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Abstract - The IEEE C37.013, [1] standard defines the • They allow IEC CB manufacturers to get into the
overvoltage withstand requirements for circuit breakers market segment, allowing an alternative option
(CBs) intended for use in generator applications. The from IEEE CB for generator applications.
constraints of these requirements may lead to larger sized • IEC CBs offer a technical challenge to the
CBs to be used. In Oil & Gas offshore applications, IEC technology presented by existing IEEE generator
62271-100, [2], certified CBs are often preferred due to CBs.
their more compact size. However, detailed validation of
IEC CBs for generator applications has not been as well The purpose of this paper is not to show how IEEE
defined compared to IEEE CBs. Hence, validation of IEC certified generator breakers can be replaced by IEC ones.
CBs for overvoltage protection in generator applications is Instead, the paper aims to address the concerns of
required, usually by performing computer transient overvoltage protection in IEC CBs and validation steps
simulation and analyses. needed to apply the IEC CBs in generator protection
Very often a simplified model of the generator is believed applications. The following chapters will be discussed:
to be sufficient to provide reliable results. However, as
this paper will demonstrate, correct modeling of the • Basics of Transient Recovery Voltage and factors
generator has a significant impact on the overvoltage that determine it
results, especially with salient pole machines. The main • Comparison of IEEE C37.013 / IEC62271-100
purpose of this paper is to discuss the aspect of Transient standards and scope of application
Recovery Voltage (TRV) analysis that have to be • Analysis of generator modeling for TRV
conducted when an IEC breaker is intended for use in simulations
generator applications. Main guidelines to understand and • Analysis of required data/software/simulation in
perform such overvoltage analysis are also provided. The order to verify applicability of the IEC CB and
influence of generator saliency on the TRV peak and recommend protection solutions
slope is demonstrated.
• Simulations of 2 typical applications where IEC
breaker applicability has been proven, by means of
Index Terms —Transient Recovery Voltage, switching
additional overvoltage protection
over voltage, EMTP-ATP, transient simulation
• Conclusions
I. INTRODUCTION
II. BASICS OF TRV. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Previous paper [4], demonstrated how an IEC breaker
A. Origins of TRV
can be verified for capability of interrupting current with
high DC component for generator applications. Such
Let us consider the simple circuit presented in Fig. 1:
analysis is mandatory; however it is not sufficient in order R
to validate the CB application. In fact, after current
interruption there is high overvoltage that takes place
Lp
between CB contacts. This voltage, called Transient
Recovery Voltage (TRV) is characterized in IEC and IEEE
Cp CB
standards by its steepness and peak value. In order that Vm.cos(wt)
the current is successfully interrupted, the breaker shall
withstand the TRV. Comparison of the two standards
reveals a much higher overvoltage withstand capability in
terms of peak and steepness in IEEE CBs specially Fig. 1 Simplified equivalent circuit for TRV
designed for generator applications, as compared to IEC
CBs. However, IEC CBs are often more preferred than Initially the CB is closed. At current zero, the CB opens
IEEE CBs for generator applications due to the following and the result is a transient voltage oscillation as shown in
advantages: Fig. 2. This transient voltage oscillation has an initial
maximum amplitude Vmax, before it stabilizes to the
• IEC standard applications CBs are smaller in size value of the source voltage, Vm.cos(wt).
than IEEE C37.013 generator applications circuit
breakers. In an off-shore oil rig, space/weight is
critical, and of major priority.
• IEC CBs are much less expensive.
