4-vinylguaiacol is shown in Figure 3 and apigenin in Figure 4
below.
Figure 3 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol or 4-vinylguaiacol
Figure 4 Apigenin
There are many analytical methods for the determination of antioxidant activity. In
this research, antioxidant activity (scavenging activity (%)) was determined by following the
spectroscopic methods that use 2,2- diphenyl- 1- picrylhydrazyl ( DPPH) as a
spectrophotometric reagent. Total phenolic content was determined with Folin- Ciocalteu
Method [17].
2.2 Analysis of proteins and antioxidants

2.2.1 Protein analysis
Both protein and protein solubility was determined using Kjeldahl method. This
method was developed in 1883 by a brewer called Johann Kjeldahl. A food is digested with
a strong acid so that it releases nitrogen which can be determined by a suitable titration
technique. The amount of protein present is then calculated from the nitrogen concentration
of the food. The same basic approach is still used today, although a number of improvements
have been made to speed up the process and to obtain more accurate measurements.
It is usually considered to be the standard method of determining protein

concentration. Because the Kjeldahl method does not measure the protein content directly
a conversion factor (F) is needed to convert the measured nitrogen concentration to a protein
concentration. A conversion factor of 6.25 (equivalent to 0.16 g nitrogen per gram of protein)
is used for many applications, however, this is only an average value, and each protein has a
different conversion factor depending on its amino- acid composition. For rice a factor of
5.95 is normally used.
The original method is performed by heating a substance within sulphuric acid, which
decomposes the organic substance by oxidation to liberate the reduced nitrogen
as ammonium sulphate. In this step potassium sulphate is added to increase the boiling
point of the medium ( from 337 °C to 373 °C) . Chemical decomposition of the sample is
complete when the initially very dark- coloured medium has become clear and colourless.
8
The solution is then distilled with a small quantity of sodium hydroxide, which converts the
ammonium salt to ammonia. The amount of ammonia present, and thus the amount of
nitrogen present in the sample, is determined by back titration. The end of the condenser is
dipped into a solution of boric acid. The ammonia reacts with the acid and the remainder of
the acid is then titrated with a sodium carbonate solution by way of a methyl orange pH
indicator. The chemical reaction consists of:
Degradation:
Sample + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(g)
Liberation of ammonia:
(NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Capture of ammonia:
B(OH)3 + H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + B(OH)4−
Back-titration:
B(OH)3 + H2O + Na2CO3 → NaHCO3(aq) + NaB(OH)4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O
In practice, this analysis is largely automated; specific catalysts accelerate the

decomposition. Originally, the catalyst of choice was mercuric oxide. However, while it was
very effective, health concerns resulted in it being replaced by cupric sulfate. Cupric sulfate
was not as efficient as mercuric oxide, and yielded lower protein results. It was soon
supplemented with titanium dioxide, which is currently the approved catalyst in all of the
methods of analysis for protein in the Official Methods and Recommended Practices of
AOAC International.
The disadvantage of this method is that it does not give an exact measurement of the
protein, since not all nitrogen in foods is in the form of protein. Different proteins need
different correction factors because they have different amino acid sequences. The use of
concentrated sulfuric acid at high temperatures poses a considerable hazard, as does the use
of some of the possible catalysts The technique is time consuming to carry-out.
2.2.2. Antioxidant analysis

There are many methods to analyze antioxidant. The easy one is spectroscopic
methods. The UV/VIS spectrophotometry is used to study the colorimetric reactions, which
is easy to perform, rapid and applicable in routine laboratory use, and low-cost. This method
was applied to analyze both total phenolic content and antioxidant activity in this study.
9
To study the total phenolic content, polyphenols in plant extracts react with specific
redox reagents (Folin-Ciocalteu reagent) to form a blue complex that can be quantified by
visible-light spectrophotometry. This method is known as the Folin-Ciocalteu method.
The Folin- Ciocalteu method is described in several pharmacopoeias. The reaction

forms a blue chromophore constituted by a phosphotungstic phosphomolybdenum complex,
where the maximum absorption of the chromophores depends on the alkaline solution and
the concentration of phenolic compounds. However, this reagent rapidly decomposes in
alkaline solutions, which makes it necessary to use an enormous excess of the reagent to
obtain a complete reaction. This excess can result in precipitates and high turbidity, making
spectrophotometric analysis impossible. To solve this problem, Folin- Ciocalteu included
lithium salts in the reagent, which prevented the turbidity. The reaction generally provides
accurate and specific data for several groups of phenolic compounds, because many
compounds change color differently due to differences in unit mass, and reaction kinetics.
Many studies have discussed the use of the Folin- Ciocalteau reagent to determine
polyphenols, and the general or specific value of the method, because some specific details
may be modified. Total phenolic content normally is reported as gallic acid equivalents
(GAE) that is a reference phenolic compound.
To study the antioxidant activity, radical-scavenging methods is performed. Radical

scavenging is the main mechanism by which antioxidants act in foods. Several methods have
been developed in which the antioxidant activity is assessed by the scavenging of synthetic
radicals in polar organic solvents, e. g. methanol, at room temperature. Those used include
2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-sulphonic
acid) (ABTS) radicals.
In the DPPH test, the scavenging of DPPH radicals is followed by monitoring the
decrease in absorbance at 515 nm which occurs due to reduction by the antioxidant (AH) or
reaction with a radical species (R·):
DPPH· + AH  DPPH–H + A·
DPPH· + R·  DPPH–R
Fast reaction of DPPH radicals occurs with some phenols e. g. - tocopherol, but slow
secondary reactions may cause a progressive decrease in absorbance, so that the steady state
may not be reached for several hours. Most papers in which the DPPH method has been used
report the scavenging after 15 or 30 min reaction time. The radical scavenging activity
assessed by the DPPH method has been expressed as the TEAC (trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity) value in most papers employing this method.
2.3 Parboiled Rice

Parboiled rice is the rice that is pre- cooked by steaming before dehusking . This
process affects the physical, chemical and nutrition changes in rice. For the physical changes,
the gelatinization of rice starch is increased during the steaming process causing the protein
in endosperm to disintegrate and then expands its volume to fill the space in parboiled paddy.
10
This causes the hardening of rice kernel which can be reported in the value of percent head
rice yield (%HRY).
Parboiling is a hydrothermal process in which the crystalline form of starch present

in the paddy rice (the rice grain from the field) is changed into an amorphous one as a result
of the irreversible swelling and fusion of starch [ 1 8 ] . This is accomplished by soaking,
steaming, and drying prior to dehusking. The schematic of process pathway followed in this
experiment is shown in Figure 5. Using superheated steam drying, steaming and drying can
be combined in a single stage.
Figure 5 The schematic of parboiling process

11
2.3.1 Soaking
The main objective in soaking step is to provide a sufficient amount of water for
gelatinization. Normally, moisture content less than 30% appears to be the very lowest water
to reach the core and fully gelatinize the starch in the caryopsis. If more water than necessary
is absorbed, the caryopsis swells considerably, which resulted in cracking open the hull and
becoming exposed. This should be very well aware because many of the substances contained
in the grains will diffuse into the soaking water causing nutrition losses.
The smell and flavor of the parboiled rice are affected by the condition of the soaking
process. Soaking in low temperature for many hours can cause unwanted odor occurring from
fermentation. Soaking time and water temperature affect solubilization of the albuminoids
contained in the outer layers of the caryopsis. When the albuminoids undergo hydrolysis, it
is able to split up intop amino acids. In combination with alcohols, these compounds produce
odorous products such as thioalcohols and thioethers, which give some characteristic odor
and flavor to the parboiled rice.
The discoloration of the parboiled rice is also affected by the condition of the soaking
process. If the water temperature is high, the color becomes much deeper because the amylase
in the rice is activated, sugars such as maltose glucose are then formed. The color of the
parboiled rice also varies with the pH of the soaking water. The color deepens as the pH rise.
These can be avoided by soaking at appropriate temperature with the limitation of

gelatinization temperature. This method has been used to reduce soaking time and achieve
good parboiling results [19].
2.3.2 Steaming
The main objective in steaming step is to gelatinize the starch to reduce brittleness
(lower cracking inside the grain) during milling process. Steaming can be done by injecting
steam into the product contained in the open vessel or in an autoclave at a pressure higher
than atmospheric. Continuous steam injection devices can be used.
The parameters that will affect the quality of the parboiled rice are the time of
exposure to steam and the temperature or pressure of the steam. The time exposed to steam
must be long enough to gelatinize the whole kernel completely. The increasing steaming
duration as well as the increasing steaming pressure have the effect on the increase of
hardness value due to volume expansion of endosperm[20]. Generally, steam temperature at
atmospheric pressure is always higher than that need for gelatinization in order to make sure
that all starch in the rice grain is gelatinized. If the starch in the endosperm is not fully
gelatinized there will be white cores present in the parboiled product. Through these factors,
the degrees of gelatinization can be obtained. "Fully parboiled rice” means that the starch has
been gelatinized right through the middle of the grain and " partially" or “surface parboiled
rice" means that gelatinization is only surface-deep, and the product has typical white cores.
" Light parboiled rice” is obtained by steaming for a minimum time and at the lowest
temperature needed. “Dark parboiled rice" is steamed for a long time at a high temperature.
12
The water used for generation the steam must be potable quality. The amount of steam
needed to heat 1 metric ton of paddy varies with the degree to which the starch in the
caryopsis must be gelatinized and with the method of heating. In a modern plant, about 80
kg of steam are required for heating 1000 kg of paddy.
2.3.3 Drying
The main objective in drying step is to decrease the moisture content from steaming
process to safe level for milling and subsequent storage. But due to the fact that after the
moisture content of sample is as low as 22% d.b. it is not efficient anymore to continue drying
the sample with mechanical dryers. Therefore, ventilation is usually done after the drying
process until the moisture content is reduced to 14% d. b. which is considered optimum for
storage.
The important parameters are the drying time and optimum temperature. Generally,
slow and prolonged drying is essential to ensure a maximum yield of whole grains.
Temperature used in drying process will have an effect on milling yield except for when the
moisture content is as low as 16-18%.
At the beginning of the drying process, the temperature of the parboiled paddy
approaches 100°C whereas that of the threshed paddy is at ambient temperature. This causes
the cracking in the hulls of parboiled paddy. Thus, the drying of parboiled rice may require
different process. For example, threshed rice is dried slowly at air temperatures slightly above
that the environment at first, then the drying process is stopped for a while when the moisture
content reaches 16% d.b. and then drying is resumed using the appropriate temperature and
drying time in order to prevent cracking. The cracks which develop during the final stage are
due to increased brittleness of the caryopsis when the moisture content decreases.
There are several drying techniques used in industries but in this study only 3 methods
are compared, of them included fluidized bed drying (FBD), impinging stream drying (ISD),
and superheated steam drying ( SSD) . Superheated steam drying method is combination of
streaming and drying steps.
2.4 Effect of parboiling process on nutrition, protein, and antioxidant.

