Professional Documents
Culture Documents
June 2004
782
GRAMMAR FOR
THE
AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Preface
ID782, Grammar for the American Language Course, supplements DLIELC’s Introduction to the
American Language Course, which is designed to familiarize experienced instructors with
techniques and methodology useful in teaching the General English materials of the American
Language Course (ALC). The explanations and illustrations of American usage herein are intended
as references to aid instructors of the ALC.
Inquiries concerning these materials, including requests for copies, should be addressed to
DLIELC/LESL
2235 Andrews Ave.
Lackland Air Force Base, Texas 78236-5259
E-mail: LESL@lackland.af.mil
Copyright© 2003 by Defense Language Institute English Language Center and its licensors. Notice
of Rights: All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
PREFACE i
– USER NOTES –
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................................... i
INTRODUCTION
THE WHAT AND WHY OF GRAMMAR ...............................................................................................................................v
HOW WORDS MAKE SENTENCES ................................................................................................................................... vi
1 NOUNS
Types of Nouns .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Noun Inflections Showing Number............................................................................................................................ 4
Noun Inflections Showing Possession ....................................................................................................................... 8
Noun Derivations .................................................................................................................................................... 11
Noun Phrases .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Noun Equivalents .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Noun Functions ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
2 PRONOUNS
Types Of Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................. 19
Personal Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................. 19
Demonstrative Pronouns......................................................................................................................................... 26
Interrogative Pronouns ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Reciprocal Pronouns............................................................................................................................................... 30
Indefinite Pronouns................................................................................................................................................. 30
Pronoun Modification ............................................................................................................................................. 33
Other Pronoun Forms............................................................................................................................................. 34
3 VERBS – PART I
Functions of Finite Verbs........................................................................................................................................ 35
Verb Tenses............................................................................................................................................................. 42
The Simple Tenses................................................................................................................................................... 43
The Progressive Tenses........................................................................................................................................... 50
The Perfect Tenses .................................................................................................................................................. 54
The Perfect Progressive Tenses .............................................................................................................................. 59
4 VERBS – PART II
Voice ....................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Mood ....................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Auxiliaries (Helping Verbs) .................................................................................................................................... 70
5 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Adjectives ................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Adverbs ................................................................................................................................................................... 87
6 DETERMINERS AND CONJUNCTIONS
Determiners............................................................................................................................................................. 99
Conjunctions ......................................................................................................................................................... 102
7 PREPOSITIONS
Types of Prepositions ............................................................................................................................................ 105
PREFACE iii
8 SENTENCE PARTS AND PATTERNS
The Sentence ..........................................................................................................................................................111
Parts of the Sentence..............................................................................................................................................113
Sentence Patterns...................................................................................................................................................115
9 PHRASES AND CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................................119
Clauses...................................................................................................................................................................120
Phrases ..................................................................................................................................................................137
APPENDIX A
PUNCTUATION
End Punctuation ....................................................................................................................................................160
The Comma............................................................................................................................................................161
The Semicolon........................................................................................................................................................164
The Colon ..............................................................................................................................................................165
The Apostrophe......................................................................................................................................................166
Quotation Marks....................................................................................................................................................168
Other Punctuation Marks ......................................................................................................................................169
APPENDIX B
IRREGULAR VERBS ......................................................................................................................................................172
APPENDIX C
PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS
Adjective/Preposition Combinations......................................................................................................................180
Verb/Preposition Combinations (2-Word Verbs)...................................................................................................181
APPENDIX D
MORE SENTENCE PATTERNS
Pattern One............................................................................................................................................................198
Pattern Two ...........................................................................................................................................................200
Pattern Three .........................................................................................................................................................201
Pattern Four ..........................................................................................................................................................203
Pattern Five ...........................................................................................................................................................205
Additional Patterns with There and It....................................................................................................................207
APPENDIX E
MORE ON INDIRECT SPEECH
Tense Harmony......................................................................................................................................................211
Modals in Indirect Speech .....................................................................................................................................212
Questions in Indirect Speech .................................................................................................................................213
General Truths in Indirect Speech.........................................................................................................................214
Commands (Imperatives) in Indirect Speech .........................................................................................................214
GLOSSARY ..........................................................................................................................................................215
INDEX ..........................................................................................................................................................221
The grammar of a language is the system of elements and rules needed to form and interpret the
sentences of that language. Prescriptive grammar creates rules for how sentences should be put
together. These rules tell us that subjects and verbs
should agree or that pronouns must match their
antecedents in number and gender. Descriptive
grammar analyzes sentences as they actually are put
together by language users. A descriptive grammarian
would discuss the use of ain’t or the decline in the use
of the subjunctive mood. Over time, descriptive
grammar patterns sometimes become a part of the
prescriptive grammar. Change in the use of can and
may in American English is an example of this
evolution.
As rules for English grammar have become more descriptive, the accepted register has also undergone
changes. Register, in language, refers to different levels of formality and usage. Even though many
registers of English have been used throughout history, there has always been one register, that used
by the leaders in a culture, considered to be “proper” or “good.” In the past, any variants of “proper”
register were considered “incorrect” or “bad.” Over time, however, as people from many different
groups have assumed leadership positions, this has become less and less true. The diversification of
power has led to changes in the standard language and to wider acceptance of language variations.
Most native speakers use several registers, depending on occasion, content, and purpose. In spite of
this democratic ideal, in American English there remains a register that is desirable for those who
wish to succeed and to be seen as knowledgeable. Today, the desirable register for most use is
relatively informal, but grammatically “standard.” As the language has become less formal, so too
has the terminology used to describe it. It is important for the instructor of English as a foreign or
second language to teach the language as the student will encounter it and will be expected to use it.
To that end, this text attempts to be both descriptive and prescriptive and to use current simplified
terminology as well as traditional terminology with which the experienced instructor may be familiar.
PREFACE v
How Words Make Sentences
Words, or parts of speech, combine with each other to form larger units, which then combine to
form sentences. Sentences always contain a noun or noun phrase and a verb or verb phrase, and
they may also contain prepositional phrases, adjectival phrases, and/or adverbial phrases.
Sometimes the noun phrase with all of its modifiers is called the subject, and the verb phrase with
all of its modifiers is called the predicate. This text attempts to explain these parts of speech and
parts of the sentence and the relationships between them for instructors of the American Language
Course (ALC).
The parts of speech are illustrated in the chart below as lexical categories. Sometimes the major
categories are called content words, while the minor categories are called structure or function
words. Note that the major categories are open, meaning new words are continually added to them.
The minor categories are closed; they are restricted to a fixed set of elements already in the
language.
These simple definitions help students identify the word groups they may be asked to work with.
More complete explanations must necessarily follow.
There are, for example, many kinds of phrases, but all that is required to make up a phrase is a
group of words. Usually, a phrase is missing either a subject or a verb. If one of these is missing,
the word group cannot be a clause or a sentence, so it must, therefore, be a phrase.
a pizza delivery person
about the visitor
without the quotes
waiting patiently
A clause must contain both a subject and a verb. If the clause is independent, it also contains a
complete idea. If it is dependent, it does not contain a complete idea.
contact the guard (independent)
people call them (independent)
you have (dependent)
they had been (dependent)
A sentence, in its simplest form, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete idea. A
simple sentence and an independent clause are identical except that the clause is attached to one or
more additional word groups, while a simple sentence stands alone. Phrases and clauses combine to
form complex sentences. Sentences about the same idea are grouped together to form paragraphs.
Related paragraphs are further grouped together to develop larger ideas into, for example, essays or
stories.
PREFACE vii
– USER NOTES –
Nouns
Meaning determines a word’s part of speech, or lexical category. Words which indicate people,
animals, places, things, concepts, emotions, or processes are categorized as nouns.
Types of Nouns
Nouns are grouped into several categories. Use determines category, so some nouns occur in more
than one.
Noncount:
mass nouns water, oil, gas, metal, cheese, bread,
UNIT 1 1
NOTE: Some nouns change category according to context.
Titles of works such as books, The Last of the Mohicans, Star Trek II,
movies, publications The New York Times
NOTE: Collective nouns take a third person singular verb except when individuals or items within
the group act separately.
UNIT 1 3
✦ Change of Form
Nouns change form in two ways, by inflection and by derivation.
♦ An inflection shows a different grammatical subclass or relationship.
♦ A derivation changes a word to another part of speech or expands its meaning.
This text discusses two types of noun inflections—those showing number and those showing
possession. Nouns derived from other parts of speech are illustrated in charts.
Noncount Nouns
knowledge meat money
Count nouns are made plural by adding the inflections -s or -es to the base form of the word.
Count Nouns
1 fact/17 facts
1 hamburger/3 hamburgers
1 dollar/ 100 dollars
There are thousands of facts in the book that Joe bought last night.
Noncount Plural
Would you like some coffee? Our grocery store sells coffees from
around the world.
✦ Pluralization of Nouns
Regular Plurals
Add -s inflection to singular nouns ending in a single boy → boys
consonant preceded by a vowel.
pet → pets
stair → stairs
key → keys
Add -es inflection to nouns ending in sibilant sounds branch → branches
spelled s, z, x, ch, sh.
bush → bushes
base → bases
tax → taxes
Add only -s to nouns ending in silent e preceded by a nose → noses
sibilant sound (/s/,/z/). This causes the plural word to
face → faces
be pronounced as though the plural inflection were -es.
lease → leases
slice → slices
choice → choices
NOTE: Verbs also use an -s or -es inflection for the third person singular present tense. Such words
as runs, marches, and dances can be either plural nouns or present tense verbs depending on
context.
UNIT 1 5
leaf—leaves
baby → babies
toy → toys
play → plays
For most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add -es potato → potatoes
to form the plural.
echo → echoes
cargo → cargoes
For one syllable words ending in f or fe, change the f or fe to v loaf → loaves
and add -es to form the plural.
wife → wives
leaf → leaves
For some singular words ending in f, simply add -s. chief → chiefs
cuff → cuffs
belief → beliefs
man → men
mouse → mice
child → children
alumna → alumnae
vertebra → vertebrae
bacterium → bacteria
criterion → criteria
parenthesis → parentheses
analysis → analyses
UNIT 1 7
Irregular Singular
A few nouns that end in -s are singular in meaning.
For singular nouns (usually The child’s toys, the cat’s bowl, the
representing a person or animal), add teacher’s book, Bob’s car, Charles’s
’s. jacket, Mr. Martinez’s hat
This is also true for singular nouns
ending in /s/ or /z/.
For plural nouns ending in /s/ or /z/, The prisoners’ complaints (more than
add only the apostrophe. one prisoner)
The teachers’ salaries (more than one
teacher)
For phrases or compound words, add ’s the Chief Executive Officer’s desk
to the last word.
Burly and Smith’s furniture store
somebody else’s exam paper
UNIT 1 9
✦ Other Uses of Possessive Form Nouns
Expressions of natural the sun’s light, the earth’s rotation, the tree’s branches
phenomena
The sun’s light is also a source of heat.
UNIT 1 11
Noun + Noun Suffix
BASE NOUN SUFFIX DERIVED NOUN
piano -ist pianist
friend -ship friendship
democrat -acy democracy
boy -hood boyhood
library -ian librarian
masochist -ism masochism
mob -ster mobster
UNIT 1 13
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase (NP) may substitute for an individual noun. A noun phrase is a group of words
containing a noun and its determiners and modifiers. The central noun of the phrase is called the
headword. Modifiers may occur either before or after the noun in a NP.
Noun Phrase
the red barn in the pasture
Noun Equivalents
Noun phrases are only one of several substitutes for nouns. Clauses, adjectives, and adverbs can
also be used to perform noun functions. Their uses as nouns will be explained as each is presented.
Objective case nouns receive verb action. They function as any of the following:
♦ direct objects
♦ indirect objects
♦ objects of prepositions
♦ object complements
✦ Subject
These nouns in the subjective case function as subjects of sentences.
NOUN/NP as SUBJECT AUXILIARY VERB
Determiner Noun
Babies cry.
UNIT 1 15
✦ Subject Complement
These nouns in the subjective case function as complements after linking verbs such as BE. They
are complements because they complete an idea and are subject complements because they tell
something about the subject, often by renaming, specifying, or describing.
✦ Appositive
These nouns in the subjective case function as appositives. They rename or identify another noun.
NOUN/NP as SUBJECT NOUN/NP as APPOSITIVE VERB DIRECT OBJECT
✦ Direct Object
These nouns in the objective case function as direct objects of verbs. They answer the question
what? or whom? after a verb.
✦ Object of a Preposition
These noun phrases in the objective case function as objects of prepositions.
NOUN/NP
VERB PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP)
as SUBJECT
Preposition Noun/NP as Object Of Preposition
Det Modifier Noun
Joan talked with our new friends.
UNIT 1 17
✦ Object Complement
These nouns in the objective case function as complements after objects. They are complements
because they complete ideas about the objects. Complements often complete an idea by renaming,
or giving a role to, the original noun or pronoun.
NOUN/NP NOUN/NP as
VERB DIRECT OBJECT
as SUBJECT OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
Determiner Noun
Pronouns
A pronoun substitutes for a noun (Latin pro = for or in place of + noun). Pronouns do not have
complete meaning in themselves but derive their meaning from the context in which they are used.
When a pronoun refers to an identifiable noun, that referent noun is called the pronoun’s antecedent.
In some contexts pronouns do not have antecedents.
Types Of Pronouns
The most common categories of pronouns are as follows:
♦ personal
♦ demonstrative
♦ interrogative
♦ reciprocal
♦ indefinite
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns, such as I, you, he, she, and it, take the place of names of people or groups of
people. Personal pronouns are classified by number, person, and gender.
✦ Classification by Number
Singular pronouns refer Plural pronouns refer to two
to one person or thing. or more persons or things.
The singular personal pronouns are he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, you, your, and yours.
The plural personal pronouns include we, us, our, you, your, yours, they, them, and theirs.
UNIT 2 19
✦ Classification by Person
I and we are examples of first person pronouns, referring to the speaker or writer.
I spoke to the class.
We will pick Mike up at seven o’clock.
You (singular) and you (plural) are second person pronouns, referring to the person or
persons addressed.
You can go to lunch now if you want to.
The President will meet with all of you tomorrow.
He, she, it and they are third person pronouns, referring to the person, persons, or
things spoken or written about.
He was a war hero.
She wants to go out to dinner.
It is the last book that Dr. Suess wrote.
They were tired after class.
✦ Classification by Gender
I, you, we and they do not identify It refers to gender neutral animals
the gender of the antecedent. and things.
The following chart shows some of the types of nouns that these pronouns can refer to:
PRONOUN NOUN REFERENT
he man, father, brother, uncle, son, actor, king
she woman, mother, sister, aunt, daughter, waitress, queen
it box, idea, organization, childhood, opportunity, liberty
he or she teacher, parent, student, friend, secretary
he or it stallion, bull, ram, rooster
she or it hen, cow, doe, ewe, mare, ship, aircraft, car
he, she, it baby, dog, cat, pet (Note that if the name of the baby or the animal is
known, the speaker is likely to use he or she; if unknown, it.)
The plural pronoun they is used to refer to all plural nouns, regardless of gender.
✦ Classification by Case
Personal pronouns have several forms, or cases. The case that is used depends on the function of
the pronoun in the sentence, the kind of noun it replaces, or the context object to which it refers.
UNIT 2 21
Pronouns as Subjects and/or Direct Objects
The following chart shows how pronouns can act as subjects and direct objects. (NP indicates
noun phrase.)