2.0 3.0
Vmax 2.5
1.5
TRV
2.0 Vmax with
1.0 Isolated neutral
1.5
0.5
Vm 1.0
Vmax with
Supply Voltage Earthed neutral
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0 -1.0
0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20 0 4 8 12 16 *10 -3 20
(f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :TRV_1 - (f ile f irst_test.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SRC_1 v :CB_EA -CB_E_A v :CB_IA -CB_I_A
Fig. 2 TRV waveform vs. steady state Fig. 4 First pole to clear factor
The parameters of the transient voltage are: This factor is close to but lower than 1.5 and is
1. Frequency, 1 expressed as the following [5]:
F=
2.π . Lp.Cp 3.( X 0 + 3.RN )
kpp = (2)
2. Amplitude Damping, D = exp(− t X 1 + 2.( X 0 + 3.RN )
)
2.R.Cp
In case of RN->∞ kpp->1.5, if RN=0 and X1=X0, (Lm=0),
The crest value of voltage is a function of the above then kpp=1. In practice X0>X1 (X0=3.X1) and kpp is typically
parameters and moment of current interruption. It can not around 1.3.
exceed 2 times the value of Vm. The peak of the TRV across the breaker can be
An amplitude factor is defined as: expressed as:
Vmax Vmax = d .Vm
k af = , k af ≤ 2 (1) d = k af k pp (3)
Vm
d − peak factor phase to earth
Note that voltages (Vmax and Vm) are measured
between phase and earth. Given typical values of kaf and kpp, one can estimate
Typical values for kaf lie in the range 1.4-1.7, depending that TRV peak (or the peak factor d) across a breaker
on the moment of current interruption, i.e. the power would lie in the range of 1.4-1.7 to 2-2.55 pu of steady
factor of the system during the fault. This is also state phase to earth voltage amplitude.
confirmed in IEC 62271-100, where kaf varies with the test The IEEE C37.013 defines the peak factor with respect
duty. to the rated maximum system voltage of the CB. The
system voltage is the phase to phase rms voltage.
B. First pole to clear factor Therefore the above value of d shall be multiplied by
2 / 3 in order to be compliant with that definition. For
Let us now consider a three phase system as per Fig.
3: rated short-circuit current ANSI C37.04-1999 gives values
R CB as k af = 1.54 and k pp = 1.5 for systems below 100kV,
Vm.cos(wt) Lp
R Cp
which leads to the peak factor of d = 1.89 , defined in
Vm.cos(wt-2/3.π) Lp
Lm
ANSI standards.
Lm Cp
The rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV) in the
RN
R above case can be conservatively assumed as:
RRRV = d .Ur.π .F
Vm.cos(wt-4/3.π) Lm
Lp
(4)
Cp
F − oscillating frequency
Fig. 3 Three phase system for TRV analysis Ur − rated system voltage
In this system, there are no mutual impedances Note that the oscillating frequencies of the transient
(Lm=0). If the system has solidly earthed neutral (RN=0 voltage also differ with earthing conditions. This will be
Ohm), during a three phase to earth fault the amplitude explained in chapter IV. C.
factor is equivalent to a single phase system. However if
the system is earthed through an impedance, or the fault III. IEEE AND IEC STANDARDS COMPARISON
is isolated from earth, the obtained overvoltage on the CB
terminals would have a higher value. This is particularly This section summarises the main differences between
true during the first pole to clear. The waveforms in Fig. 4 the IEC 62271-100 standard for normal CBs and IEEE
illustrate the earth fault voltage of these two cases. The C37.013 standard for CBs designed for generator
ratio of the peak values of these waveforms is defined as applications in determining the TRV parameters of a CB.
the first pole to clear factor (kpp), which is linked to the
earthing of the system and the ratio between the system’s A. IEC TRV rating and parameters
positive and zero sequence impedances.