There are changes occurring in parboiling process which can either increase or
decrease nutrition content in endosperm of rice. Lots of researchers found that parboiled
rice’s endosperm contained more nutrition than raw rice’s endosperm. The content of
Thiamin (vitamin B1), phosphorus, calcium, iron, manganese, molybdenum, chromium and
pigments were greater in parboiled rice comparing to raw rice. This can be concluded that
loss of these in milling process was prevented after parboiling process [ 21] . The process of
nutrition migration from rice bran into endosperm is shown as Figure 6 below.
13
Figure 6 Graphical depiction of nutrition transfer
However, the loss of vitamins is possible when soaking is done with an opening in husk (a
split) or when streaming process is done under high pressure.
The total protein and amino acid content of parboiled rice do not change during the
steaming process despite the protein bodies in the kernel being ruptured [22]. The protein is
hydrolysed leading to increased disulphide bonds which increases the viscosity and hardness
in the parboiled rice [ 23] . Protein denaturation was reported being found after streaming
process. Many researches informed that solubility of rice protein decreases after parboiling
process [24], [25].
On the other hand, polyphenois, a kind of antioxidant, are water soluble due to their
chemical characteristics. Therefore, a portion of these compounds may be solubilized in the
parboiling water during soaking step. The effect of parboiling temperature on polyphenols
should be considered because parboiling is a thermal process. Several studies have
demonstrated that phenolic compounds from different foods suffer decomposition under high
temperatures, and this effect depends on the temperature, time of processing, type of
compounds in the sample and other conditions. The polyphenols are also affected by the
formation of complexes, especially with proteins, which makes the compounds unavailable.
Consequently, a reduction in polyphenol concentration in the parboiled rice grains was
observed because the methodology used quantified only soluble phenolic compounds.
Melissa and team [ 26] studied the antioxidant properties of rice grains with light
brown, red and black pericarp colors and the effect of parboiled processing. The total
phenolic content and antioxidant activity were found to be lower after being processed but in
different amount for different variety of rice.
14
2.5 Drying methods and drying mechanism

2.5.1 Drying methods
Three different drying methods involving the use of fluidized bed dryer, impinging
stream dryer, and superheated stream were studied.
2.5.1.1 Fluidized Bed Dryer (FBD)
Fluidized bed dryers (FBD) are used extensively for the drying of wet particulate and
granular materials that can be fluidized, and even slurries, pastes, and suspensions that can
be fluidized in beds of inert solids [5]. They are commonly used in processing many products
such as chemicals, carbohydrates, foodstuff, biomaterials, beverage products, ceramics
processes and etc.
Commonly recognized advantages of fluidized bed drying include high rate of

moisture removal, high thermal efficiency, easy material transport inside dryer, ease of
control, and low maintenance cost. Limitations of FBD include high pressure drop, high
electrical power consumption, poor fluidization quality of some particulate products, non-
uniform product quality for certain types of FBDs, erosion of pipes and vessels, entrainment
of fine particles, attrition or pulverization of particles, and agglomeration of fine particles.
Conventional fluidized bed is formed by passing a gas stream from the bottom of a
bed of particulate solids. At low gas velocities the bed is static (packed). The bed of particles
rests on a gas distributor plate. The fluidizing gas passes through the distributor and it is
uniformly distributed across the bed. Pressure drop across the bed increases as the fluidizing
gas velocity is increased. At a certain gas velocity, the bed is fluidized when the gas stream
totally supports the weight of the whole bed. This state is known as minimum fluidization
and the corresponding gas velocity is called minimum fluidization velocity. Pressure drop
across the bed remains nearly the same as pressure drop at minimum fluidization even if the
gas velocity is increased further.
The influence of drying using a fluidization technique on the quality of purple rice
was investigated in the work of Chaiwat and team [ 2 7 ] . The results demonstrated that the
influence of drying at temperatures ranging from 100 - 150°C with the initial moisture of
28. 3 dry basis did not affect the quality of total phenolic content, or antioxidant activity
compared to the sun-dried or reference purple rice samples.
2.5.1.2 Impinging Stream Dryer (ISD)
Impinging stream dryer is referred to class of flash dryer which moisture evaporates
in the impingement zone. This type of dryer develops from the collision of two opposite
direction of high velocity streams. Solid or liquid particle flows with the impinging gas
streams. It will be accelerated to a certain velocity which hydrodynamics occurs. After feed
crosses the impingement zone, the particle will penetrate into the opposite stream resulting
in the moment of inertia and deceleration. Then, particle will be accelerated again by the
opposite stream and it will cross the impingement zone. This phenomenon causes several
damped oscillation as shown in Figure 7.
15
Figure 7 Principle of impinging stream dryer [28]
Since there are high shear stress and turbulence an oscillatory motion in impingement
zone results in better heat and mass transfer. This leads to reduction time in drying comparing
to other drying methods. The influence of impinging stream drying method on the total
protein content and antioxidant activity has not yet been reported.
The main advantages of using ISD are lower drying time, simple design and operation
(no moving parts) and its compactness. However, it also comes with disadvantages such as
high pressure drop ( in a comparable level to FBD) because of impingement in the
impingement zone [29]. No researches studied the effect of this drying method on nutritional
value in rice before.
2.5.1.3 Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD)
Superheated steam drying ( SSD) involves the use of superheated steam in a direct
( convective) dryer in place of hot air, combustion, or flue gases as the drying medium to
supply heat for drying and to carry off the evaporated moisture [30]. Any direct or direct and
indirect ( e. g. , combined convection and conduction) dryer can be operated as an SSD, in
principle. The technology involved is more complex and hence this conversion is not simple.
Additional criteria must be considered when selecting a dryer for SSD operation.
One of the obvious advantages of SSD is that the dryer exhaust is also steam, albeit
at lower specific enthalpy. In air drying, the latent heat in the exhausted steam is generally
difficult and expensive to recover. Indeed, at current world prices of energy sources, it is
often more expensive to recover energy in the exhaust steam than to waste it in the stack
gases for most direct dryers with low- to- medium- temperature exhausts. If air infiltration is
avoided ( or minimized to an acceptable level) , it is possible to recover all of the latent heat
supplied in the SSD from the exhaust by condensing the exhaust stream or by mechanical or
thermocompression to elevate its specific enthalpy for reuse in the dryer. As SSD will
necessarily produce steam equal in amount to the water evaporated in the dryer, it is
necessary to have a useful application for this excess steam in the process plant. If this steam
is used elsewhere, the latent heat recovered is not charged to the SSD, leading to a net energy
consumption.
16
The effects of superheated steam drying process on antioxidant properties of Thai

native rice cultivars, Sung Yod Phattalung and Nauykaur, have been investigated [31]. Two-
stage drying process, i.e. fluidisation drying under superheated steam as a medium followed
by shade drying at ambient temperature is employed to dry wet Thai native paddy at 170 °C
for different length of time (2.5–4 min), then followed by shade drying at ambient temperature
until the final moisture content of the paddy comes down to 13–14% w.b.. The results have
shown that increasing drying time in superheated steam resulted in changes of antioxidant
activity of Thai native rice which also depend on variety of Thai native.
2.5.2 Drying mechanism

The drying mechanism of rice in dryers are shwn in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Drying mechanism of rice being contacted with different heating mediums, hot air
for FBD and superheated streamed for SSD. Ts,i refers to surface temperature of substance i
and Tm refer to medium temperature.
The moisture in the center of rice diffuses to the surface of rice because of difference
in concentration. While at the surface of rice grain in FBD and ISD, hot air that passes
through carries water vapor that is transferred from the rice surface to hot air due to the
difference between partial pressure of water vapor within the hot air and vapor pressure of
water at the surface of rice grain. On the other hand, for SSD, the water at surface vaporizes
because of heat received through heat convection from superheated steam to the rice grain.
17
The overall drying rate depends on whether which step is the rate- determining step
(the slowest step). If the water diffusion rate is lower than the rate that heating medium can
carry the water vapor out, the water diffusion rate will control the overall drying rate and the
rate will depend on the value of grain temperature and the type of material being dried. As
for the diffusivity coefficient, this parameter is found to be directly proportional to the grain
temperature. Therefore, the higher grain temperature the higher diffusion rate of water. On
the contrary, if the drying rate from heat or mass convection is lower than water diffusion
rate, the rate that heating medium can carry the water vapor out will control the overall drying
rate. In this case, the drying rate depends on the temperature of heating medium, grain
temperature, and velocity of heating medium.
18
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
Apparatus, material, and method were explained in this chapter, following;
3.1 Plant Materials

The Thai black rice, Riceberry, was harvested from the farm of “Nong- kae”
community enterprise in Bah Huay Prachan, Nong Chang, Uthai Thani province in the center
region of Thailand.
3.2 Parboiled Riceberry process