SUBJECT VERB DIRECT OBJECT
Noun/NP/ Pronoun Noun/NP/Pronoun
Mr. Smith trained the dog.
He trained it.
Mary respects her parents.
She respects them.
John and Sam like you.
They like you.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns, pronouns which indicate ownership, can substitute for possessive nouns.
UNIT 2 23
Reflexive Pronouns as Objects
Reflexive pronouns can replace nouns in any objective function: direct object, indirect object, or
object of preposition. However, their function is different from object pronouns because they
indicate that the subject and the object are the same person or thing.
UNIT 2 25
Demonstrative Pronouns
This, that, these, and those are demonstrative pronouns. This (singular) and these (plural) usually
substitute for things near the speaker in space or in time, while that and those refer to things at a
greater distance.
✦ this / that
✦ these / those
PRESENT This is the most pleasant time of the year in the South.
PRESENT AND RECENT These are unusually warm days that we’ve been having.
SPECIFIC PAST TIME That was the day Johnny got his first tooth.
NEAR FUTURE SPECIFIC This is the weekend we are planning to go to the coast.
(next Saturday and Sunday)
UNIT 2 27
Interrogative Pronouns
Who, whom, whose, what, and which are interrogative pronouns. They are sometimes called
question words because they are most often used to ask questions. They can function as subjects
and objects. Interrogative pronouns can be combined with the suffix -ever.
Whom is an optional form in standard American English today. It is often used immediately
following a preposition but has been replaced by who in most other objective constructions. Whom
is still preferred for all uses in the objective case in formal English.
The words whose, what, and which also serve as modifiers of nouns. (Whose book is that?) In this
position, they function as determiners rather than pronouns. (See the unit on determiners, page
99.)
Whatever made him say such a thing? I know he didn’t mean that.
Who(m)ever did you give all that money to? You gave away a million dollars.
NOTE: In legal and formal situations, you may come across the somewhat archaic suffix -soever.
Like -ever, it can be used to intensify. Example: Whosoever comes under the jurisdiction of this
court will be required to abide by the laws hereby set forth.
Which of the books can we use? Whichever you want will be fine.
NOTE: The suffix -ever has the same effect when added to interrogative adverbs, such as where
and when. Examples: Wherever did you buy that sweater? or Where would you like to go for
lunch? Wherever you like. or Whenever you’re ready, we’ll go. (See the unit on adverbs, page
87.)
UNIT 2 29
Reciprocal Pronouns
Each other and one another are used We always give each
to show a mutual or reciprocal other birthday presents.
relationship. They usually occur as
objects.
DIRECT OBJECT Martha and her aunt see each other every week.
INDIRECT OBJECT Anne and I wrote each other letters for years.
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Did you see those two children running toward each
other?
POSSESSIVE The students read one another’s papers.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns designate nonspecific persons or things. They are commonly grouped
according to their referents—people or things which can or cannot be counted. Indefinite pronouns
form a very large category, but the list of those frequently used, like some, each, all, and everybody,
is relatively short. A great many words in this category also function as determiners.
UNIT 2 31
✦ Specific uses of Particular Indefinite Pronouns
Much Any No
Much (used by itself) generally requires a You don’t have much to complain about.
negative verb when it is used as an
Compare to:
object.
You have a lot to complain about.
Indefinite pronouns formed with any are Do you have anything with you?
usually used in questions and negative
Compare to:
statements.
Yes, I have something with me.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular and noncount indefinite pronouns require third person singular verbs.
I’m not sure what it is, but something seems wrong here.
Plural indefinite pronouns require third person plural verbs. Any, all, none, some, enough, a lot, and
lots may take third person singular or plural verbs, depending on whether their referents are count or
noncount nouns.
The boys are here. A lot are hungry.
(The plural verb are is used because the pronoun a lot refers to the count noun boys.)
In sentences having indefinite pronouns of quantity (quantifiers) plus an of-phrase as subject, the
noun in the of-phrase determines whether the verb is singular or plural.
In sentences expressing mathematical functions, the verbs BE and equal may be either singular or plural.
Four and six is/are ten.
Four times five equal/equals twenty.
Either, neither, and any, when expressing a choice, traditionally use singular verbs.
Either of the offices is acceptable to the colonel.
Neither of the men was promoted.
Pronoun Modification
Pronouns ending in -one, -body, and -thing can be followed by adjectives.
Somebody new just joined the class.
Have you read anything interesting lately?
Everything important is mentioned in this chapter.
The indefinite pronoun one may be preceded by an adjective. Note that one may be pluralized by
adding -s.
Mary likes the blue one.
I'll take the small ones.
UNIT 2 33
Other Pronoun Forms
✦ Anticipatory It
Anticipatory it substitutes for the actual subject of a sentence, which occurs after the verb.
✦ Impersonal It
Impersonal it is used to refer to weather conditions, distance, time, temperature, or identification.
A linking verb, usually BE, is used with impersonal it.
It’s 12:00.
✦ Relative Pronouns
The most common relative pronouns are who, whom, which, and that. They work as subjects or
objects in clauses and give information about noun phrases.
The man who just spoke to you is my Uncle Jim.
The different functions of relative pronouns will be covered in Unit 9, Phrases and Clauses, page 119.
Verbs – Part I
Verbs are used constantly in spoken and written English. They are used to make statements and
requests, give commands, and ask questions. Sometimes called the heart of the sentence, the verb is
the most complicated part of speech.
Some grammarians classify verbs as either finite or nonfinite. Finite verbs are verbs which
function, alone or with auxiliaries, as complete verbs.
Mark swims ten miles every day.
The boys walked to the bus stop.
Bob will go to the bookstore today.
Meet me at the restaurant.
As shown in the examples above, finite verbs are limited by person, number, and mood—each of
which will be covered in detail in this chapter. A finite verb can also function as the predicate of a
sentence. In other words, it says something about the subject.
Nonfinite verbs are verb forms which function as other parts of speech in sentences. They include
infinitives, participles, and gerunds—each of which will be covered in detail in Unit 9. Nonfinite
verbs are also called verbals.
I like to swim.
(infinitive used as a direct object)
Feeling sleepy after her lunch, Martha took a nap.
(present participial phrase used as adverb)
Gerald, exhausted after his long trip, vowed never to fly again.
(past participial phrase used as an adjective)
Correcting pronunciation is one of an English teacher’s jobs.
(gerund phrase used as a subject)
UNIT 3 35
✦ Linking Verbs
Linking verbs do not describe an observable action, but simply link (or connect) the subject with a
word or words which tell something about the subject's nature, occupation, condition, or
appearance. In fact, linking verbs are much like an equal sign (=). It is even possible to substitute
the word “equal(s)” for the linking verb in some sentences.1
The BE verb is the most common linking verb. In statements, BE and other linking verbs link the
subject with a complement. A complement is a noun, adjective, or adverb2 which identifies,
modifies, or relates to the subject.
See how many different types of complements you can find for the BE verbs in the following
paragraph:
Answers:
newlyweds (noun complement);
in New York (adverbial complement);
exciting here (adjective complement);
our apartment building (noun complement);
upstairs (adverbial complement)
1
The importance of the meaning of most linking verbs is limited. This is particularly true of BE, which some
grammarians do not categorize as a verb, but put in a category by itself, between function words and true verbs.
Because of this weak semantic content, linking verbs, like function words, seldom receive much voice stress.
2
Many grammarians include adverbs and adverbials as subject complements of the BE verb. Some traditional
grammarians, however, consider the BE verb an intransitive verb when followed by an adverb or adverbial. This text
treats the BE verb as a linking verb and adverbs and adverbials as complements of the BE verb.
36 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Other Linking Verbs + Complements
SUBJECT LINKING VERB SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
The food in the mess hall seems better today. (adjective complement)
✦ Transitive Verbs
Whereas linking verbs indicate a state of being, transitive verbs describe mental or physical
activity. And just as linking verbs always have subject complements, transitive verbs always have
direct objects.
Transitive verbs may also have indirect objects. Occasionally transitive verbs have a direct object
and an object complement—a noun or adjective that modifies or relates to the direct object. (Refer
to Unit 8, page 111, for more information on sentence patterns.)
Note: Each of these sentences can be rewritten with a preposition. The direct object precedes
the prepositional phrase which functions as the indirect object. Example: The major will write
a letter of recommendation for you.
UNIT 3 37
Isabel told Marcus a joke.
(Trans verb +IO + DO)
I smell smoke.
UNIT 3 39
✦ Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs do not have objects. They show a complete action on their own. However, they
are often modified by adverbs or adverbials telling how, when, where, or why.
It is important to remember that whether a verb is transitive or intransitive does not depend on the
verb itself, but on its use in the sentence.
SUBJECT TRANSITIVE VERB INTRANSITIVE VERB OBJECT
UNIT 3 41
Verb Tenses
Tense indicates when an action takes place. The basic tenses are past, present, and future. In
English, only the past and present tenses are considered simple. The simple present is indicated by
the base form (infinitive form without to) of the verb, such as talk, need, ask. The regular past is
created by adding the suffix -ed, as in talked, needed, asked. However, there are also many
irregular past tense verbs, such as saw, found, kept. The future, the perfect, and the progressive
tenses require the addition of auxiliaries, sometimes called helping verbs, to the simple present form
of the verb. Person and number also affect the formation of verb tense.
✦ Person
The grammatical terms first person, second person, and third person refer to the relationship of
individual persons or groups to the action indicated by the verb.
First person refers to
♦ the person who is speaking or writing (I),
or
♦ that person and one or more persons in the same group (we).
✦ Number
The grammatical terms singular and plural designate the number of people or entities indicated in
a grammatical construction.
Singular refers to one.
SUBJECT VERB
write fix try go be have
3rd person He
It
plural They
write fix try go are have
Bo & Jo
UNIT 3 43
Use of the Present Tense
In English, where time and tense do not always correlate exactly, the present tense has several uses.
The present tense is used to express a condition occurring at the time of speaking or writing that
may continue for a short time.
He is sick.
The coaches are angry.
We are here.
Mary seems delighted.
The present tense is used to express the idea that an activity or capability existed before the moment
of speaking or writing, exists at that moment, and is expected to continue into the future.
He lives on Wilson Street.
Juanita speaks fluent English.
Richard bakes bread.
My children dislike romance movies.
The present tense is used to express a customary or habitual action. Adverbs of frequency (always,
seldom, usually, etc.) are often used to reinforce this concept.
He often goes to the movies on Saturday.
Peggy usually takes the bus to work.
I sometimes sleep late on Sunday.
Ahmed seldom makes a mistake in math.
Richard smokes a pack of cigarettes every day.
The present tense is used to refer to what an author has said, whether the author is living or dead.
The present tense is also used to refer to the content of any art form.
Shakespeare analyzes types of leadership in his histories.
Amy Tan writes about the experiences of Asian-American women.
At the end of the movie, the hero dies, but his message lives on.
In his Ninth Symphony, Beethoven appeals to a universal hope.
The present tense is sometimes used to create a sense of immediacy, as in the following:
♦ Newspaper Headlines
San Antonio Floods Again
Earthquakes Shake California
♦ Informal First Person Stories
“I call her, but her brother says she’s not home. The next day she tells me I
shouldn’t call again.”
♦ Stage directions in manuscripts of plays
Villain enters from left.
Shot is fired from offstage.
Villain falls.
UNIT 3 45
✦ Simple Past Tense
The past tense of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed or -d to the base form. The past tense of
most irregular verbs is formed by an internal vowel change. Except for BE, past tense verbs do not
change form to indicate person or number.
Past Tense of BE
BE has two past tense forms, was and were, distributed as follows:
SUBJECT SINGULAR PLURAL
We were
Jane was
They were
The past tense is used to express a completed activity that occurred at an unspecified time in the
past.
The class went on a field trip.
He came to see us about his schedule.
Joy waited for the children.
The past tense is used to express an activity that occurred in the past over a period of time but was
completed before the time of speaking or writing.
He studied French when he was in high school.
Margaret taught in Alaska last year.
I lived on the island for three years.
UNIT 3 47
✦ Simple Future Tense
The future tense is sometimes expressed by a phrase made up of will plus the simple form of the
main verb. It is used to talk about actions that have not yet occurred. Note that there is no change
in the future tense to indicate number or person.
We will see.
It will grow.
In American English, however, shall is more commonly used in question form, with first person
only, to offer a suggestion or a choice.
Shall we leave now?
Shall we go to a movie or play golf on Saturday?
BE going to
In spoken American English, a form of BE followed by going to often expresses future time.3
Notice that going to and the base form of the verb do not change, but that the form of BE changes
to reflect person and number.
It is going to finish.
3
In speech going to is often pronounced gonna. Second language learners sometimes incorrectly produce gonna to.
UNIT 3 49
The Progressive Tenses
✦ Present Progressive Tense
The present progressive tense, also called the present continuous, is created using a present tense
form of BE and the present participle form of the verb.
We are singing.
She is learning.
It is growing.
The present progressive tense is used to express an activity that began in the past, continues into the
present, and probably will continue into the future for an unspecified length of time.
Mary is studying music in New York.
Fred’s son is working for an oil company in Kuwait.
The state highway department is repairing Military Drive.
The Garcias are living in Germany.
The present progressive tense is used to express an activity that will take place in the future. A time
word or phrase may be used to clarify this usage.
Margarita is going to college in Chicago next year.
The new commandant is arriving in April.
We are buying a new car as soon as the new models come out.
The present progressive tense is used in combination with always to emphasize a frequently
repeated action. Sometimes the emphasis expresses dissatisfaction.
Mr. Williams is always going to the opera.
The children are always complaining about their homework.
The state is always repairing the highways.
UNIT 3 51
✦ Past Progressive Tense
The past progressive tense, also called the past continuous, is created using a past tense form of
BE and the present participle form of the verb.
We were studying.
It was working.
The past progressive tense can be used to indicate a continuous action in the past. This construction
has a meaning very similar to the simple past.
It was raining this morning. (It rained this morning.)
I was singing to the baby before bedtime. (I sang to the baby before bedtime.)
The past progressive tense can be used to answer a question about past actions.
What were you doing?
I was singing to the baby.
We will be speaking.
It will be living.
UNIT 3 53
The Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses relate an action to two points in time: the time of the action itself and another
time in the past, present, or future.
Have you been to Spain? (at some point in the past)
I have finished my homework. (action started in the past and recently completed)
The movie had already started when I got to the theater.
(two actions in the past—one occurring before the other)
Jane will have been in the military for ten years next July. (two points in the future)
It is helpful to think of perfect as meaning complete and the perfect tenses as ways to talk about the
time an action is perfected, or completed. All of the perfect tenses use a form of the auxiliary
(helping verb) have and the past participle (third form) of a verb.4
We have written.
It has grown.
4
Other helpers (BE and will) are used with some perfect tenses.
54 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Use of the Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect is used to show that an action began at
a stated time in the past and continues in the present.
Since is used with this construction.
He has lived here since May.
Magda has spoken English since she was a child.
The Browns have vacationed in Europe every
summer since 1980.
They have taken the train to work for years.
The present perfect is used to show that an action has occurred over a period of time beginning in
the past and continuing in the present. The preposition for is used to clarify this meaning.
I have attended DLI for about three months.
Joan has worked at the UN for sixteen years.
He has been here for about half an hour.
The present perfect is used to show that an activity has occurred one or more times in the
unspecified past.
I’ve been to New York only once.
John has written his wife six times.
I have explored the jungle occasionally.
The present perfect is used to refer to an action completed shortly before the present.