The IEC HV circuit breakers (U<100 kV) are specified
in accordance to IEC62271-100 standard and can
withstand the TRV according to Table 1 for Cable-
systems and Table 2 for Line-systems. TABLE III
In IEC, the TRV is approximated to a damped single IEEE DEFINED TRV FOR GENERATOR FED FAULT
frequency oscillation. This waveform is adequately Generator Inherent TRV – E2 RRRV
represented by an envelope consisting of two line Rating kV/µs
segments defined by means of two parameters: uc and t3. MVA
For example, for an 11 kV network and for Cable- 100 or less 1.84 V 1.6
systems, the standard values for TRV is given in TABLE I: 101-400 1.84 V 1.8
401-800 1.84 V 2.0
TABLE I 801 or more 1.84 V 2.2
TRV PARAMETERS FOR CABLE SYSTEMS AT 15KV
Rated Type of test TRV peak value RRRV a For our example of an 11 kV network, the rated
voltage uc, k uc/t3 maximum voltage to consider is 15kV. The result for TRV
Ur, kV kV/µs peak as per IEEE C37.013 standard is 27.6 kV, a value
15 Terminal fault 25.7 0.39
higher than the 25.7kV indicated in the IEC standard. We
Out-of-phase 38.3 0.29
will see in the following sections that in some particular
conditions the calculated TRV peak value could be above
The mandatory short circuit breaking tests are defined the IEEE C37.013 level.
in the same standard by Table 24 and 25 where the TRV
limits are given according to the % of rated short circuit For generator rating below 100MW (which is the norm in
breaking current of the CB. For the same 11kV network generator applications), RRRV of 1.6kV/µs is indicated for
example, the TRV parameters are given in TABLE II : the breaker to withstand. The value is conservative, more
than 4 times its equivalent for standard applications
TABLE II C37.011 breakers, to cover the worst case, but in
TRV PARAMETERS BY FAULT CURRENT practice, the actual RRRV can often be much lower. In
Rated Test duty TRV peak value RRRV a fact, as it will be shown in section VI. , the issue in O&G
voltage uc, k uc/t3
Ur, kV kV/µs
applications often can be the TRV peak value, rather than
15 T100 25.7 0.39 its steepness.
T60 27.6 0.95
T30 29.4 1.96 IV. ESTIMATION OF GENERATOR TRV
T10 31.2 2.08
The ANSI (IEEE) certified generator circuit breakers have
There is no indication in the IEC62271-100 that passed multiple tests in order to guarantee their
specifies exclusive generator application CBs. There are applicability in generator applications. For that reason no
also no mandatory tests requirements indicated for typical specific study is generally required. If IEC certified
cases in generator application (i.e. out of phase breakers are intended for use then it is necessary to
switching). carefully determine the appropriate way to consider the
generators in the system. This means that the equivalent
B. IEEE/ ANSI TRV rating and parameters model of the generator shall be represented in sufficient
detail to capture the major factors that influence the TRV.
The IEC 62271-100 equivalent standard IEEE/ANSI A ‘simple generator model’ approach will not be sufficient.
C37.011 "Application guide for Transient Recovery The following factors will need to be included in modeling
Voltage for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a the equivalent generator for TRV analysis.
Symmetrical Current Basis" [3], has been revised in order
to introduce the two parameters description of the TRV as A. Surge reactance
used in IEC Switchgear Standards. This description has
already been introduced in the revisions of Standards Estimation of generator surge reactance has been
C37.04 and C37.06. subject of numerous works, [6] and others. A great
The IEEE C37-013 standard is the dedicated standard majority of these works consider that the equivalent
for AC HV generator circuit breakers. It also describes reactance of the generator is a function of its
how a CB intended for common generator protection use Xd " reactance only. This is a valid assumption for big
has to be tested. These tests should guarantee that the generators, generally turbo-generators, (typical examples
IEEE CB is ready to use without additional analysis. For are given in [7]). Turbo-generators are round rotor
circuit breakers certified C37.013, there is confidence that machines by construction and since its direct axis
the CB is completely suitable for the application. impedance equals its quadrature axis one, the equivalent
impedance is always Xd”.
In Table 6 of IEEE C37.013-1997, the TRV peak and rate- For salient poles generators however, the quadrature
of-rise are given. Their values are obtained by considering axis reactance is not equivalent to its direct axis
an amplitude factor and first-pole-to-clear factor of 1.5. reactance and hence shall be considered. The equivalent
TABLE III below indicates the TRV characteristics reactance of a generator after interruption of the current in
based on generator rating in IEEE C37.013 standard the first phase depends on the position of the rotor in
(where V is the rated maximum voltage of the equipment relation to the stator. It depends itself on the phase-shift
in kV): between voltage and current. If they are in line, the direct
axis impedance shall be considered, Xd " ; if they are in
quadrature, then it is the quadrature reactance Xq" that
will become the equivalent impedance of the generator.