3.2.1 Soaking and steaming method
2 kilograms of paddy was soaked in water bath at 65ºC for 5 hours to reach the
moisture content up to approximately 55% d.b.. Afterwards, the soaked rice was steamed in
steamer using saturated steam at 103oC and steam flow rate was 5. 70 cm3/ s until percent
gelatinization of paddy is equal to 100% . However, this step was skipped for preparation of
the samples that were used in the superheated steam drying method.
3.2.2 Drying method

Samples of steamed paddy were dried using hot-air fluidization, impinging steam and
superheated stream dryings. In the case of the reference dried paddy sample, the soaked
paddy was only dried at 45oC in hot- air oven. After drying, each dried paddy sample was
kept in a sealed plastic bag and kept at temperature of 4- 6oC for 2 weeks before quality
analysis.
3.2.2.1 Hot-air fluidization drying method
A schematic diagram of a hot air fluidized bed dryer and its accessories was shown
in Figure 9. The system consisted of three major components, viz. ( 1) a fluidized- bed
chamber, 20 cm in diameter and 140 cm in height, ( 2) a 12- kW electrical heater with a
temperature controller, and ( 3) a backward- curved blade centrifugal fan which is driven by
a 1.5-kW motor.
Approximately 2 kilograms of soaked paddy ( corresponding to the bed depth of 10

cm) was dried in the fluidized bed dryer. The dryer operated by air being fed into the system
by the fan at the velocity higher than minimum fluidization velocity, this was around 3.5 m/s.
The air is heated by the heater to temperatures at 130, 150 and 170°C. The hot air then flows
into the drying chamber from the bottom to reduce the moisture content of the paddy. The
sample was removed from the drying chamber when the moisture content had been reduced
to approximately 22% d.b.. Finally, the dried sample was ventilated in ambient air until the
final moisture content reached 13–15% d.b..
19
Figure 9 Schematic diagram of a hot-air fluidized-bed dryer. (1) fluidized-bed

dryer, (2) heater, (3) centrifugal fan
3.2.2.2 Impinging stream drying
A schematic diagram of a hot-air impinging stream dryer is shown in Figure 10. The
dryer consists of (1) a drying chamber with impinging distance of 5 cm, (2) a high-pressure
blower which is driven by a 5.5-kW motor, (3) two electric heaters, each rated at 6 kW, (4)
two globe valves for controlling the flow rate, ( 5) a DC electric motor, rated at 117W and
controlled by a voltage regulator, for driving a star feeder, and (6) cyclone.
The steamed paddy fed at feeding rate of 80 kgdry-paddy/h was dried with an impinging
stream dryer using hot air as the drying medium. The inlet air velocity was fixed at 20 m/ s.
The drying experiments were carried out at the drying air temperatures of 130, 150 and
170°C. Parboiled paddy was kept recycling in the Impinging dryer until the moisture
decreased to 22% d.b. while being tempered every 2 drying cycles after the 10th cycle for a
duration of 30 minutes. Finally, the dried sample was ventilated in ambient air until the final
moisture content reached 13–15% d.b..
20
Figure 10 Schematic diagram of a hot-air impinging stream dryer. (1) drying chamber, (2)
blower, (3) heater, (4) globe valve, (5) feeder, (6) cyclone
3.2.2.3 Superheated steam drying method
Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of a superheated- steam fluidized- bed dryer,

which consists of five main components, viz. (1) fluidized-bed chamber, 15 cm in diameter
and 100 cm in height, ( 2) a 13. 5- kW electrical heater for heating up the saturated steam to
the superheated steam, (3) a backward-curved blade centrifugal fan which is driven by a 2.2-
kW motor, (4) a reverse-flow cyclone, and (5) a boiler.
With superheated steam, steaming and drying can be combined in a single stage. Two
kilograms of paddy was soaked in water bath at 65ºC for 5 hours. After that, the soaked
sample was simultaneously steamed and dried in the superheated steam fluidized bed dryer
at temperatures of 130, 150 and 170°C with the blower speed that will provide the same
Reynolds number as FBD, and static bed depth of 10 cm. The sample was continuously dried
until the moisture decreased to 22% d. b. . After steam drying, the samples were tempered
immediately in an insulated container for 2 hours and then subjected to the second stage
drying by hot air oven at 45 oC until the product moisture content was approximately 13–
15% d.b.. After that, degree of starch gelatinization of each drying temperature was studied
followed the method in section 3.5
21
Figure 11 Schematic diagram of a superheated-steam fluidized-bed drying system. (1)

fluidized-bed dryer, (2) heater, (3) centrifugal fan, (4) cyclone, (5) boiler
3.3 Moisture content

The grain sample of approximately 30 g was dried in a hot- air oven at a temperature
o
of 103 C for 72 h. The dried sample was weighed by a balance with 0. 1 mg accuracy. The
moisture content was calculated in the percentage of dry basis. The relationship between
moisture content and time of the drying process will be analyzed as drying rate.
3.4 Flour preparation

A dry paddy sample was ground by an ultra-centrifugal mill and sieved through a
80-mesh screen corresponding to a particle size of 0.18 mm.
22
3.5 Degree of starch gelatinization

The flour from the paddy sample was loaded into an aluminum pan, and its thermal
properties were examined by differential scanning calorimetry ( DSC) . The DSC procedure
was performed according to the method reported by Normand and Mashall [ 15] . The DSC
trace shows the onset temperature (To), peak temperature (Tp), conclusion temperature (Tc)
and change in enthalpy (ΔH). The degree of starch gelatinization (DG) was calculated using
equation (3.2):
∆H
DG = [1 − ∆H ] x 100 (3.2)
ref
Where ΔH is the change in enthalpy of the dried rice (J/g dry matter) and ΔHref is the
change in enthalpy of the reference purple rice (J/g dry matter).
3.6 Determination of parboiled Riceberry qualities

After removing of paddy husk using a hulling machine with hulling gap of 1 mm,
qualities of parboiled Riceberry including total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, total
protein, and protein solubility were analyzed.
3.6.1 Preparation of Antioxidant Extracts

To evaluate the concentration of TPC and AOAC, the samples were extracted
according to the modified methodology of Melissa Walter et al [ 26] . A one- gram sample
was homogenized with 20 mL of 80% methanol in a 250 mL flash and agitated for 1 h at
room temperature. After this period, the supernatant was separated. To the remaining residue,
20 mL of 80% methanol ( pH 2. 0) was added, and the same procedure of agitation and
separation of the supernatant was completed. To this residue, 20 mL of 70% acetone was
added, and the same procedure of agitation and separation of the supernatant was completed.
The three supernatants were mixed to 60 ml and used for the analysis of TPC and AOAC.
3.6.2 Measurement of total phenolic comtents (TPC)

Total phenolic contents (TPC) were assessed spectrophotometrically using the Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent followed the method of ISO 14502-1 [17] with some modification. Briefly,
1 ml of extract, prepared followed section 3. 6. 1, was mixed with 5 mL of 10% Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent solutions ( v/ v) . The mixture was left to stand at room temperature for 5
min, and then 1.5 mL of a 7.5% aqueous sodium carbonate (w/v) solution was added. After
this, the mixture was left to stand in a dark room at room temperature for 120 min; finally,
absorbance was recorded at 765 nm using a spectrophotometer. The amounts of total phenolic
were calculated from a calibration curve, constructed by running a series of standard
solutions of Gallic acid. The results are expressed as gallic acid equivalents ( GAE)
milligrams per 100 grams of extract.
23
3.6.3 Assessment of antioxidant activity (AOAC)

The trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity ( TEAC) was performed using the DPPH
Free Radical Scavenging Method according to the modified methodology of [ 1 6 ] . 6 ml of
DPPH solution (0.1 mM) was added into the 1 ml sample solution prepared followed section
3. 6. 1. The reaction solution was carried out in a dark room at 25 °C for 30 min. Then the
absorbance of the reaction mixture was monitored at 517 nm using a UV- Vis
spectrophotometer. The DPPH scavenging activity was calculated from a calibration curve,
constructed by running a series of standard solutions of Trolox. The results are expressed as
Trolox equivalents milligrams per 100 grams of extract.
3.6.4 Protein Determination
3.6.4.1 Total Protein
The total protein content was analyzed using Kjeldahl method [ 32] . First, 0. 5 g of
flour sample is prepared in 250- 300 mL Kjeldahl flask. Then, 2 Kjeldahl tabs and 12. 5 mL
of 98% Sulfuric acid are added into the flask. The sample is digested in Digester Auto and
scrubber (2250 Auto and 2501 FOSS) for 2 hours. Then, let the sample cool down. During
digestion process, ammonium ion solution will be converted to ammonia. In distillation
process, 75 mL of distilled water and 50% NaOH are added in the Kjeldahl flask. Then,
Kjeldahl flask is distilled with 4% Boric acid 25 mL in Kjeltec 8200 (FOSS) for 5 minutes.
During distillation process, ammonia gas will be heated up and condensed in a receiving
solution in Kjeldahl flask. After finishing distillation process, the sample is titrated with 0.1
M HCl until the solution changes to pink color which is an endpoint. Total proteins can be
quantified by the amount of nitrogen in the sample which is calculated from the amount of
ammonia ions in the receiving solution. Total proteins can be determined from equation (3.4);
(A−B)× N × 1.4 × F
Total protein (%) = (3.3)
𝑊𝑡
Where: A is volume of HCl titration with sample, mL, B is volume of HCl titration
with blank, mL, Wt is weight of sample, g, N is concentration of HCl, N, and F is factor that
is equal to 5.95.
3.6.4.2 Protein Solubility
The protein solubility was analyzed [33] by preparing 1.5 g of sample. Each sample
is soluted with 0. 2% KOH 75 mL, then stirred for 20 minutes using magnetic stirrer. After
that, the mixture is centrifuged at 2700 rpm for 15 minutes. This method is the separation
between supernatant and sediment. The supernatant is then filtered through glass filter. Later,
15 mL of supernatant is pipetted in 250-300 mL Kjeldahl flask. 2 Kjeldahl tabs and 12.5 mL
of 98% Sulfuric acid are added in Kjeldahl flask together with 2 mL of 30%w/v Hydrogen
Peroxide. The sample is digested in Digetor Auto for 2 hours. Then, let the sample cool
down. In distillation process, 75 mL of distilled water and 50% NaOH are added in the
Kjeldahl flask. Then, Kjeldahl flask is distilled with 4% Boric acid 25 mL in Kjeltec 8200
for 5 minutes. After finishing distillation process, the sample is titrated with 0. 0227 M HCl
until the solution changes to pink color which is an endpoint.
24
Percent protein solubility can be determined from Nitrogen in solution as stated in

the equation (3.7):
1.4007 ×(A−B) × N ×7
%N = (3.4)
𝑊𝑡
Total soluble protein (%) = %N × 5.95 (3.5)