Our visitors have just left.
The commandant has briefed the troops.
We have eaten breakfast.
UNIT 3 55
Simple Past or Present Perfect?
Second language learners are often confused by the simple past and the present perfect tenses.
When is the simple past sufficient, and when is the present perfect needed?
If the action continues into the present or was just completed, the present perfect is used.
We had gone
It had seen
Notice that the past perfect is used in the main clause, but the simple past or past progressive is used
in the subordinate (supporting) clause. In some cases there is no supporting clause.
UNIT 3 57
✦ Future Perfect Tense
The future perfect tense is formed by will have and the past participle. It relates two events to the
future.
SUBJECT FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
will have Past Participle
1st person I will have worked
We will have studied
2nd person You (singular) will have played
You (plural) will have run
3rd person He will have learned
She will have written
It will have happened
They will have spoken
Sal and Sam will have lived
Notice that the event in the main clause may have started in the past or may start in the future. This
tense indicates the time the occurrence finishes, not the time it begins. The tense of the verb in the
supporting clause is simple present.
UNIT 3 59
Use of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense
The present perfect progressive is used to express an action that began in the past and is continuing
in the present.
I have been studying all night.
You have been working very hard.
Brian has been writing a thesis.
Notice that all of these actions are happening now but began in the past. In the first two examples,
the progressive verbs are intransitive and are followed by adverbial phrases. In the third example,
the progressive verb is transitive with a direct object.
1st person I
had been studying
We
3rd person He
She
They
1st person I
will have been studying
We
3rd person He
She
They
UNIT 3 61
Use of the Future Perfect Progressive
The future perfect progressive is used to express an action that will have been in progress when
another action occurs in the future.
On the first of October, I will have been living in my present home for exactly ten years.
When he gets to Jackson, he will have been flying for twenty hours.
Verbs – Part II
Voice
Sentences occur in one of two voices, active or passive:
Active voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is performing the action indicated
by the verb.
Stephen chose the navy blue jacket.
The boys ate all of the pies.
Passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is receiving the action of the verb.
The navy blue jacket was chosen by Stephen.
All of the pies were eaten by the boys.
✦ Active Voice
Most sentences with transitive verbs indicate the subject acting on something outside of itself – the
object. The following is an example: The dog chased the cat. In this sentence, the dog (the
subject) is the agent (the performer of the action), and the cat (the object) is the receiver of the
action. This sentence is in the active voice. The active voice can occur in any tense.
UNIT 4 63
Use of the Active Voice
The active voice is used to indicate that the subject of the sentence is performing the action
indicated by the main verb.
SUBJECT VERB DIRECT OBJECT
✦ Passive Voice
Some sentences with transitive verbs indicate the subject as receiver of the action of the verb. In
this case there is no object. These sentences are in the passive voice. For example: The cat was
chased by the dog. Passive voice sentences use the past participle of the verb preceded by a BE
auxiliary. It is this BE auxiliary—not the past participle—which indicates tense.
SUBJECT VERB BE + participle PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
These trees have been being destroyed by storms ever since I can remember.
Notice that, in each example, something happens to the trees. They are acted upon – destroyed – by
the storm or storms. The past participle destroyed is used, and the BE verb changes to indicate
tense. The performer of the action, when specified, is indicated in a prepositional phrase. Note also
that, while an example has been provided, most grammarians do not approve of using perfect
progressive tenses in the passive.
UNIT 4 65
✦ The GET-Passive
Frequently, a get auxiliary is used to form passive constructions. This informal structure, called the
GET-passive, is created by combining get and the past participle of a verb. Although the GET-
passive is very common in spoken American English, the BE-passive appears more frequently in
writing. Compare the following examples:
Exceptions are occasional special expressions such as, “A good time was had by all.”
Mood
In grammar, the term mood refers to the forms that reflect attitudes, ideas, or feelings about a
subject. Verb forms are used to express how a subject is thought about at the time of writing or
speaking. In English there are three moods:
indicative
imperative
subjunctive
✦ Indicative Mood
The most common mood in English is the indicative, which can occur in all tenses. The indicative
is used for facts, opinions, and questions.
Mark works downtown on Saturdays.
When will your new house be finished?
Has the new commanding officer arrived yet?
The commander wants everyone here early tomorrow.
Mario and Lisa move to Florida every winter.
We always have a good time at their parties.
UNIT 4 67
✦ Imperative Mood
The imperative mood utilizes the simple form of the verb for both singular and plural. Often the
understood subject, you, is omitted.
The imperative is used for orders, advice, requests, and sometimes suggestions.
Take this note to the commander.
Don’t waste so much time.
Please give me a call tomorrow about noon.
Stay awhile longer.
You, listen! Never do that again.
John, finish your homework.
You go down to the corner and turn right.
The inclusive, or first person imperative, is used for suggestions, pleas, and
occasionally polite commands. Speakers or writers include themselves in the proposed
action by using let’s, a contraction of let us.
Let’s have a big Thanksgiving dinner.
Let’s try to fix this.
Let’s not waste so much time
The inclusive is easily confused with the command form of let, meaning permit. While
both are examples of the imperative mood, they are not the same.
Let the soldiers have weekend passes.
Let the staff take a break.
Let me find some dry clothes for you.
THAT-clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, recommend, request, and suggest
(These verbs express ideas that have not yet become reality, so the clauses that follow
them require the subjunctive mood. Note that, in current usage, the conjunction that is
often omitted from that-clauses.)
The supervisor insists [that] her staff be (not are) on time.
Dr. Johnson recommends [that] Josie take (not takes) an aspirin a day.
The instructions suggest [that] the user test (not tests) the color on a small area first.
5
The subjunctive is not used in IF clauses which express conditions that exist or may exist.
Example: If Joy moves (not move) to Washington, she will work at the Pentagon.
UNIT 4 69
Certain set expressions
(A few set expressions from a time when the subjunctive was more widely used remain
in standard American English today.) Here is a partial list:
You could be right. Be that as it may, we will not discuss the topic any further.
My brother has owned many cats. He is, as it were, a feline authority.
The picnic will be held come rain or come shine.
Far be it from me to disagree with him!
Is today Friday? Would that it were!
✦ Modals
These verbs function only as auxiliaries—never as main verbs:
can6 shall could
may should would
will7 might must
A modal helps the main verb by giving it special meaning. It does not state facts, but expresses
mental concepts such as possibility, ability, permission, or obligation. It is placed before the simple
form of the verb.
We will finish this project sooner than expected.
You should call home once a week.
Students must study if they wish to succeed.
I would take a vacation, but I don’t have enough money.
6
The modal can should not be confused with the verb can. Examples: Grandmother cans vegetables every spring.
7
The modal will should not be confused with the verb will. Examples: He is going to will his entire estate to his
cousin. After her accident, she willed herself to walk again.
70 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Use of Modals
Modal use is extensive and varied. Here is a brief summary of the most basic uses of the nine
modals mentioned on the previous page.
to ask for or grant permission Mother, can I stay up to watch the movie?
informally
No, you can’t.
could as the past tense of can Martha could play the guitar when she
was six.
to make a very polite request Could you please turn up the heat?
may to formally ask for or grant Yes, you may finish the rest of the
permission chocolate cake.
should8 to express opinion or moral You should (or ought to) eat less and get
obligation more exercise.
to express possible condition Should you finish the test early, you may
leave.
8
Some grammarians consider ought to an informal alternative to should in some contexts.
UNIT 4 71
MODAL USE EXAMPLE
will to express willingness I’ll clean the garage this weekend if you
want me to.
would to make a polite request She isn’t here. Would you call back
please?
All of these modals, except can,9 are sometimes combined with have to form modal perfects—
modals in the present perfect tense.
He might have been there, but I didn’t see him.
John could have gone to the park.
Kate would have graduated last year, if she had passed her finals.
The driver should have paid attention to the speed limit.
9
Note that there are rare exceptions:
Example: He can’t have been the murderer! He was with me the whole time.
72 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
✦ Verbs With Double Functions
The verbs BE, do, and have, in all their forms, can function as either helping verbs or main verbs.
Have, has, and to create a perfect tense. John has eaten six pieces of pie.
had are used as
John had eaten six pieces of pie by ten
helpers…
o’clock last night.
John will have eaten six pieces of pie
before he goes to bed tonight.
Do, does, and ask a question. Did Jerry answer his phone?
did are used as
emphasize a main verb. I do enjoy seeing good movies.
helpers with the
base form of a express a negative She never does finish on time.
verb to… meaning with not or
never (or adverbs of He rarely did please his employer.
frequency such as rarely
or seldom).
UNIT 4 73
✦ Verb Substitutes
Just as a pronoun can substitute for a noun, a few verbs can substitute for other verbs or verb
phrases. In most cases this is done to avoid repeating a long phrase. The substitute verb is actually
the result of an ellipsis, or reduction, of the longer clause.
Do
In addition to its functions as a helper, do is probably the most common verb substitute.
She dances better than you do.
They like swimming, and so does he.
I’ll help with the dishes, if you do too.
Mary likes all kinds of music, and her sisters do too.
He is playing as well as Louis did.
She drove as well as you did.
They had more time than we do.
You don’t want to go to school anymore, do you?
Notice that the form of do agrees in tense, person, and number with the subject of the reduced
clause, not with the subject of the primary clause.
Adverbs modify
♦ verbs (or verbals).
♦ adjectives.
♦ other adverbs.
Adjectives
Adjectives often modify nouns by describing them. They may describe by telling which, what kind
of, or how many.
the blond student (Which student?)
the antique furniture (What kind of furniture?)
fifty states (How many states?)
Adjectives can also be identified by their form and their place in the sentence:
words which come before the noun in a noun phrase,
words which follow a linking verb and describe the subject (subject complements),
UNIT 5 75
✦ Comparative and Superlative
Most adjectives can take comparative and superlative forms:
The comparative and superlative are regularly formed in one of two ways:
Caution: In standard English, more is never combined with -er to form the comparative and most
is never combined with -est to form the superlative.
✕ Chocolate ice cream is more tastier ✕ Hamed is the most smallest of all
than vanilla ice cream. the children.
✔ Chocolate ice cream is tastier than ✔ Hamed is the smallest of all the
vanilla ice cream. children.
UNIT 5 77
Irregular Comparative/Superlative Forms
A few English adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
✕ The chocolate cookies are less tastier than the oatmeal ones.
✔ The chocolate cookies are less tasty than the oatmeal ones.
Examples:
perfect
✕ He brought her the most perfect rose I have ever seen.
✔ He brought her a perfect rose.
(The rose of either perfect, or it is not.)
round
✔ The earth is almost round.
(Round is absolute, but the earth is not round; it is almost round)
Example:
Original noun: child
with adjective suffixes: childish childlike childless
UNIT 5 79
Adjectives Formed from Nouns
Adjectives can be created from nouns by adding one of these suffixes:
-al -ed -ish -ly
-ar -en -istic -ous
-ary -esque -less -wide
-ate -ical -like -y
character characteristic
comic comical
consul consular
fame famous
fool foolish
fortune fortunate
history historical
life lifelike
nation national
picture picturesque
plenty plentiful
prince princely
rock rocky
sense sensible
station stationary
storm stormy
talent talented
worth worthy
adore adorable
appear apparent
attract attractive
censor censorious
congratulate congratulatory
continue continual
excite excitable
exclaim exclamatory
exclude exclusive
exist existent
jump jumpy
please pleasant
provoke provocative
satisfy satisfied
train trainable
trouble Troublesome
UNIT 5 81
Participles Used as Adjectives (Emotive Adjectives)
Both present participles (-ing) and past participles (-en or -ed) are commonly used as adjectives.
These forms show either an active or passive emotional impact.
Examples:
The child enjoyed the amusing story.
(The story actively amused the child.)
The amused child enjoyed the story.
(The child was passively amused by the story.)
Emotive adjectives can be modified by more or most to take the comparative or superlative form.
The child found reading more amusing than playing soccer.
✦ Possessive Adjectives
Adjectives which designate ownership are called possessive adjectives. These include the
following:
my our your
his her their
its
The difference between possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives is that possessive pronouns
stand alone, while possessive adjectives must always precede a noun.
This (book) is mine. (Mine is a possessive pronoun.)
This is my book. (My is a possessive adjective.)
It is also possible for some indefinite pronouns to be modified by adjectives in the appositive
position following the pronoun they modify.
Something strange happened in the dining hall last night.
He can’t tell you anything new about the matter.
UNIT 5 83
– USER NOTES –
Article Pronoun Ordinal Cardinal General/ Size/ Age/State/ Color Proper Material
Abstract Shape Condition Adj
a big boat
85
– USER NOTES –
UNIT 5 87
✦ Adverbs of Manner
This type of adverb answers the question How? Most of these are formed from adjectives by adding -ly.
easily You can perform mathematical functions easily.
loudly Please don’t play your boombox so loudly.10
hard Why does Jane work so hard?
Longer adverbs are preceded by more or most in the positive and less or least in the
negative
He speaks more sincerely than his opponent.
He speaks the least sincerely of any person I know.
10
In informal American English, especially spoken English, the -ly ending is often omitted.
Example: Please don’t play your boombox so loud.
88 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Some nouns or noun phrases function as adverbs, telling when an
action occurred or will occur.
✦ Adverbs of Frequency
These adverbs indicate how often.
✦ Interrogative Adverbs
The question words become interrogative adverbs when used in questions.
where Where did the campers pitch their tent?
when When will they break camp?
why Why didn’t they bring more fuel?
how How can they start a fire?
UNIT 5 89
✦ Relative Adverbs
The question words are relative adverbs when they introduce adjective and noun clauses.11
In adjective clauses:
That’s the corner where the bad accident occurred.
There was a time when flying was a pleasure.
In noun clauses:
Do you know where the bus station is?
Can you tell me when he will arrive?
I don’t understand why he skipped class.
11
For an explanation of noun clauses and adjective clauses, see Unit 9.
90 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
✦ Adverbs of Negation, Affirmation, and Probability
These adverbs show affirmation. (They say yes, or show that something is.)
certainly Joseph is certainly cheerful.
positively It was positively the best party of the year.
undoubtedly You will undoubtedly have a great time.
These adverbs show negation. (They say no, or show that something is not.)
never The officers are never late.
not They are not my favorite singing group.
Adverbial connectives often have very precise meanings, and some that appear to be
interchangeable may be so only in some contexts. Misuse of these connectives can change the
relationship between the ideas connected, so it is important to use them correctly.
UNIT 5 91
Use of Selected Adverbial Connectives
To express addition
besides He is my best friend; besides, we have known each other for years.
moreover She graduated with honors; moreover, she already has a great job.
furthermore He is the tallest on the basketball team; furthermore, he is a great
shooter.
in addition Julia is learning her third language; in addition, she is interested
in various cultures.
To express contrast
♦ These connectives simply show contrast:
however Jane is a great runner; however, she can’t throw.
on one hand/ On one hand, the house is too small; on the other hand, it has a
on the other hand great location.
To express alternative
otherwise Exercise often; otherwise, you won’t be healthy.
or else We could see a movie, or else we could go skating.
To express substitution
instead You shouldn’t run everyday; instead,
you should try lifting weights.
UNIT 5 93
Punctuation Note:
When adverbial connectives join two independent clauses, there are two equally correct ways to
punctuate.
Show a closer relationship between the two clauses by joining them into one sentence.
♦ End the first clause with a semicolon.
♦ Begin the adverbial connective with a lower-case letter.
