What is GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing
things that exist and events that happen on Earth. GIS technology integrates common database
operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic
analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems
and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events,
predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.
Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks better and
faster than do the old manual methods. And, before GIS technology, only a few people had the
skills necessary to use geographic information to help with decision making and problem solving.
Components of a GIS
A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and methods.
Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or
networked configurations.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. Key software components are:
· Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
· A database management system (DBMS)
· Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
 A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
Data
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular
data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS will
integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans
for applying it to real world problems. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work.
Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.
Data Quality and Data Standards

Introduction: Data are fundamental to the implementation of GIS. When GIS began to mature
in to a practical information tool, the need for data quality emerged as a new dimension of
data component of GIS. Data quality is a relatively abstract construct that is difficult to
interpret. Data standards, which are documented as a set of specifications, rules and
procedures, provide the necessary context for measuring and controlling data quality. The
adherence to accepted standards allow users to share among GIS users. It further open
avenues in interoperable, open GIS

Definitions of Data Quality

Data quality refers to the “fitness for use” of data for intended applications. Whether a
particular data set is fit for use can be a rather abstract and subjective judgement. Different
people tend to use different terms to describe similar concepts pertaining to data quality.
Therefore, it is an important to define the basic concepts and terminology for evaluation of
data.

The Scope of Geographic Data Quality

Qualitative criteria : data must be reliable and accurate to make use of in GIS interoperable
platform

Data must be sufficiently current and up-to-date for the applications for which they are
intended, as well as relevant and timely to the application. They must be complete and
precise; otherwise the degree of uncertainty must be indicated. Data must be represented in a
data model that is concise and intelligible (i.e comprehensible by the user). Data must be
stored in a convenient format (maintained, transmitted, distributed, classified, resampled,
retrieved, and updated). Adequately protected (with controlled access to maintain data
integrity). It is also essential for data to be documented as to how they were derived (meta
data) to enable users to determine their suitability for a certain specification.

Accuracy, Precision, Error and Uncertainty

Data Quality is determined by four measures of quality such as accuracy, precision, error, and
the uncertainty that is associated with using data of unknown quality.

Accuracy is the degree to which data agree with the values or descriptions of the real-world
features that they represent. Accuracy is a measure of how “close” data match the true values
of descriptions. In practice, some true values can never be exactly determined or known. For
example, an angle and a distance in survey measurement. This is due to the limitations of
instruments and the human inability to perform perfect observations. In such cases, an
assumed value, the mean value of repeated measurements, can be accepted as a true value.
Accuracy is application specific. However, geographic data of excessive accuracy are a
burden rather than an asset to the GIS user.
Precision is measure of how “exact” data are measured and stored In mathematics, the
exactness of representation is the number of significant digits used to record data. For
Geographic data, this is the number of bits and the form used for data capture and storage in
computer ( long integer, single precision, double precision floating points) For example,
different arms of clock measure to different degrees of precision, hour ,minutes and seconds.

If a precision of 1/100 of a second is measured, a stop watch is used.

If 1/1,000,000 of a second is measured an atomic clock must be used.

Accuracy and precision refer to different aspects of quality, and their meaning must be
interpreted in the context of the scale of the data and objective of application.

The measure of precision applied to categorical data carries a different meaning. Categorical
data are non-numerical descriptive data(nominal or ordinal) such as land-use types
(residential, commercial and industrial) income groups (high, medium, low), classes of slopes
(steep,gentle, flat) and environmental indices (good, average and poor). For this type of data,
the measure of precision is based on level of detail to which the data are observed and
recorded rather than on the number of significant digits by which the data are represented in
computer. It deals with classification or feature coding scheme. More classification in the
scheme, more precisely the phenomena can be identified and recorded. For example, a
classification scheme, that contains five land-use classes (residential, industrial, commercial,
institutional, and recreational).It is possible to record the land use in an urban area more
precisely that with a classification scheme of two (built-up areas and forests).

Error - The measure of error is relative to the measure of accuracy in that high accuracy
data are supposed to be free of errors. Data quality is often expressed in terms of error than
accuracy and precision of data.

There are three types of errors that may occur in measurements and observations

 Gross errors – Blunders and mistakes, detected by cross-checking

Systematic errors – occurs due to variety of reasons like biased measurement, mechanical
defects in instruments, high precision measurements in changing environmental
Maps and GIS

A fundamental nature of GIS is its ability to handle spatial data, (i.e) location of
object in a geographic space, and associated attributes. The geographic space is on the
surface of earth on which we live. A map is most efficient short hand to show location
of objects with attributes and their spatial distributions. These objects can be physical
or cultural in nature. Therefore, a map is a graphical representation of the spatial
structure pf the physical and cultural environments. In fact, mapping is an abstract
object by which real-world objects are measured, documented, and stored on a
medium (paper). As a result of abstraction the real world is both simplified and
reduced in size. This leads to the important concepts of scale, classification,
symbolization, and generalization in cartography. GIS therefore has its roots in the
map. In addition to show spatial locations and attributes, maps are also used as tools
for spatial analysis. Such analysis can be performed on a single map sheet or multiple
sheets for the detection spatial distribution patterns and relationships among different
type of objects By analyzing maps of the same area produced at different time,
changes and trends of spatial phenomena can be identified. Due to huge
measurements involved, spatial analysis based on maps has been time-consuming and
tedious task. The difficulty of using paper maps was one of the factors behind the
development of GIS. Paper cannot shrink of expand over time. Paper maps are
cumbersome to produce and maintain. Moreover, it is difficult to handle and distribute
to user groups. This is one of the driving forces behind computer-assisted
cartography, also known as digital mapping.

Spatial data stored in maps can be divided into three concepts: (1) entity (2) attribute
(3) relationship

An entity is a distinct spatial object of interest. Attribute is a description of some

aspects of entity. Relationship is the spatial association among entities. For Instance,
a river is an entity. The length, width and volume of flow are examples of attributes of
the river. When the river drains into a lake or the sea, it represents a relationship
between the river as one entity and lake or the sea as another entity. These concepts of
entity, attribute and relationship are used to describe spatial data in GIS. However,
there are essential differences.
 Spatial data on maps can be described as “unstructured” representations of point, line
and area of objects. Symbols are commonly used on maps to represent attributes
associated with the entities.

 A solid line represents a perennial river

 Dashed line represents a ephemeral river

 Square represent a settlement

Spatial data are not structured according to entity types, but also properly organized tables of
attributes collectively termed as a database.

MAP-SCALE

Real-world objects can be represented on a map only at reduced scale. The scale of a map is
the ratio of proportion between distances measured on the map and the corresponding
distanced measured on the ground. There are common ways to express the scale of map:

 Representation Fraction (RF). This is a simple ration in the form of 1:1,000,000 or

1/1,000,000. In an RF, the number on the left side is the map distance, and its values
is always unity. The number on the right side is the ground distance, the value of
which varies for different scales. In cartographic usage, the larger the number, the
smaller the scale. There is no indication of nay unit of measurement in an RF because
the unit of measurement on the left is mm, the unit of measurement on the right side is
also mm. This means that for RF 1:1,000,000 , one mm, one cm or inch on map
represents 1,000,000 mm, cm, inches respectively on the ground.

 Statement scale: A statement scale expresses the ration between the map distance and
the ground distance in words. For example, 1:1,000,000 can be stated verbally as “one
millimeter to one kilometer” and 1:63,360 as “one inch to one mile”

 Bar Scale: A bar scale is a linear graphical scale drawn on the map to facilitate the
estimation of ground distances from measurements made on the map