Total soluble protein (%)x100
Percent protein solubility = (3.6)
Total protein (%)
Where: A is volume of HCl titration with sample, mL, B is volume of HCl titration
with blank, mL, Wt is weight of sample, g, and N is concentration of HCl, N.
25
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Steaming time
The samples of parboiled Riceberry rice were prepared by soaking the raw rice in
water bath at the temperature of 65 °C for 5 hours (following the commercial method) to
reach the moisture content of about 55% d.b.. After the soaked samples were steamed at
temperature of 103 °C for a duration long enough to fully gelatinize the rice. This duration,
however, was not known in the beginning. It was determined by using Differential Scanning
Calorimeter (DSC) with a scanning rate of 10 °C/min to check for degree of gelatinization of
different steaming duration, 15 and 20 minutes.
Figure 12 represents the DSC plot of unprocessed Riceberry rice and parboiled
Riceberry rice steamed at 103 °C for 15 minutes and 20 minutes .Only DCS plot of raw
Riceberry rice shows an endothermic peak of gelatinization .The onset temperature of
gelatinization is found to be 61.8 °C and End temperature of 76.6 °C with the peak at 69.8
°C .The peak value is closed to a value reported by Rice Science Center & Rice Gene
Discovery Unit, Thailand [2] .
According to a review by Prakash and team [34], in terms of gelatinization

temperature, Riceberry is in low group) 55 -69 oC gelitinization temperature (rice which is
the same group as Kao Dawk Mali 105 and Jao Hom Nin, it also contains only 15.6 %amylose
which is considered low in amylose [34] .Moreover, it was found by Saiyavit and team [35]
that gelatinization temperature is linearly related to percent amylose content .Therefore, the
result is not unusual. The onset gelatinization temperature acknowledges that the rice is
partially gelatinized during conventional soaking process which is done at the temperature
of around 65 °C .However, the DSC plots of 15-min-steamed and 20-min-steamed Riceberry
rice show no endothermic peak .It can be deduced that the Riceberry steamed with a duration
of 15 minutes is already fully gelatinized .Conservatively, 20 minutes of steaming is used
throughout the experiment for each batch of Riceberry rice to make certain that every batches
of sample are fully gelatinized.
26
Figure 12 DSC Measurement Data of Raw Riceberry rice, 15 minutes steamed Riceberry,
and 20 minutes steamed Riceberry at 103 oC.
4.2 Drying Kinetics between different Drying Methods

Because the purpose of this research is to find the most suitable drying method for
the parboiled Riceberry rice. Different methods of drying including Fluidized Bed Drying
( FBD) and Impinging Stream Drying ( ISD) are used to dry the parboiled rice sample down
to 22% d. b. after the steaming process with the exception for Superheated Steam Drying
( SSD) because it was found that the SSD alone can both fully gelatinize the rice and also
keep the moisture down to 22% d.b..
For ISD, the drying is done for a number of cycles. It was found that the number of
cycles needed to dry the rice from around 55% d.b. down to our desired moisture content for
drying temperature of 130, 150, and 170 oC are 24, 22, and 20 cycles accordingly, as shown
in Figure 13, by tempering the sample for 30 minutes every 2 cycles after the 10th cycle.
For other 2 drying methods (FBD and SSD) the condition used are shown in Table 3
based on same Reynolds Number to achieve the same heating characteristics, neglecting the
effect of different Prantdl Number because it normally has minor effect on the Nusselt
Number. According to Table 1, the velocity of hot air in FBD is fixed to be 3.5 m/s for every
temperature while the velocities of superheated steam used in SSD are higher than 3.5 m/s.
27
Figure 13 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in ISD at different Inlet Medium Temperatures.
Table 3 Heating Medium Superficial Velocity and Reynolds Number for different Drying
Methods.
Superficial Velocity of Medium (m/s)

Drying Temperature (°C) Reynolds Number
FBD SSD
130 26525 3.5 4.3
150 24390 3.5 4.4
170 22530 3.5 4.5
The drying curve from FBD and SSD are shown in Figure 14 and 15, respectively.
28
70
60 FBD 130 °C
Moisture Content (% d.b.)

50
FBD 150 °C
FBD 170 °C
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Drying Time (min)
Figure 14 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in Hot-Air FBD at different inlet medium
temperature.
Figure 15 Drying Curve of Riceberry dried in SSD at different inlet medium temperature.
According to Figure 14, it was found that the amount of time required to dry the rice
down to 22% d. b. are approximately 8 minutes – 50 seconds, 8 minutes and 7 minutes – 8
seconds at inlet heating medium temperature of 130, 150, and 170 °C respectively. This is
because the moisture content of rice decreases faster as temperature increases. Moreover,
29
when the rice is dried using superheated steam as heating medium, similar pattern in
decreasing of moisture content is detected except for initial condensation of steam within the
first minute of drying at inlet superheated steam temperature of 130 °C. Condensation causes
increase in moisture content of rice in the very beginning of the drying process. This occurs
because, initially, the grain temperature is lower than saturated temperature of water (100°C
at 1 atm).
For higher temperatures ( 150 and 170 °C) , condensation is not clearly detected
because no increase in moisture content was found. However, the moisture content within
the first minute does change very insignificantly. This could be because of the undetected
condensation that prevents the moisture content from a major decline. Chaiyong and team
[ 3 6 ] found that condensation also occurs at 150 °C and 170 °C. The unclear decline in
moisture content could be because the condensation occurs but stop within a very short period
of time. Since the velocities used in this experiment is much higher than the one used in
Chaiyong’s work ( 4. 4 m/ s compared to 3. 1 m/ s) . Higher velocities increase the heat
convection between the hot air and rice grain which fasten the rise in grain temperature and
help to surpass the condensation phase faster. According to Figure 15, the amount of time
required to dry the rice down to 22% d.b. are 6 minutes - 40 seconds, 5 minutes – 50 seconds,
and 5 minutes with superheated steam at inlet temperature of 130, 150, and 170 °C,
respectively. Therefore, it can be said that SSD takes shorter time to dry the rice down to
22% d.b. at any of the following temperatures (130, 150, and 170 °C) while also allows to
skip the steaming process. Furthermore, the rates of drying of rice in FBD and SSD are
determined approximately by using slope between 2 points as shown in Figure 16 and 17.
14.00
FBD 130 °C
12.00 FBD 150 °C
Drying Rate (% d.b./min.)
FBD 170 °C
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
Figure 16 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in FBD at different moisture content and inlet
medium temperatures.
30
20.00
18.00 SSD 130 °C
SSD 150 °C
16.00
Drying Rate (% d.b./min.)

SSD 170 °C
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00
Figure 17 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in SSD at different moisture content and inlet
medium temperatures
According to Figure 16 and 17, both the drying rate in FBD and SSD are in the falling
regime, in this case, the diffusion of water from the center of rice to the surface controls the
drying rate. The diffusivity coefficient depends on the type of material and grain temperature.
Higher inlet heating medium temperature normally leads to higher grain temperature at the
same moisture content as shown in Figure 18, 19, and 20. Also, drying rate in this regime
falls down as the moisture content decreases due to reduction in diffusional driving force in
the form of difference in moisture content between water at the surface of rice and water in
the center rice. Comparisons between the drying rate of rice dried in FBD and SSD are
compared in Figure 18, 19, and 20.
31
0.14 140
Drying Rate (kg H2O/kg dried rice)

0.12 120
Grain Temperature (°C)

0.10 100
SSD 130 C
0.08 80
FBD 130 C
0.06 GT SSD 130 C 60
0.04 GT FBD 130 C 40
0.02 20
0.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 18 Drying Rate of Riceberry dried in FBD and SSD at 130 °C in different moisture
content.
0.16 160
0.14 140

0.12 120
0.10 SSD 150 C 100
0.08
FBD 150 C 80
GT SSD 150
0.06 60
GT FBD 150 C
0.04 40
0.02 20
0.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
content.
32
0.20 180

0.18 160
0.16 140

0.14
SSD 170 C 120
0.12
FBD 170 C 100
0.10
GT SSD 170 C 80
0.08
GT FBD 170 C 60
0.06
0.04 40
0.02 20
0.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
content.
From Figure 18, 19, and 20, drying rate in SSD seems to be noticeably higher than in
FBD. This is supported by the data of grain temperature for each drying method. Grain
temperature in SSD is always higher than grain temperature after moisture content reaches
50% d.b. in FBD which compliments the fact that rice is dried faster in SSD.
Table 4 Drying time needed to achieve 22% d.b. moisture content in each drying method.
Drying time
o
Temperature ( C)
FBD SSD ISD
48 sec. of drying in chamber

130 8 min. 50 sec. 6 min. 40 sec.
+ 210 min. of tempering

150 8 min. 5 min. 50 sec.