♦ Put a comma after the adverbial connective.
♦ End the sentence with a period.
You shouldn’t drive to Anchorage; instead, you should fly.
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
careful carefully
wise wisely
nice nicely
correct correctly
UNIT 5 95
Adverbs Formed From Nouns
Adverbs can be formed from nouns in several ways.
By adding -s
NOUN ADVERB
day days
Monday Mondays
Louis sleeps days and works nights.
The group meets Mondays and Wednesdays.
By adding -wise
NOUN ADVERB
clock clockwise
length lengthwise
cross crosswise
Put the heavy boards lengthwise and the lighter boards crosswise.
Turn the wheel clockwise to close the door and counterclockwise to open it.
By adding -ward
NOUN ADVERB
north northward
wind windward
east eastward
home homeward
ADVERB ADVERB
up upward
out outward
Between the auxiliary and main verbs Martha has always been my friend.
Jeff has sometimes been wrong.
You can usually find the colonel here.
UNIT 5 97
– USER NOTES –
Determiners
Determiners are short modifying words (or sometimes affixes) that give specificity to nouns.
Articles are the most easily recognizable determiners. Pronouns, number words, and some
adjectives can also act as determiners.
✦ Articles
The articles a, an, and the are actually adjectives. They modify nouns by specifying. The rules for
using them are fairly simple.
Indefinite – a, an
The indefinite articles a and an are used before nonspecific singular count nouns (see
Unit1, page 1).
♦ A is used before count nouns beginning with a consonant sound.
a boy, a test, a vacation, a problem
UNIT 6 99
Definite – the
The definite article the is used with nouns, count or noncount, which can be clearly identified.
Notice that, before John and Judy’s apartment is found, its identity and location are unknown, so a
and an are used. After the apartment is found, it is identifiable, so the is used.
Be careful not to use the with noncount or plural nouns that signify all of a general category.
✦ Other Determiners
Other parts of speech serve as determiners by giving specificity or quality to a noun.
demonstratives
♦ Used before count and noncount nouns
this lesson these lessons
that officer those officers
this weather that fruit
indefinite adjectives
♦ Used before plural count nouns and noncount nouns
some drinks all commanders
many people both instructors
enough time
interrogatives
♦ Used before all nouns
whose car
what food
which question
numbers
♦ Used before count nouns
six cases
fourth row
750 hours
UNIT 6 101
✦ Confusing Determiners
Some determiners are confusing because a slight change in form can reverse their meanings.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions, sometimes called joining words, connect language elements of equal or unequal
value and indicate the relationships between these elements. There are three types of conjunctions
in English: coordinate, correlative, and subordinate.
✦ Coordinate Conjunctions
The coordinate conjunctions are as follows:
Coordinate conjunctions join grammar elements of equal value. They may join the following:
♦ single words
Both boys and girls are invited to try out for the team.
♦ phrases
He’s at home or at work.
♦ independent clauses
I have no appointments after lunch, so I will call you then.
✦ Subordinate Conjunctions
Subordinate conjunctions
♦ begin a dependent (subordinate) clause.
✦ Adverbial Connectives
Adverbial connectives, such as however, therefore, and besides, are also used as conjunctions.
See Unit5, page 92, for an explanation of how they join independent clauses.
UNIT 6 103
– USER NOTES –
Prepositions
Research and classroom experience show that prepositions are the most difficult part of speech for
ESL learners to use accurately. Most prepositions do not translate exactly from one language to
another. Furthermore, British and American usages of prepositions sometimes vary considerably.
Prepositions have meaning in themselves but are used in predictable combinations with adjectives
and verbs. That is, certain prepositions follow certain adjectives or verbs to introduce prepositional
phrases. Native speakers usually think of prepositions as part of prepositional phrases. (See Unit 9,
page 119, for descriptions and uses of prepositional phrases.) English learners, however, find it
useful to learn which prepositions appropriately combine with which adjectives and verbs.
Example:
Many Americans are married to someone they met at college.
An English learner needs to know that married is usually followed by to and that met is usually
followed by at or in. Appendix C, page 180, lists common adjective/preposition and
verb/preposition combinations.
Types of Prepositions
Prepositions show relationships between content words and introduce phrases which act as
adjectives or adverbs.
Even though some prepositions have more than one use, dividing these troublesome function words
into usage groups makes them easier to understand. This text groups them as follows:
prepositions of place or location
prepositions of time
miscellaneous prepositions
UNIT 7 105
✦ Prepositions of Place or Location
Prepositions of place answer the question where? The most common of these are listed below:
Examples:
Hang the picture above the fireplace.
There is one apple among the oranges in the bowl.
He is sitting by his sister.
There are plumbing leaks throughout the building.
City ordinance says you must build a fence around the pool.
UNIT 7 107
✦ Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of time answer the question when? The most common are as follows:
at on in throughout
before after since from – until
during for around from – to
At seven,
he will phone home.
by through via
with without
UNIT 7 109
✦ Confusing Multiple-Use Prepositions
Some prepositions are used in more than one way or have forms that are very similar but used
differently. Here are the most common:
Preposition Function Examples
at as a preposition of time Meet me at noon for lunch.
as a preposition of place Meet me at Rose’s Restaurant for lunch.
by as a preposition of place Meet me by the front entrance.
(meaning next to)
as a preposition of time Be there by 11:45 am.
(meaning no later than)
as a preposition of means We will go by bus.
on as a preposition of place Put the books on the desk.
(meaning set upon)
as a preposition of time We will complete this training on the fifth.
(designating date) He will deliver the new part on Tuesday.
as a preposition meaning Turn the radio on so we can hear the news.
operating
as a preposition meaning by I heard it on ABC News last night.
broadcast media
over as a preposition of place Hang the clock over the desk.
(meaning above)
as a preposition of time I hope to read several books over the
(meaning during) summer.
around as a preposition of time Meet me around noon.
(meaning approximately)
as a preposition of place Build a fence around the pool.
(meaning surrounding)
as a preposition of Run around the building, not through it.
movement or direction
about as a preposition of time What time is it? I think it is about noon.
(meaning approximately)
as a preposition of content This article is about the new NATO
(meaning concerning) countries.
under as a preposition of place The papers you want are under those
(meaning beneath) books.
as a preposition of quantity I will buy those shoes if they cost under
(meaning less than) $100.
Within these restrictions there are many ways a sentence can be formed. A simple sentence can
contain only two words.
John runs.
(subject) (verb)
This sentence has a subject – the noun John. It has a verb – runs. We understand what it means, so
it is a complete thought.
The study of sentence formation is called syntax. Here are two ways that linguists who study
syntax explain the sentence:
Sentence (S) = Noun Phrase (NP) + Verb Phrase (VP)
Sentence = Subject + Predicate
All of the variations of sentence patterns are based on this simple idea. Linguists explain that each
of the phrases within a sentence may consist of other categories (that is, other phrases or single
words).12 For instance, we could expand our simple sentence to
Now the subject, John, is expanded, and the verb, runs, is expanded. The basic structure of the
sentence is unchanged, but more information has been added to the thought being expressed.
12
See Unit 9 for a more complete explanation of phrases.
UNIT 8 111
In addition to subjects and verbs, sentences may contain direct objects, indirect objects,
complements, and/or various modifiers (adjectives and adverbs). Keep in mind that parts of
speech and parts of the sentence are not the same. In fact, parts of speech make up parts of
sentences. Another way to look at this is to say that parts of sentences are composed of parts of
speech.
NOTE: Only one term, verb, appears in both lists. When we use verb to designate a sentence part, we
further designate it as transitive, intransitive, linking, or auxiliary, as explained in Unit3, page 35.
✦ Verb
Action Verbs – show action or tell what the subject is doing.
♦ Transitive verbs take direct objects.
Judy rang the bell.
♦ Intransitive verbs do not take objects.
The bell rang.
Linking Verbs – connect the subject to something that describes or identifies it.
Those roses smell wonderful.
Jacob is very tall.
UNIT 8 113
✦ Direct Object
receives the action of a transitive verb.
✦ Complement
follows a linking verb
✦ Pattern One
The simplest pattern is S + VI
Subject Intransitive Verb
(S) (VI)
Angela smiled.
The audience laughed.
Snow is falling.
✦ Pattern Two
Probably the most common pattern is S + VT + DO
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object
(S) (VT) (DO)
UNIT 8 115
✦ Pattern Three
The third pattern involves a receiver of the direct object, the indirect object. In this pattern the
verb expresses an actual action. Pattern three has two variations.
The first is S + VT + IO + DO
Subject Verb Transitive Indirect Object Direct Object
(S) (VT) (IO) (DO)
The second uses a prepositional phrase including the indirect object: S + VT + DO + PPwIO
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Prep. Phrase
(S) (VT) (DO) (PPwIO)
✦ Pattern Four
This pattern includes a verb that expresses an idea, rather than an action, and that is followed by a
complement: S + VT + DO + OC
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Object Complement
(S) (VT) (DO) (OC)
(indicating characteristic)
Mary is talented.
(indicating role)
John is treasurer.
(indicating location)
All five of these patterns can be transformed into negative statements, made into questions, and (if
they have direct objects) converted to the passive voice. Here are examples using a sentence which
follows Pattern Two:
Appendix D, page 198, gives examples of many possible transformations. See also the sections on
various parts of speech for examples of variations.
UNIT 8 117
– USER NOTES –
In order to understand phrases and clauses, it is helpful to remember some basic facts about
sentences. Here are some ideas to keep in mind:
Sentences may be
simple (consisting of one independent clause).
Bill won the tennis match.
UNIT 9 119
Clauses and phrases act as various parts of sentences. They can act as any of the following:
Clauses
A clause has been defined as a group of words with a subject and a verb. Another important
characteristic of a clause is that it works as a part of a sentence, just as a part of speech does. A
clause may function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
The first clause, whenever he tries, is a dependent clause. It is dependent because it is not a
complete thought. Alone it leaves an unanswered question, “What happens whenever he tries?” A
dependent clause must be attached to something else
to make sense. Dependent clauses can also be called subordinate clauses.
The second clause, John makes outstanding grades, is an independent clause. It is independent
because it expresses a complete thought. It leaves no unanswered question. In fact, with a period at
its end, it could be a sentence. It is a clause because it is attached to something else – in this case, a
dependent clause. The only difference between an independent clause and a simple sentence is that
a sentence is complete in itself while an independent clause serves as part of a sentence.
Independent clauses are sometimes called main clauses.
An independent (or main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb working as a part
of a sentence and expressing a complete idea.
UNIT 9 121
Two independent clauses may be treated in any one of four ways.
♦ If they are very closely related, they may be joined by a semicolon.
He has come to DLI; his English has improved.
✦ Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are subordinate, or dependent, clauses occupying noun positions in sentences. They
may function as subjects, direct objects, and subject complements. Noun clauses are actually
transformations of statements, questions, requests, or exclamations which may be introduced by a
variety of subordinators: indefinite relative pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and the conjunctions
that, whether, and if.
NOTE: For this position of a noun clause, the conjunction that has the meaning of the fact that. It
cannot be omitted from the noun clause. This type of noun clause is found in the typical subject
position—before the verb.
NOTE: The conjunction that should not be confused with the pronoun that. Only the
conjunction may be omitted from a clause. In the third example sentence above—I believe
(that) that is true.—the conjunction that may be omitted, but the pronoun that, which is also
the subject of the clause, must remain.
UNIT 9 123
Noun Clause as Subject Complement
This is not a commonly used structure. Once again, the conjunction that is optional.
13
The subjective case pronoun is used in the clause because the pronoun functions as the subject of the clause even
though the entire clause is the object of the preposition to.
124 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
✦ Noun Clauses in Indirect Speech
When a person speaks, his or her words are considered direct speech.
There are two ways for one speaker to repeat what another speaker has said – quotation (exact
words) or indirect speech (paraphrase).
A quotation contains the exact words of a speaker. These exact words are enclosed in
quotation marks when they are written. (For more information on punctuating
quotations, see Appendix A, page 160.)
“We want to go to the movies,” said John.
Indirect speech is a paraphrase – the repetition of what one speaker has said by
another speaker in the words of the second speaker.
He said that they wanted to go to the movies.
Noun clauses often become garbled when they are repeated as indirect speech. Usually, this occurs
because pronouns and tenses are not accurately changed to reflect the intent of the original speaker.
UNIT 9 125
This chart illustrates changes in tense from direct to indirect speech as taught in the ALC. Notice
also the changes in pronouns.
Pattern One
Main Clause Adjective Clause with Pronoun as Subject
Pattern Two
These dependent clauses may interrupt the main clause in order to place the modifier (the
dependent clause) close to the noun it modifies.
Beginning of End of
Adjective Clause with Pronoun as Subject
Main Clause Main Clause
UNIT 9 127
Adjective Clause with Relative Pronoun as Object
The clause modifies a noun or pronoun in the main clause.
The relative pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition in the dependent clause.
Notice that the object pronoun may be omitted in this pattern. Whenever a relative pronoun
functions as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition which comes at the end of the
adjective clause, it can be omitted. Conversely, when a relative pronoun functions as the subject
of an adjective clause, it cannot be omitted.
Pattern One
In this pattern, the preposition may appear at the beginning of the adjective clause or at the end
of the clause. When the preposition is at the beginning of the clause, the relative pronoun
cannot be omitted. When the preposition is at the end of the clause, however, the pronoun may
be omitted.
Pattern Two
Notice that, in the first example below, the relative pronoun which cannot be omitted because it
directly follows the preposition to. The pronouns which and that in the subsequent examples
may be omitted because the preposition to is placed at the end of the clause rather than at the
beginning.
UNIT 9 129
Adjective Clause with whose
Like all adjective clauses, this type of clause modifies a noun in the main clause. Whose, a relative
adjective, shows possession of something in the adjective clause. The possessor (noun in main
clause) is usually a person but may be also be a thing, as shown in two of the examples below.
Pattern One
Adjective Clause
Main Clause
whose
Pattern Two
Beginning of Adjective Clause
End of Main Clause
Main Clause whose
The cruise line whose ship we are taking has excellent service.
Adjective Clause
Beginning of Ending of
Main Clause where or sub Main Clause
Adjective Clause
Main Clause
when or substitute
UNIT 9 131
Punctuation of Adjective Clauses
The punctuation of an adjective clause depends on whether the clause is restrictive or
nonrestrictive. An adjective clause is considered restrictive if it is absolutely necessary in defining
the noun it modifies. Restrictive clauses require no special punctuation.
A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives extra information about the noun that it modifies. Unlike the
restrictive clause, it is not absolutely necessary in defining the noun. Therefore, a nonrestrictive
clause is punctuated with commas before and after the clause.
The graduate who was chosen to carry the flag I had a long discussion with Mr. Johnson,
is from my hometown. who is a farmer in our community.
(Restrictive Adjective Clause) (Nonrestrictive Adjective Clause)
Adverb clauses of time generally come before or after the main clause. The most common position
for adverb clauses is at the end of the sentence.
Since she has been married, she hasn’t had time for her old friends.
She hasn’t had time for her old friends since she has been married.
UNIT 9 133
Adverb clauses may also be found mid-sentence, although this is not a common position.
The news this morning, when I turned on the radio, was depressing.
These clauses express a result which is opposite of what the main clause suggests.
While his brother is very smart, John has trouble with his schoolwork.
John has trouble with his schoolwork whereas has brother is very smart.
UNIT 9 135
Adverb Clause of Condition
These words and phrases may introduce adverb clauses of condition:
if in case (that) in the event (that)
only if providing (that) whether or not
even if provided (that) unless
Whether or not you like to run, you should get some exercise.