Three phase fault on generator terminals or close to it
imposes nearly 90° phase-shift; therefore at the mo ment
of current interruption, the equivalent reactance of the The evolution of these voltages for 11kV-40MVA salient
machine will be its quadrature subtransient reactance. poles generator is depicted on Fig. 5:
Since this type of fault is also considered in TRV analysis, Comparison of fundamental and second harmonic voltages
1.5
the generator shall be considered by its Xq" reactance. Fundamental undamped
Fundamental transient damped
Fundamental subtransient damped
In addition the generator saliency will impact the TRV 1
Second harmonic damped
time, (s)
Ia (t ) = −e . cos( wt + θ 0 ) +
1 1 Fig. 5 Internal Fundamental and Second harmonic
− . exp( − t )
Xd " Xd ' Td " voltages evolution after fault at t=0s
(5)
e 1 1
+ . + . exp( − t ). cos(θ 0 ) +
2 Xd " Xq" Ta All of these voltages will have a peak factor after
current interruption and the resulting TRV peak and rate
e 1 1
+ . − . exp( − t ). cos( 2.wt + θ 0 ) of rise will be the sum of the individual contributions. For
2 Xd " Xq" Ta
the case of round rotor machines, the major contribution
It can be observed that the second-half of Eq.1 consists will come from the undamped and transient damped
of a second harmonic component depending on both Xd” voltages. For the case of salient rotor machines, the peak
and Xq”. Hence, this verifies the affect of generator and rate of rise will depend on the alignment of the
saliency in modifying the current value Ia(t) in case of second harmonic and fundamental voltages, basically
fault. undamped and transient damped.
As a consequence of the presence of this additional
For the purposes of TRV analysis, the fault inception voltage source, salient pole generators will experience a
angle on the first pole to clear shall be such as there is no much higher TRV peak and rate of rise than round rotor
dc component in the current, or θ 0 = π / 2 . machines.
The current expression is then deduced to: High TRV peak will occur if the breaker is requested to
1 1 1 open very quickly after fault appearance, where the
+ − . exp( − t Td ') + second harmonic component is still present within the
Xd Xd ' Xd
Ia (t ) = −e . sin( wt ) + waveform, and if the current interruption happens when
1 1
+ − . exp( − Td ")
t (6) the peaks of the fundamental and second harmonic
Xd " Xd ' voltages are on the same side i.e. at 10-30-50-70ms for
e 1 1 system at 50Hz.
+ . − . exp( − t ). sin( 2.wt )
2 Xd " Xq" Ta The impact of the second harmonic voltage decreases
after 4-5 cycles. Obviously, if current interruption happens
In the above expression two components of the current at 20-40-60-80 ms-etc. the TRV peak will be much lower,
can be identified - a fundamental, composed of which might be a plus.
permanent, damped transient and damped subtransient
contributions, and a second harmonic component which For conservative approach in the TRV analysis, it is
is damped with time constant Ta (Ta~0.1-0.2s). It can be recommended to consider the worst case, i.e. interruption
assumed that there are as many internal voltages as when voltages are on the same side, typically at 50ms.
contributions to the fault current. Indeed these voltage This is in line with recommendations in the standards
sources are shifted by 90° leading the current (fro m Eq. (IEEE and IEC). It is also necessary to assume that the
6), if resistance is neglected. generators are at full load during fault initial conditions
The mathematical expressions of the different voltage (i.e. generator is at maximum field voltage), which gives
sources are given as: rise to the worst case maximum peak TRV value.