170 7 min. 8 sec. 5 min.
33
The drying time required for Riceberry within different drying methods and different
drying temperatures are shown in Table 4. According to Table 4, it can be seen that for any
given drying temperature the required drying time are in an order of ISD < SSD < FBD if
tempering time is not taken into account. This is because usually the heat transfer coefficient
is higher than other drying methods in ISD [ 2 9 ] due to collision between rice grains and
oscillatory movement in the impingement zone which enhances the degree of turbulence and
therefore leads to higher heat and mass transfer coefficient.
For ISD, the dryer is effective in removing surface moisture [29], however, after the
rice is dried for a few no. of cycles, tempering is needed to help rushing inside moisture to
the surface of rice which requires a large amount waiting time. Therefore, it could be more
beneficial if ISD is integrated together with other dryers, in this case, to use the ISD to dry
the rice for only a certain amount of moisture content and later switch to other drying methods
such as FBD or SSD.
For SSD, the drying time for each temperature is also significantly lower than FBD,
having the difference in required drying time of around 2 minutes and 10 seconds. Also,
when SSD is used, the steaming step can be skipped. This helps to reduce processing time
for another 20 minutes. If tempering time of ISD is taken into account, SSD is the best drying
option in terms of time usage following by FBD.
4.3 Antioxidant Analysis

4.3.1 Total Phenolic Content
Before the analysis total phenolic content for the samples are done, standard
curve is prepared with gallic acid, a standard phenolic compound, at different concentrations
(Procedure no. 3. 6.2) through Folio-Ciocalteu Method. After that, the powder of different
dried parboiled rice samples obtained through procedure no. 3.4 were analyzed with the same
method which gives the results as shown in Figure 21.
34
Figure 21 Total Phenolic Content of raw sample and samples processed in different methods.
Figure 21 shows the amount of total phenolic content in mg gallic/ 100g of sample
which is commonly used in expressing the total phenolic content. The results are found to be
in the range of 145 - 222 mg Gallic/ 100g rice which seems to be reasonable when compared
to the results from Melissa’s publication [26] . Melissa has the results in between 33 to 634
mg Gallic/ 100g rice.
Firstly, the amount of TPC in raw rice is the highest compared to all other samples,
this means that any drying process used in this experiment does illuminate some portion of
TPC within the rice sample. Moreover, the change in TPC emerges from increasing
temperature of each drying method seems to be directly proportionate. The higher the
temperature, the more TPC. This might be because of the lower drying time as temperature
increases. Due to lower drying time, the sample has a shorter time being exposed to the
oxygen within air in the drying chamber. As for reaction kinetics, phenolic compounds
should react with oxygen( oxidation reaction) at a faster rate at different temperatures. The
duration sample is exposed to air, however, in this case, seems to be a bigger factor than the
increased temperature. This results in higher TPC as temperature is increased for each drying
method.
However, in theory, it is impossible for samples that are dried in SSD to react with
oxygen in the chamber because SSD only uses superheated steam to flow through the
samples. The other way phenolic compounds can be lost are thermal degradation but this
requires very high temperatures [37] (more than 170 oC). Therefore, practically, it is believed
that there are some air leaking into the system which allows the phenolic compounds to
oxidize to other forms.
For ISD, it can be noticed that the amount of TPC is quite a bit lower than FBDs and
SSDs at the same drying temperature. This could possibly be because 20 m/s velocity is used
for ISD comparing to others which use around 3. 5 – 4. 5 m/ s the velocity is 5 times higher.
Even though the retention time within the impinging stream dryer is fairly short when
compared to FBD, 40 – 48 seconds. The degree of turbulence within the impingement zone
35
might be higher which makes antioxidant more exposed to oxygen in the air. The same
pattern is also observed, as drying temperature goes up more TPC is left. The is due to the
fact that higher drying temperature requires less number of cycles to reach the desired
moisture content. As for the ventilated one, this rice sample is dried through ventilation at 45
°C in hot air oven. In this case, it takes almost 4 hours to dry the rice down to 16% d.b. which
leaves the rice exposed to air for the longest time and therefore left with the lowest amount
of TPC, comparatively.
4.3.2 Antioxidant Capacity
Figure 22 Antioxidant Capacity of raw sample and samples processed in different methods.
Figure 22 shows the antioxidant capacity in mg Trolox/ 100 g of sample which is

commonly used in expressing the antioxidant activity. The change in AOAC also occurs
because of increase in temperature of each drying method. This is because AOAC measures
the amount of all antioxidants including flavonoids and phenolic compounds. The results are
found to be very much alike in terms of patterns that can be observed in antioxidant as
temperature increases. The higher the temperature, the more AOAC. The reasons for the
decrease in antioxidant are the same as for TPC.
Since the patterns of changes in antioxidant measured from TPC and AOAC
seem to be somewhat alike. Relationship between lost of Trolox and lost of phenolic content
relative to raw rice sample are plotted in Figure 23 below.
36
50
Trolox lost (mg Trolox/ 100 g rice)

40 y = 1.3079x - 1.7051
R² = 0.9522
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
-10
Phenolic Lost (mg Gallic/ 100 g rice)
Figure 23 Relationship between lost in TPC and AOAC
Considering from the relationship between lost in TPC and AOAC, it can be seen that
the relationship is very close to linear (R-squared of 95.22%). This could be because most of
antioxidants in Riceberry rice are mostly represented by the phenolic compounds as found
out by Melissa and Panawan [16]. The higher percentage of phenolic compounds in overall
antioxidant, the more linear the relationship between TPC and AOAC will be. Since, TPC
only measures amount of phenolic compounds and AOAC measures all the antioxidant
including phenolic compounds. Measurement of flavonoids is recommended to have more
concise results in analyzing the amount of antioxidant.
4.4 Protein and Protein Solubility Analysis

Different rice samples are analyzed with Kjeldahl Method to obtain the
amount of total nitrogen and converted to amount of protein with a factor of 5. 95 which is
recommended for rice. The amount of Glutelin in different samples are also determined with
the same method by using the extracted samples from method 3.6.1 which are later compared
to the total protein amount to obtain the percent solubility or percent glutelins. The results
for total protein content and protein solubility are shown in Figure 13 and 14, respectively.
As for now, the results are not yet complete and will be reported in the final report and
presentation.
According to Figure 24, The amount of total protein within rice samples that went
through different drying processes are found to be the same as shown in Figure 24. This is
because Kjeldahl Method measures the concentration of nitrogen atoms which cannot lost
from the samples even if the processes denature the protein. Denaturation only changes the
molecules configuration and therefore the same amount of proteins should always be
obtained through this method.
37
Figure 24 Concentration of Total Protein within different processed samples.
Figure 25 Protein Solubility of different processed samples.
According to Z. Y. Ju, it was also found that the protein denaturation temperature of
Riceberry is approximately 80 °C. This means that the protein could possibly be denatured
during the processes. However, the value of this temperature also depends on the variety of
rice so more information on the denaturation temperature of Riceberry rice would be helpful
in understanding these phenomena accurately.
38
Considering from Figure 25, the protein solubility for raw rice sample is the highest
and the value should remain the same after soaking the rice. Shade dried sample, however,
is detected to have a bit lower protein solubility compared to raw rice after it was steamed
with a grain temperature of 103 °C for 20 minutes. Ventilated sample is a soaked and steamed
sample that was dried by leaving at a room temperature of 30 °C for 24 hours. Ventilated
sample was dried in hot air oven at 45 °C for 4 hours and the protein solubility of ventilated
sample seems to be the same as the shade dried one since they are both dried in temperature
lower than 90 °C (denaturation temperature).
For samples that were dried with SSD, it was found that as drying temperature
increases the protein solubility decreases. Even though higher temperature SSD has lower
drying time the protein seems to denature more which could be because the higher
temperature increases the kinetics of protein denaturation so that protein in 170 °C SSD
denatures more with lower drying time compared to the 150 °C and 130 °C ones.
39
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
The gelatinization temperature of Riceberry was found to be in the range of 61. 8 –
76.6 oC which confirms the data given by Kasetsart University Rice Center and is considered
to be in low gelatinization temperature group [34]. It is required for soaked Riceberry sample
to be steamed at 103 oC for at least 15 minutes to make sure that the starch in the rice is fully
gelatinized.
For required drying time, SSD is recommended because of its high drying rate
compared to FBD while not having to be tempered which gives a lowest drying time when
taking into account the tempering time. ISD is a good choice if it is integrated with other
dryers to continue drying the rice after surface water is removed.
For TPC and AOAC, it was found that the values of TPC and AOAC are sensitive to
the time rice is exposed to air more than changes in temperature in this experiment. Also, the
changes in TPC and AOAC are fairly linear which implies that phenolic compounds represent
as majority of the antioxidant. It is recommended to choose only one method if experimental
cost is of concern while measuring both quantities can help to confirm the result if their
changes are linear. The effect of superheated steam on TPC and AOAC is not significant
because superheated steam does not carry air to oxidize the antioxidant within rice.
For protein and protein solubility, the protein content within each sample should not
be significantly different because the Kjeldahl method used in this experiment measures the
amount of protein based on the amount of N2 being titrated while protein denaturation only
changes the molecular configuration and not the composition of protein. However, changes
in protein solubility of raw rice were detected due to protein denaturation. As for now, only
the data for samples that were processed in SSD are available. However, according to the
data, protein solubility will be decreased as drying temperature increases even though the
drying time is lower.
Therefore, if the qualities of TPC and AOAC are of the most concern, SSD is the
most suitable choice for a parboiled Riceberry product. While 170 oC drying temperature
operating temperature will give the fastest drying rate with highest amount of TPC and
AOAC left, energy cost might be another factor that should be concerned before operating
the dryer at such temperature. If the quality of protein is more concerned.
Further suggestions – 1. More detailed study on kinetics of oxidation of antioxidant