Unless we leave early, we’ll be too late to see the pre-game show.
You should get some exercise whether or not you like to run.
prepositional phrases
participial phrases
gerund phrases
infinitive phrases
✦ Prepositional Phrases
Like prepositions, prepositional phrases can express certain meanings. (See Unit7, page 105, for a
review of specific types of prepositions and their uses.) A prepositional phrase consists of a
preposition, an object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object.
obj of
prep det prep.
↓ ↓ ↓
The cadets quickly walked into the room.
adjectives
♦ noun modifier (appositive)
♦ predicate adjective (after BE)
♦ object complement
adverbs
♦ modifying verb or predicate
♦ modifying an adjective
♦ modifying an independent clause
UNIT 9 137
Prepositional Phrase as Noun
Subject Complement
Prep Phrase as
Subject Linking Verb
Subject Complement
Although it is not very common, a prepositional phrase can also act as a subject, direct object,
or object of a preposition. An example of each follows.
subject:
In the desk drawer is a safe place.
direct object:
For my big meal I like at noon best.
object of preposition:
She would not marry except for money.
Appositive Position
This type of prepositional phrase directly follows the noun it modifies.
Prep Phrase Adj Prep Phrase Adjective
Subject Verb Direct Object
(appositive) (appositive)
Predicate Adjective
This type of prepositional phrase directly follows the BE verb.
Subject BE Verb Prep Phrase Predicate Adjective
UNIT 9 139
Prepositional Phrase as Adverb
These prepositional phrases may modify verbs, adjectives, or entire sentences.
Modifying a Verb
Subject Verb Prep Phrase Adverb modifying Verb
Modifying an Adjective
Adjective as Prep Phrase Adverb modifying Adjective
Subject Verb
Complement
In ten minutes’ time, the entire block was destroyed by the storm.
Since participial phrases function adjectivally, they may be found in the following positions within
sentences:
♦ before a noun (attributive)
♦ after a noun (appositive)
♦ as introduction to a main clause
UNIT 9 141
Participial Phrase in the Attributive Position
Participial Phrase—Attributive Predicate (VP)
The truck, rolling over and over, landed right side up.
Time
Participial Phrase Main Clause
Manner
Participial Phrase Main Clause
Shouting loudly and waving their hands, the crowd stormed into the courtyard.
Cause
Participial Phrase Main Clause
Result
Main Clause Participial Phrase
UNIT 9 143
✦ Special Applications of Participles and Participial
Phrases
Participle/Participial Phrase Following a Direct Object
A direct object is often followed by a participle or participial phrase. Such a direct object usually
follows a verb of perception or cause, such as see, watch, hear, smell, feel, have, and get. Find,
discover, leave, catch, and keep are other verbs which may be followed by a direct object and either
a present or past participle. The verbs have, make, want, need, order, and would like may be
followed by a direct object and a past participle.
Participle or
Subject Verb Direct Object Participial Phrase
Nominative Absolute
One type of participial phrase, often called a nominative absolute, contain its
own subjects. This subject is not the same as the subject for the main clause that follows the
participial phrase. A nominative absolute states a condition for the main clause.
His request for a loan having been refused, he decided not to buy a car.
Dangling Participle
Whenever a participial phrase appears at the beginning of a sentence, the noun or pronoun that the
phrase modifies should be immediately understandable and clear. The noun or pronoun subject of
the sentence should be the performer or receiver of the action of the participial phrase. If it is not,
there is a problem with the structure. This problem is commonly referred to as a dangling
participle.
Dangling Participle: Tired and scared, the rescuers found the lost children.
(Who was tired and scared? The rescuers, or the children?)
Corrected: Tired and scared, the lost children were found by the rescuers.
Dangling Participle: Costing a great deal of money, our family couldn’t afford such a car.
(What cost a great deal of money? Our family, or the car?)
Corrected: Costing a great deal of money, the car did not fit our family’s budget.
Dangling Participle: Sizzling and cooked to perfection, the waiter served the steak.
(What was sizzling and cooked to perfection? The waiter, or the steak?)
Corrected: Sizzling and cooked to perfection, the steak was worth waiting for.
UNIT 9 145
✦ Gerund Phrases
A gerund is a verbal that works as a noun. A gerund names an activity and always
ends in -ing.
A gerund phrase consists of
gerund
modifiers of the gerund
Gerund phrases work as nouns in sentences. They can function as any of the following:
subject
subject complement
direct object
object of preposition
appositive
gerund adjunct (adjective)
Gerund phrases are often reductions of independent clauses.
He saw old friends. It was great. ➜ Seeing old friends was great.
Jan runs every morning. It’s her ➜ Running every morning is
favorite exercise. Jan’s favorite exercise.
We get together on weekends. ➜ We enjoy getting together on
We enjoy it. weekends.
You borrowed ten dollars from ➜ Did you forget about borrowing
me. Did you forget about it? ten dollars from me?
NOTE: Gerunds and present participles look exactly alike. They must be identified by their
functions. To find a gerund, ask if the -ing word you are considering functions as a noun. If so, it
is a gerund.
The problem was being at the right place at the wrong time.
14
In English, some verbs can be followed by gerund objects, others by infinitive objects, and some by either gerund or
infinitive objects. There is no rule to determine which verbs can be followed by which form. Refer to the list at the end
of this unit, pages 158-159.
UNIT 9 147
Gerund Phrase as Object of Preposition
Gerund Phrase as Object of
Subject Verb Phrase Prep
Preposition
If the -ing word shows purpose and receives primary stress, it is a gerund.
He bought a raêcing horse.
(Racing is a gerund because it shows that the horse’s purpose is racing.)
If the -ing word shows action and the noun receives primary stress,
the -ing word is a participle.
Look at the setting suên.
(Setting is a participle because it shows what the sun is doing, not what its
purpose is.)
In today’s informal use, many people do not use possessive nouns or pronouns as modifiers of
gerunds. Instead, they use uninflected nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case form.
Following are examples of how the above would probably be worded in informal American speech
today.
Father resents Jim spending money foolishly.
We didn’t like it that they stayed so late.
We are proud of Tom winning first prize.
Some of us didn’t enjoy you telling boring stories at dinner.
I can’t understand the car not starting.
I don’t like him lying.
UNIT 9 149
✦ Infinitive Phrases
to-Infinitive
As presented in Unit3, an infinitive is the simple form of the verb preceded by to. It is the form
from which all other forms of a verb are derived. Here are some examples: to carry, to maintain, to
introduce, to laugh.
The to-infinitive has four tense forms—present, present perfect, present progressive, and present
perfect progressive. The present and present perfect forms may be passive with get and BE. The
present active and passive infinitives are the most common forms. The following chart shows the
present active and passive forms for the infinitive to plan.
ACTIVE PASSIVE
present to plan to be planned
present perfect to have planned to have been planned
present progressive to be planning (no passive)15
present perfect progressive to have been planning (no passive)16
Bare Infinitive
The simple, or base, form of the verb without to is also known as the bare infinitive. Examples are
carry, maintain, introduce, laugh. Some structures use the to-infinitive; other structures use the
bare infinitive. Bare infinitives often follow causative verbs such as make, and the verbs help and
let.
15
The present progressive may be made passive on rare occasions. Consider this example: The picnic is supposed to
be being planned by George as we speak.
16
The perfect progressive may also be made passive, as in this example: The picnic was supposed to have been being
planned by now. Such constructions are extremely rare, however, and often not covered in grammar texts.
150 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
Split Infinitive
In common usage, both spoken and written, infinitives are often split. An adverb is placed between
the to and the main verb: to finally decide, to completely surrender, to always wonder. Some
grammarians consider split infinitives to be incorrect usage. Others, however, believe that split
infinitives frequently express thoughts more exactly.
an infinitive
objective pronouns or nouns (him, her, us, them, you) sometimes preceded by for
The host urged us to stay a while longer.
It’s time for them to go home.
UNIT 9 151
Infinitive Phrase as Noun
Subject
Infinitive phrases can function as subjects either before or after the verb. Often when an infinitive
phrase is the subject of a sentence, the sentence begins with anticipatory it. We call this infinitive
phrase the deferred, or delayed, subject.
Infinitive Phrase Subject Predicate
Subject Complement
Infinitive phrases can act as subject complements after BE verbs and the linking verbs seem and
appear. Notice that the infinitive can appear with or without to when it follows a form of BE.
Subject Linking Verb Infinitive Phrase as Subject Complement
Object Complement
Transitive Direct Infinitive Phrase as Object
Subject
Verb Object Complement18
17
See list of verbs which take infinitive objects, page 158.
18
Some grammarians interpret this infinitive phrase to be an object complement. Others treat the direct object as a
subject of the infinitive phrase and the entire phrase – direct object and infinitive phrase – as object of the verb.
UNIT 9 153
Bare Infinitive as Object Complement
Transitive Direct
Subject Infinitive Phrase as Object Complement
Verb Object
Object of Preposition
The prepositions except, besides, and but can be followed by a bare infinitive.
Infinitive Phrase as
Subject Main Verb Phrase Preposition Object of Preposition
Modifying Subject
Infinitive Phrase as Adjective
Subject Predicate
Modifying Subject
UNIT 9 155
Infinitive Phrase as Adverb
Infinitive phrases can modify a predicate, a sentence, an adjective, or an adverb. These infinitives
many times express a cause, reason, or purpose.
Modifying Predicate
Infinitive Phrase as Adverb Modifying
Subject Verb
Verb or Predicate
To get water for his stock, the rancher had to drill a well.
✦ to – Substitution
In conversation, when an infinitive phrase occurs in an answer to a question, the phrase is often
reduced to a single word, to. To, then, substitutes for the entire phrase.
UNIT 9 157
✦ Verbs Which Take Gerund Phrases or
Infinitive Phrases as Direct Objects
Gerund Phrases or Infinitive Phrases after Certain Verbs
verbs usually
verbs taking taking infinitive,
verbs taking only verbs taking only either gerund or but experienced
infinitive phrases gerund phrases as infinitive phrases speakers can
as objects objects as objects justify gerunds
verbs taking only verbs taking only verbs that have totally different meanings
infinitive phrases gerund phrases depending on whether you use the gerund
as objects as objects or the infinitive
advise
allow
authorize
encourage
permit
sanction
UNIT 9 159
– USER NOTES –
Punctuation
End Punctuation
In English, three punctuation marks – the period, the question mark, and the exclamation point –
are used to show the end, or termination, of an idea.
✦ Period
The “dot” ( . ) placed at the end of a sentence, called a “full stop” by the British, is a period in
American English. Periods are used
in certain abbreviations.
Mr. Ms. B.A. etc. A.M.
✦ Period Look-a-Likes
In American English, the mark which looks like a period has different names in different contexts.
When used above a letter in writing, it is called a dot.
Be sure to dot your i’s.
APPENDIX A 161
✦ Question Mark
A question mark ( ? ) is used
✦ Exclamation Point
An exclamation point ( ! ) is used
The Comma
✦ When to use a comma ( , )
before a coordinating conjunction to join independent clauses
He likes to ride horses, and he likes to drive trucks.
19
If the introductory clause or phrase is very short, the comma is optional.
Example: Today ( , ) we will work on punctuation.
162 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
after adverbial connectives
We often drive to Houston; therefore, we know Interstate Highway 10 well.
between all items in a series (including the last item preceded by and)20
I like bananas, peaches, apples, and mangoes.
between adjectives that modify a noun separately (if they could be joined by and, or if
they could be in any order)
John is an intelligent, athletic, confident man.
to set off nonrestrictive elements (word groups that do not contain information essential
to the meaning of the sentence)
My father, who was a fighter pilot, was stationed in India.
to set off parenthetical expressions
Relativity, according to Einstein, is relative.
transitional expressions
As a consequence, the budget was increased.
contrasts
The Air Force, not the Marine Corps, will increase their presence in the region.
direct address
John, please close the window.
yes, no, and mild interjections
No, you shouldn’t drink and drive.
Well, what do you think?
tag questions
Jason didn’t go to Florida, did he?
information which gives context to quotations
President Kennedy said, “While we shall negotiate freely,
we shall not negotiate freedom.”
20
Some style books still prefer to omit the comma before “and.”
APPENDIX A 163
Use commas in the following:
dates
On July 4, 1976, our country was 200 years old.
addresses
Julie lives at 237 Johnson Blvd, San Antonio, Texas 78215.
titles
Janice Johnson, Ph.D., has been promoted to full professor.
numbers (in groups of three)
3,333,333
anywhere it clearly prevents confusion.
After eating, the baby fell asleep.
before parentheses
✕ Be sure to take a warm coat, (maybe your fake fur).
✔ Be sure to take a warm coat (maybe your fake fur).
The Semicolon
The semicolon ( ; ) has only a few uses. It always separates grammar elements of equal value.
APPENDIX A 165
✦ When not to use a semicolon
after a greeting
✕ Dear John;
✓ Dear John,
✓ Ladies and Gentlemen:
before a list or quotation
✕ The menu included the following; steak, chicken, and fish.
✓ The menu included the following: steak, chicken, and fish.
✕ The captain said; “Be on time.”
✓ The captain said, “Be on time.”
to separate a subordinate clause from the rest of the sentence
✕ Without John’s help; Julie won’t finish the project on time.
✓ Without John’s help, Julie won’t finish the project on time.
The Colon
A colon ( : ) is usually used to introduce something else: a list, a quotation, a new clause, a formal
letter, or a subtitle. It is also used in numerical expressions of time and mathematical ratios.
The Apostrophe
An apostrophe ( ’ ) looks like a comma, but it is placed near the top of a letter rather than on the line.
APPENDIX A 167
to show possession
♦ If the noun is singular, add ’s.
Bill’s book the girl’s coat
♦ If the noun is plural but does not end in s, add ’s.
the children’s books the men’s shirts
♦ If the noun is plural and ends in s, add only an apostrophe.
the boys’ shoes the libraries’ books
♦ If a proper noun ends in s, add only an apostrophe.
Charles’ golf clubs Texas’ roads
♦ If two or more nouns joined by and indicate joint possession, add an apostrophe or ’s
to the last noun.
my aunt and uncle’s farm
Jane and James’ house
♦ If two or more nouns joined by and indicate separate possession, add an apostrophe or
’s to each.
Ron’s, Jack’s, and Lou’s test scores
Houston’s and Dallas’ symphonies
♦ If a noun is hyphenated, add ’s to the last word.
father-in-law’s business
Apostrophe Look-a-Likes
Two symbols look like apostrophes, but have special uses.
Foot Symbol
He is 6’ tall.
A quotation is the exact words, sentence structure, punctuation, spelling, and grammar of the
original writer (or speaker). If these are not exact, quotation marks are not appropriate, unless
alterations to the original quote are clearly indicated. (See Other Punctuation Marks – Elipses and
Brackets, page 172.)
It is important, too, that the original source (writer or speaker) be given credit for an idea put into
different words, or paraphrased. Paraphrasing, sometimes called indirect or reported speech, does
not take quotation marks. Instead the writer or speaker is mentioned in the text or in a citation.
around the titles of short works – articles, poems, short stories, songs, chapters.
Alice Walker’s “Everyday Use” tells the story of the attitudes of
two sisters towards an heirloom family quilt.
♦ but underline or italicize the titles of longer works – movies, novels, textbooks,
newspapers, magazines.
Alice Walker’s The Color Purple was both a successful novel and
a successful movie.