VH 1 _ undamped = −e. sin( wt + θ 0 ) θ 0 = 90° = −e. cos( wt )
performed with the rotor being stalled, the machine being 1.05
in no-load and no-fault condition, [6], [8], [9]. The obtained
1
model gives more precise values of the surge reactance
but does not account for the internal voltages of the 0.95
0.85
C. Frequency of the voltage transient after fault clearing
0.8
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
k, =Lm/Lp
The analyses of a TRV also require verifying the ability
of the breaker to withstand the speed of voltage increase Fig. 6 Ratio of TRV frequencies depending on
after the fault clearing. This speed can be defined by generator earthing and factor k at the moment of current
analyzing the frequency of the voltage oscillation during interruption
that time. As it will be shown, this frequency varies with
the earthing path between generator and fault. For k > −0.33 the TRV frequency of a solidly earthed
generator will be higher than if it was isolated, also will the
Consider the same circuit as presented in Fig. 3. RRRV.
For a system with earthed neutral, the frequency is
given by Eq.8, where Lm=0: V. DATA, MODELING TOOLS AND
1 METHODOLOGY FOR SUCCESSFUL TRV
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm =0 = (8) ANALYSIS
2.π . Lp.Cp
This frequency will vary with mutual inductances (see This section details the major factors that should be
Appendix A. ); where Lm is related to Lp with a coefficient considered for successful TRV analysis.
factor k as:
Lm A. Data
k= (9)
Lp
The following TABLE IV summarizes the system data
The coefficient k is positive for static equipment required for TRV analysis:
(transformers or cables) and negative during the initial TABLE IV
instants after current interruption for generators, see REQUIRED DATA FOR TRV ANALYSIS
Appendix B. The exact numerical value of k at the Equipment Short-circuit data Additional data for
moment of current interruption is function of the generator TRV
values and on the power factor during the fault, i.e. the Upstream source Attenuation and
position of the rotor with respect to the stator at the (Utility) S.c. power, rated natural frequency
moment of current interruption. voltage, X/R ratio (RC branch
For earthed neutral systems with Lm≠0, the frequency connected phase
of the transient will be reduced as given in Eq.10: to earth)
Transformers Rated power, Capacitance
Voltage, short- primary/secondary
1
FTRV _ earthed _ Lm ≠ 0 = circuit voltage, no to earth and
1 + k − 2.k 2 load current, zero primary to
2.π . .Lp.Cp (10) sequence secondary winding
1+ k impedances
Generators Rated Power and Capacitance phase
For the case of isolated neutral with earthed fault, Voltage, Xd, Xd’, to earth
independently on the presence or not of mutual Xd”, Xq, Xq’, Xq”,
impedances, a fixed oscillating frequency will be obtained; Td’, Td”, Tq”, Ta,
Ra
it will be lower by a factor of 2 / 3 compared to the value Lines/Cables Capacitance to
calculated in Eq.8: earth, traveling
impedance wave modeling,
2 1
FTRV _ isolated _ Lm ≠ 0 = . (11) distributed
3 2.π . Lp.Cp parameters
Neutral Earthing impedance No particular
Note that the isolated generator neutral is a common
From Table IV, typical short-circuit data is easily
arrangement in MV networks with multiple generators,
accessible. However, parameters for additional data are
where earthing is made up of earthing transformers
often unknown and estimation is needed. IEEE standards
installed on the busbar.
C37.04-1999 (§5.9.2.2 b) and IEEE C37.011 [3], provides
To illustrate the impact of generator earthing the ratio of
information about capacitances of several equipment,
TRV frequencies for solidly and isolated earthing (by
according to rated power and voltage. Also, information
Eq.10 and by Eq.11) as function of the factor k is depicted
and typical capacitance values for generators and other
in Fig. 6:
equipment are also provided in [13].