and denaturation of protein in Riceberry will be beneficial to researchers in this field 2. There
should be occasional examination and maintenance of dryer machines before real usage. 3.
Well planned schedule plays vital role for the results because all experiments including minor
one require a certain amount time and precision, and etc.
40
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45
APPENDIX
46
APPENDIX A
Moisture Content and Drying rate
47
Table 5 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 130
kg water
Moisture content ( kg dried solid )
Time Drying
̅̅̅̅̅
MC𝑖 Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5532 0.5548 0.5592 0.5557 0.00254 - - 20
0.5 0.5625 0.5565 0.5509 0.5566 0.00474 - - -
1 0.4876 0.4897 0.4936 0.4903 0.00248 0.5234 0.1326 81
3 0.3513 0.3508 0.3515 0.3512 0.00033 0.4207 0.0696 100
5 0.2734 0.2718 0.2718 0.2723 0.00075 0.3117 0.0394 108
7 0.2103 0.2095 0.2165 0.2121 0.00315 0.2422 0.0301 114
10 0.1413 0.1407 0.1395 0.1405 0.00073 0.1763 0.0239 119
15 0.0846 0.0844 0.0841 0.0844 0.00020 0.1124 0.0112 -
Table 6 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 150 °C
kg water
Time Drying
̅̅̅̅̅𝑖
MC Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5513 0.5427 0.5473 0.5471 0.00350 - - 20
0.5 0.5305 0.5478 0.5418 0.5400 0.00716 - - -
1 0.4710 0.4694 0.4660 0.4688 0.00208 0.5044 0.1424 85
3 0.3230 0.3404 0.3248 0.3294 0.00784 0.3991 0.0697 105
5 0.2451 0.2481 0.2503 0.2478 0.00213 0.2886 0.0408 117
7 0.1890 0.1807 0.1740 0.1812 0.00614 0.2145 0.0333 130
10 0.1144 0.1248 0.1211 0.1201 0.00432 0.1507 0.0204 140
15 0.0578 0.0660 0.0631 0.0623 0.00340 0.0912 0.0116 -
48
Table 7 Moisture content and drying rate of the Superheated Steam Dryer (SSD) at 170 °C
kg water
Time Drying
̅̅̅̅̅
MC𝑖 Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5432 0.5468 0.5417 0.5439 0.00213 - - 20
0.5 0.5240 0.5301 0.5275 0.5272 0.00250 - - -
1 0.4401 0.4383 0.4421 0.4402 0.00156 0.4837 0.1740 91
3 0.3050 0.3047 0.3041 0.3046 0.00039 0.3724 0.0678 114
5 0.2128 0.2281 0.2260 0.2223 0.00676 0.2634 0.0411 139
7 0.1639 0.1445 0.1449 0.1511 0.00904 0.1867 0.0356 151
10 0.0921 0.0887 0.0808 0.0872 0.00476 0.1191 0.0213 160
15 0.0525 0.0363 0.0441 0.0443 0.00660 0.0657 0.0086 -
Table 8 Moisture content and drying rate of the Hot Air Fluidized Bed (FBD) at 130 °C
kg water
Time Drying
̅̅̅̅̅𝑖
MC Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5634 0.5577 0.5568 0.5593 0.00291 - - 20
1 0.4551 0.4445 0.4515 0.4503 0.00440 0.5048 0.1090 51
3 0.3510 0.3588 0.3542 0.3547 0.00320 0.4025 0.0478 76
5 0.2912 0.2946 0.2848 0.2902 0.00406 0.3224 0.0322 91
10 0.1683 0.1656 0.1648 0.1662 0.00150 0.2282 0.0248 106
15 0.0994 0.1035 0.0998 0.1009 0.00188 0.1336 0.0131 -
49
kg water
Drying
Time ̅̅̅̅̅
MC𝑖 Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5426 0.5390 0.5652 0.5489 0.01160 - - 20
1 0.4340 0.4326 0.4237 0.4301 0.00455 0.4895 0.1188 58
3 0.3217 0.3269 0.3337 0.3274 0.00489 0.3788 0.0513 97
5 0.2717 0.2578 0.2536 0.2610 0.00775 0.2942 0.0332 107
10 0.1361 0.1536 0.1389 0.1429 0.00768 0.2020 0.0236 125
15 0.0705 0.0696 0.0693 0.0698 0.00051 0.1063 0.0146 -
kg water
Drying
Time ̅̅̅̅̅𝑖
MC Rate GT
(min) Times
(°C)
Avg. SD (MC/min)
1 2 3
0 0.5661 0.5423 0.5480 0.5521 0.01015 - - 20
1 0.4198 0.4217 0.4185 0.4200 0.00131 0.4861 0.1321 65
3 0.3082 0.3065 0.3171 0.3106 0.00464 0.3653 0.0547 108
5 0.2272 0.2361 0.2267 0.2300 0.00433 0.2703 0.0403 123
10 0.0924 0.0921 0.0905 0.0917 0.00086 0.1608 0.0277 154
15 0.0407 0.0348 0.0301 0.0352 0.00430 0.0634 0.0113 -
50
Table 11 Moisture content and drying rate of the Impinging Stream Dryer (ISD) at 130 °C
kg water
̅̅̅̅̅ Drying Rate
Cycle MC𝑖 GT
Times (MC/min)
Avg. SD (°C)
1 2 3
Initial 0.6295 0.6154 0.6210 0.6220 0.0058 - 20.0 -
1 0.6057 0.6086 0.6208 0.6117 0.0065 0.6168 21.2 0.3084
2 0.6112 0.6028 0.5981 0.6041 0.0054 0.6079 35.1 0.2290
3 0.5961 0.5810 0.5824 0.5865 0.0068 0.5953 43.5 0.5266
4 0.5703 0.5729 0.5756 0.5729 0.0022 0.5797 50.4 0.4073
5 0.5377 0.5585 0.5359 0.5441 0.0103 0.5585 54.3 0.8662
6 0.5224 0.5121 0.5399 0.5248 0.0115 0.5344 58.1 0.5768
7 0.5015 0.5065 0.5089 0.5056 0.0031 0.5152 58.9 0.5763
8 0.4957 0.5016 0.4829 0.4934 0.0078 0.4995 59.3 0.3661
9 0.4492 0.4560 0.4675 0.4575 0.0076 0.4755 59.9 1.0764
10 0.4327 0.4365 0.4465 0.4386 0.0058 0.4481 60.9 0.5693
11 0.3963 0.4137 0.4040 0.4047 0.0071 0.4216 61.2 1.0167
12 0.4084 0.3892 0.3870 0.3949 0.0096 0.3998 62.3 0.2936
13 0.3456 0.3759 0.3898 0.3704 0.0185 0.3827 60.8 0.7341
14 0.3529 0.3621 0.3584 0.3578 0.0038 0.3641 61.4 0.3782
15 0.3201 0.3664 0.3295 0.3386 0.0200 0.3482 61.3 0.5751
16 0.3202 0.3383 0.3299 0.3295 0.0074 0.3340 61.5 0.2758
17 0.3103 0.3203 0.3367 0.3224 0.0109 0.3259 61.4 0.2105
18 0.3224 0.3154 0.2960 0.3113 0.0112 0.3169 60.9 0.3349
19 0.2841 0.2999 0.2830 0.2890 0.0078 0.3001 60.8 0.6688
20 0.2661 0.2732 0.2740 0.2711 0.0036 0.2800 61.8 0.5364
21 0.2461 0.2532 0.2526 0.2506 0.0032 0.2609 60.9 0.6140
22 0.2467 0.2487 0.2453 0.2469 0.0014 0.2488 61.3 0.1121
23 0.2351 0.2313 0.2361 0.2342 0.0021 0.2405 61.4 0.3819
24 0.2293 0.2179 0.2316 0.2263 0.0060 0.2302 61.7 0.2369
Drying rate average (MC/min) 0.5152
51
kg water
Cycle MC𝑖 GT
Times (MC/min)
Avg. SD (°C)
1 2 3
Initial 0.6382 0.6217 0.6233 0.6277 0.0074 - 20.0 -
1 0.6187 0.6131 0.6147 0.6155 0.0024 0.6216 20.0 0.3663
2 0.5868 0.5933 0.5968 0.5923 0.0041 0.6039 38.2 0.6964
3 0.5768 0.5781 0.5701 0.5750 0.0035 0.5837 48.9 0.5185
4 0.5482 0.5366 0.5405 0.5418 0.0048 0.5584 56.3 0.9970
5 0.5193 0.5041 0.5281 0.5172 0.0099 0.5295 59.2 0.7386
6 0.5010 0.5079 0.4630 0.4906 0.0197 0.5039 63.1 0.7961
7 0.4883 0.4808 0.4721 0.4804 0.0066 0.4855 64.8 0.3073
8 0.4647 0.4651 0.4614 0.4637 0.0017 0.4721 66.2 0.4997
9 0.4468 0.4411 0.4342 0.4407 0.0052 0.4522 66.5 0.6912
10 0.4281 0.4231 0.4203 0.4238 0.0032 0.4323 64.3 0.5058
11 0.3959 0.3988 0.4090 0.4012 0.0056 0.4125 64.6 0.6777
12 0.3881 0.3881 0.3851 0.3871 0.0014 0.3942 65.8 0.4243
13 0.3560 0.3633 0.3648 0.3614 0.0038 0.3742 66.0 0.7721
14 0.3611 0.3417 0.3497 0.3508 0.0080 0.3561 65.8 0.3156
15 0.3295 0.3231 0.3275 0.3267 0.0027 0.3388 63.5 0.7243
16 0.3262 0.3134 0.3145 0.3180 0.0058 0.3224 63.7 0.2601
17 0.3071 0.3047 0.2986 0.3035 0.0036 0.3108 62.8 0.4367
18 0.2816 0.2852 0.2811 0.2826 0.0018 0.2931 61.0 0.6253
19 0.2741 0.2673 0.2703 0.2706 0.0028 0.2766 62.2 0.3620
20 0.2542 0.2604 0.2579 0.2575 0.0025 0.2640 62.5 0.3922
21 0.2357 0.2431 0.2466 0.2418 0.0045 0.2496 63.0 0.4708
22 0.2285 0.2278 0.2203 0.2255 0.0037 0.2337 63.2 0.4882
52
kg water
Cycle MC𝑖 GT
Times (MC/min)
Avg. SD (°C)
1 2 3
Initial 0.6216 0.6210 0.6215 0.6214 0.0003 - 19.8 -
1 0.6170 0.6143 0.6179 0.6164 0.0015 0.6189 20.0 0.1484
2 0.6035 0.5844 0.5921 0.5933 0.0078 0.6049 38.2 0.6923
3 0.5746 0.5756 0.5733 0.5745 0.0009 0.5839 52.0 0.5651
4 0.5391 0.5446 0.5418 0.5418 0.0022 0.5582 53.0 0.9804
5 0.5271 0.5191 0.5146 0.5203 0.0052 0.5311 53.1 0.6462
6 0.4977 0.4918 0.4921 0.4939 0.0027 0.5071 60.5 0.7925
7 0.4785 0.4745 0.4741 0.4757 0.0020 0.4848 66.6 0.5449
8 0.4636 0.4692 0.4676 0.4668 0.0024 0.4713 67.8 0.2671
9 0.4418 0.4392 0.4413 0.4408 0.0011 0.4538 68.0 0.7813
10 0.4160 0.4197 0.4117 0.4158 0.0033 0.4283 68.0 0.7487
11 0.3710 0.3819 0.3934 0.3821 0.0092 0.3989 66.0 1.0112
12 0.3444 0.3451 0.3516 0.3470 0.0032 0.3646 66.3 1.0518
13 0.3145 0.3217 0.3241 0.3201 0.0041 0.3336 65.8 0.8081
14 0.2915 0.3150 0.3013 0.3026 0.0096 0.3113 66.0 0.5249
15 0.2866 0.2924 0.2826 0.2872 0.0040 0.2949 65.8 0.4624
16 0.2698 0.2666 0.2577 0.2647 0.0051 0.2759 65.9 0.6746
17 0.2378 0.2232 0.2361 0.2324 0.0065 0.2485 66.3 0.9703
18 0.2234 0.2134 0.2271 0.2213 0.0058 0.2268 66.5 0.3316
19 0.2154 0.2163 0.2089 0.2135 0.0033 0.2174 65.8 0.2331
20 0.2109 0.1890 0.2052 0.2017 0.0093 0.2076 65.9 0.3554
53
Table 14 Moisture content of the Ventiliation by using Hot-air oven at 45 °C
kg water
Time ̅̅̅̅̅𝑖
MC
(min) Times
Avg. SD
1 2 3
0 0.5607 0.5616 0.5593 0.5605 0.0010 -
5 0.5426 0.5442 0.5457 0.5442 0.0012 0.5529
10 0.5147 0.5199 0.5108 0.5151 0.0037 0.5320
15 0.4952 0.4976 0.5061 0.4996 0.0047 0.5087
20 0.4735 0.4845 0.4738 0.4773 0.0051 0.4910
25 0.4641 0.4642 0.4526 0.4603 0.0055 0.4743
30 0.4348 0.4486 0.4461 0.4432 0.0060 0.4564
40 0.4222 0.4351 0.4353 0.4309 0.0062 0.4419
50 0.4092 0.4206 0.4055 0.4118 0.0064 0.4279
60 0.3768 0.3890 0.3916 0.3858 0.0065 0.4048
75 0.3648 0.3657 0.3505 0.3604 0.0070 0.3774
90 0.3424 0.3218 0.3291 0.3311 0.0085 0.3438
105 0.2913 0.2869 0.2714 0.2832 0.0086 0.3044
120 0.2335 0.2533 0.2375 0.2414 0.0086 0.2701
150 0.2154 0.1953 0.1961 0.2023 0.0093 0.2243
180 0.2014 0.1787 0.1757 0.1853 0.0115 0.1870
210 0.1742 0.1462 0.1572 0.1592 0.0115 0.1624
240 0.1644 0.1355 0.1359 0.1453 0.0135 0.1408
300 0.1266 0.1415 0.1011 0.1231 0.0166 0.1385
360 0.1558 0.0854 0.0834 0.1082 0.0336 0.1134
420 0.0707 0.0846 0.1623 0.1059 0.0403 0.0850
54
APPENDIX B
Antioxidant and Protein
55
Table 15 Total Phenolic Contents (TPC) by expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE)
Absorbance GAE Phenolic