APPENDIX A 169
✦ Single Quotation Marks
As mentioned previously, single quotation marks, which resemble apostrophes, are used for quotes
within quotes.
supplemental material
The Girl Scouts should be sure to bring enough water (in an appropriate container)
for the hike.
afterthoughts
Our new president grew up in Texas (unlike his father, the former president).
digressions
A significant percentage of students in American universities come from other
countries. (These student populations are already ethnically diverse, as Americans
of many different backgrounds are now going to college.)
Parentheses are used to enclose extra information that is interesting but not essential to the meaning
of the sentence. Parentheses are also used to enclose letters or numbers indicating items in a list.
In addition to water, the scouts should bring these items: (1) bedroll, (2) flashlight,
(3) sweater, (4) extra socks, and (5) assigned food item.
supplemental material
The privates will be on time—and properly attired in Class A uniform—for their first
language class.
Dashes may also be used in place of some colons. A dash is less formal and more dramatic than a
colon. They may be used in the following ways:
to introduce lists
There was far too much food at the party—cookies, cakes, homemade candy, six
kinds of meat and seafood, many kinds of cheese, several dips, and unlimited bowls
of chips and crackers.
APPENDIX A 171
✦ Ellipses
An ellipsis ( . . . ) is used to show that something has been left out of a quotation. If the omitted
material is less than a sentence, three dots are used. If the omitted material includes the end of a
sentence or is longer, four dots are used. Quotation marks are not closed before and after an
ellipsis.
✦ Brackets
Brackets ( [ ] ) are used to enclose words or phrases added into an otherwise word-for-word
quotation. Notice the use of both brackets and an ellipsis in this example.
Brackets can also be used to enclose the notation sic to show that the writer is aware that a quotation
contains an error in spelling or grammar. Using [sic] shows that the writer has not altered the
quotation by correcting the error. Some people consider the use of [sic] to be impolite to the source
being quoted.
According to Jacobson, “It is necessary to walking [sic]
five miles to lose the weight acquired by eating two
doughnuts.”
Irregular Verbs
Simple Present Simple Past Past Participle -ing Form
(Base Form)
APPENDIX B 173
Simple Present Simple Past Past Participle -ing Form
(Base Form)
APPENDIX B 175
Simple Present Simple Past Past Participle -ing Form
(Base Form)
APPENDIX B 177
Simple Present Simple Past Past Participle -ing Form
(Base Form)
APPENDIX B 179
Simple Present Simple Past Past Participle -ing Form
(Base Form)
Preposition Combinations
As mentioned in Unit 7, it is often easier for English learners to understand prepositions by thinking
about them in combination with adjectives or verbs. These content words, the adjectives and verbs,
are predictably combined with particular prepositions.
Adjective/Preposition Combinations
These combinations are usually preceded by a BE verb and followed by an object of a preposition.
APPENDIX C 181
Verb/Preposition Combinations (2-Word Verbs)
Verb/preposition combinations are often called two-word verbs because each of the combinations
performs the function of a verb alone. There are three groups of these combinations: separable
transitive, nonseparable transitive, and intransitive.
Examples:
bring back
(recall)
This song brings back memories.
(return)
Be sure you bring those books back.
bring up
(mention)
He brought up a lot of good ideas at the meeting.
Be sure to bring that up at the meeting.
(raise)
The Johnsons brought up ten children.
They had only their father to bring them up.
call back
(return a phone call)
Tell her I’ll call back.
Tell her I’ll call her back.
call down
(reprimand)
We were called down for walking on the grass.
The guard called them down for trespassing.
call up
(telephone)
Call up the doctor! Jack is very sick.
I’ll call the doctor up immediately.
carry out
(complete an action)
Be sure to carry out the orders exactly.
John will carry the plan out as ordered.
check in
(return an item)
The soldiers checked in their equipment after the exercise.
Be sure to check these books in by the fifth of April.
check off
(mark items on a list)
The pilot must check off every item on the pre-flight check list.
Did you check everything off the list?
check out
(record borrowed items)
Don’t forget to check out some books today.
Check these books out for your project.
(see that someone is familiar with a process)
Joan will check out the new secretary’s computer skills.
Today I have to check the privates out on reporting procedures.
(inspect; look at)
Check out this new website. It’s really good.
Check that used car out thoroughly before you buy it.
(investigate casually, try)
Should we check out that new Cajun restaurant?
We won’t go back to that restaurant. We checked it out last night, and it
wasn’t very good.
APPENDIX C 183
check out of
(officially leave)
We have to check out of the hotel by noon.
The manager will personally check us out before noon.
cheer up
(improve a mood)
Let’s try to cheer Judy up. She seems depressed.
(also intransitive meaning become happier)
What can we do to help your parents cheer up?
cross off
(indicate completion of an item on a list)
When I have a lot of chores, I cross off each one as I do it.
Cross each job off the list as it is completed.
do over
(do again)
I have to do over everything that I thought I had already finished.
Do this essay over. It is not your best work.
(redecorate or rearrange)
Since our office has been done over, we are much more comfortable.
We did our kitchen over, and the project took six months to complete.
drop off
(leave someone or something at a place)
When you go by the cleaner’s, would you drop off this pair of trousers?
Can you drop me off at the BX on your way to the commissary?
(also intransitive meaning fall asleep)
I dropped off during the movie.
figure out
(solve by reasoning)
We are trying to figure out why attendance has dropped.
I can’t figure it out.
get across
(make an idea understandable)
I wish I could get across to you how important it is to get plenty of sleep.
The captain should be able to get his ideas across better.
get back
(regain)
We are hoping to get back much more than what we originally invested in
the stock market.
Visitors to Las Vegas seldom get their losses back.
(also intransitive meaning return to point of departure)
My brother will get back to morrow.
184 GRAMMAR FOR THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE
get on/get off (of)
(enter or leave a means of mass transportation)
Get on the bus. It is about to leave.
Get the children on the bus.
We should get off the train at the next station.
I couldn’t get my kids off the bus.
give up
(quit trying, surrender)
Don’t give up trying to get that promotion.
The team won because they never gave the game up.
hand in
(submit)
You are to hand in your reports on Friday.
Be sure to hand them in before 3:00 p.m.
hang up
(put on a hanger or hook)
I cannot convince my son to hang up his clothes.
He never hangs his shirts up.
Hang the phone up now!
keep on
(continue to wear)
I’ll keep on my gloves. It’s cold in here.
Keep your coat on too.
(also intransitive meaning continue)
Don’t quit. Let’s keep on.
look over
(examine)
Would you look over these plans and let me know what you think?
John has already looked them over.
look up
(find information in a reference)
If you can’t spell it, you should look it up in the dictionary.
(find and visit a person)
I think I’ll look up my cousin while I’m in New York.
APPENDIX C 185
pay back
(return money or a courtesy)
Joshua never paid back the money I loaned him.
I’ll never be able to pay Jenny back for helping me with
this job.
pick out
(select)
My mother used to pick out my clothes every morning.
Will you help me pick a new shirt out?
(see clearly among others)
With everyone in uniform, it is hard for parents to pick out their sons
and daughters in the parade.
We looked for you, but we couldn’t pick you out.
pick up
(stop and get)
Will you pick up the chips for the party?
Be sure to pick the privates up at the dormitory.
(learn casually)
Some people pick up dialects easily.
I can’t believe you know that. Where’d you pick that up?
point out
(call attention to)
The tour guide pointed out most of the interesting sights.
I hadn’t realized that one of my tires was low. I’m glad you
pointed it out.
put across
(make ideas understandable)
In order to put across your ideas, be sure you understand your audience.
Dr. Johnson is good at putting his point across.
put aside
(save for later)
You ought to put aside more money for retirement.
Let’s put this issue aside until next month.
put away
(store)
Weapons should be put away securely.
Put your personal belongings away before the inspection.
put off
(delay)
Let’s put off that job until tomorrow.
Let’s put that off.
put on
(dress)
Put on your coat. It’s cold.
Put your gloves on too.
(turn on, initiate an operation)
I’m going to put on the heat.
Please put the water on for tea.
(pretend, be pretentious)
He is never sincere. He is always putting on an act.
You can’t be serious! You must be putting me on.
put out
(extinguish)
Put out your cigarette. Smoking is not allowed in here.
Be sure to put your campfire out completely.
take back
(return)
I’m going to take back this CD player. It’s not working.
You should take that sweater back to the store. It’s too big.
(cancel words or an act)
I wish I could take back the terrible things I said to John.
John wishes he could take what he said back too.
take off
(reduce)
Mike has felt much healthier since he took off all that weight.
If you negotiate, he may take a few dollars off the price.
(remove)
Take off your jacket.
Take your jacket off.
(also intransitive meaning depart by airplane)
We will take off soon.
take on
(hire)
The contractor intends to take on six new workers.
Can you believe the company has taken them on?
(acquire responsibility)
Judy has taken on another committee position.
She’s always taking something on.
APPENDIX C 187
take out
(remove for use)
Take out your journals and write about this article.
Please take the chicken out of the refrigerator.
(entertain away from home, date)
He takes out clients almost every night.
John is taking Judy out for dinner.
take over
(assume power)
When his father retires, Jimmy will take over as president of the company.
We’re not looking forward to the day Jimmy takes the company over.
take up
(begin a pursuit)
When he has more time, he intends to take up tennis.
Dan’s great at basketball. I wonder when he took it up.
(reduce in size)
The new dress was taken up four inches.
Have the tailor take the hem up in those pants.
(discuss)
We should take up the problem of the missing files at the next meeting.
Let’s take this subject up again in the morning.
(consume space)
Why do you always take up so much room?
There’s no space for my luggage. Yours takes it all up.
talk over
(discuss)
We need to talk over this decision.
Families function better when the members can talk things over.
think over
(consider carefully)
He thought over all of his options before deciding to go to college.
I’d like to think it over before I make a decision.
think up
(create by thinking)
Surely we can think up an interesting plan for the weekend.
I thought this story up in less than two minutes.
throw away
(dispose of)
Don’t throw away those newspapers. Recycle them.
Don’t throw the magazines away, either.
try on
(put on clothing to test fit and/or appearance)
David tried on ten pairs of pants before he finally found one he liked.
When you buy by catalog, you can’t try the clothes on first.
try out
(test by using)
I wonder if they would let me try out that computer for a week.
Go ahead and try it out.
turn down
(refuse an offer)
Dr. Jenkins turned down an opportunity for private practice.
I can’t believe he turned that down!
turn in
(submit)
I have to turn in my report tomorrow.
Be sure to turn your homework in before you leave.
(also intransitive meaning go to bed)
I turned in at nine o’clock.
turn off
(stop operation)
Please turn off the radio.
Jason, turn that TV off and do your homework!
(also nonseparable meaning leave a road)
We didn’t turn off when we were supposed to.
turn over
(turn top to bottom)
Turn over, or you’ll get a sunburn.
Can you turn the steaks over for me?
(transfer power or goods)
Company operations were turned over to Mr. Brown.
It is often difficult for a politician to turn power over to his successor.
APPENDIX C 189
wake up
(arouse from sleep)
I usually wake up the children at 6:30 a.m.
The garbage truck woke me up at 5:00 a.m. today.
(also intransitive meaning stop sleeping)
I woke up at 5:15.
call for
(pick up)
I will call for you an hour before the movie starts.
(require)
This recipe calls for six eggs.
call on
(visit)
The doctor called on my grandmother quite often.
(request)
He often called on Steve to help him with special projects.
(ask to respond)
Good teachers call on all of the students in their classes.
catch up with
(overtake)
The other runners are so far ahead of us, I doubt we can catch up with them.
I missed two weeks of class. How will I ever catch up with my classmates?
catch up on
(get something done that has been neglected)
I hope to catch up on the news today by reading the newspaper.
He is going to catch up on his sleep this weekend.
check up on
(investigate)
Did you check up on your son last weekend?
chip in
(contribute part)
If everyone chips in $5.00, we can have a great party.
(also intransitive)
We can have a great party if everyone chips in.
come to
(total)
Your hotel bill comes to $71.40.
drop in on
(visit unexpectedly)
Will you drop in on Jane when you’re in San Francisco?
drop out of
(quit)
Jack seems so discouraged this year. I hope he doesn’t drop out of school.
get behind in
(not meet a schedule)
I am getting behind in my homework. Can you help me catch up?
get in
(enter a car or other small means of transportation)
Get in the front seat. My suitcases are in the back.
get on with
(continue)
Let’s get on with our math lesson.
get over
(recover from)
I can’t seem to get over this sinus infection.
get through
(endure)
I wonder how he got through all the years he spent in prison.
APPENDIX C 191
get through with
(finish)
I can go with you when I get through with my homework.
go on with
(continue)
Go on with your story. I’m enjoying it.
go over
(review)
Let’s go over what we covered in class this week.
go through
(look through)
I need to go through these papers to see what can be thrown away.
(endure)
That was the worst experience I have ever gone through.
keep on
(continue)
Keep on practicing and you will become a great musician.
(also separable meaning continue wearing)
Keep your jackets on.
keep up with
(remain even with)
The children can’t keep up with us when you walk so fast.
(remain up-to-date)
I try to keep up with my professional development by reading
professional journals and attending conferences.
look after
(care for)
Would you look after my cat while I’m on vacation?
look down on
(think of as inferior)
She looks down on everyone who has less education than she does.
look forward to
(anticipate with pleasure)
We always look forward to the graduation speeches.
look in on
(check on)
Would you please look in on Mother this afternoon?
look up to
(respect)
Many young people look up to professional athletes.
put up with
(tolerate)
We put up with too many interruptions in our daily routine.
run across
(find something by chance)
When I was cleaning out a drawer, I ran across some old photos.
run into
(meet by chance)
I ran into Captain Jones and her family at the mall yesterday.
run out of
(deplete a supply)
We’re about to run out of milk. Can you go to the store?
see about
(find out about and do)
I’m going to be busy this afternoon. Would you see about our
dinner reservations?
send for
(summon)
The general sent for Col. James. They should be meeting now.
(order by mail, phone, e-mail)
I sent for the CD Gerald asked for.
stand by
(be available)
All officers should stand by until the general’s visit is over.
(support)
Good friends will stand by you in times of need.
APPENDIX C 193
take after
(resemble in appearance or character)
George W. Bush takes after his father.
talk back to
(answer discourteously)
Many children talk back to both their parents and their teachers.
turn off
(leave a road)
Turn off this street at the next intersection and go north on IH10.
wait on
(serve)
The clerks in this store are slow when they wait on customers.
(be delayed)
I think my next assignment is in Florida, but I’m waiting on official orders.
Some two-word verbs are preceded by BE. The two main words are never separated, but they may
be separated from BE.
be behind in
(not meet a schedule)
I’m two weeks behind in my paying my rent.
be in on
(be included)
If you’re going to form a new project team, I’d like to be in on it.
be out
(be deprived of)
I’m out $250 because of those car repairs.
be out of
(have depleted supply)
We’re out of coffee. I’m on my way to buy some more.
be over
(in charge of)
The Lieutenant is the company commander, and the Major is over him.
be up for
(be considered for)
He’ll be up for promotion next year.
be up on
(be current with)
Richard is the one who is up on the latest computer programs.
be up to
(be in physical or mental condition for)
I’m not up to going to the gym today. I’m too tired.
catch up
(come up to)
She is so far behind schedule that she will never catch up.
check in
(register)
We must check in by 6:00 p.m., or our reservation will be cancelled.
check out
(sign out to leave)
We must check out by noon, or we will be charged for another day.
cheer up
(become happier)
Cheer up! It’s a beautiful day.
chip in
(contribute)
If everyone chips in, we’ll have a great party.
come across
(leave an impression)
He comes across as a very thoughtful supervisor.