For conservative approach, the circuit breaker is
assumed as an ideal switch (with no arc voltage
introduced), to give worst case initial conditions. TRV values
1.) Model the power system according to A. and B. A. Industrial plant generator application
25.0
3) Calculation of short-circuit currents
12.5
For each fault location the short circuit currents are 0.0
TRV test duty is determined for current with less than -25.0
characterised only by the r.m.s value of its alternating Fig. 8 Fault currents through CB n°1, fault at A
component. When the DC component is higher, which is
often the case with generators; it is necessary to put in
form the fault current with 20% of DC component. The
ANSI C37.09 defines a formula to calculate the
symmetrical current with a DC component wanted. The
formula is also analysed in [4]:
40 50
*103
kV
TRV envelope T60 [kV]
30
40
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1
-10
64.2 64.4 64.6
(f ile QC_LNG_article_PS.pl4; x-v ar t) v :B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1
64.8 65.0 ms 65.2 Fig. 10 TRV in case of maximum tolerances on gen.
Fig. 9 TRV and T60 TRV envelope from IEC standard, data, fault at C
fault at C
It can be observed that the peak value is above any
In addition to the analysis for the fault locations, the withstand rating of a 15kV circuit breaker, but in the range
impact of load has also been studied. It was found that in of 24kV CB. This means that even IEEE C37.013 certified
case of fault at A the maximum TRV was obtained without breakers would need to be oversized in order to withstand
load. The presence of load at the same side with a that overvoltage. It also underlines the importance of
generator did reduce the transient on that side. However, consideration of the asymmetry of the rotor of the
when the fault location has been moved to busbar, B, or generator, which is actually often neglected. TABLE VIII
on the outcoming feeder, C, the presence of load below summarises the results with tolerances:
increases the TRV peak on CB2. The load in this case
was on the other side of the circuit breaker; hence TABLE VIII
generator TRV has not been damped. TRV CALCULATIONS WITH TOLERANCES
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
TABLE VII summarizes the maximum TRV results for open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV
the different fault locations: (kV) (kV/µs)
TABLE VII A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 42.9 0.21
TRV CALCULATIONS WITHOUT TOLERANCES B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 47.1 0.23
Fault CB Test IEC IEC Simulation Simulation C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 44.4 0.22
location to duty Peak RRRV Peak TRV Rate of rise
open TRV (kV/µs) (kV) TRV 7) Recommendation of protection equipment
(kV) (kV/µs)
A CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 30.5 0.16
B CB1 T30 29.4 1.96 34.6 0.17 The preferred way to limit the TRV peak is by using surge
C CB2 T60 27.6 0.95 32 0.19 arrester protection, connected phase-to-earth or phase-
to-phase.
Note the load damping impact to the TRV results, The most appropriate connections are at the generator
where the TRV peak on B is higher than that on A, even side of each generator CB and on the busbar side of CB2.
though it is almost the same current passing through the
breaker. For the fault cases at A and B, a 12kV rated phase-to-
Finally, the most critical situation is with fault on C. In all earth surge arresters will limit the TRV peak under the
the tests, the TRV peak values are over the withstand envelope given in the standard IEC 62271-100. However
levels defined by standard. It is thus required to review for fault located at C, phase-to-earth surge arresters will
the size of the overvoltage protection equipment. not be sufficient to protect the circuit-breaker, therefore
However this may not be necessary if the manufacturer of surge arresters connected phase to phase were used.
the circuit breaker can prove the capability of his CB to Since the application involves generators, the surge
withstand the values without protection, i.e. if there are arrester shall account for higher voltage fluctuations,
tests with similar values. It may also be possible that the hence a voltage rating of 15kV is recommended.
required overvoltage protection gets “lightened” because Therefore, for this example, a 15kV rated phase-to-phase
of known capabilities of the CB. installed surge arrester will result in the TRV peak within
the envelope of the IEC 62271-100 values, even if the
6) Analysis of tolerances on generator data maximum tolerance on generator reactances is taken into
account. Fig. 11 and
The calculation results presented in Table VII does not TABLE IX summarise the TRV analysis with surge
include the impact of generator impedance tolerance. In protection considered:
30
practice, there is always a variation to the quoted *10 3
[kV]
generator data and hence tolerances should always be 25
0
64,0 64,3 64,6 64,9 65,2 [ms] 65,5
(file QC_LNG_article.pl4; x-var t) v:B_BARA-CB_2A m:TTR1 m:PMAX1
XI. VITA