Sample (mgGallic/100 Lost
1 2 3 Avg. SD gRice) (% wt )
Raw 0.437 0.438 0.439 0.438 0.00087 222.63 0.00
Ventilate 0.265 0.278 0.277 0.273 0.00602 145.41 34.69
FBD 130 °C 0.308 0.320 0.319 0.316 0.00556 165.45 25.69
FBD 150 °C 0.341 0.340 0.342 0.341 0.00111 177.28 20.37
FBD 170 °C 0.348 0.360 0.361 0.356 0.00596 184.31 17.21
ISD 130 °C 0.294 0.293 0.301 0.296 0.00373 156.19 29.85
ISD 150 °C 0.326 0.316 0.331 0.324 0.00635 169.43 23.90
ISD 170 °C 0.334 0.329 0.342 0.335 0.00557 174.59 21.58
SSD 130 °C 0.369 0.378 0.366 0.371 0.00508 191.34 14.05
SSD 150 °C 0.378 0.384 0.381 0.381 0.00269 196.03 11.95
SSD 170 °C 0.389 0.388 0.387 0.388 0.00080 199.31 10.47
Table 16 Antioxidant activity (AOAC) by trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC)
Absorbance TEAC Trolox

Sample (mgTrolox / lost
1 2 3 Avg. SD 100 gRice) (% wt.)
Raw 0.107 0.102 0.107 0.106 0.00228 292.06 0.00
Ventilate 0.302 0.303 0.308 0.306 0.00239 162.87 44.23
FBD 130 °C 0.260 0.270 0.263 0.265 0.00421 189.65 35.07
FBD 150 °C 0.236 0.258 0.244 0.246 0.00890 201.74 30.93
FBD 170 °C 0.210 0.203 0.211 0.208 0.00363 226.10 22.59
ISD 130 °C 0.248 0.259 0.262 0.257 0.00585 194.97 33.24
ISD 150 °C 0.231 0.240 0.250 0.240 0.00746 205.45 29.66
ISD 170 °C 0.238 0.232 0.219 0.230 0.00802 212.23 27.34
SSD 130 °C 0.203 0.210 0.210 0.208 0.00311 226.42 22.48
SSD 150 °C 0.168 0.163 0.187 0.173 0.01055 249.16 14.69
SSD 170 °C 0.141 0.146 0.148 0.145 0.00262 266.74 8.67
Table 17 Total Protein in the Brown and Parboiled Riceberry from each Drying methods
56
Weight M.C. Dry weight Total protein

Sample A (ml)
(g) (%d.b.) (g) (gProtein / gRice)
Blank 1 - - - 1.47 -
Blank 2 - - - 1.43 -
Blank Average (B) 1.45 -
Raw brown rice 1 0.5024 13.51 0.3834 12.8 5.60
Raw brown rice 2 0.5105 13.51 0.3915 12.9 5.53
Raw brown rice 3 0.4977 13.51 0.3787 12.7 5.62
AVG Raw brown rice 5.58
SD Raw brown rice 0.05
Shaded rice 1 0.5013 13.14 0.3852 13.1 5.72
Shaded rice2 0.5035 13.14 0.3874 13.1 5.69
Shaded rice 3 0.4998 13.14 0.3837 13.1 5.74
AVG Shaded rice 5.72
SD Shaded rice 0.03
Ventilate 1 0.5028 13.15 0.3866 12.7 5.50
Ventilate 2 0.4986 13.15 0.3824 12.5 5.46
Ventilate 3 0.5012 13.15 0.3850 12.6 5.48
AVG Ventiated Parboiled Riceberry 5.48
SD Ventiated Parboiled Rice 0.02
SSD 130 °C 1 0.5002 13.09 0.3845 13.3 5.83
SSD 130 °C 2 0.5029 13.09 0.3872 13.5 5.89
SSD 130 °C 3 0.5007 13.09 0.3850 13.4 5.87
AVG Parboiled Riceberry SSD 130 °C 5.86
SD Parboiled Riceberry SSD 130 °C 0.03
SSD 150 °C 1 0.5031 13.11 0.3872 13.3 5.76
SSD 150 °C 2 0.5019 13.11 0.3860 13.2 5.76
SSD 150 °C 3 0.5009 13.11 0.3850 13.2 5.77
SSD 170 °C 1 0.4976 12.88 0.3835 13.0 5.70
SSD 170 °C 2 0.4971 12.88 0.3830 13.1 5.75
SSD 170 °C 3 0.4991 12.88 0.3850 13 5.67
57
Table 18 Protein Solubility in the Brown and Parboiled Riceberry from each Drying methods
Nitrogen
M.C. Dry weight
Sample Weight (g) A (ml) in solution
(%db) (g)
(gN/gRice)
Blank 1 - - - 0.72 -
Blank 2 - - - 0.80 -
Blank Average (B) 0.76 -
Raw brown rice 1 1.5008 13.51 1.3818 6.59 0.67
Raw brown rice 2 1.5008 13.51 1.3818 6.53 0.66
Raw brown rice 3 1.5008 13.51 1.3818 6.73 0.69
AVG Raw brown rice 0.67
SD Raw brown rice 0.01
Total protein (gProtein/gRice) 4.01
Percent protein solubility (%) 71.79
Shaded rice 1 1.5004 13.14 1.3843 6.35 0.64
Shaded rice2 1.5004 13.14 1.3843 6.03 0.60
Shaded rice 3 1.5004 13.14 1.3843 6.48 0.66
AVG Shaded rice 0.63
SD Shaded rice 0.03
Ventilate 1 1.5008 13.15 1.3846 5.68 0.56
Ventilate 2 1.5008 13.15 1.3846 6.07 0.61
Ventilate 3 1.5008 13.15 1.3846 6.18 0.62
AVG Ventiated Parboiled Riceberry 0.60
SD Ventiated Parboiled Rice 0.03
58
Nitrogen
M.C. Dry weight
Sample Weight (g) A (ml) in solution
(%db) (g)
(gN/gRice)
SSD 130 °C 1 1.5008 13.09 1.3858 6.28 0.63
SSD 130 °C 2 1.5008 13.09 1.3858 6.08 0.61
SSD 130 °C 3 1.5008 13.09 1.3858 6.18 0.62
SSD 150 °C 1 1.4998 13.11 1.3848 6.42 0.65
SSD 150 °C 2 1.4998 13.11 1.3848 5.82 0.58
SSD 150 °C 3 1.4998 13.11 1.3848 5.31 0.52
SSD 170 °C 1 1.4998 12.88 1.3848 4.06 0.47
SSD 170 °C 2 1.4998 12.88 1.3848 4.43 0.51
SSD 170 °C 3 1.4998 12.88 1.3848 4.20 0.48
59
APPENDIX C
Reynolds number and Velocity
60
Table 19 Reynold number of FBD for each temperature by fix velocity of hot air at 3.5 m/s
Kinemtic
Temperature Reynold
viscosity Velocity (m/s) Diameter (m)
(°C) number
(m2/s)
130 2.64E-05 3.5 0.20 26525.20
150 2.87E-05 3.5 0.20 24390.24
170 3.11E-05 3.5 0.20 22529.77
To provide the SSD same Reynold number as FBD by the blower speed so the velocity in
bed will need to calculate by using Reynold number from table 16
Table 20 Velocity of SSD for each temperature to provide same Reynold number of FBD
Dynamic
Temperature Reynold Density Diameter Velocity
viscosity
(°C) number (kg/m3) (m) (m/s)
(Pa.s)
130 26525.20 0.550 1.34E-05 0.15 4.307
150 24390.24 0.523 1.42E-05 0.15 4.407
170 22529.77 0.499 1.50E-05 0.15 4.510
Table 18 Operating blower speed of SSD for each temperature
SSD Tempeature 130 °C