APPENDIX C 195
come to
(regain consciousness)
He was in a coma for a month before he came to.
drop in
(visit unannounced)
I was driving by your house, so I thought I would drop in.
drop off
(decline)
Home sales have dropped off considerably in the last year.
drop off
(fall asleep suddenly)
The students are always dropping off during my lessons.
(decrease in number)
Attendance at Spurs’ basketball games drops off when they lose.
get along/get on
(progressing)
How are you getting along (getting on) in your new job?
get back
(return)
I’m late leaving, so it will probably be late when I get back.
get in
(arrive)
I usually get in from work at about six.
get through
(finish)
I’ve been working on this a long time. Do you think I’ll ever get through?
(reach by telephone)
I tried to call you last night, but I never could get through.
get up
(arise)
I usually get up at 5:00 a.m.
We all got up when the General entered the room.
give up
(surrender)
I give up! What’s the answer?
lie down
(recline)
If you feel sick, you should go lie down.
look out
(be cautious)
Look out when you cross that busy highway.
report in
(give notice of arrival)
You must report in by 7:30 every morning.
sit down
(be seated)
Ask the students to sit down before you take roll.
stand by
(wait)
Stand by for a special report.
stand up
(get on one’s feet)
They stood up when the general entered the room.
take off
(leave, depart)
Our flight will take off at noon.
turn in
(go to bed)
I think I’ll turn in early tonight.
turn up
(appear unexpectedly)
He always turns up when we have a party.
wake up
(stop sleeping)
I usually wake up at 5:00 a.m.
APPENDIX C 197
– USER NOTES –
Pattern One
Subject (S) + Intransitive Verb (VI)
S VI
Fred runs.
The fire spread.
The plane will arrive.
They ate.
✦ Variation One A
In this variation, an adverb or adverbial modifies the intransitive verb.
S VI Adverb
Transformations:
Negative Statement: Fred doesn’t run every morning.
Affirmative Question: Does Fred run every morning?
Negative Question: Doesn’t Fred run every morning?
Question-Word Question: When does Fred run?
Tag Questions: Fred runs every morning, doesn’t he?
Fred doesn’t run every morning, does he?
APPENDIX D 199
Pattern Two
Subject(S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO)
S VT DO (Noun or Pronoun)
Transformations:
Negative Statement: Richard didn’t close the windows.
Affirmative Question: Did Richard close the windows?
Negative Question: Didn’t Richard close the windows?
Question-Word Question: Who closed the windows?
Tag Questions: Richard closed the windows, didn’t he?
Richard didn’t close the windows, did he?
✦ Variation Two A
In this variation, the direct object is an infinitive phrase or a gerund phrase.
Pattern Three
Subj. (S) + Trans. Verb (VT) + Indirect Object (IO) +
Direct Object (DO)
S VT IO DO
Transformations:
Negative Statement: Joe didn’t give Theresa a gold ring.
Affirmative Question: Did Joe give Theresa a gold ring?
Negative Question: Didn’t Joe give Theresa a gold ring?
Question-Word Question: Why did Joe give Theresa a gold ring?
Tag Questions: Joe gave Theresa a gold ring, didn’t he?
Joe didn’t give Theresa a gold ring, did he?
APPENDIX D 201
✦ Variation Three A
The direct object becomes the subject.
The first two examples above are grammatically correct but somewhat awkward and uncommon.
The third example is more typical.
✦ Variation Three B
The indirect object becomes the subject. This is a more usual construction.
Transformations:
Negative Statement: The voters didn’t elect him president.
Affirmative Question: Did the voters elect him president?
Negative Question: Didn’t the voters elect him president?
Question-Word Question: When did the voters elect him president?
Tag Questions: The voters elected him president, didn’t they?
The voters didn’t elect him president, did they?
✦ Variation Four A
The following four patterns are identical to Pattern Four except for the form of the object
complement. Instead of being a noun or pronoun, the object complement may be an adjective, the
simple form of a verb (sometimes called a bare infinitive), an infinitive, or a present participle.
APPENDIX D 203
Subject(S) + Transitive Verb (VT) + Direct Object (DO)
+ Object Complement (OC)—Simple Verb
S VT DO OC (Simple Verb)
Pattern Five
Notice that, in this pattern, the linking verb can be either BE or another verb. The complement, a
noun or pronoun, describes or identifies the subject.
APPENDIX D 205
✦ Variation Five A
In addition to nouns and pronouns, adjectives and adverbs can be subject complements.
✦ There
In the pattern below, BE has the meaning of exist; therefore, BE is like an intransitive verb, not a
linking verb. There is no subject complement expressed.
There BE Subject
In the there patterns that follow, BE is a linking verb with some type of complement.
Subject Complement
There BE Subject
Adverb
There is a taxi outside.
There are bedrooms upstairs.
Subject Complement
There BE Subject (Adverb)
Adjective
There were three students absent (today).
When there begins a sentence in the passive voice, a past participle is used.
APPENDIX D 207
Transformations:
Negative Statement: There isn’t a taxi outside.
Affirmative Question: Is there a taxi outside?
Negative Question: Isn’t there a taxi outside?
Question Word Question: Where is there a taxi?
Tag Questions: There is a taxi outside, isn’t there?
There isn’t a taxi outside, is there?
✦ It
When it begins a sentence, it may be either anticipatory or impersonal. Anticipatory it promises a
subject after the verb. That subject may be an infinitive phrase, a gerund phrase, or a noun clause.
It is good to relax.
It Complement
Linking Verb (Adverb)
(Subject) (Adjective)
It ’s sunny (outside).
It ’s cold (today).
It feels hot (in here).
APPENDIX D 209
The following is a list of typical adjectives that are often used with this pattern to relate weather
conditions:
Transformations:
Negative Statement: It isn’t lunch time.
Affirmative Question: Is it lunch time?
Negative Question: Isn’t it lunch time?
Question-Word Question: When is it lunch time?
Tag Questions: It is lunch time, isn’t it?
It isn’t lunch time, is it?
Transformations:
Negative Statement: It didn’t rain last night.
Affirmative Question: Did it rain last night?
Negative Question: Didn’t it rain last night?
Question Word Question: Where did it rain last night?
Tag Questions: It rained last night, didn’t it?
It didn’t rain last night, did it?
Tense Harmony
The “rule of thumb” for tense harmony, also called sequence of tenses, in indirect speech is to use a
past tense that reflects the tense used by the speaker. The past tense is used because it shows that
something was said in the past. In informal usage, however, this rule is often ignored.
The most common main verbs used in indirect speech are said, told, and asked. In these types of
sentences, said does not take an indirect object, while told does.
The following examples show how indirect speech sentences are formed, both formally and
informally. Verbs are bolded, and pronouns are italicized so that the changes can be seen easily.
This more formal pattern follows the rule of tense harmony, or sequence of tenses (as taught in the
ALC):
APPENDIX E 211
This more informal pattern ignores the rule of tense harmony. In this pattern, the tense of the verb
in the noun clause remains the same as that used in direct speech. This is especially true when the
event expressed in direct speech is repeated immediately after it is said.
Whether or if is added.
✦ Question-Word Questions
In reporting question-word questions, the word order changes to statement order.
APPENDIX E 213
General Truths in Indirect Speech
When a general truth or a customary action is reported in indirect speech, the present tense of the
verb reporting that action may be used with said or told. Compare the following:
Direct Mary: “Bob, finish one job before you start another one.
Indirect Mary told Bob to finish one job before he started another one.
A C
abbreviation – a short form of a word or phrase used case – the form of a noun, pronoun, or adjective that
in place of its full form. [abbr. for abbreviation, Dr. shows its relationship to another word – subjective
for doctor] and objective in English.
abstract – a characteristic of something that cannot be class – the function group to which a word belongs –
seen or touched, such as an idea, process, or feeling. nouns are one class, adverbs another.
active voice – (opposite of passive voice) clause – a group of words containing a subject and
a grammatical construction in which the subject of verb and forming a part of a sentence.
the verb is the performer of the action described by
collective noun – a noun naming a group considered to
the verb. [John washed the car yesterday.]
be a single unit. [troop, team, herd, set]
adjective (adj) – a class of words used to modify
common noun – a noun that refers to a class of people,
nouns. [She wore the red dress.]
places, or things rather than to an individual specific
adverb (adv) – a class of words modifying verbs, person, place, or thing. [boy, table, dog, school]
adjectives, or other adverbs.
comparative – an adjective or adverb form used to
[He spoke rapidly. The weather is unusually cold.
describe the relationship between two entities or
You did quite well on the exam.]
actions. [-er or more]
adverbial – a phrase or clause that functions like an
complement – see subject complement or object
adverb. [She swims like a fish. I’ll call you when I
complement.
get home.]
complex sentence – a sentence containing a main
affix (af) – a bound morpheme (a word part that cannot
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
stand alone) that modifies the meaning and/or
syntactic (sub) category of the stem in some way. compound noun – a noun created from two nouns.
[un- and –able in undrinkable]. [bookcase, airport, bedroom, toothpick]
antecedent – the noun or noun phrase on which a compound sentence – a sentence formed by joining
pronoun depends for its interpretation. [Mary rode two or more independent clauses.
her bike.]
concrete – something that can be seen and touched and
antonym – a word with the opposite meaning of usually counted. (as in concrete noun)
another word. [good/evil, ugly/beautiful, hot/cold]
conjugation – the complete set of inflected forms
appositive – a renaming or identification of a noun associated with a verb (also called a verbal
directly following the noun in a sentence. paradigm).
[Ms. Jones, my instructor, is not in class today.]
conjunction (C) – a minor lexical category whose
article – each of the words a, an, and the used as members serve to join categories of the same type.
determiners. [and, or]
auxiliary (helping) verb – a verb that helps a main conjunctive adverb – an adverb which serves to
verb by adding special meaning. These include connect and show a relationship between ideas.
modals and some verbs which can also function as [instead, moreover, consequently]
main verbs.
consonant – a speech sound in which the flow of
breath is narrowed or stopped [/p/, /t/, /d/, etc.]; the
letters in English which are not vowels.
B
content word – a word that has meaning in itself: a
noun, verb, adjective, or adverb.
continuous (progressive) tense – a verb tense
indicating action in progress, indicated by -ing.
GLOSSARY 215
conversion – the process by which a word’s part of future tense – uses of will or be going to with a main
speech (lexical category) is changed without a verb to express expected happenings or conditions.
change in form. [ship (noun) ➞ ship (verb)] [We will play golf Saturday.]
coordinating conjunction – a conjunction which joins future perfect tense – uses of will, have, and the past
word groups of equal value. [and, or, but] participle of a main verb to express happenings or
conditions expected to be completed in the future
correlative conjunctions – conjunctions that work in before another future happening. [He will have
pairs. [either/or, not only/ but also] graduated by the time his wife arrives.]
count noun – a noun that can be counted. [horse,
house, girl, chair, apple]
G
D gender – the designations of masculine, feminine, or
neuter given to some nouns, pronouns, and
demonstrative pronoun – a pronoun indicating which. adjectives.
[this, that, these, those] genitive (gen) – the case marker used for possessive
determiner (det) – a minor lexical category whose nouns.
members combine with nouns to form noun phrases gerund – the –ing form of a verb used as a noun.
and specify whether the noun is definite or Gerunds can function as subject, direct object,
indefinite. [usually an article, sometimes a pronoun complement, object of preposition, appositive, and
or number] adjunct.
derivation – a word formation process by which a new gerund phrase – a gerund preceded or followed by
word is built from a stem, usually through the related words.
addition of an affix that changes the word class
and/or basic meaning of the word. [form → reform get passive – passive voice structure made with forms
→ reformation] of get plus the past participle of a main verb.
[Tom got hurt in the car accident.]
direct address (vocative)– the identification of a
person or group being addressed. [John, wake up.] grammar – the system of elements and rules needed to
form and interpret sentences.
direct object – the main receiver of the action of a
transitive verb. [The boys ate the pizza.] grammatical (sentence) – adj. a sentence that speakers
judge to be a possible sentence in their language.
E
H
emphatic (intensive) pronoun – a pronoun containing
“self” used to emphasize. [I’ll do it myself]. helping verb – see auxiliary verb.
exclamations – a word, phrase, or sentence expressing head – the lexical category around which a phrasal
strong positive or negative feelings or judgments. category is built and that is always present in the
phrase.
expletive – a word in the subject position that
substitutes for and anticipates the real subject (a homophone / homonym – a word that is identical in
word, phrase, or clause) that comes later in the sound, and sometimes in spelling to another word or
sentence. [There are a lot of people here.] words, but different in meaning. [sail/sale,
buck/buck, to/too/two]
F
I
finite – limited [as a finite verb which can be limited
by person, number, or tense] imperative mood – a class of verb structures
commonly used to order, request, or suggest an
function – purpose for which a word form is used. action be taken. [Close the window.]
GLOSSARY 217
O possessive – a word or structure used to show
ownership or responsibility. [his car, Jane’s coat]
object – see direct object (DO) and indirect object predicate – the verb phrase (VP) – the part of a
(IO). sentence containing the verb and its modifiers.
object complement – a word or phrase following an prefix – an affix at the beginning of a word which
object and describing or identifying it. changes the meaning of the word. [unhappy,
displace, non-smoker]
objective – the case of a word which receives action of
a verb; without bias or opinion, factual. preposition (P) – a minor lexical category that shows a
relationship between one word or phrase and
another. [in, on, at, above, from, to]
P prepositional phrase (PP) – a phrase beginning with a
preposition. [to the park, behind the house]
participle – either of two verbals. The present
progressive (continuous) tense – verb tense indicating
participle, which ends in –ing, shows continuing
continuing action, signified by -ing.
action. The past participle, which has various
endings, but most commonly -ed, shows completed pronoun (pro) – a minor lexical category whose
action. members can replace a noun or noun phrase. [he,
herself, it]
passive (voice) – a grammatical device wherein the
subject does not perform the action of the verb. proper noun – name of a particular person, place, or
[The car was washed yesterday.] thing. All proper nouns begin with capital letters.
[Jane Doe, San Antonio, Mississippi River, Holmes
past participle (pp) – a verb form used as the main
High School].
verb in perfect tenses [had worked, has finished]
and in passive voice structures [is used, was
broken]. Also used with nouns as modifiers. [the
lost money, devices invented by Edison] Q
past perfect – a tense structure used to indicate an
question – a sentence whose function is to ask. (ends
event or condition that existed before another event
with ?)
or condition that is either directly named or
understood from the context. [I had been studying quotation – repetition of the exact words of another
English for three years before coming to the States.] speaker or writer.
perfect tense – a verb tense relating an action to two
points in time. (These tenses always use have, had,
or has) R
person – a grammatical category that typically
distinguishes among the first person (speaker), reciprocal pronoun – a pronoun used to show a
second person (addressee), and third person (anyone mutual relationship. [John and James exchange gifts
else). with each other.]
personal pronoun – a pronoun substituting for a noun reflexive pronoun – a pronoun ending in –self that has
which names a person or group of people (or an antecedent in the same clause. [himself, itself]
sometimes an animal whose gender is known). regular plural – a noun that forms the third person
phrase – two or more words that together have present tense form by adding –s or –es. [books,
meaning, but only as part of a sentence, sentence potatoes]
fragment, or clause. [last night, in spite of the bad
weather, to the park]
phrasal verb – a verb formed of two or more words.