Velocity at
Blower speed Pressure drop Velocity at Bed Blower speed
Check point
(rpm) (hPA) Chamber (m/s) used (rpm)
(m/s)
1000 0.62 15.203 3.311
1100 0.88 18.112 3.944 1162
1200 1.16 20.795 4.529
Velocity at
Check point
(m/s)
1000 0.67 15.804 3.442
1100 0.91 18.418 4.011 1166
1200 1.2 21.150 4.606
Velocity at
Check point
(m/s)
1000 0.49 13.5154 2.943
1100 0.79 17.1610 3.737 1180
1200 1.26 21.6728 4.720
61
APPENDIX D
Example of Calculation
62
kg water
1. Calculate moisture content of sample rice ( kg solid )
wi -wd
MC=
wd
kg water
Where: 𝑀𝐶 = Moisture content in Paddy ( kg solid )
𝑤𝑖 = Weight of Wetted Paddy before drying (g)

𝑤𝑑 = Weight of Dried Paddy After drying (g)
For example, to calculate moisture content of Parboiled Rice after it was dried for 5
minutes by using FBD at 150 °C
40.21-22.86
MC=
22.86
kg water
MC= 0.2578 ( )
kg solid
2. Calculate total protein of sample rice (gProtein/gRice)

(A-B) × N × 1.4 × F
Total protein (gProtein/gRice) =
Wt
Where: A = Volume of HCl titration with sample rice (mL)
B = Volume of HCl titration with blank (mL)
N = Concentration of HCl, (0.00227 M)
F = Factor of Kjeldahl Equation for Rice equal 5.95
Wt = Dried weight of sample rice (g)
For example, to calculate total protein of raw riceberry (brown rice)
gProtein (12.8-1.45)×0.00227×1.4×5.95
Total protein ( )=
gRice 0.3832
gProtein gProtein
Total protein ( ) = 5.608
gRice gRice
63
3. Calculate protein solubility of sample rice (%)

1.4007 ×(A-B) × N ×7
Nitrogen in sample (%N)=
𝑊𝑡
Total soluble protein (%) = %N × 5.95

Total soluble protein (%)x100
Percent protein solubility = gProtein
Total protein ( )
gRice
Where: A = Volume of HCl titration with sample rice (mL)

B = Volume of HCl titration with blank (mL)
N = Concentration of HCl, (0.00227 M)
Wt = Dried weight of sample rice (g)
For example, to calculate protein solubility of raw riceberry (brown rice)
1.4007 ×(6.59-0.76) × 0.00227 ×75
Nitrogen in sample (%N)=
1.3818
Nitrogen in sample (%N)=0.67 %N

Total soluble protein (%) = 0.67 × 5.95
Total soluble protein (%) = 3.9865 %
3.9865x100
Percent protein solubility =
5.608
Percent protein solubility = 71.086 %
4. Calculate total phenolic compounds (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AOAC)

(Abssample -Absintercept )×Vsample ×1000
AA=
Sstd ×msample ×10000
Where:Abssample = Optical density obtained for the sample test solution (Absorbance)
Absintercept = Optical density at the point of linear calibration line intercepts the y-
axis (Absorbance)
Sstd = Slope obtained from the best-fit linear calibration (µgGallic acid/ml) or
(µgTrolox/ml)
msample = Mass of the dried rice sample in extraction solution (g)
Vsample = Volume of the rice sample extraction (mL)
AA= Total phenol content; TPC (mgGallic/100 gRice) or antioxidant activity;
AOAC (mgTrolox/100 gRice)
64
For example, to calculate total phenolic compounds of Parboiled Rice after it was dried for
10 minutes by using SSD at 170 °C
(0.398-(-0.0372))×60×1000
AA=
0.0128×1.002×10000
AA= 203.79 mgGallic/100 gRice
5. Calculate Reynold number

ρ×V×D V×D
Reynold number= =
μ v
Where: ρ = Density of medium (kg/m3)

V = Superficial velocity of medium in dryer (m/s)
D = Crossectional diameter of drying chamber or piping (m)
μ = Dynamic viscosity of medium (Pa.s)
v = Kinematic viscosity of medium (m2/s)
For example, to calculate Reynold number of FBD at 130 °C
3.5×0.2
Reynold number = 2.64×10−5
Reynold number = 26525.20

6. Calculate Velocity from pressure drop by using pitot tube
2g∆P
V=√
ρ
Where: ρ = Density of medium (kg/m3)

V = Superficial velocity of medium in dryer (m/s)
D = Crossectional diameter of drying chamber or piping (m)
g = Gravitational force (m2/s)
∆P = Pressure drop at the pitot tube (hPa)
For example, to calculate Velocity of SSD at 130 °C by using blower speed 1100 rpm
2×10×0.88
V=√
0.55
V=0.3944 m/s

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EFFECT OF DRYING METHODS ON THE DRYING KINETICS AND QUALITY OF

RICEBERRY PARBOILED RICE

MR. ONGARD JIROJWONG

MR. KRITTAPROT TANGKITTIKUN

MR. ITTISAK PROMMA

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

Mr. Ongard Jirojwong

Mr. Krittaprot Tangkittikun

Mr. Ittisak Promma

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Chemical Engineering)

Department of Chemical Engineering

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi

………………………………………………… Chairman of Thesis Committee and Advisor

(Assoc. Prof. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph.D.)

Candidates Mr. Ongard Jirojwong 56070500050

Mr. Krittaprot Tangkittikun 56070500052

Mr. Ittisak Promma 56070503040

Thesis Advisor Assoc. Prof. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph.D.

Program Bachelor of Engineering

Department Chemical Engineering

Academic year 2016

1 Protein content of several types of rice 4

1 Riceberry grain structure 3

LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

∆Href = Change of enthalpy of raw riceberry (J/g dry matter)

Wt = Dried Weight of sample (g)

𝑤𝑖 = Weight of Wetted Paddy before drying (g)

𝑤𝑑 = Weight of Dried Paddy After drying (g)

Sstd = Slope obtained from calibration (µgGallic acid/ml) or (µgTrolox/ml)

msample = Mass of the dried rice sample in extraction solution (g)

Vsample = Volume of the rice sample extraction (mL)

∆P = Pressure drop at the pitot tube (hPa)

AOAC = Assessment of antioxidant activity

TPC = Total Phenolic Contents

ISD = Impinging Stream Dryer

FBD = Hot air Fluidized Bed Dryer

SSD = Superheated Steam Dryer

GT = Gratin Temperature (°C)

GAE = Gallic Acid Equivalent (mgGallic/100 gRice)

1.3 Scope of work

1.4 Expected benefit

CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Riceberry Rice and its nutrition

Figure 1 Riceberry grain structure

2.1.1 Protein and protein solubility

Table 1 Protein content of several types of rice

Type of Rice Protein content

When protein is exposed to thermal processing, denaturation can occur. Protein

Protein denaturation can be observed through many signs. One is by a decrease in

Figure 2 Classification of Polyphenois antioxidant

Weakness of antioxidants is their low resistance against oxygen, particularly under

Temperature Type of process Examples

Figure 3 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol or 4-vinylguaiacol

2.2 Analysis of proteins and antioxidants

It is usually considered to be the standard method of determining protein

Sample + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(g)

(NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

B(OH)3 + H2O + NH3 → NH4+ + B(OH)4−

B(OH)3 + H2O + Na2CO3 → NaHCO3(aq) + NaB(OH)4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O

In practice, this analysis is largely automated; specific catalysts accelerate the

2.2.2. Antioxidant analysis

The Folin- Ciocalteu method is described in several pharmacopoeias. The reaction

To study the antioxidant activity, radical-scavenging methods is performed. Radical