S
[get off, look up, give back, become of]
semantics – the various phenomena pertaining to the
plural – a noun or verb form used to indicate more meaning of words and sentences; the study of
than one person or thing or the action of more than meaning in language.
one person or thing.
T
tense – in syntax and morphology, an inflectional
category indicating the time of an action relative to
the moment of speaking. (past, present, future)
transformation – movement of categories within a
syntactic structure.
transitive verb – verb which has a direct object.
GLOSSARY 219
– USER NOTES –
A use of..................................................................... 92
with semicolons .................................................. 165
adverbials............................................................. 36, 40
a / an.....................................................................75, 99 adverbs
a lot............................................................................ 32 adverbial connectives...............91, 94, 103, 163, 165
absolute adjectives..................................................... 79 comparative forms ................................................ 88
active voice................................................................ 63 defined .................................................................. 87
adjective clauses derived from adjectives......................................... 95
defined ................................................................ 127 derived from nouns ............................................... 96
nonrestrictive ...................................................... 132 derived from verbs ................................................ 95
punctuation of ..................................................... 132 identical to adjectives............................................ 94
restrictive ............................................................ 132 interrogative .......................................................... 89
with where .......................................................... 131 modifying verbs .................................................... 97
with whose .......................................................... 130 of affirmation ........................................................ 91
words used to introduce ...............................127, 130 of degree (intensifiers) .......................................... 90
adjective phrases...................................................... 157 of direction............................................................ 87
adjectives of duration............................................................. 88
absolute ................................................................. 79 of emphasis ........................................................... 90
as appositives ........................................................ 83 of frequency .......................................................... 89
combinations with prepositions .......................... 181 of location ............................................................. 87
comparative forms .....................................76, 77, 78 of manner .............................................................. 88
defined .................................................................. 75 of negation ............................................................ 91
demonstrative...................................................... 100 of place.................................................................. 87
derived from nouns ............................................... 80 of time ................................................................... 88
derived from participles ...................................... 145 position of ............................................................. 97
derived from verbs ................................................ 81 relative .................................................................. 90
emotive ................................................................. 82 superlative forms................................................... 88
identical to adverbs ............................................... 94 after...................................................103, 108, 130, 133
indefinite ............................................................. 101 agent .....................................................63, 65, 153, 201
interrogative........................................................ 101 agreement
nouns used as ........................................................ 82 do .......................................................................... 74
participial (-ing / -ed)............................................ 82 indirect speech .................................................... 125
placement of (order).............................................. 83 subject-verb........................................................... 32
possessive ......................................................82, 101 subjunctive mood .................................................. 69
sequence of ........................................................... 85 although ........................................................... 103, 135
superlative forms........................................76, 77, 78 animate nouns .............................................................. 8
to relate weather conditions ................................ 210 antecedent ...............................................19, 20, 21, 130
with linking verbs ................................................. 83 anticipatory it ....................................123, 147, 152, 208
adverb clauses appositives
defined ................................................................ 133 adjective ................................................................ 83
of cause and effect .............................................. 134 dashes.................................................................. 171
of condition......................................................... 136 gerund phrases .................................................... 148
of opposition ....................................................... 135 noun phrases ......................................................... 16
of time (subordinate conjunctions) ..................... 133 parentheses.......................................................... 170
position of ....................................................133, 134 participial phrases as ........................................... 142
punctuation of ..................................................... 136 prepositional phrases as .............................. 137, 139
words used to introduce ...............133, 134, 135, 136 pronoun ................................................................. 83
adverbial connectives punctuation of ....................................... 83, 170, 171
as conjunctions.................................................... 103 subjective case nouns ............................................ 16
before commas.................................................... 163 articles
defined .................................................................. 91 as determiners ....................................................... 99
punctuation of ....................................................... 94 definite .......................................................... 75, 100
INDEX 221
indefinite................................................................99
rules for their use ...................................................99
C
as .............................................................................103
as if / as though ........................................................103 can
as long as..................................................................133 ability/capability ....................................................71
as soon as .................................................................133 permission..............................................................71
auxiliary verbs can’t have, past impossibility .....................................72
and adverb position................................................97 case
as verb substitutes..................................................74 nominative .............................................................21
be ................................................................... see be objective .......................... 15–18, 21, 22, 25, 28, 149
defined ...........................................................70, 113 possessive .............. 8, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 82, 101, 149
get passive .............................................................66 reflexive .....................................................21, 24, 25
have ............................................................. see have subjective .....................................15, 16, 21, 25, 124
in passive voice......................................................64 vocative..................................................................18
in perfect tenses .....................................................54 causative verbs .........................................144, 150, 151
clauses
adjective.........................................................90, 127
B adverb ..................................................................133
as parts of sentences.............................................120
defined .................................................................119
bare infinitive dependent/independent ........................................120
as object complement ..................................154, 203 if clauses ................................................................69
as object of preposition........................................154
joining..................................................................121
defined .................................................................150 noun ...............................................................90, 122
in subjunctive mood ..............................................69 reduction of............................................74, 141, 146
with causative verbs ....................................150, 151
subjunctive mood...................................................69
with modals ...........................................................70 that clauses ....................................................69, 124
with verbs of perception ..............................150, 151 used as nouns .........................................................14
be
collective nouns............................................................3
and adverb position................................................97 colon .................................................................166, 171
as helping verb ......................................................73 commands......................................see imperative mood
as linking verb .......................................................16
commands in indirect speech....................................214
auxiliary.................................................................64 commas.......................................................................83
double functions ....................................................73 common nouns ...................................................21, 153
in adjective/preposition combinations .................181 comparatives.........................................................76–78
in mathematical expressions..................................33 complements defined ..................................................16
in passive voice......................................................66
complex sentences ....................................................119
in past tense ...........................................................46 compound sentences.................................................119
in progressive tenses..............................................50 compound-complex sentences..................................119
in simple present tense...........................................43
concrete nouns..............................................................1
in subjunctive mood ..............................................69 conditional sentences
intransitive ...........................................................207 subjunctive mood...................................................69
linking verb....................................................36, 205
would .....................................................................72
tense in passive voice ............................................64 conjunctions
with anticipatory it...............................................123 adverbial ..............................................................103
with impersonal it ..........................................34, 209
adverbial connectives...........................................103
with infinitive phrases .........................................152 coordinating .................................103, 122, 162, 164
with predicate adjectives .....................................139 correlative ............................................................103
with there.............................................................207
subordinate...................................................103, 133
with two-word verbs............................................194 that...............................................................123, 124
because.............................................................103, 134 conjunctive adverbs ............... see adverbial connectives
because of.................................................................109
consequently .................................................91, 92, 122
besides .................................................. 91, 92, 103, 154 coordinating conjunctions ................103, 122, 162, 164
both... and.................................................................103 correlative conjunctions............................................103
by .............................................................................108 could
ability/capability ....................................................71
INDEX 223
as helping verb.......................................................73 as adjectives.........................................................155
causative ..............................................................144 as adverbs ............................................................156
double functions ....................................................73 as direct object .....................................................114
in modal perfects ...................................................72 as direct objects ...........................................153, 200
in perfect tenses .....................................................54 as nouns ...............................................................152
in progressive tenses..............................................59 as object complements.................................153, 204
in simple present tense...........................................43 as subject .............................................................113
helping verbs .................................... see auxiliary verbs as subject complements .......................................152
how ......................................................... 40, 75, 88, 108 as subjects ............................................................208
how long .....................................................................88 bare (simple) form .................................................42
how many ...................................................................75 bare infinitive.......................................................150
how often ....................................................................89 in indirect speech .................................................214
however ........................................................91, 92, 103 in passive voice....................................................205
in sentences..........................................................151
parts of sentences.................................................137
I split infinitives .....................................................151
to substitution ......................................................157
if / whether........................................................103, 122 verbs followed by ................................................158
if clauses .....................................................................69 with anticipatory it...............................................208
imperative mood..................................... 67, 68, 71, 214 with non-referential there ....................................207
imperative sentences .....................see imperative mood with too / enough .................................................157
impersonal it infinitives
for identification ..................................................209 split infinitives .....................................................151
to express distance...............................................209 to-infinitive ..........................................................150
to express time.....................................................209 inflection...................................................4, 5, 7, 43, 76
to relate weather conditions...........................34, 209 -ing forms
with intransitive verbs .........................................210 as adjectives...........................................................82
in case (that).............................................................136 dangling participle ...............................................145
in order that......................................................103, 134 future progressive ..................................................53
inanimate nouns............................................................8 gerunds ....................................35, 87, 113, 137, 146
indefinite articles ........................................................99 nominative absolute .............................................144
indefinite pronouns...................................30, 32, 33, 83 participial phrases ................................................141
independent clauses progressive tenses ..................................................59
and colons............................................................166 with be ...................................................................73
and commas .........................................................162 intensifiers ..................................................................90
and coordinate conjunctions ................................102 interjections ..............................................................163
and infinitive phrases...........................................151 interrogative adverbs ..................................................89
and semicolons ....................................................165 interrogative pronouns................................................28
defined .................................................................120 combinations with -ever ........................................28
in compound sentences........................................119 intransitive verbs
in compound-complex sentences.........................119 be ..........................................................................36
joining....................................................94, 103, 122 defined ...........................................................40, 113
reduced to gerunds...............................................146 determined by function ..........................................40
indicative mood ..........................................................67 functions of finite verbs .........................................35
indirect speech in sentence patterns..............................112, 115, 199
agreement ............................................................125 two-word verbs ....................184, 185, 187, 189, 195
comma use with...................................................165 verbs normally intransitive ....................................41
commands in........................................................214 irregular noun plurals ...................................................7
customary action..................................................214 irregular verbs.............................................................46
general truth.........................................................214 it
if / whether...........................................................213 anticipatory ..................................123, 147, 152, 208
modals in .............................................................212 impersonal .............................................34, 209, 210
noun clauses in ....................................................125
questions in..........................................................213
tense harmony..............................................126, 211
infinitive phrases
INDEX 225
spelling patterns.....................................................13 with be .............................................................64, 73
used as adjectives ..................................................80 with get ..................................................................66
vocative .................................................................18 without designated agent .......................................65
now that....................................................................134 past participles (see -ed forms)
after direct object .................................................144
as adjectives...........................................................82
O as helping verbs .....................................................73
endings...................................................................73
object complement .....................................................18 get-passive .............................................................66
objective case ....................... 15–18, 21, 22, 25, 28, 149 passive voice..................................................64, 201
on the contrary ...........................................................91 perfect tenses .........................................................54
on the other hand..................................................91, 92 with there as subject ............................................207
one another / each other.............................................30 personal pronouns...................................19, 21, 25, 149
otherwise ..............................................................91, 93 phrasal verbs
ought to.......................................................................71 intransitive ...........................................................195
nonseparable transitive ........................................190
separable transitive ..............................................182
P phrases
defined .........................................................119, 137
paired conjunctions ........... see correlative conjunctions gerund ..........................................................146, 158
paraphrase ........................................see indirect speech infinitive ......................................................150, 158
parentheses ...............................................................170 participial .............................................................141
participial adjectives.................................................145 prepositional ........................................................137
participial phrases types of ................................................................137
adjectival functions......................................141, 143 pluralization..................................................................5
as appositives.......................................................142 possessive adjectives ..................................................82
as reduction of clauses.........................................141 vs. possessive pronouns .........................................82
attributive.............................................................142 possessive case ................... 8, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 82, 149
dangling participles .............................................145 possessive nouns...........................................................8
defined .................................................................141 possessive pronouns .............................................23, 82
following direct object.........................................144 prepositional phrases
meanings of .........................................................143 as appositives...............................................137, 139
nominative absolute.............................................144 as object complement ..........................................137
position within sentences.....................................141 prepositions
parts of speech (see lexical categories) combinations with adjectives...............................181
adjectives .........................................................75–84 combinations with verbs ..............................182, 190
adjectives, order of ................................................85 miscellaneous functions of ..................................109
adverbs.............................................................87–98 of direction or motion ..........................................107
clauses ...........................................................120–36 of intrument, means, & manner ...........................108
conjunctions.....................................................102–3 of place or location ..............................................106
determiners ....................................................99–102 of time..................................................................108
nouns .................................................................1–18 with multiple functions ........................................110
phrases ...........................................................137–59 present participles
preposition combinations...............................181–98 as adjectives...........................................................82
prepositions ...................................................105–10 vs. gerunds ...........................................................146
pronouns ..........................................................19–34 present participles (see -ing forms)
punctuation ....................................................161–72 as object complement ..........................................203
verbs ................................................................35–74 past progressive .....................................................52
passive voice present progressive ................................................50
by agent..........................................................64, 109 with be ...................................................................73
defined ...................................................................63 progressive tenses.......................................................50
sentence patterns..................................117, 201, 205 pronouns
stative verbs ...........................................................67 as appositives.........................................................83
there as subject ....................................................207 classification by case .............................................21
transitive verbs.......................................................64 classification by gender .........................................20
use of .....................................................................65 classification by person..........................................20
INDEX 227
in adjective clauses ..............................................129 of choosing ..........................................................203
relative pronoun.....................................34, 127, 128 of considering ......................................................203
set expressions .......................................................70 of perception ..........................39, 144, 150, 151, 203
the.................................................................75, 99, 100 phrasal..................................................182, 190, 195
the fact that...............................................................122 tense harmony......................................................211
there to-infinitive ..........................................................150
non-referential .....................................................147 two-word..............................................................182
non-referential plus be .................................207, 208 types of ................................................................113
non-referential, defined .......................................207 via .............................................................................108
therefore .......................................................91, 92, 103 vocative case...............................................................18
though...............................................................103, 135
through .....................................................................108
thus .......................................................................91, 92 W
time clauses ..............................................................133
to substitution ...........................................................157 what ............................................................................28
to-infinitive...............................................................150 when ...................................................................40, 103
too.....................................................................145, 157 where ..................................................................40, 103
transitive verbs whether .............................................................103, 122
active to passive voice ...........................................66 which ..........................................................................28
active voice............................................................63 while .........................................................................103
as object complements.........................................203 whom ..........................................................................28
defined ...........................................................37, 113 whose..........................................................................28
determined by function..........................................40 why .............................................................................40
direct object .........................................................114 will
followed by gerund..............................................147 determination .........................................................72
followed by infinitive objects ..............................153 expectation.............................................................72
functions of finite verbs.........................................35 future......................................................................72
in sentence patterns.............. 115, 116, 200, 201, 203 modal vs. verb........................................................70
passive voice..........................................................64 willingness/offers...................................................72
stative verbs ...........................................................67 wish.....................................................................69, 159
verbs normally transitive .......................................41 with ...........................................................................108
verbs of perception ................................................39 without......................................................................108
two-word (phrasal) verbs would
intransitive ...........................................................195 contrary-to-fact condition ......................................72
nonseparable transitive ........................................190 habit now discontinued ..........................................72
separable transitive ..............................................182 polite request..........................................................72
verb/preposition combinations.............................182
Y
U
yes/no questions .......................................................213
unless................................................................103, 136 yet .......................................................................88, 102
until ..........................................................103, 108, 133
V
verbals
defined ...................................................................35
gerund phrases .....................................................146
modified by adverbs ........................................75, 87
nonfinite verbs .......................................................35
verbs
causative ...................................... 144, 150, 151, 203
combinations with prepositions ...........................182
objects of .............................................................158
INDEX 229